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Abstract
Positivist-oriented psychology remains trapped in the formal account of generalization as a
context (and content)-free procedure/process. Challenging the formal account of
generalization, a dialectical perspective highlights the concrete, dynamic, historical
connection between the general and the particular. It is proposed that a dialogue between
Vygotsky and Davydov, who were both adherents of the dialectal tradition in psychology, can
provide insights into conceptualizing generalization. A dialogue on dialectical understanding
of generalization and its relation to changing societal practices is examined as a way to
promote active, transformative subjectivity.
Keywords: Generalization, Dialectics, L. Vygotsky, V. Davydov, Theoretical generalization
Introduction
The issue of generalization was an object of intensive, ongoing discussions at different stages
in the history of philosophy (see, for example, the dispute between Plato and Aristotle on the
existence of forms, the debate between realism and nominalism on universals, the long-
standing conflict between empiricism and rationalism on the origin of knowledge, and the
discussion on analytic/synthetic distinction). The issue of generalization arose in the period
of the emancipation of psychology from philosophy in the context of the endeavor to
establish psychology as a strict natural science in accordance with the pattern of Newtonian
physics. Even nowadays, psychology pretends to become a discipline able to find some
universal laws of mental life and human behavior. Discovering and justifying laws and law-like
generalizations stem from the striving to establish psychology as a natural, “nomothetic”
discipline. Danziger (2009) labeled the search for universals as the “Holy Grail” in psychology.
Despite the claim to produce generally accepted and universal knowledge, in the late
nineteenth century and early twentieth century, psychology was trapped in a deep crisis.
Various attempts at conceptualization and explanation of the crisis in psychology emerged
(Willy 1897, 1899; Bühler 1927; Lewin 1931; Driesch 1925; Vygotsky 1997). The crisis and
fragmentation of psychology undermined the claim to establish universal generalizations and
raised difficult questions: how is the establishment of psychology as a scientific discipline
possible? What kind of generalization can be employed for building a psychological theory?
The problem of generalization in quantitative research is examined as “a numerical
problem, which is to be solved by statistical means” (Flick 2007: 118). Generalization in
psychology is examined mainly in terms of formal logic. Operationalism promoted further the
technical apparatus of formal logic in relation to measurement in psychology in its quest for
universality. This type of generalization produced on the basis of statistical means has been
criticized for formalism that leads “to an epistemological misunderstanding, as far as the
nonreflexive researchers forget that any inference—whether inductive, deductive or
abductive—is context and content dependent” (Tateo 2015: 60).
In comparison with the dominant nomothetic approach to explaining human behavior, an
idiographic approach is formed as a way of understanding unique individuals in particular
contexts. Nomothetic-idiographic perspectives reflect and elaborate further the ongoing
controversy between the general and the particular in the study of mental life and human
behavior. In contrast to widespread methodological dualism between idiographic and
nomothetic approaches, dialectics focuses on the close interconnection between the general
and the particular. From a dialectical perspective, the knowledge spiral includes the double
movement of thinking from the particular to the general and from the general to the
particular (Blakeley 1964; Vygotsky 1987).
The issue of generalization and the relation between general and particular are complex
theoretical and methodological problems connected with the examination of a set of other
issues such as inductive and deductive reasoning, the relation between the concrete and the
abstract, the analysis–synthesis process, and the interaction between everyday and scientific
concepts. In contrast to the abstract and formalistic conceptualization of generalization that
has become widespread in mainstream positivist-oriented psychology, the adherents of the
dialectical tradition in philosophy and psychology advocate that the general is internally
bound up with the particular. The concept of the concrete universal developed within the
dialectical tradition is especially important in order to go beyond the rigid particular/general
dichotomy.
Due to the hostility to dialectics in Anglo-American and continental philosophy of
science in the twentieth century (see Popper 1940), dialectical thinking remains “terra
incognita” in North Atlantic academia. The present work is an attempt to fill the gap in
understanding of dialectics by conceptualizing the issue of generalization from a dialectical
perspective. More concretely, the chapter explores how generalization has been
conceptualized in Vygotsky’s work. The chapter also discusses the contribution of Vasily
Davydov (1930–1998), an eminent psychologist in Vygotsky’s footsteps who investigated
theoretical generalization. Vygotsky’s and Davydov’s ideas on generalization were formed
within the dialectical tradition in the field of psychology. Bringing into dialogue Vygotsky’s
and Davydov’s dialectical insights can enrich the contemporary discussion on formal and
situated generalization.
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Notes
1 The Russian word “perezhivanie” refers to living through experience and working through
it. The concept of perezhivanie was used by Vygotsky as a part of the system of concepts of
cultural-historical theory. This concept expresses the dialectical, dynamic relation between
personality, and the social environment which is part and parcel of personality development
(Dafermos 2018). “In an emotional experience [perezhivanie] we are always dealing with an
indivisible unity of personal characteristics and situational characteristics, which are
represented in the emotional experience [perezhivanie]” (Vygotsky 1994a: 342).
2 L. Sakharov and L. Vygotsky developed the method of double stimulation for the study of
the development of higher functions with the help of two types of stimuli: simple stimuli that
cause a direct response and auxiliary means that help the subject to organize his behavior
(Vygotsky 1987; Zavershneva and Van der Veer 2018).
3 There is a fundamental difference between essentialism and the dialectical
conceptualization of the relation between essence and phenomena. Essentialism is a
metaphysical conceptualization of generalization based on the examination of specific
properties of an object as stable, universal, and not dependent on the concrete context. From
a dialectical perspective, essence is examined as a system of contradictory, dynamic, historical
relations of a concrete, developing object, rather than an abstract, formal set of
deconceptualized attributes. Moving from a purely descriptive, empirical study of
phenomena to investigate their internal essence was a crucial issue for Vygotsky. “In theory,
the internal essence of things and the external form of their manifestation do not coincide.
“If the form of manifestation and the essence of things coincided directly, then all science
would be superfluous"” (Vygotsky 1998: 188–189).