Professional Documents
Culture Documents
1998 Annotated
1998 Annotated
door
Wim DESMET
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publisher.
D/1998/7515/51
ISBN 90-5682-151-2
DANKWOORD
Een doctoraat maak je nooit alleen. Dat heb ik gelukkig ook zelf mogen
ervaren. Daarom wil ik graag iedereen bedanken die rechtstreeks of
onrechtstreeks heeft bijgedragen tot dit werk.
Tevens wil ik professor De Roeck bedanken omdat hij de tijd heeft willen
vrijmaken om deze tekst grondig door te nemen en mee vorm te geven.
Furthermore I would like to thank professor Göransson, not only for reading
and evaluating my work as a member of the jury, but also for our interesting
and pleasant co-operation during the BRAIN project. Ook professor
ii
Ook een welgemeend woordje van dank aan alle mensen van de afdeling
PMA, en in het bijzonder van de ‘modale groep’, voor de wetenschap-
pelijke, technische en administratieve ondersteuning en vooral voor de
aangename werksfeer.
Verder zou ik alle vrienden willen bedanken voor de vele plezante, en vaak
memorabele, bele(u)venissen, waardoor de herinneringen aan de voorbije
jaren steeds heel levendig zullen blijven.
Tot slot wil ik mijn familie bedanken. Hun vele bemoedigende woorden
tijdens de soms moeilijke momenten hebben me veel deugd gedaan. Hierbij
wil ik vooral mijn ouders bedanken ... voor alles!
Heel in het bijzonder wil ik Leen bedanken voor haar liefdevol begrip en
haar geduldige steun, die ervoor gezorgd hebben dat ik dit werk tot een goed
einde heb kunnen brengen. Aan haar wil ik dan ook graag dit werk op-
dragen.
ABSTRACT
This dissertation presents a new, wave based prediction technique for the
steady-state dynamic analysis of coupled vibro-acoustic systems. The
technique is based on a Trefftz approach, in which the field variables are
expanded in terms of structural and acoustic wave functions, which are
homogeneous solutions of the governing dynamic equations, along with
some particular solution functions. In this way, the dynamic equations are
exactly satisfied, irrespective of the contributions of the wave functions to
the field variable expansions. These contributions result from a weighted
residual or a least-squares formulation of the boundary conditions.
It follows from the application of this methodology for various types of
coupled vibro-acoustic problems that accurate predictions can be obtained
with wave models, which are not only significantly smaller, but also
computationally less demanding than corresponding element based models.
Due to this enhanced computational efficiency, the practical frequency
limitation of the proposed technique is substantially higher than for the
existing techniques. In this way, the wave based prediction technique
enables accurate predictions in the mid-frequency range, for which the
computational efforts, involved with element based models, become
prohibitively large.
iv
EEN GOLFGEBASEERDE VOORSPELLINGS-
TECHNIEK VOOR GEKOPPELDE VIBRO-
AKOESTISCHE ANALYSE
Beknopte samenvatting
Doelstelling
Het enige momenteel beschikbare alternatief is gebruik te maken van
probabilistische voorspellingstechnieken, die gebaseerd zijn op statistische
energie analyse of vermogenstroomanalyse. Deze technieken zijn veel
minder rekenintensief, maar laten enkel toe een ruimte- en frequentie-
gemiddelde schatting te maken van de dynamische respons. Gezien deze
technieken een voldoende hoge modale densiteit van het beschouwde
dynamische systeem veronderstellen, zijn ze enkel geschikt voor
hoogfrequente dynamische analyses. Tussen het laagfrequente toepassings-
gebied van de elementgebaseerde technieken en het hoogfrequente
toepassingsgebied van de probabilistische technieken ligt echter nog een
breed frequentiegebied, waarvoor nog geen afdoende voorspellings-
technieken beschikbaar zijn.
Voor heel wat industriële toepassingen is er nochtans nood aan
deterministische technieken die in dit frequentiegebied een nauwkeurige
voorspelling toelaten. In antwoord op dit hiaat stelt dit proefschrift een
nieuwe deterministische techniek voor, die in staat is betrouwbare
gekoppeld vibro-akoestische voorspellingen te maken voor een veel breder
frequentiegebied dan de bestaande elementgebaseerde technieken.
2.1. Inleiding
2.2. Basisprincipes
2.2.1. Probleemdefinitie
Het randoppervlak Ωa van een gesloten akoestische caviteit V bestaat uit vier
deeloppervlakken. Op de deeloppervlakken Ωp, Ωv en ΩZ zijn,
respectievelijk, gekende druk-, normaalsnelheids- en normaal-
impedantieverdelingen opgelegd, terwijl het deeloppervlak Ωs bestaat uit
een dunne, vlakke plaat.
De caviteit bevat een fluïdum met dichtheid ρ0 en geluidssnelheid c. Het
materiaal van de vlakke plaat met dikte t heeft een dichtheid ρs, een Poisson
coëfficiënt ν, een elasticiteitsmodulus E en een verliesfactor η.
Op plaatpositie rF(xF’) wordt in de normaalrichting een externe lijnkracht F
aangelegd, terwijl een externe akoestische lijnbron q aangelegd wordt op
caviteitspositie rq(xq,yq). Beide excitaties hebben een harmonisch tijds-
verloop met frequentie ω.
In regimetoestand is de akoestische druk p in de caviteit bepaald door de
Helmholtzvergelijking
∇ 2 p( r ) + k 2 . p( r ) = − jρ 0ωq.δ ( r ,r q ), (1)
F p( rs )
∇ 4 w( rs ) − kb4 . w( rs ) = .δ ( rs , rF ) + , (2)
D D
ρ tω 2 Et 3 (1 + jη )
kb = 4 s en D = . (3)
D 12(1 − ν 2 )
j ∂p( r )
r ∈ Ω p : p( r ) = p ( r ), r ∈Ω v : = vn ( r ),
ρ 0ω ∂n
Samenvatting van het proefschrift xi
j ∂p( r ) p( r ) j ∂p( r )
r ∈Ω Z : = , r ∈Ω s : = jωw( r ), (4)
ρ 0ω ∂n Z (r ) ρ 0ω ∂n
voorgesteld van de vorm
na
p ( x , y ) ≈ p( x , y ) = ∑ p a . Φ a ( x , y ) + pq ( x , y ) . (5)
a=1
− j ( k xa . x + k ya . y )
Φ a ( x, y) = e (6)
waarbij 2
k xa + k ya
2
= k2. (7)
veld omstandigheden.
Voor de normaalverplaatsing w(x’) van de plaat wordt een benaderende
oplossing w(x’) voorgesteld van de vorm
4 na
w( x’) ≈ w( x’) = ∑ ws .Ψ s ( x’) + ∑ pa . wa ( x’) + w F ( x’) + wq ( x’). (8)
s=1 a=1
Ψ s ( x’) = e − j
s
. k b . x’
, ( s = 1..4) . (9)
uitdrukking gebruikt voor het verplaatsingsveld van een oneindige plaat ten
gevolge van een lijnkrachtexcitatie in de normaalrichting van de plaat.
De functie wq (x’) en de functies w a (x’) zijn particuliere oplossingen voor
die delen van de akoestische drukterm in het rechterlid van de plaat-
vergelijking, die overeenstemmen met, respectievelijk, de functie pq (x, y)
en de akoestische golffuncties Φ a (x, y) in de voorgestelde oplossing (5).
Hiervoor kunnen de analytische integraaluitdrukkingen gebruikt worden
voor het verplaatsingsveld van een oneindige plaat ten gevolge van deze
drukbelastingen. In het geval van een vlakke plaat kunnen voor de functies
w a (x’) echter uitdrukkingen geformuleerd worden, die evenredig zijn met
de akoestische golffuncties. Hoewel deze uitdrukkingen geen directe
fysische betekenis hebben, worden ze verkozen boven de fysisch betekenis-
volle integraaluitdrukkingen omwille van hun rekenkundig voordeel.
Met deze oplossingsbenaderingen wordt het gekoppeld vibro-akoestisch
continuumprobleem omgevormd tot een benaderend, discreet probleem,
waarbij de onbekende golffunctiebijdrages pa en ws in de voorgestelde
oplossingen (5) en (8) bepaald moeten worden. Een belangrijke eigenschap
van deze oplossingen is dat ze steeds exact voldoen aan de dynamische
vergelijkingen (1) en (2), ongeacht de waardes van de onbekenden pa en ws.
structurele randvoorwaarden
Voor het beschouwde tweedimensionale probleem zijn de structurele rand-
voorwaarden gedefiniëerd op beide randposities van de plaat en kunnen als
dusdanig gebruikt worden. Deze randvoorwaarden resulteren in vier
vergelijkingen in de 4+na onbekende golffunctiebijdrages,
Samenvatting van het proefschrift xiii
w s
[ Ass Csa ]. = { fs }. (10)
î pa
akoestische randvoorwaarden
Gezien enkel matrixmodellen van eindige grootte numeriek opgelost kunnen
worden, dienen de akoestische randvoorwaarden (4), die gedefiniëerd zijn
op een oneindig aantal posities op het randoppervlak van de caviteit,
benaderd te worden door een eindig aantal vergelijkingen. Hiervoor zijn
twee types benaderende integraalformuleringen voorgesteld.
1. gewogen-residu formulering
In een gewogen-residu formulering wordt, op basis van een gewichts-
functie ~
p , het gewogen gemiddelde van de foutfuncties (residu’s) op de
akoestische randvoorwaarden ten gevolge van de voorgestelde
− j ∂~
p
oplossingsbenaderingen nul gesteld,
j ∂p
~
∫ ρ ω ∂n .( p − p ). dΩ + ∫ p.( ρ ω ∂n − vn ). dΩ +
Ωp 0 Ωv 0
(11)
~ j ∂p p ~ j ∂p
∫ p.( ρ ω ∂n − Z ). dΩ + ∫ p.( ρ ω ∂n − jωw ). dΩ = 0.
ΩZ 0 Ωs 0
[Cas ]
( GR ) s
{ }
w
( GR ) ( GR )
Aaa + Caa . = fa( GR ) , (12)
î pa
( GR )
waarbij de (naxna) deelmatrix Aaa [ ]
symmetrisch is.
2. kleinste-kwadraten formulering
De kleinste-kwadraten formulering is gebaseerd op een functionaal Fa,
die een maat is voor de totale kwadratische benaderingsfout op de
akoestische randvoorwaarden,
xiv Samenvatting van het proefschrift
2
2 j ∂p
Fa = ∫ β p . p − p . dΩ + ∫ β v . − vn . dΩ +
Ωp Ωv
ρ 0 ω ∂n
(13)
2 2
j ∂p p j ∂p
∫ β Z . ρ ω ∂n − Z . dΩ + ∫ β s . ρ ω ∂n − jωw . dΩ .
ΩZ 0 Ωs 0
[Cas ]
( KK ) s
{ }
w
( KK )
Aaa . = fa( KK ) , (14)
î pa
[
( KK )
waarbij de (naxna) deelmatrix Aaa ]
Hermitiaans is.
2.2.4. Convergentie
In hoofdstuk 2 van dit proefschrift is aangetoond dat, voor het geval van een
convexe caviteit, een convergerende oplossing bekomen wordt door gebruik
te maken van de akoestische golffuncties met golfgetalcomponenten
a .π a .π a .π a .π
( k xa , k ya ) = ( 1 ,± k 2 − ( 1 ) 2 ) en ( ± k 2 − ( 2 ) 2 , 2 ) , (15)
Lx Lx Ly Ly
2.3. Eigenschappen
spanningen, met een zelfde graad van ruimtelijk detail benaderd worden
als de akoestische druk en de structurele verplaatsing. Dit is voordelig
voor de convergentiesnelheid, vooral voor gekoppelde vibro-akoestische
problemen, waarbij het effect van het fluïdum op de structuur druk-
gecontroleerd is, maar waarbij het effect van de structuur op het fluïdum
snelheidsgecontroleerd is.
• Modelverfijning kan op een efficiënte manier gebeuren. Om de model-
nauwkeurigheid in te schatten, moeten enkel de benaderingsfouten op de
randvoorwaarden nagegaan worden. Daarenboven moeten bij het
toevoegen van golffuncties aan de benaderingen voor de veldverander-
lijken enkel de bijkomende matrixelementen berekend worden, terwijl de
oorspronkelijke elementen in een golfmodel behouden blijven. In de
eindige-elementenmethode vereist een globale verfijning van het
elementennet een volledig nieuwe modelberekening.
3.1. Toepassingsgebied
Figuur 6 toont een driedimensionale caviteit, waarvan een deel van het
randoppervlak bestaat uit een vlakke plaat met ingeklemde randen. Alle
andere delen van het randoppervlak van de caviteit zijn star. Het systeem
wordt geëxciteerd door een tijdsharmonische normaalkracht op de plaat.
Voor het geval van een aluminium plaat (E=70.109 N/m2, ρs=2790 kg/m3,
ν=0.3, t=0.002 m, η=0), waarbij de caviteit (Lx=1.5 m, Ly=0.5 m, Lz=1 m)
met lucht (ρ0=1.225 kg/m3, c=340 m/s) gevuld is, toont figuur 7 de directe
frequentieresponsiefuncties, die bekomen worden met een golfmodel met
314 golffuncties (volle lijn) en met eindige-elementenmodellen (streepjes-
lijn) met 1849 (a), 12586 (b) en 39991 (c) knoopveranderlijken.
Deze figuur illustreert duidelijk het effect van de opdeling van een domein
in kleine elementen. Door het benaderen van de veldveranderlijken met
eenvoudige vormfuncties, wordt de ‘stijfheid’ van het systeem overschat.
Dit heeft voor gevolg dat de resonantiefrequenties systematisch overschat
worden en dat deze overschatting, voor een gegeven elementennet, groter
wordt naarmate de frequentie stijgt. Uit deze figuur blijkt tevens dat, door
het verfijnen van het elementennet, de eindige-elementenresultaten
geleidelijk convergeren naar de resultaten van het golfmodel, dat een bedui-
dend kleinere dimensie heeft.
Dat de nieuwe techniek, in vergelijking met de eindige-elementenmethode,
een hoge nauwkeurigheid oplevert met niet alleen beduidend kleinere, maar
ook rekenkundig efficiëntere modellen, mag blijken uit figuur 8. Deze
figuur toont de relatieve benaderingsfouten ∆w en ∆p op, respectievelijk, de
normaalverplaatsing van een punt van de vlakke plaat en de druk in een punt
van de caviteit in functie van de vereiste rekentijd.
xxiv Samenvatting van het proefschrift
4. Besluiten
Dit proefschrift stelt een nieuwe, golfgebaseerde voorspellingstechniek voor
voor de dynamische regimerespons van gekoppelde vibro-akoestische
systemen. De techniek is gebaseerd op de indirecte Trefftz-methode,
waarbij, in tegenstelling tot elementgebaseerde technieken, de structurele en
akoestische domeinen niet meer opgedeeld worden in kleine elementen,
maar elk in hun geheel beschouwd of in een klein aantal deeldomeinen
opgedeeld worden. De benaderingen voor de veldveranderlijken in elk
(deel)domein worden beschreven door structurele en akoestische
xxvi Samenvatting van het proefschrift
ρ1 3
bulk density of the solid phase (kg/m )
ρ2 bulk density of the fluid phase (kg/m3)
ρs structural mass density (kg/m3)
σ flow resistivity (Ns/m4)
σi singular value
xxx
gradient vector
∇2 Laplace operator
TABLE OF CONTENTS
DANKWOORD i
ABSTRACT iii
NEDERLANDSE SAMENVATTING v
NOMENCLATURE xxvii
1.1. Introduction 1
1.1.1. Fluid-structure interaction 1
1.1.2. Importance of (vibro-acoustic) numerical modelling 3
1.1.3. Scope of the dissertation 4
1.3.1.1. FEM 12
1.3.1.2. BEM 22
1.3.1.3. FEM versus BEM for acoustic problems 30
1.3.2. Coupled FE/FE models 31
1.3.2.1. Interior problems 31
1.3.2.2. Exterior problems 36
1.3.3. Coupled FE/BE models 39
1.3.3.1. Coupled FE/direct BE model 39
1.3.3.2. Coupled FE/indirect BE model 40
1.3.4. Coupled FE/FE models versus coupled FE/BE models 40
1.3.5. Limitations of coupled models 42
2.1. Introduction 65
REFERENCES 433
xxxvi
1. INTRODUCTION AND STATE-OF-THE-ART IN
COUPLED VIBRO-ACOUSTIC MODELLING
1.1. Introduction
ρ 0c
λc = , (1.1)
ρ s tω
Introduction and state-of-the-art in coupled vibro-acoustic modelling 3
1
an important difference between the radiation efficiency of vibrating structures
and the mutual coupling interaction between an elastic structure and a fluid
concerns their frequency dependence: the radiation efficiency usually increases
for increasing frequency (see e.g. FAHY (1985)), whereas the strength of the
mutual coupling interaction usually decreases with increasing frequency, as
indicated e.g. by the coupling measure λc in (1.1)
4 Chapter 1
imperative for any advance beyond the very time-consuming and expensive
prototype testing approach is to apply appropriate predictive engineering
methods in all stages of the design process (see e.g. SORGATZ (1995,1996)).
Over the last few years, customer demands regarding acoustic performance,
along with the tightening of the legal regulations on noise emission levels
and human exposure to noise, have made the acoustic behaviour into an
important criterion in many design problems. In the automotive and
aerospace industry, for instance, the passengers’ acoustic comfort has
become an important commercial asset. This affects the efforts in reducing
the weight of cars and aircraft, which are mainly motivated by potential fuel
savings but quite often induce substantial noise and vibration levels. In this
framework, vibro-acoustic coupling phenomena are yet important and will
become even more important in the course of the next decades with the
introduction of new light-weight materials such as composites (see e.g.
CHARRON et al. (1995), SORGATZ (1996)).
In order to incorporate the vibro-acoustic criteria in the design process, there
is a strong need for numerical prediction tools that provide the necessary
insight in the physical phenomena which govern the (coupled) vibro-
acoustic behaviour of complex systems and that allow a reliable evaluation
of different design alternatives (see e.g. FAVRE (1998)).
∇ 2 p( r ) + k 2 p( r ) = − jρ 0ωq( r ), r ∈ V , (1.2)
j
v (r ) = ∇p( r ). (1.3)
ρ 0ω
p( r ) = p ( r ), r ∈ Ω p , (1.4)
j∂ p( r )
vn (r ) = = v n ( r ), r ∈Ω v , (1.5)
ρ 0 ω ∂n
jZ ( r ) ∂p( r )
p( r ) = Z ( r ). vn ( r ) = , r ∈Ω Z ; (1.6)
ρ 0ω ∂ n
1 1 ∂p( r )
wn ( r ) = vn ( r ) = , r ∈Ω s . (1.7)
jω ρ 0ω 2 ∂n
∂p( r )
lim r . ( + jkp( r )) = 0 . (1.8)
r →∞ ∂r
~
ws 1 ( r ) f s 1 ( r ) 0
[ ] [ ] ~
( Ls − ω 2 M s ). w s 2 ( r ) = fs 2 ( r ) + 0 , r ∈Ω s .
(1.9)
w ( r ) ~f ( r ) p( r )
î n î n î
[ ]
M s represent the inertial parameters of the structure. The first term in the
10 Chapter 1
ws 1 ( r )
[ ]
Ls,b . ws 2 ( r ) = {g s ( r )}, r ∈Γ s ,
(1.10)
w (r )
î n
[ Ls,b ]
Figure 1.4
1.3.1.1. FEM
The finite element method is the most commonly used numerical prediction
technique for solving engineering problems, which consist of finding the
distribution of one (or several) field variable(s) in a continuum domain,
governed by an appropriate (set of) partial differential equation(s) and
boundary conditions.
The finite element method is based on two concepts:
• transformation of the original problem into an equivalent integral
formulation (weighted residual or variational),
• approximation of the field variable distributions and the geometry of the
continuum domain in terms of a set of shape functions, which are locally
defined within small subdomains (‘finite elements’) of the continuum
domain.
These concepts and the subsequent properties of the finite element method,
together with its application for uncoupled vibro-acoustic problems, are
briefly discussed below. For a detailed discussion, the reader is referred to
e.g. ZIENKIEWICZ (1977), BATHE (1982) and HUGHES (1987).
2
provided that the weighting function is bounded and uniquely defined within the
continuum domain and on the boundary surface
Introduction and state-of-the-art in coupled vibro-acoustic modelling 13
nφ
(φ )
φ (r ) ≈ φ (r ) = ∑ Ni r ∈Ve .
( r ). ai , (1.11)
i=1
For each node, one or more degrees of freedom are specified, such that the
total number of nodal degrees of freedom equals nφ, the total number of
shape functions. Each specified degree of freedom is usually related to the
field variable φ and its spatial derivatives. Each shape function Ni(φ ) is
defined such that it has a unit value for a degree of freedom, specified at one
of the element nodes, and that is zero for all other nodal degrees of freedom.
In this way, each contribution ai to the solution expansion (1.11) represents
the value of a degree of freedom, specified at one of the element nodes.
variational approach
Several continuum problems may also be reformulated as an equivalent
variational problem. In the latter, the exact distributions of the field
variables are defined as those functions that make a functional stationary
with respect to small changes to these functions. The functional is a scalar
quantity that results from integrating a function over the continuum domain
and from integrating another function over the boundary surface. Both
14 Chapter 1
convergence
The prediction accuracy, obtained from a finite element model, depends
mainly on the number of elements and on the nature of the prescribed shape
functions. In this framework, it is important that the accuracy systematically
improves as the number of elements increases, so that the proposed solution
expansion eventually converges towards the exact solution. To ensure this
convergence, some conditions must be satisfied by the shape functions and,
for the case of a weighted residual formulation, also by the weighting
functions.
A necessary condition for the solution expansion to be convergent is the
condition of completeness. Whether a finite element model is based upon a
variational or a weighted residual formulation, the nodal degrees of freedom
result always from a set of equations, in which the coefficients are defined
in integral forms. All terms in the integration functions comprise the field
variables and their higher-order spatial derivatives. Each of these integration
terms, evaluated using the exact field variable distributions, reaches a
constant value within any infinitesimally small region in the continuum
domain. Therefore, a necessary convergence condition upon the element
shape functions is that each of the integration terms, evaluated using the
approximating field variable expansions of type (1.11), can also reach a
constant value within each element. In a similar way, a completeness
3
the functional has often a physical meaning (e.g. the kinetic and potential energy
in the considered system and the work done by non-conservative forces)
Introduction and state-of-the-art in coupled vibro-acoustic modelling 15
geometrical description
Since the differentiation and integration of a polynomial function are very
easy, the construction of a finite element model becomes simple and
straightforward, if the element shape functions are obtained from a set of
polynomial functions. For this type of finite element discretizations, some
16 Chapter 1
4
with respect to the convergence of a finite element discretization, it is desirable
that the element shape functions are spatially isotropic or geometrically invariant,
which means that the proposed expansions for the field variables within each
element are independent of the orientation of the local element co-ordinate
system
Introduction and state-of-the-art in coupled vibro-acoustic modelling 17
For some points in the element5, their desired global co-ordinates are
specified. By defining each shape function as a (polynomial) function in the
local co-ordinate system with a value of unity at one of the specified points
and zero at the others, each shape function contribution in the geometrical
expansion corresponds with the desired global Cartesian co-ordinates of one
of the specified points. Elements with the same shape functions describing
their geometry and field variable distributions are commonly used and
denoted as isoparametric elements. Provided that some limitations on the
amount of distortion are not violated, the parametric mapping concept yields
a one-to-one correspondence between the global Cartesian and the local
curvilinear co-ordinate systems. Based on this co-ordinate transformation,
the integration functions in the variational or weighted residual formulation
may be transformed from the global Cartesian to the local curvilinear co-
ordinates. Due to the simple geometry of the parent elements, the integration
limits of the resulting integrals, which could be complicated when defined in
the global Cartesian co-ordinates, become constant in the local co-ordinates.
Although not automatically ensured, the convergence properties of the
parent discretization are usually preserved in the mapped discretization,
especially for isoparametric discretizations. An illustration of this mapping
concept for defining distorted fluid elements is given in appendix A.
5
the specified points usually coincide with (some of) the nodes of the element and
their number equals the number of prescribed shape functions
18 Chapter 1
The back-substitution of the solution vector {ai } into the expansions for the
6
or their mapped quadrilateral plate elements
7
when all plate elements, meeting at a certain node, are co-planar and have the
additional normal rotational degrees of freedom, some dedicated numerical
treatment (see e.g. ZIENKIEWICZ and TAYLOR (1991)) must be introduced to
circumvent the singularity of this matrix equation
Introduction and state-of-the-art in coupled vibro-acoustic modelling 19
properties
The application of the finite element method for dynamic structural and
acoustic problems offers several advantageous properties.
• Since the shape functions are only locally defined within an element,
[ K ] , [ C] and [ M ] are sparsely populated, banded matrices. Moreover, for
uncoupled structural and uncoupled acoustic problems, which can be cast
into a variational formulation, the resulting matrices are symmetric. Due
to these matrix properties, the solution vector of unknown nodal values
can be obtained from efficient matrix solvers.
• Since the shape functions are independent of frequency, the stiffness
matrix [ K ] and the mass matrix [ M ] have frequency independent
coefficients. This allows the use of standard eigenvalue solvers for the
calculation of the undamped natural frequencies and mode shapes of
structural and acoustic system.
• Since the shape functions have real values, the coefficients of the
stiffness matrix [ K ] and the mass matrix [ M ] are real. The coefficients
of the acoustic damping matrix [ C ] are usually complex, since the
prescribed impedance Z in (1.6) is usually complex.
• The numerical calculation of the matrix coefficients is very easy and
straightforward. The involved numerical integrations are usually
performed with a simple Gauss quadrature rule with only a few
integration points per element (see e.g. ZIENKIEWICZ (1977)).
8
due to the advantageous matrix properties of a finite element model, the
construction of the model takes only a minor part of the computational effort;
most of the effort is spent on solving the model for the unknown nodal degrees of
freedom
22 Chapter 1
1.3.1.2. BEM
Over the last two decades, the boundary element method has become a
valuable modelling alternative for several types of engineering problems,
especially for problems involving unbounded domains.
The boundary element method is based on the direct or indirect boundary
integral formulation of the considered problem. These formulations relate
the distributions of the field variables in the continuum domain to the
distribution of some problem-related boundary variables on the boundary
surface of the domain. In this way, the boundary element method follows a
two-step procedure. In the first step, the distributions of the boundary
variables are determined. In the second step, the field variables in any point
in the continuum domain are obtained from the boundary integral
formulation, using the boundary surface results of the first step.
Introduction and state-of-the-art in coupled vibro-acoustic modelling 23
Similar to the finite element method, the boundary element method is based
on two concepts for solving the first-step boundary problem:
• transformation of the boundary problem into a collocational or varia-
tional formulation;
• approximation of the boundary surface geometry and the boundary
variables in terms of a set of shape functions, which are locally defined
within small subsurfaces (‘boundary elements’) of the boundary surface.
These concepts and the subsequent properties of the boundary element
method, when applied for acoustic problems, are briefly discussed below.
For a detailed discussion of the boundary element method in general, the
reader is referred to e.g. BANERJEE and BUTTERFIELD (1981), BREBBIA et al.
(1984), CISKOWSKI and BREBBIA (1991). A detailed discussion of the
application of the boundary element method for acoustic problems is given
in appendix C.
∂G( r , ra )
C( r ). p( r ) = ∫ [ p( ra ). + jρ 0ωvn ( ra ). G( r , ra )]. dΩ ( ra ) , (1.13)
Ωa
∂n
9
when external acoustic sources are applied to the fluid, the total pressure field,
governed by an inhomogeneous Helmholtz equation, is considered as the
superposition of the free-field pressure, which is the response to the acoustic
sources in absence of the actual boundary surface, and the scattered field, which
is governed by the corresponding homogeneous Helmholtz equation
24 Chapter 1
∇ 2 G( r , ra ) + k 2 G( r , ra ) = −δ ( r − ra ) (1.14)
− jk r − r
a
e
G( r , ra ) = (1.15)
4π r − ra
j
G( r , ra ) = − . H 0( 2) ( k r − ra ) , (1.16)
4
∂G( r , ra )
p( r ) = ∫ [ µ ( ra ). ∂n
− σ ( ra ). G( r , ra )]. dΩ ( ra ), ( r ∈V \ Ω a ).
Ωa
(1.17)
The single layer potential is the difference in normal pressure gradient
between both sides of the boundary surface Ωa,
in which the (naxna) matrices [ A] and [ B] relate the nodal pressure values to
the nodal normal velocity values. Since the boundary conditions (1.4)-(1.6)
impose a prescribed pressure, a prescribed normal velocity or an impedance
relation between both boundary variables, at each node either pi or vni or
their relation is known a priori. The remaining na unknown nodal values
result from the direct boundary element model (1.20). A detailed description
of this model is given in appendix C.
10
the collocational formulation may be regarded as a special case of the weighted
residual formulation, in which Dirac delta functions, located at the boundary
nodes, are used as weighting functions
11
the pressure and normal velocity are usually approximated in terms of the same
shape functions, yielding two degrees of freedom per boundary element node
Introduction and state-of-the-art in coupled vibro-acoustic modelling 27
~
E D σ i fσ
DT . =
~ . (1.21)
F î µ i f µ
î
As in the direct boundary element method, only one boundary value per
node is comprised in the vector of unknowns in (1.21), since the boundary
conditions provide some a priori relations. At the part of the boundary
surface, on which a prescribed pressure is imposed, the double layer
potential is zero. At the part of the boundary surface, on which a prescribed
normal velocity is imposed, the single layer potential is zero. At the part of
the boundary surface, on which a prescribed impedance is imposed, a
relation exists between the single and the double layer potential.
28 Chapter 1
properties
The application of the direct and indirect boundary element method for
acoustic problems offers several advantageous properties, compared with
the finite element method.
• In the same way as the pressure field distribution, the distributions of the
derived secondary field variables, such as the fluid velocity, result from
the boundary integral formulations. Since an analytical expression is
available for the Green’s kernel function, the differentiation of the
Introduction and state-of-the-art in coupled vibro-acoustic modelling 29
The modelling concepts of the boundary element method induce also some
disadvantageous properties, compared with the finite element method.
• The boundary integral formulations (1.13) and (1.17) relate the acoustic
quantities at a certain position on the boundary surface to the distribution
of these quantities on the entire boundary surface. As a result, the
matrices in the direct and indirect boundary element models (1.20) and
(1.21) are fully populated. Moreover, the matrices in direct boundary
element models are not symmetric. The computational benefits of the
symmetrical indirect boundary element models are largely counter-
balanced by the calculation of the matrix coefficients, since this involves
the numerical evaluation of double surface integrals, while the non-
symmetric direct boundary element models result from single surface
integrals.
• Since the Green’s kernel function is a complex function, the matrix
coefficients in boundary element models are complex.
• Since the Green’s kernel function depends on the frequency dependent
wavenumber k, the matrix coefficients in boundary element models are
frequency dependent. As a result, a boundary element model does not
naturally lead to an algebraic eigenvalue problem for the extraction of
the natural frequencies and mode shapes of interior acoustic systems.
When natural frequencies are computed, it is usually assumed that the
entire boundary surface is rigid. In this case, the right-hand side of the
direct boundary element model (1.20) becomes identically zero and the
natural frequencies are those frequencies, for which the determinant of
matrix [ A] is zero. Due to the implicit frequency dependence of this
matrix, the search for the natural frequencies is a non-linear problem,
which can be solved using a secant method (ADEYE et al. (1985)). This
procedure is, however, computationally inefficient and prone to failure in
the case of closely spaced natural frequencies. A more advanced
approach is based on the decomposition of the frequency dependent
30 Chapter 1
Based on the above mentioned properties of the finite element and the
boundary element method, two important features may be identified
regarding their computational loads for solving acoustic problems.
• Since acoustic finite element models are sparsely populated and
symmetric and since their matrix coefficients, which are real and
frequency independent for the stiffness and mass matrices, result from
simple numerical integrations, the construction of these models takes
only a minor part of the total computational effort. Most of the
computational effort is spent on solving the large models for the
unknown degrees of freedom.
• The computational effort for solving acoustic boundary element models
for the unknown boundary degrees of freedom benefits from the small
model sizes. However, the construction of these models requires a
Introduction and state-of-the-art in coupled vibro-acoustic modelling 31
12
the acoustic field in, for instance, a car cavity is sometimes investigated with
boundary element models, despite their larger computational efforts; this choice
is mainly motivated by the savings in manhours, since a boundary element mesh
for a car cavity can be readily obtained from the existing finite element meshes of
the car body
32 Chapter 1
([ K ] − ω ([ M ] + [ M~ ])).{w } = {0} ,
s
2
s i (1.23)
~
[ ]
where M is referred to as the added mass matrix,
[ M~ ] = ρ 0 [ Kc ][ Ka ]−1[ Kc ]T . (1.24)
Introduction and state-of-the-art in coupled vibro-acoustic modelling 33
j
∇p = ∇ϕ .
v=
(1.25)
ρ 0ω
of an inviscid fluid is zero, the matrix D, linking the fluid stresses to the
fluid strains (σ=D.ε), is singular. This allows zero-energy rotational
deformation modes, which are not excluded from the Lagrangian model
since these spurious modes don’t contribute to the energy functional. In
order to avoid these physically unfeasible modes, an additional
irrotationality constraint of the fluid has to be imposed by a penalty
method (HAMDI et al. (1978), ZIENKIEWICZ and BETTESS (1978),
BELYTSCHKO (1980), OLSON and BATHE (1983)). This is done by adding
an additional rotational energy functional J(α), weighted by a penalty
factor α, to the energy functional,
1
α . J (α ) (u ) = α . ∫ (∇xu ) 2 dVa ,
(1.27)
2 V
a
ment vector. The resulting system equations are, in absence of any type
of damping,
T K ~ ~ ~
T Ms 0 F
{ }
0
[ L] s ~ [ L ] − ω 2
(α )[ L ] ~ [ L ] V = ~
s
~
K a + αKα M a
i
î Fa
0 0
wi
with = [ L ]{Vi } .
î ui
(1.28)
Based on the coupling conditions at the fluid-structure interface, matrix
[ L] represents the static condensation of all nodal structural
displacement components wi and nodal fluid displacement components ui
in terms of the displacements Vi at the nodes which do not belong to the
[ ]
~ ~
[ ] [ ]
~
fluid-structure interface. K s and K a , M s and M a are the
~
[ ]
~
structural and acoustic stiffness and mass matrices. Matrix K a results [ ]
~
{ } ~
{ }
from the irrotationality constraint. Fs and Fa are the external nodal
structural and acoustic excitation vectors. Only a penalty factor α=∝
ensures an irrotational acoustic response. Since the system equations can
only be solved for a finite value of α, the response vectors and
Introduction and state-of-the-art in coupled vibro-acoustic modelling 35
p( r ) = ρ 0 cvn ( r ), r ∈ Ω e . (1.30)
KELLER and GIVOLI (1989) proposed an analytical solution for the pressure
field in the unbounded domain V2 that satisfies the Sommerfeld radiation
condition and an arbitrary Dirichlet condition (imposed pressure condition)
on the artificial boundary surface. They used this solution to form a relation
between the pressure and its normal gradient at the artificial boundary
surface Ωe, which yields the exact impedance boundary condition. The finite
element implementation of this exact Dirichlet-to-Neumann impedance
boundary condition has been discussed by HARARI and BLEJER (1995),
THOMPSON (1995) and GIVOLI et al. (1997). Since this method allows the
artificial boundary surface Ωe to be located in the near-field of the exterior
pressure, only a small domain V1 must be discretized, which yields a fairly
small finite element model.
functions, used in the infinite elements in domain V2. The more accurate
these shape functions can represent outwards travelling waves, the smaller
the size of domain V1 can be to get an accurate prediction of the coupled
response in exterior vibro-acoustic systems. In this framework, BURNETT
(1994) has proposed the use of spheroidal co-ordinate systems for the
formulation of the infinite element shape functions. This permits the
required extent of domain V1 to be reduced in the case of slender objects.
13
Although, in principle, a structural BE model can also be linked with an acoustic
BE model, this is not commonly done in practice, since, for similar reasons as for
acoustic problems, a dynamic structural BE model can hardly compete with a
structural FE model for bounded structural domains.
40 Chapter 1
The matrix [ Lc ] results from the acoustic pressure loading on the elastic
structure. The derivation of this model is given in appendix D.
Note that, since the direct boundary element method is confined to either
interior or exterior acoustic systems with a closed boundary surface, the
coupled FE/direct BE model can be used for interior or exterior coupled
vibro-acoustic systems with a closed boundary surface.
K s + jωCs − ω 2 M s Lc
. wi = Fsi .
F (ω ) îµ i î Fai
1 (1.33)
LTc
ρ 0ω 2
The coupling matrix [ Lc ] and its transpose result from the acoustic pressure
loading on both sides of the elastic structure and the structural and fluid
displacement continuity at the fluid-structure coupling interface.
A detailed mathematical description of this model is given e.g. by MARIEM
and HAMDI (1987), COYETTE and FYFE (1989), JEANS and MATHEWS
(1990).
When comparing the coupled FE/FE models, discussed in 1.3.2., and the
coupled FE/BE models, discussed in 1.3.3., in terms of computational
efficiency, two important features may be noticed.
• As already indicated in 1.3.1.3., the smaller size of the acoustic part in a
coupled FE/BE model usually doesn’t result in a higher computational
Introduction and state-of-the-art in coupled vibro-acoustic modelling 41
In the modal expansion technique, the dynamic field variables are expanded
in terms of the modes of the considered system. For element based models,
the contributions of the different modes to the dynamic response become the
unknowns of the modal model instead of the nodal degrees of freedom in the
Introduction and state-of-the-art in coupled vibro-acoustic modelling 43
original model. Although all modes should be used to get the same accuracy
as with the original model14, a relatively small truncated set of modes yields
already a level of accuracy close to the one of the much larger original
model. In this framework, a rule of thumb states that an accurate prediction
of the steady-state dynamic behaviour in a certain frequency range is
obtained by using all modes with natural frequencies, smaller than twice the
upper frequency limit of the considered frequency range. Especially in the
low-frequency range, where modal densities are small, this yields a
significant model size reduction. An illustration of this reduction efficiency
is given in appendix A.
In addition to the reduced model size, the matrices in a modal model often
become diagonal due to the orthogonality properties of the modes. As a
result, when the steady-state response is needed at a large number of
frequencies, the computational effort for constructing the modal base and
then solving the reduced modal model at each frequency of interest is
usually substantially smaller than for directly solving the original model at
each frequency.
The application of the modal expansion technique for coupled vibro-
acoustic models suffers, however, from some severe problems:
• The extraction of the modes from a coupled FE/FE model is much more
time-consuming than from an uncoupled structural or uncoupled acoustic
FE model. Non-symmetric eigenvalue solvers, needed for the mode
extraction from the non-symmetric and large sized Eulerian FE/FE
models (1.22), have a much smaller computational efficiency than the
symmetric eigenvalue solvers for uncoupled FE models, as illustrated in
appendix D. In this way, the mode extraction becomes a computationally
very expensive calculation for many coupled vibro-acoustic problems.
• The mode extraction from coupled FE/BE models with an algebraic
eigenvalue solver is not possible anyway due to the implicit frequency
dependence of the matrix coefficients in the acoustic part of the models.
The modes can only be obtained after introducing some approximations
in the coupled FE/BE models. COYETTE et al. (1989) proposed, for
example, to evaluate the frequency dependent coefficients in matrix
[ F(ω )] in a coupled FE/indirect BE model (1.33) at a particular
frequency ω = ω , which lies somewhere in the considered frequency
14
since the total number of modes equals the total number of degrees of freedom of
the model, no model size reduction would be obtained
44 Chapter 1
[ ]
where M is referred to as the added mass matrix,
external excitations. COYETTE (1990), for instance, proposed the use of Ritz
vectors for the expansion of the structural displacement and the fluid
pressure in a coupled Eulerian FE/FE model (1.22). SEYBERT et al. (1993)
expanded the structural displacements in a coupled FE/direct BE model
(1.32) in terms of Ritz vectors. In comparison with a modal expansion
model, a smaller number of Ritz vectors is needed to get an acceptable level
of accuracy, since the Ritz vectors depend also on the external excitations. A
Ritz vector expansion is, however, not commonly preferred to a modal
expansion, since the benefit of the smaller model size is often nullified by
the increased computational effort for calculating an orthogonal set of Ritz
vectors.
limited applicability
As already mentioned in 1.3.1.1., the number of elements in a finite element
or boundary element discretization should increase as the frequency
increases. An increase of the number of elements yields a larger model size
and requires a larger amount of computational effort and memory resources.
As a result, the applicability of the finite element and boundary element
method is practically restricted to a limited frequency range. Above a
certain frequency limit, which depends on the nature of the problem and on
the available computer resources, these prediction methods would require a
prohibitively large amount of computational effort and memory resources to
get an acceptable level of accuracy.
As discussed above, the model sizes and subsequent computational efforts
are larger and the efficiency of model size reduction techniques is smaller
for coupled vibro-acoustic problems than for uncoupled structural and
uncoupled acoustic problems. For these reasons, the practical frequency
upper limit for applying element based prediction techniques for coupled
problems is substantially smaller than for uncoupled problems. Even with
the nowadays available enormous computational power, the huge computa-
tional effort involved in coupled models put a severe practical limitation to
their use for industrial engineering problems. ROOZEN (1992) illustrated, for
example, that an uncoupled finite element model of 550000 degrees of
freedom only allows an accurate study of the vibrational behaviour of a 2m
long fuselage section of a Fokker 50 aircraft at frequencies up to 225 Hz. To
study the coupled vibro-acoustic behaviour of a similar section of a SAAB
2000 aircraft at frequencies up to 120 Hz, GREEN (1992) needed a coupled
finite element model of more than 400000 degrees of freedom.
48 Chapter 1
1.4.1. Motivation
As indicated in 1.3.5., the use of element based prediction techniques for the
steady-state dynamic analysis of coupled vibro-acoustic systems is restricted
to a limited frequency range. Above the practically induced frequency limit,
one should resort to alternative prediction techniques such as statistical
energy analysis (see e.g. LYON and DEJONG (1995), DELANGHE (1996)) or
energy flow analysis (see e.g. NEFSKE and SUNG (1989), CHO (1993)).
These prediction techniques are appropriate for high-frequency modelling,
since they are based on the high modal density of a system at high
frequencies. These techniques are, however, probabilistic, in that they only
provide averaged approximations of the global response of a dynamic
system. The statistical approach of these non-deterministic techniques is not
only motivated by the computational efficiency, but also by the fact that, at
high frequencies, the dynamic behaviour is very sensitive to the system
parameters, such as material properties and boundary conditions. Since the
physical values of these parameters are only known with a certain level of
uncertainty, deterministic models, which yield only nominal prediction
results, become useless at high frequencies. In this respect, KOMPELLA and
BERNHARD (1993) measured the vibro-acoustic characteristics of a large
series of nominally identical cars and illustrated the large variations of these
characteristics at high frequencies.
At present, vibro-acoustic prediction techniques suffer from what LEURIDAN
(1995) calls a ‘mid-frequency crisis’: the currently available prediction
techniques are not appropriate for the dynamic analysis in the mid-
frequency range, which lies above the frequency limit of element based
prediction techniques, but where the high modal density assumption of the
probabilistic prediction techniques is not yet valid. However, for many
industrial engineering problems, there is a strong need for deterministic
techniques that provide accurate coupled vibro-acoustic predictions in this
mid-frequency range. As already mentioned in section 1.3.1.1., LE SALVER
(1998) indicated, for example, that even for the uncoupled vibro-acoustic
analysis of the acoustic field, induced by the displacements of a car body
without trim panel damping treatments, the practical frequency limitation
lies around 200 Hz, although coupled vibro-acoustic predictions for a fully
trimmed car are needed up to much higher frequencies (see e.g. LIM and
STEYER (1992)). For the vibro-acoustic analysis of the passengers’ cabin in
Introduction and state-of-the-art in coupled vibro-acoustic modelling 49
shape functions of the parent elements are of the same (low) order.
However, since the spatial variation of the dynamic response often varies
within the considered domain, a fine discretization is only required in those
areas of the domain where the response has a high spatial variation, while a
coarse discretization is allowed in the areas where the response has a low
spatial variation. Hence, a uniform mesh density is not always the most
efficient discretization.
To optimise the discretization, some adaptive mesh refinement techniques
have been developed (JIROUSEK (1986a), SZABO (1986), BABUŠKA (1987)),
based on local error estimators (ZIENKIEWICZ and ZHU (1987)). In these
techniques, the considered domain is initially discretized into a coarse mesh
of fairly uniform density. A local error estimator evaluates the distribution
of the resulting approximation errors over the domain. In areas of large
error, the discretization is refined by dividing the elements into several
smaller elements (h-method) or by increasing the order of the polynomial
shape functions in the elements (p-method) or a combination of both (hp-
method). After some iterations of this procedure, a mesh is obtained, in
which a fine discretization is only used in those areas where it is really
necessary. Recently, these refinement techniques have been successfully
applied for uncoupled acoustic problems (IHLENBURG and BABUŠKA
(1995,1997)) and some dedicated local error estimators (STEWART and
HUGHES (1996)) have been developed. Since these techniques ensure that
there is no waste of computational effort, they could be very useful for the
computationally expensive coupled vibro-acoustic problems. They are,
however, not yet applied for this type of problems, at least not to the
author’s knowledge.
15
This formulation was discovered independently by several researchers, who gave
it different names: ‘method of fundamental solutions’ (JOHNSTON and
FAIRWEATHER (1984), BOGOMOLNY (1985)), ‘source function method’ (DE MEY
(1978)), ‘discrete singularity method’ (YANO et al. (1983)), ‘superposition
method’ (BURGESS and MAHAJERIN (1984)), ‘modified Trefftz method’
(PATTERSON and SHEIKH (1982,1983)), ‘boundary point method’ (JOHNSON
(1987)), ‘boundary collocation method’ (KOLODZIEJ and KLEIBER (1989)),
‘regular indirect boundary element method’ (WEARING and SHEIKH (1988)).
54 Chapter 1
This formulation was firstly presented by CHEUNG et al. (1989) in the two-
dimensional potential problem and extended to the two-dimensional elastic
problem (JIN et al. (1990)), the two-dimensional Helmholtz problem
(CHEUNG et al. (1991)) and the plate bending problem (JIN et al. (1993)).
current limitations
For large and/or geometrically complex continuum domains, a large number
of globally defined T-complete functions is required to obtain a reasonable
accuracy. Despite the current availability of several function sets, for which
a mathematical proof of their completeness exists, their practical
implementations yield solution matrices, which are very ill-conditioned (see
e.g. ZIELINSKI and HERRERA (1987)). This puts a severe practical limitation
on the use of the indirect Trefftz method. Hence, for the indirect Trefftz
method to become a valuable modelling alternative, alternative T-complete
function sets are needed, which can be implemented without practical
condition problems.
56 Chapter 1
16
in this case, the dynamic stiffness method is often referred to as ‘exact finite
element method’
17
since the dynamic field variables are represented in terms of frequency and
wavenumber spectra, the dynamic stiffness method is often referred to as
‘spectral element method’, but is not related to the identically called method,
discussed in 1.4.2.
18
equal to the order of the differential equation
19
the total number of endpoint degrees of freedom is equal to the order of the
governing differential equations
Introduction and state-of-the-art in coupled vibro-acoustic modelling 57
the element formulation. This yields, in exactly the same way as for
conventional finite element formulations, symmetric element matrices,
which relate the nodal frame degrees of freedom to the nodal ‘forces’.
Therefore, the linking of hybrid-Trefftz elements can be accomplished via a
standard element assemblage procedure and T-element discretizations may
also be coupled with conventional finite element discretizations.
The least-squares Trefftz element formulation is based only on the
contributions of the T-complete functions to the field variable distributions
within the element, without the introduction of auxiliary frame degrees of
freedom. ZIELINSKI and ZIENKIEWICZ (1985) indicated how the interelement
conformity and the boundary conditions may be enforced directly in a least-
squares sense. JIROUSEK and WROBLEWSKI (1994) translated this approach
into an element formulation, which is suitable for implementation into a
standard finite element code.
Bearing in mind the prophecy by PIERCE (1990), “... there is some historical
precedent to believe that any scheme that incorporates some of the basic
physical understanding of how waves propagate should have some intrinsic
advantage over one based on brute force”, several properties of the
proposed wave based prediction technique are expected to contribute to its
improved convergence rate, compared with the existing prediction
techniques.
62 Chapter 1
20
Appendix F gives a detailed description of the low-frequency modal properties of
double-panel partitions, identified from an analytical model, along with a wave
model, obtained with the proposed wave based prediction technique.
64 Chapter 1
2. METHODOLOGY OF THE
WAVE BASED PREDICTION TECHNIQUE
2.1. Introduction
In the weighted residual and Rayleigh-Ritz methods, used in the finite
element method, the field variables of a continuum problem are expanded in
terms of shape functions, which only satisfy a priori the essential boundary
conditions1. The shape function contributions are then determined by
approximately restoring the ‘equilibrium’ and constitutive relations,
expressed by the governing partial differential equations, in an average
integral sense. The main asset of subdividing the continuum domain into
small finite elements is that convergence can be obtained with simple,
locally defined shape functions. The disadvantage is, however, that the size
of the resulting model may become very large.
In 1926, TREFFTZ proposed an alternative method, in which the field
variables are expanded in terms of shape functions, which satisfy a priori the
governing partial differential equations. The shape function contributions
are then determined by approximately restoring the boundary conditions in
an average integral sense. Since an approximation is only involved with the
boundary conditions, the main asset of this method is the small size of the
resulting model. The disadvantage is, however, that, in order to obtain
1
the essential boundary conditions in acoustic problems are the prescribed pressure
boundary conditions; the essential boundary conditions in structural problems are
the prescribed translational and rotational displacement boundary conditions
66 Chapter 2
2
although its completeness was not proven
Methodology of the wave based prediction technique 67
∇ 2 p( r ) + k 2 . p( r ) = − jρ 0ωq.δ ( r ,r q ), r ∈V , (2.1)
where the structural bending wavenumber kb and the plate bending stiffness
D are
ρ tω 2 Et 3 (1 + jη )
kb = 4 s and D = . (2.4)
D 12(1 − ν 2 )
p( r ) = p ( r ), r ∈Ω p , (2.5)
j ∂p( r )
= vn ( r ), r ∈ Ω v , (2.6)
ρ 0ω ∂n
j ∂p( r ) p( r )
= , r ∈Ω Z , (2.7)
ρ 0 ω ∂n Z (r )
j ∂p( r )
= jωw( r ), r ∈ Ω s , (2.8)
ρ 0 ω ∂n
dw( 0) dw( L )
w( 0) = w( L ) = = = 0. (2.9)
dx’ dx’
70 Chapter 2
expansion p(x, y) ,
na
p ( x , y ) ≈ p( x , y ) = ∑ pa .Φ a ( x, y ) + pq ( x, y) = [Φ a ]{ pa } + pq ( x, y) . (2.10)
a=1
− j ( k xa . x + k ya . y )
Φ a ( x, y) = e (2.11)
with 2
k xa + k ya
2
= k2. (2.12)
The unknown contributions of these acoustic wave functions to the solution
expansion are comprised in the (nax1) vector { pa } .
Function pq (x, y) is a particular solution function for the external acoustic
source term in the inhomogeneous right-hand side of the Helmholtz
equation (2.1). Several mathematical expressions may serve as particular
solution. It is advantageous, however, to select an expression, which is
already close to the physical response of the cavity. Therefore, the particular
solution function is based on the two-dimensional Green’s kernel function,
Methodology of the wave based prediction technique 71
defined in equation (1.16), since it represents the free-field pressure due to
an acoustic line source,
ρ 0ωq ( 2)
pq ( x , y ) = H 0 ( k. ( x − x q ) 2 + ( y − y q ) 2 ) , (2.13)
4
According to equation (1.3), the fluid velocity vector is approximated as
v=
j
∇p ≈
∂p
j ∂x
∂p =
j
([∂ ][Φ a ]{ pa } + [∂ ] pq )
ρ 0ω ρ 0ω ρ 0 ω
∂y (2.14)
([ Ba ]{ pa } + [∂ ] pq ) ,
j
=
ρ 0ω
From the above definitions, it may be concluded that the proposed acoustic
pressure expansion (2.10) exactly satisfies the Helmholtz equation (2.1), no
matter what the values of the acoustic wave function contributions pa are.
solution expansion w(x’) ,
4 na
w( x’) ≈ w( x’) = ∑ wsΨ s ( x’) + ∑ pa wa ( x’) + w F ( x’) + wq ( x’)
s=1 a=1 (2.15)
= [Ψ s ]{w s } + [ w a ]{ pa } + w F ( x’) + w q ( x’).
The four structural wave functions Ψ s (x’) in the (1x4) matrix [Ψ s ] are four
linear independent solutions of the homogeneous part of the fourth-order
dynamic plate equation (2.3),
72 Chapter 2
Ψ s ( x’) = e − j
s
. k b . x’
, ( s = 1..4) . (2.16)
The unknown contributions of these structural wave functions to the
solution expansion are comprised in the (4x1) vector {w s } .
Function w F (x’) is a particular solution function for the mechanical force
term in the inhomogeneous right-hand side of equation (2.3). Again, the
physically meaningful expression for the displacement of an infinite plate,
excited by a normal line force F, is selected (JUNGER and FEIT (1972)),
− jF
− jk b x ’− x ’F − k b x ’− x ’F
w F ( x’) = (e − j. e ). (2.17)
4 Dkb3
wave functions Φ a . The displacement of an infinite plate, excited by this
distributed pressure, may be used as particular solution function,
w a ( x’) =
−j L
∫ Φ a ( x 0 + ξ.cos α , y0 + ξ.sin α ).(e − jk b x’−ξ − j. e − k b x’−ξ ). dξ
4 Dk b3 0
(2.18)
However, due to the flat shape of the considered plate, an expression may be
defined, which is a particular solution function and which is proportional to
the pressure loading function,
− j ( k xa .( x 0 + x ’.cos α ) + k ya .( y 0 + x ’.sin α ))
e
w a ( x’) =
[ ]
. (2.19)
D. ( k xa .cos α + k ya .sin α ) 4 − k b4
In a similar way, function wq (x’) , which is a particular solution function
for the part of the cavity pressure loading term in the inhomogeneous right-
hand side of equation (2.3), resulting from the acoustic line source function
pq , may be expressed as
wq ( x’) =
− j ρ 0 ωq L ( 2 )
∫ H 0 ( k. ( x 0 + ξ .cos α − x q ) 2 + ( y0 + ξ.sin α − yq ) 2 ). e − jk b x’−ξ . dξ
16 Dkb3 0
ρ 0ωq L ( 2) x ’−ξ
H ( k. ( x 0 + ξ.cos α − x q ) 2 + ( y0 + ξ.sin α − yq ) 2 ). e − k b . dξ
3 ∫ 0
−
16 Dkb 0
(2.20)
From the above definitions, it may be concluded that the proposed structural
displacement expansion (2.15) exactly satisfies the dynamic plate equation
(2.3), no matter what the values of the acoustic and structural wave function
contributions pa and ws are.
Since the proposed field variable expansions (2.10) and (2.15) satisfy a
priori the governing dynamic equations (2.1) and (2.3), the contributions pa
and ws of, respectively, the acoustic and the structural wave functions to the
field variable expansions are merely determined by the boundary conditions.
The boundary conditions are defined at any position on the boundaries of
the structural and acoustic domains. However, since only finite sized models
are amenable to numerical implementation, the boundary conditions can
only be satisfied in an approximate way. This approximation may be
obtained by reformulating the boundary conditions, such that they are
satisfied in an average integral sense. Two types of integral formulations are
considered, i.e. a weighted residual and a least-squares formulation.
For the considered two-dimensional problem, only the acoustic boundary
conditions must be transformed into an approximate integral formulation.
The structural boundary conditions can be satisfied exactly, since they are
defined at some discrete locations.
74 Chapter 2
(2.5)-(2.8). In the proposed weighted residual formulation of these boundary
conditions, the involved residual error functions,
R p ( r ) = p( r ) − p ( r ), r ∈Ω p , (2.21)
Rv ( r ) =
ρ 0ω ∂n
j ∂p( r )
− vn ( r ), r ∈ Ω v , (2.22)
RZ ( r ) =
Rs ( r ) =
ρ 0ω ∂n
j ∂p( r ) p( r )
j ∂ p( r )
ρ 0 ω ∂n
−
Z (r )
, r ∈Ω Z ,
− jωw( r ), r ∈ Ω s ,
(2.23)
(2.24)
− j ∂~
p ~ ~ ~
∫ ρ ω ∂n . R p . dΩ + ∫ p. Rv . dΩ + ∫ p. RZ . dΩ + ∫ p. Rs . dΩ = 0 . (2.25)
Ωp 0 Ωv ΩZ Ωs
na
~
p( x, y) = ∑ ~pa .Φ a ( x, y) = [Φ a ]{ ~pa } . (2.26)
a=1
Methodology of the wave based prediction technique 75
The substitution of the field variable expansions (2.10) and (2.15) and the
weighting function expansion (2.26) into the weighted residual formulation
(2.25) yields
where the (2x1) vector {n} contains the x- and y-component of the unit
vector, normal to the considered boundary surface.
(WR)
The (naxna) matrix Caa is [ ]
[Caa ] = −Ω∫ jω[Φ a ]T [wa ]. dΩ
( WR )
(2.29)
s
(WR)
and the (nax4) matrix Cas is [ ]
[Cas ] = −Ω∫ jω[Φ a ]T [Ψ s ]. dΩ
( WR )
. (2.30)
s
{ fap } = ! Chapter 2
"
∫ ρ ω [ Ba ] {n}( pq − p ). dΩ
( WR ) jT
, (2.32)
Ωp 0
{ fav } =
#
∫ [Φ a ] (vn − ρ ω {n} [∂ ] pq ). dΩ
#
( WR ) T T j
, (2.33)
Ωv
0
{ faZ } =
$ $ $
pq
∫ [Φ a ]
j
( WR ) T
( − {n} T [∂ ] pq ). dΩ , (2.34)
ΩZ
Z ρ 0ω
{ fas } =
( WR )
∫ [Φ a ]
T
( jωw F + jωwq −
j
ρ 0ω
{n} T [∂ ] pq ). dΩ . (2.35)
Ωs
Since the weighted residual formulation should hold for any weighting
function ~
p , the expressions between square brackets in equation (2.27)
must be zero. This yields a set of na algebraic equations in the (4+na)
unknown wave function contributions ws and pa,
[Cas ( WR ) s
] { }
w
( WR ) ( WR )
Aaa + Caa . = fa( WR ) . (2.36)
î pa
w s
[ Ass Csa ]. = { fs }. (2.37)
î pa
The (4x4) matrix [ Ass ] results from the application of the differential
operators, which are involved with the structural boundary conditions in
equation (2.9), on the structural wave functions in the (1x4) matrix [Ψ s ] ,
Methodology of the wave based prediction technique 77
Ψ s (0)
Ψ ( L)
s
[ ss ] dΨ s (0) .
A = (2.38)
dx’
dΨ s ( L )
dx’
%
The (4xna) coupling matrix [ Csa ] results from the application of these
&'
differential operators on the particular solution functions in the (1xna) matrix
[ wa ] ,
wa ( 0 )
(
)
w ( L)
a
[Csa ] =
dw a ( 0 ) . (2.39)
dx’
dwa ( L )
dx’
,. -/
operators on the particular solution functions w F and wq ,
0 1
− w F ( 0 ) − w q ( 0)
− w ( L) − w ( L)
2 3
F q
dw F ( 0 ) dw q ( 0 )
{ s} −
f = − . (2.40)
dx’ dx’
dw F ( L ) dw q ( L )
− −
î dx’ dx’
[ A ] = Casss fs
{ }
A Csa
with ( WR )
and b ( WR ) = ( WR ) . (2.42)
( WR )
Aaa + Caa
( WR ) ( WR )
î fa
Solving model (2.41) for the unknown wave function contributions ws and pa
and back-substituting the results into the expansions (2.10) and (2.15) yield
the prediction of the steady-state dynamic response of the coupled vibro-
acoustic system.
2 2 2 2
Fa = ∫ β p . Rp . dΩ + ∫ β v . Rv . dΩ + ∫ β Z . RZ . dΩ + ∫ β s . Rs . dΩ
Ωp Ωv ΩZ Ωs
(2.43)
The parameters β p, β v, β Z and β s are introduced to restore the homogeneity of
the physical dimensions of the different components in the functional and
they allow to tune the relative importance, attributed to the different
acoustic boundary conditions.
In the least-squares formulation of the acoustic boundary conditions, the
functional Fa is minimised with respect to any acoustic wave function
contribution pa in the acoustic pressure expansion (2.10). This yields a set of
na algebraic equations in the (4+na) unknown wave function contributions ws
and pa,
[Cas ]
( LS ) s
{ }
w
( LS )
Aaa . = fa( LS ) . (2.44)
î pa
(LS)
[ ]
4
The element on row ai and column s of the (nax4) matrix Cas is
1 ∂Φ ai
*
[ ]
Cas
ai s
= β s . ∫ (ω w ai −
( LS )
Ωs
2 *
ρ 0 ∂n
).Ψ s . dΩ
(2.45)
Methodology of the wave based prediction technique 79
Φ *ai j ∂Φ ai Φ a j
*
j ∂Φ a j
+ βZ. ∫ ( * + − ). dΩ
5 6
).(
ρ 0ω ∂n Z ρ 0ω ∂ n
Ω Z Z
j ∂Φ a j
*
j ∂Φ ai
*
+ β s . ∫ ( j ωw a i −
*
).( − jωw a j +
*
). dΩ
ρ 0ω ∂n ρ 0ω ∂ n
Ωs
8
(2.46)
7 { }
The element on row ai of the (nax1) vector fa(LS) is
β v ∂Φ ai ∂pq
*
{ fa }
9:9
( LS )
= β p . ∫ Φ *ai .( p − pq ). dΩ + . ∫ .( j ρ ωv − ). d Ω
ai ρ 02ω 2 Ω ∂n
0 n
∂n
Ω p v
Φ *ai j ∂Φ ai
*
j ∂pq pq
<
+ βZ. ∫ ( * + − ). dΩ
; < <
).(
ρ 0ω ∂n ρ 0ω ∂n Z
Ω Z Z
j ∂Φ ai
*
j ∂pq
+ β s . ∫ ( jωwa*i − ).( jωw F + jωwq − ).dΩ
ρ 0ω ∂n ρ 0ω ∂n
Ωs
(2.47)
[ A ] = Casss { }
A Csa fs
with ( LS )
( LS ) ( LS ) and b
( LS )
= ( LS ) . (2.49)
Aaa î fa
80 Chapter 2
Solving model (2.48) for the unknown wave function contributions ws and pa
and back-substituting the results into the expansions (2.10) and (2.15) yield
the prediction of the steady-state dynamic response of the coupled vibro-
acoustic system.
• Since the acoustic and structural wave functions Φ a and Ψ s are defined
in, respectively, the entire acoustic domain V and the entire structural
domain Ωs, the model matrices are fully populated.
• Since the acoustic and structural wave functions Φ a and Ψ s are
complex functions and since they are implicitly dependent on frequency
by virtue of the frequency dependence of their wavenumber components,
the model matrices are complex and frequency dependent and cannot be
partitioned into frequency independent submatrices.
• The model matrices are not symmetric. However, the submatrices Aaa
(WR)
[ ]
[ ]
(LS)
and Aaa are, respectively, symmetric and Hermitian, as proven below.
From the definition formula (2.28), it follows that the element on row ai
[ (WR)
and column aj of the (naxna) matrix Aaa ]
is
Methodology of the wave based prediction technique 81
∂Φ a j
[ Aaa ]a a
( WR )
i j
= ∫
Ω v +Ω Z +Ω s
ρ
j
0 ω
.Φ a i .
∂n
. dΩ
(2.50)
j ∂Φ ai 1
− ∫ . . Φ a j . dΩ − ∫ . Φ a i . Φ a j . dΩ
Ωp
ρ 0 ω ∂n ΩZ
Z
For any two functions ϕ and ψ, which are sufficiently smooth and non-
singular in a domain V, enclosed by a surface Ωa, Green’s second identity
states that (see e.g. GREENBERG (1998))
∂ψ ∂ϕ
∫ (ϕ . ∂n − ψ . ∂n ). dΩ = ∫ (ϕ . ∇ ψ − ψ . ∇ ϕ ). dV ,
2 2
(2.51)
Ω a V
where the direction n, normal to the boundary surface Ωa, has a positive
orientation away from domain V.
Since the acoustic wave functions Φ ai and Φ a j are smooth, non-
singular solutions of the homogeneous Helmholtz equation, i.e.
∇ 2Φ ai = − k 2 .Φ ai and ∇ 2Φ a j = − k 2 .Φ a j , (2.52)
j ∂Φ a j j ∂Φ ai
∫ ( ρ ω .Φ ai . ∂n −
ρ 0ω
.Φ a j .
∂n
). dΩ = 0 . (2.53)
Ω a
0
j ∂Φ a j j ∂Φ ai
∫ .Φ ai . . dΩ − ∫ . . Φ a j . dΩ
ρ ω
Ω v +Ω Z + Ω s 0
∂n ρ ω ∂n
Ωp 0 (2.54)
j ∂Φ ai j ∂Φ a j
= ∫ .Φ a j . . dΩ − ∫ . . Φ ai . dΩ .
ρ
Ω v +Ω Z +Ω s 0
ω ∂ n ρ
Ωp 0
ω ∂n
82 Chapter 2
Since
1 1
∫ . Φ a i . Φ a j . dΩ = ∫ . Φ a j . Φ a i . dΩ , (2.55)
ΩZ
Z ΩZ
Z
the comparison between equation (2.50) and equations (2.54) and (2.55)
proves that matrix Aaa [ ]
(WR)
is symmetric, i.e.
[ Aaa ]a a = [ Aaa ]a a
( WR )
i j
( WR )
j i
(∀ ai , a j = 1.. na ) . (2.56)
(LS)
From its element definition (2.46), one can readily see that matrix Aaa [ ]
is Hermitian, i.e.
[ Aaa ]a a = [ Aaa ]a a
*
( LS ) ( LS )
(∀ ai , a j = 1.. na ) . (2.57)
i j j i
na
p ( x , y ) ≈ p( x , y ) = ∑ p a . Φ a ( x , y ) + pq ( x , y ) , (2.58)
a=1
where the wavenumber components kxa and kya of each acoustic wave
function
− j ( k xa . x + k ya . y )
Φ a ( x, y) = e (2.59)
satisfy 2
k xa + k ya
2
= k2. (2.60)
Since equation (2.60) has an infinite number of real and complex solutions,
the key question is whether a set of acoustic wave functions can be selected
from the infinite number of possible wave functions, such that the
subsequent pressure expansion converges towards the exact solution. Note
that, for the considered two-dimensional case, no selection must be made
regarding the structural wave functions, since the dynamic plate equation
(2.3) has only a finite number of homogeneous, linear independent solution
functions, which are all comprised in the displacement expansion (2.15).
Only for three-dimensional problems (see chapter 4), both an acoustic and a
structural wave function selection is needed.
A necessary condition for convergence of the proposed models (2.41) and
(2.48) is that the predicted normal fluid velocity distribution on the
boundary surface Ωa of the considered bounded acoustic domain V
?
converges towards the exact normal fluid velocity distribution, i.e.
∀( x , y ) ∈ Ω a :
n a jpa ∂Φ a ( x, y ) j ∂ pq ( x , y ) j ∂p( x, y ) (2.61)
lim ∑ . + . = . .
ρ
n a →∞ a = 1 0 ω ∂ n ρ 0 ω ∂ n ρ 0ω ∂n
Figure 2.2. shows a rectangular domain with dimensions Lx and Ly, in which
the homogeneous pressure field p(x,y) is requested, whose normal fluid
velocity distribution is characterised by four arbitrary functions v1, v2, v3 and
v4, each of them being defined on one of the four side walls of the
rectangular boundary surface.
3
although the proofs need some refinements to become entirely sound from a pure
mathematical point of view, they certainly serve as ‘engineering proofs’
Methodology of the wave based prediction technique 85
The considered problem may be split into four subproblems, each of them
having three side walls with zero normal fluid velocity and one side wall
with a non-zero normal fluid velocity distribution, as shown in figure 2.2.
One of these subproblems consists of determining the pressure field p1(x,y),
satisfying the homogeneous Helmholtz equation
∇ 2 p1 ( x , y ) + k 2 . p1 ( x , y ) = 0 (2.62)
∂p1 ( x ,0 )
= 0, ( x ∈ [ 0, L x ]), (2.63)
∂y
∂p1 ( x, L y )
= 0, ( x ∈ [ 0, L x ]), (2.64)
∂y
j ∂p1 ( 0, y )
− = v1 ( y ), ( y ∈ [ 0, Ly ]), (2.65)
ρ 0ω ∂x
∂p1 ( L x , y )
= 0, ( y ∈ [ 0, L y ]). (2.66)
∂x
p1 ( x, y ) = X ( x ). Y ( y ) (2.67)
d2X
2
+ ( k 2 − λ2 ). X = 0 , (2.68)
dx
d 2Y
2
+ λ2 . Y = 0 . (2.69)
dy
(2.70)
+ ( E. y + F ).(G. e − jkx + H. e jkx )
86 Chapter 2
k 2 − λ2 . x
λ. B.(C. e − j + D. e j k − λ . x ) + E.(G. e − jkx + H. e jkx ) = 0 (2.71)
2 2
p1 ( x , y ) = cos(λy ).( I. e − j k − λ . x + J . e j k − λ . x ) ,
2 2 2 2
(2.72)
j. k 2 − λ2 .cos( λy ).( − I. e − j k − λ . L x + J . e j k − λ . L x ) = 0
2 2 2 2
(2.73)
I = J . e 2 j k − λ . Lx ,
2 2
(2.74)
For the boundary condition (2.64) to be satisfied, the constants J and λ must
be defined, such that the equation
k 2 − λ2 . Lx − j k 2 − λ2 . x
+ J. e j k − λ .x ) = 0
2 2
λ.sin( λL y ).( J . e 2 j e (2.76)
is satisfied at any position x ∈ [0, L x ] . Since J=0 would yield the trivial
solution p1(x,y)=0, λ is confined to
Methodology of the wave based prediction technique 87
a .π
sin( λ . L y ) = 0 → λ = 2 ( a 2 = 0,1,...) . (2.77)
Ly
p1 ( x , y ) =
a 2π 2 a 2π 2 a 2π 2
∞ 2 j k 2 −( ) . Lx − j k 2 −( ) .x j k 2 −( ) .x
a πy Ly Ly Ly
∑ pa 2 .cos( 2 ).(e
Ly
.e +e )
a2 = 0
(2.78)
For the remaining boundary condition (2.65) to be satisfied, the constants
pa 2 must be defined, such that the equation
a 2π 2
∞ 2 j k 2 −( ) . Lx
1 a π Ly a πy
v1 ( y ) = ∑ pa 2 . k 2 − ( 2 ) 2 .(1 − e
ρ 0ω a = 0 Ly
− 1).cos( 2 )
Ly
2
(2.79)
a 2πy
is satisfied at any position y ∈ [0, L y ] . Since the functions cos( )
Ly
(a2=0,1,...) are the orthogonal eigenfunctions of the Sturm-Liouville problem
d 2Y dY ( 0 ) dY ( L y )
2
+ λ2 . Y = 0 with = 0, = 0, (2.80)
dy dy dy
the constants pa 2 in equation (2.78) can be determined, such that the series
expansion in the right-hand side of equation (2.79) converges to v1(y) at the
positions y ∈]0, L y [ , where v1(y) is continuous, and to the mean value
0.5(v1(y-)+v1(y+)) at the positions y ∈]0, L y [ , where v1(y) is discontinuous
(see e.g. GREENBERG (1998)).
In a completely similar way, it can be proven that a homogeneous pressure
field p2(x,y), having a normal fluid velocity distribution v2(y) along the side
wall at x=Lx and a zero normal fluid velocity along the three other side
walls, may be expressed as
88 Chapter 2
a 2π 2 a 2π 2
∞ − j k 2 −( ) .x j k 2 −( ) .x
a πy Ly Ly
p 2 ( x, y ) = ∑ pa 2 .cos( 2 ).(e +e ) .(2.81)
a =0 Ly
2
The general forms of the pressure fields p3(x,y) and p4(x,y), shown in figure
2.2, are obtained by interchanging the position variables x and y and the
dimensions Lx and Ly in equations (2.78) and (2.81).
As a result, the requested homogeneous pressure field p(=p1+p2+p3+p4) in a
rectangular domain with dimensions Lx and Ly and with an arbitrary normal
fluid velocity distribution on the boundary surface may be expressed in
terms of the following acoustic wave function set,
∞ ∞
p( x , y ) = ∑ pa 1 .Φ a 1 ( x , y ) + ∑ pa 2 .Φ a 2 ( x , y )
a1 = 0 a2 = 0
(2.82)
∞ − jk ya1 y ∞ − jk xa2 x
= ∑ pa 1 .cos( k xa1 x ). e + ∑ pa 2 . e .cos( k ya 2 y )
a1 = 0 a2 = 0
with
a .π a .π
( k xa 1 , k ya 1 ) = ( 1 ,± k 2 − ( 1 ) 2 ) ,
Lx Lx
(2.83)
a .π a .π
( k xa 2 , k ya 2 ) = ( ± k − ( 2 ) 2 , 2 ) .
2
Ly Ly
By imposing both pressure and normal fluid velocity continuity on one half
of the boundary surface, instead of imposing one boundary condition on
each position of the entire boundary surface, an initial-value problem is
obtained (see e.g. GREENBERG (1998)), which completely and uniquely
defines each homogeneous pressure field ψ1.
In each of the rectangular subdomains, which are denoted with number 2
and share two adjacent boundary sides with two neighbouring rectangular
domains, denoted with number 1, a homogeneous pressure field ψ2 is
completely and uniquely defined by an initial-value problem, imposing on
the two shared boundary sides the pressure and normal fluid velocity
continuity with the homogeneous pressure fields ψ1, which are previously
defined in those two neighbouring domains. In a completely similar way, a
homogeneous pressure field ψn+1 in each rectangular subdomain, denoted
with number n+1, is defined by an initial-value problem, imposing the
pressure and normal fluid velocity continuity with two neighbouring
homogeneous pressure fields ψn.
Consider now the particular situation of a domain V’’, which is defined,
such that each rectangular subdomain, denoted with number n, shares two
adjacent boundary sides with two rectangular subdomains, denoted with
number n-1, and that its other two adjacent boundary sides are shared with
two rectangular subdomains, denoted with number n+1. For this situation,
the combination of all homogeneous pressure fields, each of them being
defined in one rectangular subdomain, yields a global pressure field, which
is defined in the entire domain V’’ and which is also homogeneous, since the
continuity conditions for both the pressure and the normal fluid velocity
have been imposed on all four boundary sides of each rectangular
subdomain. Moreover, its pressure and normal fluid velocity distribution on
the boundary sides, which belong to domain V, equal the corresponding
pressure and normal fluid velocity distribution of the arbitrary homogeneous
pressure field p, considered in domain V. Hence, in the limit of a
discretization of domain V’’ into infinitesimally small rectangular
subdomains, the domain V’’ becomes identical to domain V’ and the desired
homogeneous pressure field ψ is obtained.
One can readily see that the considered particular domain situation occurs
for any convex domain V, as it is the case, for instance, for the domain,
shown in figure 2.4. However, when the domain V is not convex, it is
possible that the global pressure field is not homogeneous, as it is the case,
for instance, for the domain, shown in figure 2.6(a). This is due to the fact
that the various subdomain pressure fields can only be completely and
92 Chapter 2
4
note that MORSE and FESHBACH (1953) utilised a similar idea, in that they
proposed to express the mode shapes of a slightly non-rectangular acoustic cavity
in terms of the mode shapes of the circumscribing rectangular cavity, and
MISSAOUI and CHENG (1997) successfully extended this approach for the
prediction of the acoustic properties of general, non-rectangular cavities
Methodology of the wave based prediction technique 93
This section describes how the complete wave function sets, derived in the
previous section, are implemented into the weighted residual and the least-
squares wave models, derived in section 2.4.1. For the sake of simplicity, a
two-dimensional interior coupled vibro-acoustic system is considered (see
figure 2.7), for which complete wave function sets are obtained by
decomposing the acoustic domain into two subdomains and in which the
structural component and the external acoustic excitation occur in one
subdomain only. For the general case of a domain decomposition into
several subdomains, each of them containing a part of the structural
component, the implementation is performed in a completely similar way.
convergent approximation of the steady-state pressure p1(x1,y1) in the first
subdomain of the acoustic cavity is obtained, i.e.
p1 ( x 1 , y1 )
n 1,a
= ∑ p1, a .Φ 1, a ( x1 , y1 ) + pq ( x 1 , y1 ) = [Φ 1, a ]{ p1, a } + pq ( x 1 , y1 ) (2.84)
a=1
n 1,a1 n 1,a2
= ∑ p1, a 1 .Φ 1, a 1 ( x 1 , y1 ) + ∑ p1, a 2 .Φ 1, a 2 ( x1 , y1 ) + pq ( x 1 , y1 )
a1 = 0 a2 = 0
94
where pq is a particular solution function, defined in (2.13), and where
Chapter 2
− j. k 1, ya1 . y 1
Φ 1, a 1 ( x 1 , y1 ) = cos( k1, xa 1 . x 1 ). e
(2.85)
− j. k 1, xa2 . x 1
Φ 1, a 2 ( x 1 , y1 ) = e .cos( k1, ya 2 . y1 )
with
a .π a .π
( k1, xa1 , k1, ya 1 ) = ( 1 ,± k 2 − ( 1 ) 2 )
Lx 1 Lx 1
(2.86)
a .π a .π
( k1, xa 2 , k1, ya 2 ) = ( ± k − ( 2 ) 2 , 2 )
2
Ly1 Ly1
and where Lx1 and Ly1 are the dimensions of a rectangular domain,
circumscribing the first cavity subdomain.
A convergent approximation of the steady-state pressure p2(x2,y2) in the
second subdomain of the acoustic cavity is obtained with the expansion
n 2,a
p2 ( x 2 , y2 ) = ∑ p2, a .Φ 2, a ( x 2 , y2 ) = [Φ 2, a ]{ p2, a }
a=1
n 2,a1 n 2,a2
(2.87)
= ∑ p2, a1 .Φ 2, a1 ( x 2 , y2 ) + ∑ p2, a 2 .Φ 2, a 2 ( x 2 , y2 )
a1 = 0 a2 = 0
where
− j. k 2, ya1 . y 2
Φ 2, a 1 ( x 2 , y 2 ) = cos( k 2, xa1 . x 2 ). e
(2.88)
− j. k 2, xa2 . x 2
Φ 2, a 2 ( x 2 , y 2 ) = e .cos( k 2, ya 2 . y 2 )
with
a .π a .π
( k 2, xa 1 , k 2, ya 1 ) = ( 1 ,± k 2 − ( 1 ) 2 ) ,
Lx 2 Lx 2
(2.89)
a .π a .π
( k 2, xa 2 , k 2, ya 2 ) = ( ± k − ( 2 ) 2 , 2 ) .
2
Ly 2 Ly 2
and where Lx2 and Ly2 are the dimensions of a rectangular domain,
circumscribing the second cavity subdomain.
Methodology of the wave based prediction technique 95
Note that, although the complete wave function sets, defined in any possible
circumscribing rectangular domain, may be used for the pressure
expansions, it is beneficial for the convergence rate of the subsequent wave
model to select, for each subdomain, its smallest circumscribing rectangular
domain, as will be illustrated in section 2.7.2.2.
Since it is assumed that the structural component is entirely comprised in
the boundary surface of the first cavity subdomain, a convergent expansion
for the steady-state normal plate displacement w(x’) is
4 n 1,a
w( x’) = ∑ ws .Ψ s ( x’) + ∑ p1, a . w1, a ( x’) + w F ( x’) + wq ( x’)
s=1 a=1 (2.90)
[ ]{ }
= [Ψ s ]{w s } + w1, a p1, a + w F ( x’) + wq ( x’)
where the structural wave functions Ψ s and the particular solution functions
w F and wq are defined in (2.16), (2.17) and (2.20), respectively. For the
particular solution functions w1,a , expressions of type (2.19) cannot be
used, since the dependence of each acoustic wave function Φ1,a on either
the x1 or the y1 co-ordinate is no longer expressed by a complex exponential,
but by a cosine function. Therefore, the following expression is used in
(2.90),
p1, a 1
[ w1, a ]{ p1, a } = [ w1, a ]
w1, a 2 . (2.91)
î p1, a 2
1
[ ]
where each function w1,a1 (x’) in the (1x(2(n1,a1+1))) matrix w1,a1 is
1
w1, a 2 ( x’) =
D.[( Ba ,1 − k b ) + Ba 2 , 2 ]
4 2
2
2
.e 2
Chapter 2
1
Bi,1 = [( k1, xi .cos α + k1, yi .sin α ) 4 + ( − k1, xi .cos α + k1, yi .sin α ) 4 ],
2
(2.94)
j
Bi, 2 = [( − k1, xi .cos α + k1, yi .sin α ) 4 − ( k1, xi .cos α + k1, yi .sin α ) 4 ].
2
ws
[C1, as
( WR )
A1, aa + C1, aa
( WR ) ( WR )
( WR )
p
]
{ }
A1, 2 p1, a = f1(,WR
a .
)
(2.95)
2, a
(WR)
The (n1,axn1,a) matrix A1,aa is [ ]
Methodology of the wave based prediction technique 97
[ A1,aa ] = Ω
( WR )
∫
+ Ω Z1 + Ω s + Ω c12
j
ρ 0ω
[ T T
]
Φ 1, a {n1} [∂ 1 ] Φ 1, a . dΩ [ ]
v1
The (2x1) vectors {n1} and {n 2 } contain, respectively, the x1- and y1-
component of the unit normal vector with positive orientation away from the
first cavity subdomain and the x2- and y2-component of the unit normal
vector with positive orientation away from the second cavity subdomain.
The (2x1) vectors [∂ 1 ] and [∂ 2 ] contain the gradient operators, defined in,
respectively, the (x1,y1) and the (x2,y2) co-ordinate systems.
(WR)
The (n1,axn1,a) matrix C1,aa is [ ]
[C1,aa ] = −Ω∫ jω[Φ 1,a ]T [ w1,a ]. dΩ
( WR )
(2.98)
s
(WR)
and the (n1,ax4) matrix C1,as is [ ]
[C1,as ] = −Ω∫ jω[Φ 1,a ] T [Ψ s ]. dΩ
( WR )
. (2.99)
s
{ f } = Ω∫
( WR ) j
[ ( [
∂ 1 ] Φ 1, a {n1}( pq − p ). dΩ ,
T
])
(2.101)
1, ap
ρ 0ω
p1
v1
{ f1,aZ } = Ω∫ [Φ 1,a ]
pq
{n1} [∂ 1 ] pq ). dΩ ,
T j T
( WR )
( − (2.103)
Z ρ 0ω
Z1
{ f1,2 } = −Ω ∫
( WR ) j
ρ 0ω
T
[T
]
Φ 1, a {n1} [∂ 1 ] pq ). dΩ . (2.105)
c12
ws
[0 A2,1( WR )
( WR )
p
]
A2, aa p1, a = f 2(,WR )
a . { } (2.106)
2, a
(WR)
The (n2,axn2,a) matrix A2,aa is [ ]
[ A2,aa ] = Ω
( WR )
∫
+ Ω Z2
j
ρ 0ω
T
[ T
]
Φ 2, a {n 2 } [∂ 2 ] Φ 2, a . dΩ [ ]
v2
j
[ ( [ ])
∂ 2 ] Φ 2, a {n 2 } Φ 2, a . dΩ − ∫
1
[ ] [ ][ ]
T T
− ∫ Φ 2, a Φ 2, a . dΩ
Ω p2 + Ω c12
ρ 0ω Ω
Z
Z2
(2.107)
and the (n2,axn1,a) matrix A2,1 [ (WR)
] is
[ A2,1 ] = Ω∫
( WR ) j
ρ 0ω
[ ( [
∂ 2 ] Φ 2,a {n 2 } Φ 1,a . dΩ .
T
]) [ ] (2.108)
c12
Methodology of the wave based prediction technique 99
{ f } = −Ω∫
( WR ) j
ρ 0ω
[( [
T
])
∂ 2 ] Φ 2, a {n 2 } p. dΩ , (2.110)
2, ap
p2
{ f2,av } = Ω∫ [Φ 2,a ] T vn . dΩ
( WR )
, (2.111)
v2
{ f2,1 } = −Ω ∫
( WR ) j
ρ 0ω
[( [
T
])
∂ 2 ] Φ 2, a {n 2 } pq . dΩ . (2.112)
c12
The substitution of the field variable expansions (2.84) and (2.90) into the
structural boundary conditions (2.9) yields a set of 4 equations,
ws
[ Ass Cs 1, a ]
0 p1, a = { fs } , (2.113)
p
2, a
where the (4x4) matrix [ Ass ] and the (4x1) vector { fs }
are defined in
(2.38) and (2.40). The (4xn1,a) coupling matrix Cs1,a [ ] results from the
!
application of the differential operators, involved with the structural
boundary conditions, on the particular solution functions in the (1xn1,a)
[
matrix w1,a , ]
"
w1, a ( 0 )
w ( L)
1, a
[ ]
Cs 1, a = dw 1,
dx’
a ( 0 ) . (2.114)
dw ( L )
1, a
dx’
100 Chapter 2
The combination of the matrix equations (2.95), (2.106) and (2.113) yields
the convergent wave model
A Cs 1, a 0 ws fs
ss
( WR )
( WR )
C1, as , aa + C1, aa , 2 p1, a = f1, a .
)
A1( WR ) ( WR )
A1( WR (2.115)
)
p ( WR )
0 A2( WR
,1
)
A2( WR
, aa 2, a f 2, a
and since it follows from a comparison between (2.97) and (2.108) that
[ A1,2 ] = [ A2,1 ]
( WR ) ( WR )
T
, (2.117)
least-squares model
When a least-squares approach is used, as outlined in section 2.1.4.2., an
error functional Fa may be defined, which is a measure for the total
approximation error, involved with the representation of the acoustic
boundary conditions in both cavity subdomains,
2 2 2
Fa = ∫ β p . R p1 . dΩ + ∫ β v . Rv 1 . dΩ + ∫ β Z . RZ 1 . dΩ
Ω p1 Ω v1 Ω Z1
2 2 2
+ ∫ β p . Rp2 . dΩ + ∫ β v . Rv 2 . dΩ + ∫ β Z . RZ 2 . dΩ (2.118)
Ω p2 Ω v2 Ω Z2
2 2 2
+ ∫ β s . Rs . dΩ + ∫ β p . R p12 . dΩ + ∫ β v . Rv 12 . dΩ .
Ωs Ω c12 Ω c12
ws
[C1, as
( LS ) ( LS )
A1, aa
( LS )
p
]
{ }
A1, 2 p1, a = f1(,LSa ) . (2.119)
2, a
#
(LS)
The element on row ai and column s of the (n1,ax4) matrix C1,as is [ ]
1 ∂Φ 1, ai
*
[ C1( ,LSas) ] ai s
= β s . ∫ (ω 2 w1*, ai −
Ω s ρ 0 ∂n
).Ψ s . dΩ .
(2.120)
(LS)
The element on row ai and column aj of the (n1,axn1,a) matrix A1,aa is [ ]
[ A1,aa ]a a
( LS )
i j
=
∂Φ *1, ai ∂Φ 1, a j
βv
β p . Φ . Φ
∫ 1, a 1, a j
*
. d Ω + .
ρ 2ω 2 ∫ . . d Ω
Ω +Ω i ∂ n ∂ n
p 1 c12 0 Ω v1 + Ω c12
$ %
Φ *1, a j ∂Φ 1, ai Φ 1, a j j ∂Φ 1, a j
*
+ β Z . ∫ ( * i + ).( − ). dΩ
ρ 0ω ∂n Z ρ 0ω ∂n
Ω Z1 Z
j ∂Φ 1, a j
*
j ∂Φ 1, ai
*
+ β s . ∫ ( jωw1, ai −
*
).( − jωw1, a j +
*
). dΩ
ρ 0ω ∂n ρ 0ω ∂n
Ω s
(2.121)
(LS)
and the element on row ai and column aj of the (n1,axn2,a) matrix A1,2 is [ ]
∂Φ *1, ai ∂Φ 2, a j
[ ]( LS )
A1, 2
ai a j
= − β p . ∫ Φ 1, ai .Φ 2, a j . dΩ −
* βv
2 2 ∫
.
ρ 0ω Ω ∂n
.
∂n
. dΩ
Ω c12 c12
(2.122)
(LS)
The element on row ai of the (n1,ax1) vector f1,a is { }
102
&'& Chapter 2
( ) ) )
Φ *1, ai
j ∂Φ 1, ai j ∂ pq p q
*
{ } ( LS )
f1, a
ai
= βZ ∫ ( * +
ρ 0 ω ∂n
).(
ρ 0ω ∂n
−
Z
). dΩ
Ω Z1 Z
*
j ∂Φ 1, ai
*
j ∂pq
+ β s ∫ ( jωw1, ai −
*
).( jωw F + jωw q − ). dΩ
ρ ω ∂n ρ ω ∂n
Ωs 0 0
+
∂Φ *1, ai ∂Φ *1, ai ∂pq
jβ v − βv
+ ∫ ∂n . v . d Ω ∫ . . dΩ (2.123)
ρ 02ω 2 Ω v
n
ρ 0ω Ω v + Ω c12
∂n ∂n
1 1
+ β p ∫ Φ 1, ai . p. dΩ − β p
∫ Φ 1, ai . pq . dΩ .
* *
Ω p1 Ω p1 + Ω c12
ws
[0 ( LS )
A2,1
]
{ }
A2, aa p1, a = f 2(,LSa) .
( LS )
p
(2.124)
2, a
(LS)
The element on row ai and column aj of the (n2,axn2,a) matrix A2,aa is [ ]
Φ *2, a j ∂Φ 2, ai Φ 2, a j j ∂Φ 2, a j
*
[ A2( LS )
, aa ] ai a j
= β Z . ∫ ( * i +
ρ 0 ω ∂n
).(
Z
−
ρ 0ω ∂n
). dΩ
Ω Z2 Z
∂Φ *2, ai ∂Φ 2, a j
βv
+ β p . ∫ Φ 2, ai .Φ 2, a j . dΩ +
*
. ∫ . . dΩ
Ω +Ω ρ 02ω 2 Ω + Ω c12
∂n ∂n
p 2 c12 v2
(2.125)
(LS)
and the element on row ai and column aj of the (n2,axn1,a) matrix A2,1 is [ ]
Methodology of the wave based prediction technique 103
∂Φ *2, ai ∂Φ 1, a j
[ ]
A2( LS
,1
) β
= − β p . ∫ Φ *2, ai .Φ 1, a j . dΩ − 2 v 2 . ∫
∂n
.
∂n
. dΩ
ρ 0ω Ω c12
ai a j
Ω c12
,
(2.126)
(LS)
The element on row ai of the (n2,ax1) vector f 2,a is { }
-
{ } ( LS )
f 2, a
ai
= β p ∫ Φ 2, ai . p. dΩ + β p ∫ Φ 2, ai . pq . dΩ
* *
Ω p2 Ω c12
∂Φ *2, ai ∂Φ *2, ai ∂pq
jβ v + βv . (2.127)
+ ∫ ∂n . v . d Ω ∫ . . d Ω
ρ 02ω 2 Ω c
n
ρ 0ω Ω v ∂n ∂n
2 12
The combination of the matrix equations (2.113), (2.119) and (2.124) yields
the convergent wave model
A Cs 1, a 0 ws fs
( ss
) ( LS )
C1, as , 2 p1, a = f 1, a .
LS )
A1( LS )
, aa A1( LS (2.128)
( LS ) )
p ( LS )
0 A2,1 A2( LS
, aa 2, a f 2, a
Since it follows from the element definitions in (2.121) and (2.125) that
[ A1,2 ] = [ A2,1 ]
( LS ) ( LS )
H
, (2.130)
a1 . π 2 a 2 . π 2
ω = c. ( ) +( ) (i = 1, 2 and a1 , a 2 = 0,1,.. ) , (2.131)
Lx i Lyi
one can readily see from (2.86) and (2.89) that not all functions in the
complete wave function sets are linearly independent. Hence, in order to
prevent the wave models (2.115) and (2.128) from becoming singular at
such a frequency, some wave functions must be eliminated a priori from
each wave function set, such that all remaining wave functions are linearly
independent and that the spans of the original wave function sets are not
reduced.
It can be seen from the wavenumber definitions in (2.83) that two different
types of wave functions are comprised in the proposed complete wave
function set. In one type of wave functions, the wavenumber components in
both the x- and y-direction are real numbers, which means that the
amplitudes of these wave functions are nowhere larger than 1 (see e.g.
figure 2.8(a)). In the other type, the wavenumber component in one
direction is a real number, while the wavenumber component in the other
direction is a complex number. For this type of wave functions, the
amplitudes are decaying in the direction, associated with the complex
wavenumber component, and they may become significantly larger than 1
(see e.g. figure 2.8(b)). Moreover, the larger is the real wavenumber
component in one direction, the larger becomes the amplitude decay in the
other direction.
As will be illustrated in section 2.7.1., it is important for the numerical
condition of the wave model that all wave functions have amplitudes, not
larger than 1, within their definition domain, i.e. within the entire acoustic
domain or within one of the acoustic subdomains of the considered vibro-
acoustic system.
Methodology of the wave based prediction technique 105
a1π 2
− j k 2 −( ) .y
a π Lx
Figure 2.8 : real part of cos( 1 x).e for a1=1 (a) and a1=4 (b)
Lx
(Lx=Ly=1m, k=ω/c=2π.500/340m ).
-1
Hence, for the practical implementation of the proposed wave models, some
scaling factors f xa 2 and f ya1 are introduced in the wave function
definitions. When the circumscribing rectangular domain of the considered
acoustic (sub)domain is defined by x ∈ [0, L x ], y ∈ [0, L y ] , the following
wave function scaling is introduced,
− j. k ya1 .( y − f ya1 . L y )
Φ a 1 ( x, y ) = cos( k xa1 . x ). e
(2.132)
− j. k xa2 .( x − f xa2 . L x )
Φ a 2 ( x, y ) = e .cos( k ya 2 . y )
with
1, if Im( k xa 2 ) > 0 1, if Im( k ya 1 ) > 0
f xa 2 = , f ya1 = (2.133)
0, if Im( k xa 2 ) ≤ 0 0, if Im( k ya 1 ) ≤ 0
In a similar way, the four structural wave functions, defined in (2.16), are
scaled as follows (x’∈ [0, L]) ,
Ψ s ( x’) = e − j . k b .( x ’− f s . L )
s
, (2.134)
106 Chapter 2
where the scaling factor f2 equals 1, while the factors f1, f3 and f4 are zero.
It follows from the definitions of the wave model coefficients that the
practical implementation of a wave model requires the numerical evaluation
of boundary surface integrals. The Gauss-Legendre quadrature rule (see e.g.
GERALD and WHEATLEY (1989)) is an accurate numerical integration rule,
which is most commonly used for the practical implementation of finite
element and boundary element models. According to this quadrature rule,
the one-dimensional boundary surface integrals, involved with wave models
for two-dimensional systems, are evaluated as follows,
t2
t 2 − t1 1
∫ f ( t ) dt = (
2
). ∫ f (u )du
t1 −1
(2.135)
t −t n ~
≈ ( 2 1 ). ∑ w i . f (ui ) ,
2 i=1
where the function f is evaluated at the quadrature points ui, which are the
roots of the n-th order Legendre polynomial Pn, i.e.
and where the weighting values w ~ are determined, such that the exact
i
integral is obtained for all polynomial functions of degree 2n-1 or less. The
two-dimensional boundary surface integrals, involved with wave models for
three-dimensional systems, are evaluated as follows,
s2 t 2 (s) s 2 − s1 1 1 t 2 (u ) − t 1 (u )
∫ ∫ f (s,t ). dt .ds = ( ). ∫ ∫ . f (u, v ). dv du
−1 −1
s1 t 1 ( s ) 2 2
(2.137)
s − s n 1 n 2 ~ ~ t 2 ( ui 1 ) − t 1 ( ui 1 )
≈ ( 2 1 ). ∑ ∑ w . w . . f ( u
i1 i 2 .
, v )
2 i1 i 2
2
i1 = 1 i 2 = 1
Methodology of the wave based prediction technique 107
. /
Recall from sections 2.3 and 2.5 that the steady-state pressure field in the
cavity domain or in each cavity subdomain of a two-dimensional interior
coupled vibro-acoustic system is approximated as an expansion of the form
0
na
p( x , y ) = ∑ pa .Φ a ( x , y ) + pq ( x , y )
a=1
n a1 n a2
− jk ya1 y − jk xa2 x
= ∑ pa1 .cos(k xa1 x ). e + ∑ pa 2 . e .cos( k ya 2 y ) + pq ( x, y )
a1 = 0 a2 = 0
(2.138)
a .π a .π
( k xa 1 , k ya 1 ) = ( 1 ,± k 2 − ( 1 ) 2 ) ,
Lx Lx
with (2.139)
a .π a .π
( k xa 2 , k ya 2 ) = ( ± k − ( 2 ) 2 , 2 ) .
2
Ly Ly
5
instead of using a large number of quadrature points, distributed over the entire
boundary surface integration domain, the boundary surface integrals may be
evaluated by splitting the integration domain into smaller subdomains, so that the
subdomain integrals require a smaller number of quadrature points
6
in view of enhancing the numerical integration efficiency, the potentials of
special-purpose Filon-type quadrature rules for oscillating integration functions
(see e.g. EVANS (1993)) will be explored in the future
108 Chapter 2
Although it has been proven in section 2.5. that this type of solution
expansion converges towards the exact solution in the limit for
na=2(na1+1)+2(na2+1)→∞, the practical implementation of the corresponding
wave model requires a truncation of the complete wave function set, in that
only an expansion, truncated at some finite integer values na1 and na2, is
amenable to numerical implementation.
Although there is no straightforward relation between the truncation values
na1 and na2 and the subsequent prediction accuracy, a rule of thumb for this
truncation may be formulated, based on some physical considerations. Since
the dynamic response of a coupled vibro-acoustic system results from a
complex mechanism of wave propagation in its structural and acoustic
domains, the resulting spatial variation of the dynamic response is strongly
dependent on the structural and acoustic wavelengths. Since the (undamped)
structural wavelength λb is usually much smaller than the acoustic
wavelength λ, at least at frequencies where vibro-acoustic coupling effects
are significant, i.e.
2π 4π 4 Et 2 2π 2πc
λb = =4 << λ = = , (2.140)
kb 3ρ s ω ( 1 − ν )
2 2 k ω
7
the largest spatial variation of the acoustic pressure field usually occurs in
the vicinity of the fluid-structure coupling interface and is strongly related to
the structural wavelength λb.
The smallest spatial periods in the x- and y-direction, associated with the
wave functions in the pressure expansion (2.138), are, respectively,
2Lx 2Ly
λ x,min = , λ y,min = . (2.141)
na1 na 2
Since the wave functions are expressed as cosine functions, the proposed
truncation rule is based on a similar truncation rule, proposed for half-range
Fourier cosine series (see e.g. SPIEGEL (1973)), in that the smallest period of
of the cosine functions in the expansion should not be larger than half the
7
assuming, for instance, that the spatial periods of the external source distribution
in the acoustic cavity or the pressure, normal velocity and normal impedance
distributions, imposed on the cavity boundary surface, are not smaller than the
structural wavelength λb
Methodology of the wave based prediction technique 109
λb
λ x,min ≈ λ y,min ≤ , (2.142)
2
which means that the integer values na1 and na2 should be such that
na1 na 2 4 2k
≈ ≥ = b . (2.143)
Lx Ly λb π
Note that this truncation rule is applied for the pressure expansion in any
cavity subdomain, even if the structural component is not part of the
boundary surface of that subdomain. In this way, it is ensured that the
expansions in two adjacent subdomains can represent pressure fields with
similar spatial variations along their common interface, which is necessary
for an accurate approximation of the pressure and normal fluid velocity
continuity at this interface.
It is very hard to assess a priori the prediction accuracy, obtained with a
certain truncated expansion. However, the a posteriori assessment of the
prediction accuracy can be easily performed. Since the dynamic equations
are inherently satisfied by the proposed field variable expansions, it is
sufficient to check the representation of the boundary conditions. Moreover,
if the required accuracy is not yet reached with a certain wave model, a
model refinement is easily obtained. Since the addition of some wave
functions to the field variable expansions is not changing the integration
domains of the boundary surface integrals, involved with the calculation of
the matrix coefficients of a wave model, only the additional rows and
columns, associated with the additional wave functions, must be calculated.
The rows and columns, associated with the wave functions in the original
field variable expansions, remain unchanged.
2.7.1. Condition
w
[ A] s = {b} , (2.144)
pa
na + 4
[ A] = [U ][ Σ ][ V ] H = ∑ {Ui }.σ i .{Vi } H , (2.145)
i=1
where [ Σ ] is a diagonal matrix of singular values σi, where {Ui } and {Vi }
are the i-th column vectors of the orthonormal matrices [U ] and [ V ] and
where H denotes the complex conjugate transpose. The solution of matrix
equation (2.144) may then be written as
w s n a + 4 {Ui } . {b} na + 4
H
β
= ∑
σi
{Vi } = ∑ i {Vi } . (2.146)
pa i = 1 i=1 σ i
To illustrate that the numerical models, obtained with the proposed wave
based prediction technique, satisfy these Picard conditions, the following
coupled vibro-acoustic problem, shown in figure 2.9, is considered.
Since the decay of the singular value curve is only large for the small
singular values and since the coefficients β i are smaller or at least not
8
substantially larger than the associated singular values, the wave model
satisfies both Picard conditions.
In this respect, it is important that the structural and acoustic wave functions
in the field variable expansions are scaled, as outlined in section 2.6.1.
8
the large decay at the first singular values is due to the fact that the structural
wave functions are not scaled, relative to the acoustic wave functions, so that the
the resulting structural wave function contributions, having the physical
dimension of displacement (m), are some orders of magnitude smaller than the
(dominant) acoustic wave function contributions, having the physical dimension
of pressure (Pa); this relative scaling may be introduced, but is not crucial for the
accuracy of the numerical solution
Methodology of the wave based prediction technique 113
Figure 2.11 plots the resulting singular values and coefficients β i of the
same wave model, but without wave function scaling.
This figure clearly illustrates that the condition of an unscaled wave model
is significantly worse than the condition of the corresponding scaled wave
model, since the ratio between the largest and smallest singular value is
significantly larger. It illustrates also that the first Picard condition is no
longer satisfied, since the decay of the singular value curve is large for all
singular values.
The important consequence of the wave models, satisfying the Picard
conditions, is that the proposed wave based prediction technique, for which
the convergence is theoretically ensured, can be numerically implemented
into a prediction model, whose poor numerical condition is not preventing
the prediction results from converging towards the exact solution. Some
illustrations of this numerical convergence are given in the next section.
2.7.2. Convergence
accuracy check
Since the dynamic equations are inherently satisfied by the field variable
expansions, it is sufficient to check the approximation errors, involved with
the representation of the boundary conditions. Hence, the prediction
114 Chapter 2
accuracy, obtained with a certain wave model, can be easily identified from
the visualisation of the predicted field variable distributions on the
boundaries of the structural and acoustic domains.
convergence curve
Another indication of the convergence of a wave model is given by the
convergence curve, which plots the relative prediction error ∆ϕ on a
dynamic quantity ϕ against the number of degrees of freedom of a wave
model. The relative prediction error may be defined as
ϕ (na + 4) − ϕ ex
∆ϕ (na + 4) = , (2.147)
ϕ ex
• In the first case, the plate in the coupled vibro-acoustic system is excited
by a unit line force F with frequency ω=2π.200 Hz. The normal
impedance Z is infinitely large, which means that the insulation layer,
located at x=0 m in the cavity, is perfectly rigid. All other system
properties are already mentioned in section 2.7.1. For this case, a
weighted residual wave model with 4 structural and 300 acoustic wave
functions (na1=89, na2=59) is built.
• In the second case, the frequency of the plate excitation is ω=2π.1000
Hz. The insulation layer has a normal impedance Z=ρ0c(1-2j) kg/m2s. For
this case, a weighted residual wave model with 4 structural and 660
acoustic wave functions (na1=199, na2=129) is built.
The prediction results for the wave model of the first case are visualised in
figures 2.12 and 2.13. The first figure plots the real part of the normal plate
displacement against the real part of the normal fluid displacement along the
fluid-structure coupling interface. The second figure shows the contour plot
of the real part of the cavity pressure field. The imaginary parts of the
prediction results are not shown, since these are negligibly small, due the
absence of any type of structural or acoustic damping.
Figure 2.12 : real part of the normal plate displacement w (solid) and the normal fluid
displacement wa (+) along the fluid-structure coupling interface at 200 Hz
116 Chapter 2
Figure 2.13 : contour plot of the real part of the cavity pressure at 200 Hz
Figure 2.12 clearly illustrates that the clamped boundary conditions of the
plate and the displacement continuity condition at the fluid-structure
coupling interface are accurately represented. The fact that the pressure
contour lines in figure 2.13 are perpendicular to all rigid parts of the cavity
boundary surface, indicates that there is no normal pressure gradient at these
boundary parts and illustrates that the zero normal fluid velocity conditions
are accurately represented.
The prediction results for the wave model of the second case are visualised
in figures 2.14-2.17.
Figure 2.14 : real part of the normal plate displacement w (solid) and the normal fluid
displacement wa (+) along the fluid-structure coupling interface at 1000 Hz
Methodology of the wave based prediction technique 117
Figure 2.15 : pressure (solid) versus normal fluid velocity, multiplied by Z (+),
along the cavity insulation layer at 1000 Hz
Figure 2.16 : contour plot of the real part of the cavity pressure at 1000 Hz
118 Chapter 2
Figure 2.17 : contour plot of the imaginary part of the cavity pressure at 1000 Hz
Again, it may be concluded from these figures that all structural and
acoustic boundary conditions are accurately represented. Note that the
largest approximation errors occur in the vicinity of those locations, where
some discontinuous boundary conditions are imposed. This is illustrated, for
instance, on figure 2.15, where some small error may be noticed for the
upper end of the impedance boundary condition. This is due to the fact that
this location belongs to two parts of the cavity boundary surface, on which
two different boundary conditions are imposed.
Figure 2.19 : structural convergence curves at 200 Hz, obtained with the acoustic
wave functions, associated with two different enclosing rectangular domains
domain decomposition
Figure 2.20. shows an interior coupled vibro-acoustic system, which is
identical to the system, shown in figure 2.9, except that the cavity boundary
120 Chapter 2
surface is nowhere treated with an insulation layer and that two rigid
bulkheads are positioned in the cavity domain. The bulkheads are assumed
to be infinitesimally thin and their heights are 0.5*Ly.
Figure 2.21 : real part of the normal plate displacement w (solid) and the normal fluid
displacement wa (+) along the fluid-structure coupling interface at 200 Hz
Figure 2.22 shows the contour plot of the real part of the cavity pressure
field. Since the contour lines are perpendicular to the rigid parts of the
cavity boundary surface and since they are continuous at the common
interfaces between the considered subdomains, this figure illustrates the
accurate representation of the acoustic boundary conditions.
Figure 2.22: contour plot of the real part of the cavity pressure at 200 Hz
122 Chapter 2
For all cases, considered in the previous section, the numerical convergence
is illustrated for the wave models of type (2.41) and (2.115), which result
from a weighted residual formulation of the acoustic boundary conditions.
For least-squares wave models of type (2.48) and (2.128), which result from
the minimisation of an error functional, the numerical prediction results are
also converging. However, weighted residual models are preferred to least-
squares models, since the former have a substantially higher convergence
rate. This is illustrated for the two coupled vibro-acoustic systems,
considered in the previous section.
For the system, shown in figure 2.9, a convergence comparison is made for
the normal plate displacement predictions at x0’=0.25m, obtained with
weighted residual and with least-squares models. Two force excitation
frequencies are considered, i.e. 200 Hz and 500 Hz, and the insulation layer
Methodology of the wave based prediction technique 123
Figure 2.24 : structural convergence curves at 200 Hz (∇) and 500 Hz (+)
for weighted residual (solid) and least-squares (dashed) models
Along one part of the boundary surface of the convex acoustic cavity, a
normal fluid velocity distribution is imposed with a harmonic time
dependence of 200 Hz. All other parts of the boundary surface are perfectly
rigid.
Two types of weighted residual models are considered. The first type
utilises the newly proposed wave functions, associated with the enclosing
rectangular domain with dimensions Lx=1.5m and Ly=1m (see figure 2.26).
126 Chapter 2
The second type utilises the existing function set, defined in (2.148). The
origin of the polar co-ordinate system of this function set is centrally
positioned at (x,y)=(0.75m,0.5m). For the same reasons as outlined in 2.6.1.,
this function set is scaled, such that the largest amplitude of each function
on the cavity boundary surface equals 1.
Figure 2.27 shows the imaginary parts of the pressure predictions at
(x,y)=(1m,0.8m) for the two types of weighted residual models, obtained by
increasing their number of degrees of freedom, i.e. the number of functions,
used for the cavity pressure expansion.
This figure clearly illustrates, once again, that the numerical implementation
of a prediction model, using the newly proposed wave function set, is
convergent. On the contrary, the numerical implementation of a prediction
model, using the existing complete function set, is not convergent, despite
the theoretically proven convergence. Note also that, from a certain number
of degrees of freedom onwards, the prediction models cannot be solved
anymore, since the scaling factors of the high-order Bessel functions
become so large that they are numerically considered to be infinite.
Relaxing the scaling factors or discarding the function scaling put also a
Methodology of the wave based prediction technique 127
practical limitation on the model size, since the condition then becomes so
poor that the models are numerically considered to be singular.
A verification of the two Picard conditions, discussed in section 2.7.1.,
reveals also the numerical convergence problems, involved with the existing
function set.
Figure 2.28 : Picard test for a weighted residual model, using the newly proposed
(upper) and the existing (lower) complete function set
Figure 2.28 illustrates that a prediction model with the newly proposed wave
function set satisfies the Picard conditions, whereas a model with the
existing function set doesn’t satisfy these conditions: the decay of the
singular value curve is large for all singular values and most of the
128 Chapter 2
FEM
In comparison with the FE method, the wave based prediction technique has
several advantageous properties.
• Since the field variable expansions satisfy a priori the governing dynamic
equations, approximation errors are only involved with the representation
of the boundary conditions. This yields substantially smaller models than
corresponding FE models.
• The expansions for derived secondary field variables, such as fluid
velocity and structural stress, have the same spatial variation as the
primary field variables, i.e. the acoustic pressure and structural
displacement. This is advantageous for the convergence rate, especially
in the case of coupled vibro-acoustic problems, for which the effect of
the fluid on the structure is pressure controlled, but for which the effect
of the structure on the fluid is velocity controlled.
• A model refinement is easily obtained. Firstly, the accuracy of a model is
easily checked, since only the approximation errors of the boundary
conditions must be verified. Secondly, increasing the number of degrees
of freedom, i.e. the number of wave functions in the field variable
expansions, requires only the calculation of the additional matrix
coefficients, associated with the additional wave functions, while the
original model coefficients remain unchanged. For FE models, increasing
the number of degrees of freedom requires the calculation of a
Methodology of the wave based prediction technique 129
The wave based prediction technique has also some drawbacks, compared
with the FE method.
• Since the wave functions are complex functions, defined within the
entire continuum domain or at least within large subdomains, the wave
model matrices are fully populated and complex.
• Due to the implicit frequency dependence of the wave functions, the
wave model matrices cannot be decomposed into frequency independent
submatrices, which implies that a wave model must be recalculated for
each frequency of interest and that natural frequencies and mode shapes
cannot be obtained from a standard eigenvalue calculation.
• Due to the global and oscillatory nature of the wave functions and due to
the poor condition of a wave model, the involved numerical integrations
are computationally more demanding.
• The FE method is a widely applicable technique, since the convergence
of a FE model is obtained with simple element shape functions, whereas
the convergence of a wave model requires the definition of a complete
wave function set and appropriate particular solution functions.
BEM
The wave based prediction technique has several properties in common with
the BE method, in that both methods require a particular solution function
(kernel function) and yield small, but complex, fully populated and
frequency dependent models.
Besides their common properties, the wave based prediction method has
several advantageous properties, compared with the BE method.
9
at least when a non-integral particular solution function w a can be defined, as in
(2.19), instead of its general integral form (2.18)
130 Chapter 2
The wave based prediction technique has also some drawbacks, compared
with the BE method.
2.9. Conclusions
This chapter presents the methodology of a new, wave based prediction
technique, which is based on the modelling approach, initially proposed by
Methodology of the wave based prediction technique 131
3.1. Introduction
This chapter describes how the prediction methodology, proposed in the
previous chapter, is applied for the modelling of the steady-state dynamic
behaviour of the main components that may be encountered in two-
dimensional coupled vibro-acoustic problems.
Sections 3.2. and 3.3. address the use of the wave based prediction
technique for the modelling of the coupling interaction between the pressure
field in a general, bounded acoustic domain and the dynamic displacements
of, respectively, flat and curved shell structures. Apart from the definition of
appropriate expansions for the dynamic field variables in curved shell
structures, given in section 3.3., the application of the proposed prediction
technique for the considered vibro-acoustic problems has already been
described and validated in the previous chapter. Therefore, both sections
focus mainly on the computational efficiency of the wave based prediction
technique. Based on several validation examples, the beneficial convergence
rate of the prediction technique is demonstrated, in that it provides highly
accurate prediction results with a smaller computational effort, compared
with the finite element method.
134 Chapter 3
The next two sections describe how acoustic damping effects, induced by
the treatment of an acoustic cavity with poroelastic insulation material and
by exterior acoustic radiation, can be included in a coupled vibro-acoustic
wave model. Section 3.4. defines a set of wave functions and describes the
construction of the subsequent wave model for the prediction of the steady-
state dynamic field variables in fluid-saturated, poroelastic insulation
materials. Throughout the validation examples, illustrating the convergence
of the proposed wave model, special attention is paid to the modelling of a
layer of poroelastic insulation material, used as damping treatment in an
acoustic cavity. A porous insulation layer is commonly modelled as a
frequency-dependent, but spatially invariant impedance boundary condition
for the acoustic cavity. To assess the validity of this spatial invariance
assumption, the actual surface impedance of a porous insulation layer is
evaluated, using the accurate prediction results of the proposed wave model.
Section 3.5. addresses the modelling of the acoustic radiation in the
unbounded acoustic domain of exterior coupled vibro-acoustic systems. In a
similar way as discussed in section 1.3.2.2., the modelling approach is based
on confining the unbounded exterior acoustic domain to a bounded domain
by introducing an artificial boundary surface, on which a particular, energy
absorbing, impedance boundary condition is specified.
p( r2 ) v( r )
= − s1 . (3.1)
F1 Q = 0 Q2 F = 0
2 1
This relation states that the acoustic pressure p at location r2, caused by a
unit point force excitation at location rs1, and the structural velocity
component v in the direction of the mechanical point force at location rs1,
caused by a unit point source excitation at location r2, have the same
amplitudes, but opposite phases.
To illustrate the accuracy of the proposed prediction technique, the vibro-
acoustic reciprocity relation is verified for the prediction results of the
following coupled vibro-acoustic system (see figure 3.1). One part of the
boundary surface of a two-dimensional, air-filled (ρ0=1.225 kg/m , c=340
3
(a) (b)
In order to compare the proposed wave based prediction technique with the
finite element method in terms of accuracy and associated computational
efforts, the performances of weighted residual wave models of type (2.41)
for solving the two-dimensional validation problem, shown in figure 3.1(a),
are compared with the performances of corresponding Eulerian coupled
FE/FE models1 of type (1.22).
1
a comparison with coupled FE/BE models is not considered here, since, as
mentioned in section 1.3.1.3. and illustrated in appendix C, the boundary element
method can hardly compete with the finite element method for solving interior
(vibro-)acoustic problems
Application for two-dimensional coupled vibro-acoustic problems 137
model properties
Each element discretization for the considered problem consists of one
three-dimensional layer of 8-noded hexahedral fluid elements (CHEXA) for
the cavity and 4-noded quadrilateral plate elements (CQUAD4) for the plate.
The two-dimensional discretizations are obtained from these three-
dimensional discretizations by imposing additional multipoint constraints,
expressing the invariance in the third dimension. Table 3.1 lists the number
of elements and the corresponding number of unconstrained degrees of
freedom2 (dof) in each coupled FE/FE model. Table 3.2 lists the number of
structural and acoustic wave functions, used in the weighted residual wave
models.
accuracy comparison
Figures 3.3 and 3.4 show some structural and acoustic frequency response
functions (with a frequency resolution of 1 Hz), obtained with the second
2
each node in the plate discretizations has 2 degrees of freedom, i.e. the normal
translational and the rotational displacement components; each node in the cavity
discretizations has 1 pressure degree of freedom
138 Chapter 3
wave model in table 3.2 and the first three FE/FE models in table 3.1. These
figures clearly illustrate that, by increasing the number of elements in the
plate and cavity discretizations (see figures 3.3(a)→(c), 3.4(a)→(c)), the
finite element results gradually converge towards the results, obtained with
a small wave model.
These figures illustrate also the typical approximation errors, involved with
finite element discretizations. As already indicated in chapter 1, the low-
order (polynomial) shape functions in each (parent) element can only
represent a dynamic response with a limited spatial variation.
computational efficiency
As illustrated in figures 3.3 and 3.4, the wave based prediction technique
yields highly accurate prediction results with substantially smaller models
than the finite element method, since an approximation error is induced only
on the representation of the boundary conditions. However, as already
indicated in section 2.8., the beneficial effect of a smaller model size on the
computational effort is partly annihilated by some disadvantageous model
properties: in contrast with coupled FE/FE models, wave models are fully
populated and cannot be decomposed into frequency-independent
submatrices. Therefore, it is more appropriate for convergence comparisons
3
to plot the relative prediction errors, as defined in section 2.7.2.1., against
the corresponding CPU times.
Figure 3.5 shows these convergence curves for the normal plate
displacement at x’=Lx’/3 and for the cavity pressure at (x,y)=(Lx/3,Ly/2) for
two excitation frequencies, i.e. 200 Hz and 500 Hz. The CPU times in this
figure denote the times, needed for the direct response calculations at one
frequency. The CPU times, plotted for the 4 wave models of table 3.2,
include both the times, needed for constructing the models as well as for
solving the resulting matrix equations. Since coupled FE/FE models consist
of frequency-independent submatrices, these submatrices must only be
calculated once and the construction of the models at each frequency
3
the prediction results from a large wave model (4 structural and 500 acoustic
wave functions) serve as ‘exact’ reference solutions
Application for two-dimensional coupled vibro-acoustic problems 141
This figure illustrates the beneficial convergence rate of the proposed wave
based prediction technique. In comparison with the finite element method,
the new prediction technique provides highly accurate predictions of the
coupled vibro-acoustic response with a substantially smaller computational
effort. Note that the beneficial convergence rate will most likely become
even more apparent, when the prediction technique is implemented in a
more efficient software environment, instead of the currently used
MATLAB environment.
In the next section, as well as in chapter 4, similar convergence comparisons
will be performed for several other two- and three-dimensional validation
examples and will confirm the above illustrated beneficial convergence rate
of the wave based prediction technique.
142 Chapter 3
1 dv z d 2 w dv E ( 1 + jη )
εϕ = ( + w) − 2 ( 2 − ) and σ ϕ = εϕ , (3.2)
R dϕ R dϕ dϕ 1−ν 2
t /2
E (1 + jη )t dv
N= ∫ σ ϕ . dz = (
( 1 − ν 2 ) R dϕ
+ w) , (3.3)
−t / 2
t /2
E (1 + jη )t 3 d 2w dv
M= ∫ σ ϕ . zdz = − 12(1 − ν 2 ) R 2 ( dϕ 2 − dϕ ) . (3.4)
−t / 2
The expression for the resulting shear force Q (see figure 3.6) is obtained
from the rotational dynamic equilibrium, in which the rotational inertia is
neglected,
1 dM
Q=− . (3.5)
R dϕ
dN 1 dM
− ρ s tRω 2 v = +
dϕ R dϕ
(3.6)
E (1 + jη )t t2 dwd 2v
t 2 d 3w
= [( 1 + ) + − ],
(1 − v 2 ) R 12 R 2 dϕ 2 dϕ 12 R 2 dϕ 3
1 d 2M
− ρ s tRω 2 w = f . R + −N
R dϕ 2
(3.7)
E (1 + jη )t dv t 2 d 4 w d 3v
= f.R − [ w + + ( − )],
(1 − ν 2 ) R dϕ 12 R 2 dϕ 4 dϕ 3
where ρs is the density of the shell material. Note that, in contrast with flat
plates, the out-of-plane motion in circular cylindrical shells is no longer
decoupled from the in-plane motion.
Adding the first derivative of equation (3.6) to equation (3.7) yields
R 2ω 2 2 d 2M d 2N
(1 − ) N = f . R + + (3.8)
c p2 R dϕ 2 dϕ 2
E (1 + jη )
with c p2 = . (3.9)
ρ s (1 − ν 2 )
Subtracting the first derivative of equation (3.6) from the second derivative
of equation (3.7) yields
d 2N R d 2 f 6 R 3ω 2 1 d 2M 1 d 4M
= − M − + . (3.10)
dϕ 2 2 dϕ 2 c 2p t 2 2 R dϕ 2 2 R dϕ 4
R 2ω 2 R d 2 f 6 R 3ω 2 3 d 2M 1 d 4M
(1 − ) N = f . R + − M + + . (3.11)
c 2p 2 dϕ 2 c p2 t 2 2 R dϕ 2 2 R dϕ 4
1 d6M 1 R 2ω 2 d 4 M
− − ( 1 + )
2 R dϕ 6 R 2c 2p dϕ 4
6 R 3ω 2 1 Rω 2 d 2 M R 2ω 2 6 R 3ω 2
+( − + ) − ( 1 − ) 2 2 M (3.12)
t 2c p2 2 R 2c p2 dϕ 2 c 2p t cp
R R 2ω 2 d 2 f R d 4 f
= (1 + ) + .
2 c p2 dϕ 2 2 dϕ 4
Hence, once the distribution of the bending moment M is known in the shell
structure, all other field variable distributions are known. The distributions
of the normal force N and the shear force Q result from, respectively, (3.11)
and (3.5). The substitution of the resulting bending moment and normal
force distributions into (3.6) and (3.7) yields the distributions of the
circumferential and radial displacement components v and w.
4
a general, curved shell structure may be regarded - or at least approximated - as
an assemblage of circular cylindrical shell sections
146 Chapter 3
The shell section has a radius R, an arc length R.Φ and its centre point is
located at r0(x0,y0). An external line force F is applied normal to the shell
section at the angular position ϕ=ϕF, while an external acoustic line source q
is applied at position rq(xq,yq) in the cavity. Both excitations have a harmonic
time dependence with circular frequency ω.
As already defined in section 2.2, the steady-state acoustic pressure p at any
position r(x,y) in V is governed by the inhomogeneous Helmholtz equation
j ∂p( r )
= jωw( r ), r ∈ Ωs , (3.14)
ρ 0 ω ∂n
na
p ( x , y ) ≈ p( x , y ) = ∑ pa .Φ a ( x, y) + pq ( x, y) = [Φ a ]{ pa } + pq ( x, y) .
(3.16)
a=1
Application for two-dimensional coupled vibro-acoustic problems 147
The free-field pressure pq (x, y) due to an acoustic line source (see (2.13))
serves as particular solution function for the acoustic source term in the
inhomogeneous right-hand side of the Helmholtz equation (3.13). The
functions Φ a (x, y) in the (1xna) matrix [Φ a ] are the acoustic wave
functions, associated with the (smallest) rectangular domain, circumscribing
the cavity domain5 (see (2.82), (2.83)). The contributions of these wave
functions to the pressure expansion are comprised in the (nax1) vector { pa } .
6 na
M (ϕ ) ≈ M (ϕ ) = ∑ Ms .Ψ s( M ) (ϕ ) + ∑ pa . M a (ϕ ) + M F (ϕ ) + Mq (ϕ )
[ ] [ ]
N (ϕ ) ≈ N (ϕ ) = Ψ s( N ) { Ms } + N a { pa } + N F (ϕ ) + N q (ϕ ),
(3.18)
(3.19)
v(ϕ ) ≈ v(ϕ ) = [Ψ s( v ) ]{ M s } + [ va ]{ pa } + v F (ϕ ) + vq (ϕ ),
(3.20)
w(ϕ ) ≈ w(ϕ ) = [Ψ s( w ) ]{ Ms } + [ w a ]{ pa } + w F (ϕ ) + wq (ϕ ).
(3.21)
5
provided that the cavity domain is convex or at least such that any homogeneous
pressure field in the cavity domain may be considered as part of a homogeneous
pressure field, defined in the circumscribing rectangular domain; if not, the cavity
domain must be decomposed into some subdomains, as described in section
2.5.4.
148 Chapter 3
Ψ s( M ) (ϕ ) = e − jk s ϕ , ( s = 1..6 ), (3.22)
1 6 1 R 2ω 2 4 6 R 3ω 2 1 Rω 2 2 R 2ω 2 6 R 3ω 2
ks − (1 + ) k s − ( − + ) k s − ( 1 − ) 2 2 = 0.
2R R 2c 2p t 2c p2 2 R 2c p2 c 2p t cp
(3.23)
The contributions of these wave functions to the bending moment expansion
are comprised in the (6x1) vector { Ms } .
According to the relations between the bending moments and the associated
force and displacements components in the shell section, given in section
3.3.1.1., the associated wave functions are defined as (s=1..6)
1 3ks2 ks4 6 R 3ω 2 ( M )
Ψ s( N ) (ϕ ) = ( − + − 2 2 )Ψ s (ϕ ) , (3.24)
R 2ω 2 2R 2R t cp
1−
c p2
jk s ( M )
Ψ s(Q ) (ϕ ) = Ψ s (ϕ ) , (3.25)
R
jks 1
Ψ s( v ) (ϕ ) = [Ψ s( N ) (ϕ ) + Ψ s( M ) (ϕ )] , (3.26)
ρ s tRω 2 R
1 ks2 ( M )
Ψ s( w ) (ϕ ) = [Ψ (N)
s (ϕ ) + Ψ s (ϕ )] . (3.27)
ρ s tRω 2 R
6 6
M F0 (ϕ ) = ∑ Ms,0 .Ψ s( M ) (ϕ ), N F0 (ϕ ) = ∑ Ms,0 .Ψ s( N ) (ϕ ),
s=1 s=1
6
QF0 (ϕ ) = ∑ M s,0 .Ψ s(Q) (ϕ ),
(3.28)
s=1
6 6
v F0 (ϕ ) = ∑ M s,0 .Ψ s( v ) (ϕ ), w F0 (ϕ ) = ∑ M s,0 .Ψ s( w ) (ϕ ).
s=1 s=1
The six constants Ms,0 (s=1..6) in expressions (3.28) result from the six
boundary conditions
dw F0 ( 2π )
! "
dw F0 ( 0)
w F0 ( 0) = w F0 ( 2π ), v F0 ( 0 ) = v F0 ( 2π ), =
,
dϕ dϕ (3.29)
N F0 ( 0 ) = N F0 ( 2π ), M F0 ( 0 ) = M F0 ( 2π ), QF0 ( 0 ) − QF0 ( 2π ) = F.
# $ % & ' (
w F (ϕ ) = w F0 (mod(ϕ − ϕ F , 2π )),
) *
(3.30)
w a (ϕ ) =
+
Φ
∫ ( R.Φ a ( x 0 + R.cos(ϕ 0 − ξ ), y0 + R.sin(ϕ 0 − ξ )). w F0 (mod(ϕ − ξ ,2π ))). dξ ,
,
0
(3.31)
wq (ϕ ) =
-
Φ
∫ ( R. pq ( x 0 + R.cos(ϕ 0 − ξ ), y0 + R.sin(ϕ 0 − ξ )). w F0 (mod(ϕ − ξ ,2π ))). dξ ,
. /
0
(3.32)
150 Chapter 3
where mod(*,2π) denotes the congruence modulo 2π. The particular solution
functions in the other expansions (3.17)-(3.20) are defined in a completely
similar way.
Ms
[ Ass Csa ]. = { fs } . (3.33)
î pa
[Cas ]
( WR )
{ }
Ms
( WR ) ( WR )
Aaa + Caa . = fa( WR ) , (3.34)
î pa
[Cas ]
( LS )
{ }
Ms
( LS )
Aaa . = fa( LS ) . (3.35)
î pa
Due to the clamping of the shell section, the six structural boundary
conditions are
dw( 0 ) dw(Φ )
w( 0) = v( 0) = = w(Φ ) = v(Φ ) = = 0. (3.36)
dϕ dϕ
Since three cavity side walls are rigid, the fluid displacement, normal to
these walls, must be zero. Along the cavity-shell interface, the radial shell
and normal fluid displacement components must be identical, as defined in
(3.14). Based on these structural and acoustic boundary conditions, a
152 Chapter 3
weighted residual wave model is built, using 6 structural wave functions and
52 acoustic wave functions, associated with the rectangular domain LxxLy,
circumscribing the considered cavity (see figure 3.8).
The coupled vibro-acoustic response is calculated for the case of a unit line
force with frequency 230 Hz. Figure 3.9 shows the resulting instantaneous
shell displacement field.
Figure 3.10 plots the resulting radial shell displacement against the fluid
displacement, normal to the cavity-shell interface. These figures illustrate
that the small wave model yields an accurate representation of the structural
boundary conditions (3.36) and the continuity condition (3.14).
Figure 3.11 shows the contour plot of the resulting instantaneous cavity
pressure. The fact that these contour lines are (almost) perpendicular to the
rigid cavity side walls illustrates the accurate representation of the acoustic
boundary conditions on these side walls.
Application for two-dimensional coupled vibro-acoustic problems 153
Since all boundary conditions are accurately represented and since the
proposed field variable expansions ensure that the dynamic equations are
always exactly satisfied, it may be concluded that the small wave model
enables an accurate prediction of the steady-state dynamic response of the
considered coupled vibro-acoustic problem.
w1 ( 0 ) = v1 ( 0 ) = w1 (Φ ) = v1 (Φ ) = w 2 ( 0 ) = v 2 ( 0 ) = w 2 (Ψ ) = v 2 (Ψ ) = 0,
dw1 ( 0 ) dw 2 (Ψ ) dw1 (Φ ) dw 2 ( 0)
= , = , M1 ( 0) = M 2 (Ψ ), M1 (Φ ) = M 2 ( 0 ).
dϕ dψ dϕ dψ
(3.37)
The acoustic boundary conditions are defined by the continuity condition
(3.14) for the radial shell displacement and the normal fluid displacement
along the cavity-shell interface. Based on these structural and acoustic
boundary conditions, a weighted residual wave model is built, using 12
structural wave functions (6 per shell section) and 80 acoustic wave
functions, associated with the rectangular domain LxxLy, circumscribing the
considered cavity (see figure 3.12).
The coupled vibro-acoustic response is calculated for a unit line force
excitation at 500 Hz. Figure 3.13 shows the resulting instantaneous shell
displacement fields for both the air-loaded and the water-loaded cylinder. It
can be seen from these displacement fields that, for both cases, the first 10
structural boundary conditions in (3.37) are accurately represented. Figure
3.13 shows also the instantaneous shell displacement field for an uncoupled,
in-vacuo cylinder. The comparison of the three displacement fields in this
Application for two-dimensional coupled vibro-acoustic problems 155
Figure 3.14 : contour plots of the instantaneous cavity pressure fields at 500 Hz
of the air-loaded (left) and the water-loaded (right) circular cylindrical shell
Figure 3.15 plots, for the two fluid-loaded cylinders, the resulting radial
shell displacements against the fluid displacements, normal to the cavity-
shell interface. Figure 3.16 shows the resulting bending moments in those
cylinders. These figures illustrate that the small wave model yields an
accurate representation of the acoustic boundary conditions (3.14) and the
last 2 structural boundary conditions in (3.37).
Since all boundary conditions are accurately represented and since the
proposed field variable expansions ensure that the dynamic equations are
always exactly satisfied, it may be concluded, again, that the small wave
model enables an accurate prediction of the steady-state dynamic response
of the considered coupled vibro-acoustic problem.
accuracy comparison
The accuracy of the weighted residual wave model for the cavity-backed
circular cylindrical shell section, described in section 3.3.4.1., is compared
with the accuracy of two coupled FE/FE models. As indicated in section
3.2.2., both element discretizations for the considered two-dimensional
Application for two-dimensional coupled vibro-acoustic problems 159
Figures 3.17/3.18 and figures 3.19/3.20 show some structural and acoustic
frequency response functions (with a frequency resolution of 1 Hz, except
around the resonance frequencies, where a finer resolution is used), obtained
6
each node in the shell discretizations has 3 degrees of freedom, i.e. the in-plane
and out-of-plane translational and the rotational displacement components; each
node in the cavity discretizations has 1 pressure degree of freedom
160 Chapter 3
Figure 3.17 : structural frequency response functions (radial shell displacement over
input force) at the excitation point ϕ=π/4 of the cavity-backed circular cylindrical
shell section (thick: wave / thin: FE/FE 1 (upper), FE/FE 2 (lower) (see table 3.3))
Application for two-dimensional coupled vibro-acoustic problems 161
Figure 3.18 : acoustic frequency response functions (cavity pressure over input force)
at location (x,y)=(0.5 m,0.4 m) of the cavity-backed circular cylindrical shell section
(thick: wave / thin: FE/FE 1 (upper), FE/FE 2 (lower) (see table 3.3))
162 Chapter 3
Figure 3.19 : structural frequency response functions (radial shell displacement over
input force) at the excitation point ϕ=2π/3 of the air-loaded circular cylindrical shell
(thick: wave / thin: FE/FE 1 (upper), FE/FE 2 (lower) (see table 3.4))
circular cylindrical shell section (see figures 3.17 and 3.18) and around 399
Hz in the air-loaded circular cylindrical shell (see figures 3.19 and 3.20).
Figure 3.20 : acoustic frequency response functions (cavity pressure over input force)
at location (x,y)=(0.25 m,0.4 m) of the air-loaded circular cylindrical shell (thick:
wave / thin: FE/FE 1 (upper), FE/FE 2 (lower) (see table 3.4))
computational efficiency
To illustrate the beneficial convergence rate of the proposed wave based
prediction technique, the accuracy and associated computational efforts of
three coupled FE/FE models (see table 3.5) and three weighted residual
164 Chapter 3
wave models (see table 3.6) are compared for the cavity-backed circular
cylindrical shell problem.
The relative7 prediction errors of the various prediction models in tables 3.5
and 3.6 are compared with the corresponding CPU times. Figure 3.21 shows
these convergence curves for the radial shell displacement component at the
excitation point ϕ=π/4 and for the cavity pressure at (x,y)=(0.5 m,0.4 m) for
an excitation frequency of 300 Hz. In a similar way as in section 3.2.2., the
indicated CPU times for the wave models include both the times, needed for
constructing and solving the models at one frequency, while the indicated
CPU times for the FE/FE models comprise only the direct solution times.
Again, the wave models are implemented in a MATLAB environment,
while the finite element results are obtained with the MSC/NASTRAN
software package. All calculations are performed on a HP-C180 workstation
(SPECfp95=18.7, SPECint95=11.8).
This figure confirms the observations from section 3.2.2. in that the
proposed wave based prediction technique provides highly accurate
predictions of the coupled vibro-acoustic response with a smaller
7
the prediction results from a large wave model (6 structural and 312 acoustic
wave functions) serve as ‘exact’ reference solutions
Application for two-dimensional coupled vibro-acoustic problems 165
computational effort. Note that this beneficial convergence rate for coupled
vibro-acoustic problems with a curved structural component is less
pronounced than for problems with a flat structural component (see figures
3.5 and 3.21). This is mainly due to the fact that the structural particular
solution functions wa , which account for the pressure loading, associated
with the acoustic wave functions in the pressure expansion, can be defined
in a direct form for the case of a flat structural component (see (2.19)),
while these particular solution functions are defined in an integral form for
the case of a curved structural component (see (3.31)), which is
computationally more demanding.
Figure 3.21 : structural (left) and acoustic (right) convergence curves at 300 Hz
for the cavity-backed circular cylindrical shell section
(solid : wave (see table 3.6)/ dashed: FE/FE (see table 3.5))
u x ( x, y ) jωt
u ( x , y, t ) = . e
(3.38)
î uy ( x, y)
and the mean macroscopic displacement of the fluid phase may be described
by the vector field
U x ( x , y ) jωt
U ( x, y, t ) =
. e . (3.39)
î U y ( x, y )
According to the Biot theory (see BIOT (1956) and appendix E), these
steady-state dynamic displacement fields are governed by the vector
equations
(3.40)
∇[ Q. es + R. ε ] = −ω 2 ( ρ *12 . u + ρ *22 .U ) ,
(3.41)
where es and ε are, respectively, the volumetric strain in the solid phase,
Application for two-dimensional coupled vibro-acoustic problems 167
∂u x ∂u y
es = ∇. u = +
, (3.42)
∂x ∂y
∂U x ∂U y
ε = ∇.U =
+
. (3.43)
∂x ∂y
E1
N= , (3.44)
2(1 + ν )
where E1 is the in-vacuo modulus of elasticity of the bulk solid phase and ν
is its Poisson coefficient. To account for internal friction losses, the modulus
of elasticity of the solid phase can be made complex, E1=Em(1+jη), where Em
is the real, static modulus and η is a loss factor, that accounts for the
mechanical damping, associated with the motion of the solid phase of the
material.
The constant A in (3.40) is the first Lamé constant,
ν . E1
A= . (3.45)
(1 + ν )(1 − 2ν )
Q = (1 − h) E2 , (3.46)
where h is the porosity, i.e. the ratio of the fluid volume to the total material
volume, and where E2 is the modulus of elasticity of the bulk fluid phase. To
account for the losses, associated with heat transfer from the fluid within the
pores to the pore walls, this modulus of elasticity can be made complex. An
expression for this complex modulus is given e.g. in BOLTON et al. (1996)
and appendix E.
The constant R in (3.41) relates the fluid stress and strain, and may be
defined as
168 Chapter 3
R = hE 2 . (3.47)
where ρ1 is the bulk density of the solid phase and where ρ2=h.ρ0 is the bulk
density of the fluid phase with ρ0 being the ambient fluid density.
The constants ρ11
*
, ρ12
*
and ρ22
*
in (3.40) and (3.41) are
b
ρ *11 = ρ 11 + , ρ 11 = ρ 1 + ρ a , (3.48)
jω
b
ρ *12 = ρ 12 − , ρ 12 = − ρ a , (3.49)
jω
b
ρ *22 = ρ 22 + , ρ 22 = ρ 2 + ρ a . (3.50)
jω
The constant ρ11 represents the effective mass density of the solid moving in
the fluid and is equal to the real solid mass density ρ1 plus an additional
mass density ρa to account for the inertial coupling forces. These forces
result from the momentum transfer between the solid and the fluid, due to
the pore tortuosity and variation of the pore diameter. The latter effects may
be quantified by the geometrical structure factor ε‘. This factor is equal to
unity, if the pores are straight and uniform (in which case there is no inertial
coupling), and increases as the pores become irregularly constricted and
more tortuous. With this geometrical structure factor ε‘, the inertial coupling
forces, which are proportional to the relative acceleration of both phases,
may be quantified by the inertial coupling parameter ρa (ALLARD et al.
(1989), BOLTON et al. (1996)),
ρ a = ρ 2 (ε ’−1) . (3.51)
Similarly, the effective fluid mass density ρ22 is the sum of the real fluid
mass density ρ2 and the coupling parameter ρa. The constants ρ11
*
, ρ12
*
and
ρ22
*
are the counterparts of ρ11,, ρ12 and ρ22, when allowance is made for the
viscous energy dissipation, resulting from the relative motion between the
solid and the fluid phases of the poroelastic material. The viscous coupling
forces, which are proportional to the relative velocity of both phases, are
quantified by the viscous coupling factor b, which may be related to the
Application for two-dimensional coupled vibro-acoustic problems 169
∇ 4 es + A1 . ∇ 2es + A2 . es = 0 , (3.52)
with
A1 = ω 2 ( ρ *11 R − 2ρ *12Q + ρ *22 P ) / ( PR − Q 2 ) , (3.53)
A2 = ω 4 [ ρ *11ρ *22 − ( ρ *12 ) 2 ] / ( PR − Q 2 ) , (3.54)
A1 A12 A1 A12
k1 = + − A2 , k2 = − − A2 . (3.55)
2 4 2 4
∇ 2ω s + kt2 .ω s = 0 , (3.56)
∂u y ∂u x
ωs = − , (3.57)
∂x ∂y
and indicates the existence of one rotational wave type with wavenumber kt,
Once the distributions es(x,y) and ωs(x,y) of, respectively, the volumetric and
rotational strains in the solid phase of the poroelastic material are known, all
distributions of the steady-state dynamic field variables are completely
defined. As indicated in appendix E, the distributions of the displacement
components of the solid phase result from,
ux = −
1 ∂
A2 ∂x
( 1 ∂ω s
∇ 2es + A1. es + 2
kt ∂y
, ) (3.59)
uy = −
1 ∂
A2 ∂y
( 1 ∂ω s
∇ 2es + A1. es − 2
kt ∂x
, ) (3.60)
a ∂
Ux = − 1
A2 ∂x
( ∂e
) ρ * ∂ω s
∇ 2es + A1 . es + a 2 . s − * 12 2
∂x ρ 22 . kt ∂y
. (3.61)
a ∂
Uy = − 1
A2 ∂y
( ∂e
) ρ * ∂ω s
∇ 2es + A1. es + a 2 . s + * 12 2
∂y ρ 22 . kt ∂x
. (3.62)
( ρ *11 R − ρ *12Q) ( PR − Q 2 )
with a1 = , a2 = . (3.63)
( ρ *22Q − ρ *12 R) ω 2 ( ρ *22Q − ρ *12 R)
τ xy = τ yx = −
2N ∂ 2
A2 ∂x∂y
(
∇ 2es + A1. es + 2 (
kt ∂y 2
)
N ∂ 2ω s ∂ 2ω s
−
∂x 2
), (3.66)
The stresses σx and σy represent the forces per unit material area, acting in,
respectively, the x- and y-direction on the solid phase, while τxy represents
the shear force per unit material area, acting on the solid phase in the y-
direction in a plane, whose normal vector is oriented in the x-direction. The
fluid stress s represents the force per unit material area, acting on the fluid
phase, and is assumed to be negative in compression.
un ( r ) = un ( r ), r ∈ Ω p1 , (3.68)
us ( r ) = us ( r ), r ∈ Ω p1 , (3.69)
U n ( r ) = U n ( r ), r ∈ Ω p1 , (3.70)
σ n ( r ) = σ n ( r ), r ∈ Ω p 2 , (3.71)
τ ns ( r ) = τ ns ( r ), r ∈ Ω p 2 , (3.72)
s( r ) = s ( r ), r ∈ Ω p 2 , (3.73)
172 Chapter 3
σ n ( r ) = −(1 − h ). p( r ), r ∈ Ω p 2 , (3.74)
τ ns ( r ) = 0, r ∈ Ω p 2 , (3.75)
s( r ) = − h. p( r ), r ∈ Ω p 2 , (3.76)
where h is the porosity and where p is the pressure field in the acoustic
domain. In addition, the velocity continuity condition in the normal
direction γn of the common boundary surface between the poroelastic and
acoustic domain serves as boundary condition for the acoustic domain,
j ∂p( r )
= jω [ h.U n ( r ) + (1 − h ). un ], r ∈ Ω p 2 . (3.77)
ρ 0ω ∂γ n
es (x, y) ,
ne
es ( x , y ) ≈ es ( x , y ) = ∑ Ese .Ψ e ( x, y) = [Ψ e ]{Ese } .
(3.78)
e=1
− j ( k xe . x + k ye . y )
Ψ e ( x, y ) = e (3.79)
with 2
k xe + k ye
2
= k12 or k xe
2
+ k ye
2
= k 22 . (3.80)
Application for two-dimensional coupled vibro-acoustic problems 173
nw
ω s ( x, y ) ≈ ω s ( x, y ) = ∑ Wsw .Ψ ω ( x, y) = [Ψ ω ]{Wsw } .
(3.81)
w =1
− j ( k xw . x + k yw . y )
Ψ ω ( x, y ) = e (3.82)
with 2
k xw + k yw
2
= kt2 . (3.83)
[ ] Ese
u x ( x, y ) ≈ u x ( x, y ) = Ψ u x ,
(3.84)
î Wsw
Leu x = −
1 ∂
A2 ∂x
( ) 1 ∂
∇ 2 + A1 , Lωu x = 2
kt ∂y
. (3.86)
[ ] n
Ese
Ru n ( r ) = un ( r ) − un ( r ) = Ψ u ( r ) − un ( r ), r ∈ Ω p1 ,
î Wsw
(3.87)
R ( r ) = u ( r ) − u ( r ) = [Ψ ( r )]
E se
− us ( r ), r ∈ Ω p1 ,
us s s us (3.88)
î W sw
R ( r ) = U ( r ) − U ( r ) = [Ψ ( r )]
E se
− U n ( r ), r ∈ Ω p1 ,
Un n n Un (3.89)
î W sw
R ( r ) = σ ( r ) − σ ( r ) = [Ψ ( r )]
E se
− σ n ( r ), r ∈ Ω p 2 ,
σn n n σn (3.90)
î W sw
R ( r ) = τ ( r ) − τ ( r ) = [Ψ ( r )]
E se
− τ ns ( r ), r ∈ Ω p 2 ,
τ ns ns ns τ ns (3.91)
î W sw
Ese
Rs ( r ) = s ( r ) − s ( r ) = Ψ s ( r ) [ ]
− s ( r ), r ∈ Ω p 2 .
(3.92)
î Wsw
The (1x(ne+nw)) wave function matrices in these residual error functions are
defined as (φ=un, us, Un, σn, τns, s)
[Ψ φ ] = [ Lφe [Ψ e ] Lω
φ [Ψ ω ] ] (3.93)
Leu n = −
1 ∂
A2 ∂γ n
(
∇ 2 + A1 , Lωun = 2
1 ∂
)
kt ∂γ s
, (3.94)
Leu s = −
1 ∂
A2 ∂γ s
( )
1 ∂
∇ 2 + A1 , Lωu s = − 2
kt ∂γ n
, (3.95)
a ∂
LeU n = − 1
A2 ∂γ n
(
∇ 2 + A1 + a 2
∂
)
∂γ n
, Lω
Un = −
ρ *12 ∂
ρ 12 . kt ∂γ s
* 2
, (3.96)
Leτ ns = −
2N ∂ 2
A2 ∂γ n∂γ s
( ∇ 2 + A1 , Lω )
τ ns =
N ∂2
( −
∂2
kt2 ∂γ s2 ∂γ n2
), (3.97)
where γn and γs are, respectively, the normal and tangential directions of the
boundary surface.
As proposed in section 2.4.1.1., a weighted residual formulation of the
boundary conditions (3.68)-(3.73) may be obtained from orthogonalising the
residual error functions (3.87)-(3.92) with respect to some weighting
functions,
~ ~ ~
∫ σ n . Run . dΩ + ∫ τ ns . Ru s . dΩ + ∫ s . RU n . dΩ
Ω p1 Ω p1 Ω p1
~ (3.99)
~ ~
− ∫ un . Rσ n . dΩ − ∫ us . Rτ ns . dΩ − ∫ U n . Rs . dΩ = 0,
Ω p2 Ω p2 Ω p2
~
in which the weighting functions φ (φ=un, us, Un, σn, τns, s) are expanded in
terms of the same set of wave functions, used in the field variable
expansions,
~
E
~
[ ]
φ ( x, y ) = Ψ φ ~se .
î Wsw
(3.100)
~
and Wse (w=1..nw), a weighted residual wave model for the unknown wave
function contributions Ese and Wsw is obtained,
− ∫Ψ un ,i .Ψ σ n , j . dΩ − ∫ Ψ u s ,i .Ψ τ ns , j . dΩ − ∫Ψ U n ,i .Ψ s,i . dΩ .
Ω p2 Ω p2 Ω p2
(3.102)
It follows from the reciprocity relation, discussed in section E.5 of appendix
E, that this matrix is symmetric, i.e.
2 2
( mπ ,± k 2 − mπ ), ( mπ ,± k 2 − mπ ),
Lx 1
Lx Lx
2
Lx
( k xe , k ye ) ∈ (3.105)
2 2
n π n π n π n π
( ± k12 − , ), ( ± k 22 − , )
î Ly Ly Ly Ly
2
mπ 2 mπ
2
2 nπ nπ
( k xw , k yw ) ∈ ( ,± k t − ),( ± kt − , ) (3.106)
Lx Lx Ly L y
î
where m and n are integer values (m,n=0,±1, ±2,...). The dimensions Lx and
Ly are the dimensions of a rectangular domain, circumscribing the
considered poroelastic domain, provided that this poroelastic domain is
convex or at least such that any homogeneous dynamic response in the
domain can be regarded as part of a homogeneous dynamic response in a
rectangular domain, circumscribing the domain. If the domain geometry
doesn’t satisfy this condition, the domain must be decomposed into some
subdomains, whose geometries satisfy this condition and for each of which a
wave function selection of type (3.105)-(3.106) is defined (cfr. section 2.5).
Although a mathematical proof is still required, the similarity of the
proposed wavenumber selection with the wavenumber selections, proposed
for acoustic and plate bending problems (see sections 2.5, 4.2 and 4.3),
along with the practical convergence, obtained with the proposed wave
model in its application for various validation problems, provide already a
strong indication of the completeness of the proposed wave function
selection.
Ns/m4, Lx’=Lx=1 m, Ly’=0.2 m), which is bonded to a rigid surface. The two
other side walls of the cavity are perfectly rigid.
A weighted residual wave model is built for the prediction of the steady-
state dynamic response of this coupled vibro-acoustic system, excited by a
unit normal line force at location x=Lx/4 at 200 Hz. For the expansions of the
poroelastic field variables, 144 dilatational and 72 rotational wave functions
are used. The expansion for the normal plate displacement consists of 4
structural wave functions and the cavity pressure field expansion consists of
60 acoustic wave functions. Note that, for the considered homogeneous
Application for two-dimensional coupled vibro-acoustic problems 179
pressure field in the rectangular cavity domain, the acoustic wave functions
can be selected, such that not only the governing Helmholtz equation, but
also the zero normal fluid velocity conditions on both rigid cavity side walls
are exactly satisfied a priori (cfr. section 2.5.2.).
Figures 3.23 and 3.24 show the prediction results for the real and imaginary
parts of the steady-state dynamic displacement fields in the solid and fluid
phase of the foam layer.
Figure 3.23 : real (a) and imaginary (b) parts of the steady-state dynamic
displacement fields in the solid phase of the foam layer (200 Hz)
Figure 3.24 : real (a) and imaginary (b) parts of the steady-state dynamic
displacement fields in the fluid phase of the foam layer (200 Hz)
180 Chapter 3
Figure 3.25 : contour plot of the amplitudes of the steady-state shear stress τx’y’ in the
solid phase of the foam layer (200 Hz)
Figures 3.26 and 3.27 illustrate that the continuity conditions (3.74), (3.76)
and (3.77), imposed on the cavity-foam interface, are accurately
represented. Figure 3.28 shows the real and imaginary parts of the
prediction results for the normal plate displacement and the fluid
displacement component, normal to the cavity-plate interface. This figure
illustrates that the displacement continuity condition along the cavity-plate
interface, as well as the clamped plate boundary conditions are accurately
represented.
Since all governing dynamic equations are exactly satisfied a priori and
since all boundary conditions are accurately represented, it may be
concluded that the proposed wave model enables an accurate prediction of
the steady-state dynamic response of the considered coupled vibro-acoustic
system.
Application for two-dimensional coupled vibro-acoustic problems 181
Figure 3.26 : validation of the continuity conditions (3.74) and (3.76), imposed on the
acoustic (solid) and the poroelastic (+-marks) field variables along the cavity-foam
interface (200 Hz)
Figure 3.27 : validation of the continuity condition (3.77), imposed on the acoustic
(solid) and poroelastic (+-marks) response along the cavity-foam interface (200 Hz)
Figure 3.28 : real (upper) and imaginary (lower) parts of the steady-state normal
plate displacement (solid) and the fluid displacement component (+-marks), normal
to the cavity-plate interface (200 Hz)
Application for two-dimensional coupled vibro-acoustic problems 183
Three different cases are considered, regarding the backing of the foam
layer :
• a quasi-rigid backing, consisting of a very thin air gap (Ly”=0.001 m) and
a second plate, having an infinite bending stiffness,
• a rigid air gap backing, consisting of an air gap with the same thickness
as the foam layer (Ly’=Ly”=0.05 m) and a second plate, having an infinite
bending stiffness,
184 Chapter 3
• a flexible air gap backing, consisting of an air gap with the same
thickness as the foam layer (Ly’=Ly”=0.05 m) and a second plate, which is
identical to the line force excited plate.
Lx L x j ∂ p( x , L y )
Z = ∫ p( x, L y ) dx / ∫ dx . (3.107)
0 0 ρ 0ω ∂y
The deviation between both curves provides a measure for the spatial
variation of the impedance, since both curves should perfectly match, if the
normal impedance is spatially invariant.
Figure 3.30 shows these validation curves at two excitation frequencies, i.e.
200 Hz and 1000 Hz. For the quasi-rigid foam backing (see figures 3.30
(a,d)) and for the rigid air gap backing (see figures 3.30 (b,e)), the
deviations between both curves and, hence, the spatial variation of the foam
layer impedances are fairly small. For the flexible air gap backing (see
figures 3.30 (c,f)), the spatial variation of the foam layer impedance
becomes significant, especially at low frequencies, where strong vibro-
acoustic coupling effects occur.
To illustrate the approximation errors, involved with using a spatially
invariant impedance model, the actual cavity pressure field at 200 Hz for the
case of the flexible air gap backing (see figure 3.30 (c)) is compared with
the cavity pressure field, obtained from modelling the flexible air gap-
backed foam layer as a spatially invariant impedance
Z = Z r + jZi (3.108)
Application for two-dimensional coupled vibro-acoustic problems 185
Figure 3.30 : amplitudes of the pressure (solid) and the normal fluid velocity,
multiplied with the spatially averaged impedance Z (dashed), along the cavity-foam
interface for the case of a quasi-rigid backing (a,d), a rigid air gap backing (b,e) and
a flexible air gap backing (c,f) ((a-c) 200 Hz, (d-f) 1000 Hz)
186 Chapter 3
with
Lx p ( x , L ) Lx p ( x , L )
1 1
∫ Re( j ∂p( x, Ly ) )dx , Zi = L ∫ Im( j ∂p( x, Ly ) )dx .
y y
Zr =
Lx 0 x 0
ρ 0ω ∂y ρ 0ω ∂y
(3.109)
The value of this impedance is obtained from the highly accurate prediction
results of the wave model. Figure 3.31 shows the resulting cavity pressure
fields and clearly illustrates that the assumption of a spatially invariant
impedance model may induce a substantial approximation error.
Figure 3.31 : contour plots of the amplitudes of the cavity pressure field at 200 Hz in
the coupled vibro-acoustic system with a flexible air gap-backed foam layer (upper)
and the cavity pressure field, obtained from approximating the foam layer as a
spatially invariant impedance boundary condition for the cavity (lower)
Application for two-dimensional coupled vibro-acoustic problems 187
λ πl 2
r >> , r >> l, r >> , (3.110)
2π 2λ
For this reason, one of the next research steps in the development of the
proposed prediction technique will focus on the enhancement of the
modelling efficiency for exterior problems. On the one hand, the use of a
190 Chapter 3
Figure 3.34 : amplitudes of the pressure (solid) and normal fluid velocity,
multiplied by the impedance value ρ0c (+-marks), along the half-cylindrical boundary
surface (1000 Hz)
3.6. Conclusions
This chapter presents the application of the wave based prediction technique
for the modelling of the steady-state dynamic behaviour of the main
components that may be encountered in two-dimensional coupled vibro-
acoustic problems.
Application for two-dimensional coupled vibro-acoustic problems 191
4.1. Introduction
This chapter presents the application of the wave based prediction technique
for the steady-state dynamic analysis of three-dimensional coupled vibro-
acoustic systems, in which part of the boundary surface of the acoustic
domain consists of a thin, flat plate.
Section 4.2. indicates some specific modelling aspects, involved with the
use of the prediction methodology, outlined in chapter 2, for the steady-state
dynamic analysis of the out-of-plane bending motion in thin, flat plates. It
describes how a set of structural wave functions, together with a particular
solution function, provide an expansion for the normal displacement of the
plate middle surface, which exactly satisfies the dynamic plate equation.
This section describes also how a convergent, symmetric wave model for
the determination of the wave function contributions in the proposed
solution expansion is obtained from a weighted residual formulation of the
boundary conditions. In contrast with a complete wave function set, recently
proposed by LANGLEY (1997), the poor condition of the proposed wave
model does not prevent the numerical results from converging towards the
exact solution, as illustrated for some validation examples.
194 Chapter 4
Section 4.3 defines a complete set of acoustic wave functions for the
expansion of the steady-state cavity pressure field in three-dimensional
uncoupled interior acoustic systems. Based on this function set, the
construction of a convergent wave model is performed in a completely
similar way as for two-dimensional problems. The accuracy of the resulting
uncoupled acoustic wave models is illustrated for a validation example, for
which the wave model results are compared with experimental results, as
well as prediction results from some finite element models.
Section 4.4. describes how a structural and an acoustic wave model, defined
in the two previous sections, are combined into a convergent wave model
for the steady-state dynamic analysis of three-dimensional coupled vibro-
acoustic systems, in which part of the boundary surface of the acoustic
domain consists of a thin, flat plate. For several validation examples, the
prediction results, obtained from these coupled wave models, are compared
with the results, obtained from corresponding Eulerian coupled FE/FE
models. This comparison demonstrates the beneficial convergence rate of
the wave based prediction technique, in that it provides highly accurate
prediction results with a smaller computational effort than the finite element
method. This section presents also an experimental validation of the wave
based prediction technique, applied for the identification of the modal
properties of a double-panel partition, which is a typical coupled vibro-
acoustic system that is often encountered in noise control engineering.
Figure 4.1. shows a thin, flat plate Ωs, in which an out-of-plane bending
motion1 is induced by an external point2 force F, applied at location rsF(xF,yF)
in the direction, normal to the plate middle surface. The force excitation has
a harmonic time dependence with circular frequency ω. The thickness of the
1
the wave based prediction technique can also be applied for the prediction of the
in-plane motion in flat plates, but this is not described here, since the vibro-
acoustic coupling interaction of a plate with the surrounding fluid influences only
the out-of-plane plate displacement
2
the general case of a distributed force excitation may be regarded as a
superposition of point forces
Application for three-dimensional coupled vibro-acoustic problems 195
According to Kirchhoff’s thin plate theory (see appendix B), the steady-state
displacement w of the plate middle surface, in the direction normal to the
plate surface, is governed by the dynamic equation
F
∇ 4 w( rs ) − kb4 . w( rs ) = .δ ( rs , rsF ), rs ( x, y ) ∈ Ω s , (4.1)
D
where
∂4 ∂4 ∂4
∇4 = + 2 + (4.2)
∂x 4 ∂x 2∂y 2 ∂y 4
and where the plate bending stiffness D and the bending wavenumber kb are
Et 3 (1 + jη ) ρ tω 2
D= , kb = 4 s . (4.3)
12(1 − ν 2 ) D
∂
Lθ = − , (4.4)
∂γ n
∂2 ∂2
Lm = − D 2 + v 2 , (4.5)
∂γ n ∂γ s
∂ ∂2 ∂2
LQ = − D + ( 2 − v ) , (4.6)
∂γ n ∂γ n2 ∂γ s2
where γn and γs are, respectively, the normal and tangential directions of the
plate boundary (see figure 4.1), the following expressions are obtained for
the three major types of boundary conditions that may be specified on the
plate boundary Γs ( Γ s = Γ wθ ∪ Γ mQ ∪ Γ wm ).
w( rs ) = w ( rs ), rs ∈ Γ wθ , (4.7)
Lθ [ w( rs )] = θ n ( rs ), rs ∈Γ wθ , (4.8)
Lm [ w( rs )] = mn ( rs ), rs ∈ Γ mQ , (4.9)
∂mns ( rs )
LQ [ w( rs )] = Qn ( rs ) = qn ( rs ) + , rs ∈ Γ mQ . (4.10)
∂γ s
Application for three-dimensional coupled vibro-acoustic problems 197
w( rs ) = w ( rs ), rs ∈ Γ wm , (4.11)
Lm [ w( rs )] = mn ( rs ), rs ∈ Γ wm . (4.12)
ns
w( x, y ) ≈ w ( x, y ) = ∑ ws .Ψ s ( x, y) + w F ( x, y) = [Ψ s ]{ws } + w F ( x, y) . (4.13)
s=1
− j ( k xs . x + k ys . y )
Ψ s ( x, y ) = e (4.14)
(k xs2 + kys2 )
2
with = kb4 . (4.15)
w F ( x, y ) = −
jF
[H ( 2) ( 2)
]
0 ( kb r ) − H 0 ( − jk b r )
(4.16)
8 kb2 D
with r = ( x − x F ) 2 + ( y − yF ) 2 (4.17)
and where H 0(2) is the zero-order Hankel function of the second kind.
From the above definitions, it may be concluded that the proposed
displacement expansion (4.13) satisfies a priori the dynamic plate equation
(4.1), no matter what the values of the structural wave function
contributions ws are.
Rw ( rs ) = w( rs ) − w ( rs ), rs ∈( Γ wθ ∪ Γ wm ),
(4.18)
Rθ ( rs ) = Lθ [ w( rs )] − θ n ( rs ), rs ∈Γ wθ ,
(4.19)
Rm ( rs ) = Lm [ w( rs )] − mn ( rs ), rs ∈ (Γ mQ ∪ Γ wm ),
(4.20)
RQ ( rs ) = LQ [ w( rs )] − Qn ( rs ), rs ∈ Γ mQ .
(4.21)
Application for three-dimensional coupled vibro-acoustic problems 199
For the sake of model symmetry, which will become apparent later on, some
additional residuals are defined at the corner points of the plate boundary Γs,
at which the normal and tangential directions are not uniquely defined (see
figure 4.2).
For each of the nw corner points, which belong to the boundary part Γwθ∪Γwm,
on which kinematic or mixed boundary conditions are specified, the
additional residual is the approximation error for the normal plate
displacement at the corner point location rsc,
(4.22)
For each of the nF corner points, which belong to the boundary part ΓmQ, on
which mechanical boundary conditions are specified, the additional residual
is the approximation error for the concentrated corner point force, which is
associated with the discontinuity of the torsional moment,
RcF ( rsc )
(
= LF [ w ] − mns ( rsc+ ) − mns ( rsc− ) )
∂ 2 w( r ) ∂ 2 w( rsc )
( )
~ ~ ~
∫ LQ [ w ]. Rw . dΓ + ∫ Lm [ w ]. Rθ . dΓ − ∫ Lθ [ w ]. Rm . dΓ
Γ wθ + Γ wm Γ wθ Γ wm + Γ mQ
nw nF (4.24)
~. R . dΓ +
− ∫w Q ∑ LF [ w~ ]. Rcw ( rsc ) − ∑ w~(rsc ). RcF ( rsc ) = 0.
Γ mQ c=1 c=1
− ∫ Lθ [Ψ si ]. Lm [Ψ s j ]. dΓ − ∫ Ψ si . LQ [Ψ s j ]. dΓ (4.26)
Γ wm + Γ mQ Γ mQ
nw nF
+ ∑ LF [Ψ si ].Ψ s j ( rsc ) − ∑ Ψ si ( rsc ). LF [Ψ s j ]
c=1 c=1
Γ wθ + Γ wm Γ wθ
Γ wm + Γ mQ Γ mQ
nw
+ ∑ LF [Ψ si ].( w ( rsc ) − w F ( rsc ))
c=1
nF
− ∑ LF [Ψ si ].( mns ( rsc+ ) − mns ( rsc- ) − LF [ w F ])
(4.27)
c=1
Application for three-dimensional coupled vibro-acoustic problems 201
model properties
As already indicated in section 2.4.2., matrix [ Ass ] is a fully populated
matrix, whose elements are complex and frequency dependent. The
symmetry of this matrix is proven as follows.
Consider two structural wave functions Ψ s i and Ψ s j , which satisfy the
homogeneous part of the dynamic equation (4.1), i.e.
Since these wave functions are smooth and non-singular in the plate surface
domain Ωs with boundary Γs, the two-dimensional version of Green’s second
identity (see equation (2.51)) implies that
∫ Ψ si . ∇ (∇ 2Ψ s j ). dΩ =
2
Ωs
(4.29)
∂ (∇ 2Ψ s j ) ∂Ψ si
∫ ∇ Ψ s i . ∇ Ψ s j . dΩ + ∫ Ψ s i . . dΓ − ∫ ∂γ . ∇ Ψ s j . dΓ
2 2 2
Ωs Γs
∂γ n Γs n
∫ Ψ si . ∇ (∇ 2Ψ s j ). dΩ =
2
Ωs
∂ ∂ Ψsj ∂ 2Ψ s j
2
∫ ∇ Ψ si . ∇ Ψ s j . dΩ + ∫ Ψ si . ∂γ ( 2 + ( 2 − ν ) ). dΓ
2 2
Ωs Γs n ∂γ n ∂γ s2
(4.30)
∂Ψ si ∂ 2Ψ s j ∂ 2Ψ s j ∂ ∂ 2Ψ s j
− ∫ ∂γ .( +ν ). dΓ − ∫ Ψ s i . ((1 − ν ) ). dΓ
Γs n ∂γ n2 ∂γ s2 Γs
∂γ n ∂γ s2
∂Ψ si ∂ 2Ψ s j
− ∫ ∂γ .((1 − ν ) ). dΓ .
Γs n ∂γ s2
By using the differential operators, defined in (4.4)-(4.6), this expression
may be written as
202 Chapter 4
∫ Ψ si . ∇ (∇ 2Ψ s j ). dΩ = ∫ ∇ Ψ si . ∇ Ψ s j . dΩ
2 2 2
Ωs Ωs
1
−
DΓ
∫ (Ψ si . LQ [Ψ s j ] + Lθ [Ψ si ]. Lm [Ψ s j ]). dΓ (4.31)
s
∂ 3Ψ s j ∂Ψ si ∂ Ψ s j
2
−(1 − ν ) ∫ (Ψ si . + . ). dΓ .
Γs ∂γ n∂γ s2 ∂γ n ∂γ s2
∂ 3Ψ s j ∂Ψ si ∂ Ψ s j
2
−(1 − ν ) ∫ (Ψ si . + . ). dΓ =
Γs ∂γ n ∂γ s2 ∂γ n ∂γ s2
∂Ψ si ∂ Ψ s j ∂ 2Ψ si ∂Ψ s j
2 n +n
1 w F
(1 − ν ) ∫ (
∂γ
. +
∂γ ∂γ
. ). dΓ − ∑ LF [Ψ s j ].Ψ si
Γs s ∂γ n ∂γ s n s ∂γ s D c =1
nw + n F ∂Ψ si ( rsc ) ∂Ψ s j ( rsc ) ∂Ψ si ( rsc ) ∂Ψ s j ( rsc )
+(1 − ν ) ∑ . − . .
c=1 ∂γ n+ ∂γ s+ ∂γ n− ∂γ s−
(4.32)
The substitution of (4.28) and (4.32) into (4.31) yields
k b4 ∫ Ψ s i .Ψ s j . dΩ =
Ωs
1
∫ ∇ Ψ si . ∇ Ψ s j . dΩ − D ∫ (Ψ si . LQ [Ψ s j ] + Lθ [Ψ si ]. Lm [Ψ s j ]). dΓ
2 2
Ωs Γs
∂Ψ si ∂ Ψ s j ∂ 2Ψ si ∂Ψ s j
2
1 nw + nF
(1 − ν ) ∫ ( . + .
∂γ s ∂γ n ∂γ s ∂γ n ∂γ s ∂γ s
). dΓ − ∑ LF [Ψ s j ].Ψ si ( rsc )
D c=1
Γs
k b4 ∫ Ψ s j .Ψ s i . dΩ =
Ωs
1
∫ ∇ Ψ s j . ∇ Ψ si . dΩ − D ∫ (Ψ s j . LQ [Ψ si ] + Lθ [Ψ s j ]. Lm [Ψ si ]). dΓ
2 2
Ωs Γs
∂Ψ s j ∂ 2Ψ si ∂ 2Ψ s j ∂Ψ si 1 nw + n F
(1 − ν ) ∫ ∂γ( .
∂γ n ∂γ s ∂γ s
+ . ). dΓ − ∑ LF [Ψ si ].Ψ s j ( rsc )
Γs s ∂γ n ∂γ s D c=1
nw + nF ∂Ψ s j ( rsc ) ∂Ψ si ( rsc ) ∂Ψ s j ( rsc ) ∂Ψ si ( rsc )
+(1 − ν )
∑ −
∂γ + . ∂γ + ∂γ −
.
∂γ −
c=1 n s n s
(4.34)
Since the left-hand sides of expressions (4.33) and (4.34) are identical, their
right-hand sides are also identical. By equating these right-hand sides and
using the following identity,
∂Ψ si ∂Ψ s j ∂Ψ si ∂Ψ s j ∂Ψ s j ∂Ψ si ∂Ψ s j ∂Ψ si
− − +
∂γ n+ ∂γ s+ ∂γ n− ∂γ −s ∂γ n+ ∂γ +s ∂γ n− ∂γ −s
∂Ψ s i ∂Ψ si + ∂Ψ s j ∂Ψ s j
= n x+ + n y+ − n y + n x+
∂x ∂y ∂x ∂y
∂Ψ s i ∂Ψ si − ∂Ψ s j ∂Ψ s j
− n x− + n y− − n y + n x−
∂x ∂y ∂x ∂y (4.35)
∂Ψ s j ∂Ψ s j ∂Ψ si ∂Ψ si
− n x+ + n y+ − n y+
+ n x+
∂x ∂y ∂x ∂y
∂Ψ s j ∂Ψ s j − ∂Ψ s i ∂Ψ si
+ n x− + n y− −ny
+ n −
x
∂x ∂y ∂x ∂y
=0,
nw + n F
∫ (Ψ s j . LQ [Ψ si ] + Lθ [Ψ s j ]. Lm [Ψ si ]). dΓ + ∑ LF [Ψ si ].Ψ s j ( rsc )
Γs c=1
nw + n F
= ∫ (Ψ si . LQ [Ψ s j ] + Lθ [Ψ si ]. Lm [Ψ s j ]). dΓ + ∑ LF [Ψ s j ].Ψ si ( rsc ).
Γs c=1
(4.36)
Since Γ s = Γ wθ ∪ Γ mQ ∪ Γ wm , this expression may be written as
∫ LQ [Ψ si ].Ψ s j . dΓ + ∫ Lm [Ψ si ]. Lθ [Ψ s j ]. dΓ
Γ wθ + Γ wm Γ wθ
− ∫ Lθ [Ψ si ]. Lm [Ψ s j ]. dΓ − ∫ Ψ si . LQ [Ψ s j ]. dΓ
Γ wm + Γ mQ Γ mQ
nw nF
+ ∑ LF [Ψ s i ].Ψ s j ( rsc ) − ∑ Ψ si ( rsc ). LF [Ψ s j ]
c=1 c=1
= ∫ LQ [Ψ s j ].Ψ si . dΓ + ∫ Lm [Ψ s j ]. Lθ [Ψ si ]. dΓ
Γ wθ + Γ wm Γ wθ
− ∫ Lθ [Ψ s j ]. Lm [Ψ si ]. dΓ − ∫ Ψ s j . LQ [Ψ si ]. dΓ
Γ wm + Γ mQ Γ mQ
nw nF
+ ∑ LF [Ψ s j ].Ψ s i ( rsc ) − ∑ Ψ s j ( rsc ). LF [Ψ si ].
c=1 c=1
(4.37)
It follows from the matrix element definition formula (4.26) that expression
(4.37) proves the symmetry of matrix [ Ass ] , i.e.
field, which satisfies the homogeneous part of the dynamic plate equation
(4.1).
It is proven below that an expansion of type
w( x, y ) = w1 ( x, y ) + w 2 ( x, y )
(4.39)
with
w1 ( x, y ) =
s π
2
s π
2
− j k b2 − 1 . y j k b2 − 1 . y
∞ Lx
+ ws 1 , 2 . e
Lx
+ (4.40)
s1πx w s 1 ,1. e
∑ cos(
L
)
2 2
s1 = 0 x s π s π
− j − k b2 − 1 . y j − k b2 − 1 . y
w Lx Lx
s1 ,3 . e + ws 1 ,4 . e
and
w 2 ( x, y ) =
s π
2
s π
2
− j k b2 − 2 . x j k b2 − 2 . x
∞
Ly Ly
s 2πy w s 2 ,1. e + ws 2 ,2 . e + (4.41)
∑ cos( L ) 2 2
s2 = 0 y
2 s 2π
2 s 2π
− j − kb − . x j − k − . x
b L
Ly y
ws 2 ,3 . e + ws 2 ,4 . e
∂w( 0, y )
= θ n 1 ( y ), ( y ∈ [ 0, Ly ]) , (4.42)
∂x
∂w( Lx , y )
= −θ n 2 ( y ), ( y ∈ [ 0, Ly ]) , (4.43)
∂x
∂ 3 w( 0, y ) Qn1 ( y ) ∂ 2θ n1 ( y )
= − (2 − ν ) , ( y ∈ [ 0, Ly ]) , (4.44)
∂x 3 D ∂y 2
∂ 3 w( Lx , y ) ∂ 2θ n 2 ( y )
Qn 2 ( y )
=− + (2 − ν ) , ( y ∈ [ 0, Ly ]) , (4.45)
∂x 3 D ∂y 2
∂w( x ,0 )
= θ n 3 ( x ), ( x ∈ [ 0, Lx ]) , (4.46)
∂y
∂w( x , Ly )
= −θ n 4 ( x ), ( x ∈ [ 0, L x ]) , (4.47)
∂y
∂ 3 w( x,0 ) Qn 3 ( x ) ∂ 2θ n 3 ( x )
= − (2 − ν ) , ( x ∈ [ 0, L x ]) , (4.48)
∂y 3 D ∂x 2
∂ 3 w( x, Ly ) Q (x) ∂ 2θ n 4 ( x )
= − n4 + (2 − ν ) , ( x ∈ [ 0, Lx ]) . (4.49)
∂y 3 D ∂x 2
By defining (s2=0,1,...)
Application for three-dimensional coupled vibro-acoustic problems 207
Ws 2 ,1 =
2 2
s 2π s 2π (4.50)
j kb2 − ( w s , 2 − w s ,1 ) + j − k b −
2
L
( w s , 4 − w s , 3 ),
Ly y
2 2 2 2
Ws 2 , 2 =
2 2
s π s π
2 j k b2 − 2 . Lx −j k b2 − 2 . Lx
s π Ly Ly
j k b2 − 2 ( w s 2 , 2 . e − w s 2 ,1 . e )
Ly
2 2
s π s π
2 j − k b2 − 2 . L x − j − k b2 − 2 . L x
s π Ly Ly
+ j − kb2 − 2 ( w s 2 , 4 . e − ws 2 , 3 . e )
Ly
(4.51)
Ws 2 , 3 =
3 3
2 2
2 s 2π
2 s 2π
j kb − ( w s ,1 − w s , 2 ) +
j − kb − ( w s 2 , 3 − w s 2 , 4 ),
Ly Ly
2 2
(4.52)
Ws 2 , 4 =
2 2
3 s π s π
2 − j k b2 − 2 . L x j k b2 − 2 . L x
2 s 2π Ly Ly
j kb − ( w s ,1 . e
− w s , 2 . e )
Ly
2 2
2 2
3 s π s π
2 − j − k b2 − 2 . L x j − k b2 − 2 . L x
s π y
L Ly
+ j − kb2 − 2 ( w s 2 , 3 . e − ws 2 ,4 . e )
Ly
(4.53)
∞ s πy
∑ Ws 2 ,1 .cos( 2 ) = θ n 1 ( y ) ,
Ly
(4.54)
s2 = 0
∞ s πy
∑ Ws 2 , 2 .cos( 2 ) = −θ n 2 ( y ) ,
Ly
(4.55)
s2 = 0
∞ s πy Q ( y) ∂ 2θ n1 ( y )
∑ Ws 2 , 3 .cos( 2 ) = n 1 − (2 − ν ) , (4.56)
s2 = 0 Ly D ∂y 2
∞ s πy Q ( y) ∂ 2θ n 2 ( y )
∑ Ws 2 , 4 .cos( 2 ) = − n 2 + (2 − ν ) . (4.57)
s2 = 0 Ly D ∂y 2
The above defined complete wave function set for plate problems with
rectangular domains allows the construction of a convergent displacement
expansion for any type of uncoupled plate problems. According to the
procedure, described in section 2.5.3., the convergence of a weighted
residual wave model of type (4.25) is ensured
• by decomposing the plate domain into some convex subdomains or at
least into some subdomains, such that an arbitrary homogeneous
displacement field, defined in each subdomain, may be considered as
part of a homogeneous displacement field, defined in a rectangular
domain, circumscribing the subdomain
• and by approximating the displacement field in each subdomain in terms
of an expansion
Application for three-dimensional coupled vibro-acoustic problems 209
n s1
w( x, y ) = ∑ ( ws1 ,1.Ψ s1 ,1 ( x, y) + ws 1 ,2 .Ψ s 1 ,2 ( x, y))
!
s1 = 0
(4.58)
n s2
+ ∑ (ws 2 ,1 .Ψ s 2 ,1 ( x, y) + ws 2 ,2 .Ψ s 2 ,2 ( x, y)) + w F ( x, y)
"
s2 = 0
where
− jk ys1 , 1 . y
Ψ s1 ,1 ( x, y ) = cos( k xs 1, 1 . x ). e ,
− jk ys1 , 2 . y
Ψ s1 , 2 ( x, y ) = cos( k xs1, 2 . x ). e ,
(4.59)
− jk xs2 , 1 . x
Ψ s 2 ,1 ( x , y ) = e .cos( k ys 2, 1. y ),
− jk xs2 , 2 . x
Ψ s 2 , 2 ( x, y ) = e .cos( k ys 2, 2 . y ),
with
2
sπ s π
( k xs 1 ,1 , k ys 1 ,1 ) = ( 1 ,± kb2 − 1 ),
Lx Lx
2
sπ s π
( k xs 1 , 2 , k ys 1 , 2 ) = ( 1 ,± j k b2 + 1 ),
Lx Lx
(4.60)
2
s π s π
( k xs 2 ,1 , k ys 2 ,1 ) = ( ± kb2 − 2 , 2 ),
Ly Ly
2
s π s π
( k xs 2 , 2 , k ys 2 , 2 ) = ( ± j k b2 + 2 , 2 ).
Ly L y
The smallest spatial periods in the x- and y-direction, associated with the
wave functions, defined in (4.59), are
2Lx 2 Ly
λ x,min = , λ y,min = . (4.61)
ns 1 ns 2
4π 4 Et 2
λb = 4 . (4.62)
3ρ s ω 2 ( 1 − ν 2 )
The proposed truncation rule is based on the requirement that the smallest
period of the cosine wave functions in the displacement expansion should be
not larger than half the undamped bending wavelength, i.e.
λb
λ x,min ≈ λ y,min ≤ . (4.63)
2
As a result, the integer values ns1 and ns2 should be specified, such that3
ns 1 ns 2 4
≈ ≥ . (4.64)
Lx Ly λb
3
note that this truncation rule assumes that the spatial periods of the prescribed
dynamic quantities, specified at the plate boundaries, are not smaller than λb
Application for three-dimensional coupled vibro-acoustic problems 211
it follows from (4.60) that not all wave functions are linearly independent
and that some wave functions must be eliminated to restore the linear
independence without reducing the span of the wave function set.
convex
Figure 4.4. shows a convex plate, of which the boundaries are assumed to be
clamped, i.e. with zero translational and normal rotational displacement
components ( w ≡ 0, θ n ≡ 0 ). The considered case consists of an aluminium
plate (E=70.109 N/m2, ρs=2790 kg/m3, ν=0.3, t=0.002 m) with material loss
factor η=0.1, excited by a normal point force F=1 N, applied at (xF,yF)=
(0.25*Lx, 0.25*Ly) at ω=2π.250 Hz. For this case, a weighted residual wave
model is built with 104 structural wave functions (ns1=16,ns2=8), associated
with the enclosing rectangular domain LxxLy=1m x 0.5m.
Figure 4.5 shows the resulting contour plots of the real and imaginary parts
of the normal plate displacement. This figure clearly illustrates that the
proposed wave model provides an accurate representation of the clamped
boundary conditions. Since the displacement expansion exactly satisfies the
212 Chapter 4
dynamic plate equation, it may be concluded that the proposed wave model
converges towards the exact solution.
Figure 4.5 : contour plots of the real (upper) and imaginary (lower) parts of the
normal plate displacement at 250 Hz.
domain decomposition
Figure 4.7 shows a concave plate, whose boundaries are assumed to be
clamped. A convergent wave model may be obtained by decomposing the
plate domain into two convex subdomains and by expanding the
Application for three-dimensional coupled vibro-acoustic problems 213
the common interface between both subdomains. Since the dynamic plate
equation is a fourth-order partial differential equation, four boundary
conditions are specified at the common interface, i.e. continuity of the
normal displacement, continuity of the normal in-plane rotational
displacement, equilibrium of the generalised shear forces and equilibrium of
the bending moments.
The considered case consists of an undamped aluminium plate (E=70.109
N/m2, ρs=2790 kg/m3, ν=0.3, t=0.002 m, η=0.1), excited by a normal point
force F=1 N, applied at (x1F,y1F)= (0.5*Lx1, 0.3*Ly) with a circular frequency
ω=2π.300 Hz. For this case, a weighted residual wave model is built with 80
structural wave functions (ns1=10,ns2=8), associated with the rectangular
domain Lx1xLy=0.6m x 0.5m, circumscribing the first subdomain, and with
64 structural wave functions (ns1=6,ns2=8), associated with the rectangular
domain Lx2xLy=0.4m x 0.5m, circumscribing the second subdomain.
Figure 4.8 shows the resulting contour plot of the real part of the normal
plate displacement. Again, the accurate representation of the clamped
boundary conditions as well as the subdomain interface boundary conditions
illustrates that the numerical implementation of the proposed wave model
converges towards the exact solution.
Figure 4.8 : contour plot of the real part of the normal plate displacement at 300 Hz
Application for three-dimensional coupled vibro-acoustic problems 215
This section compares the prediction results of the wave model, proposed in
the previous section for solving the convex plate problem, shown in figure
4.4, with the prediction results, obtained with the wave function expansion,
recently proposed by LANGLEY (1997),
2πs 2πs
ns − jk b cos( )x − jk b sin( )y
ns + 1 ns + 1
w( x, y ) = ∑ ws . e .e
s=0
(4.66)
2πs 2πs
ns − k b cos( )x − k b sin( )y
ns + 1 ns + 1
+ ∑ ws . e + w F ( x, y ).
.e
s=0
Figure 4.9 : real (upper) and imaginary (lower) part of the normal plate displacement
at (x,y)=(0.4m,0.3m) at 1000 Hz, obtained with the new wave function expansion
(4.58) (solid) and with the existing wave function expansion (4.66) (dashed)
Application for three-dimensional coupled vibro-acoustic problems 217
Figure 4.10 : Picard test for a wave model, using the new
(upper) and the existing wave function expansion (lower)
∇ 2 p( r ) + k 2 . p( r ) = − jρ 0ωq.δ ( r , rq ), r ∈V . (4.67)
p( r ) = p ( r ), r ∈Ω p , (4.68)
j ∂p( r )
= vn ( r ), r ∈Ω v , (4.69)
ρ 0ω ∂n
j ∂p( r ) p( r )
= , r ∈Ω Z , (4.70)
ρ 0 ω ∂n Z (r )
na
p( x, y, z ) ≈ p( x , y, z ) = ∑ pa .Φ a ( x, y, z ) + pq ( x, y, z ) = [Φ a ]{ pa } + pq ( x, y, z ).
a=1
(4.71)
Each function Φ a (x, y, z) in the (1xna) matrix [Φ a ] is an acoustic wave
function, which satisfies the homogeneous part of the Helmholtz equation
(4.67),
− j ( k xa . x + k ya . y + k za . z )
Φ a ( x, y, z ) = e (4.72)
Application for three-dimensional coupled vibro-acoustic problems 219
with 2
k xa + k ya
2
+ k za
2
= k2. (4.73)
− jk ( x − x ) 2 + ( y − y ) 2 + ( z − z ) 2
jρ 0ωq e q q q
p q ( x , y, z ) =
. (4.74)
4π ( x − x q ) 2 + ( y − yq ) 2 + ( z − z q ) 2
From the above definitions, it may be concluded that the proposed pressure
expansion (4.71) satisfies a priori the Helmholtz equation (4.67), no matter
what the values of the acoustic wave function contributions pa are.
[ Aaa ]{ pa } = { fa } . (4.75)
The (naxna) matrix [ Aaa ] and the (nax1) vector { fa } are defined in (2.28)
and (2.31), in which the integral terms, defined on boundary surface Ωs, are
omitted, since fluid-structure coupling interfaces are absent in uncoupled
acoustic systems.
220 Chapter 4
This problem may be split into three subproblems, each of them having two
opposite side walls with a non-zero normal fluid velocity distribution, while
the four other side walls are perfectly rigid.
One of these subproblems consists of determining the pressure field
p1(x,y,z), satisfying the homogeneous Helmholtz equation
∇ 2 p1 ( x, y, z ) + k 2 . p1 ( x, y, z ) = 0 (4.76)
p1 ( x, y, z ) = X ( x )Y ( y ) Z ( z ) (4.80)
d 2X
2
+ α 2. X = 0 , (4.81)
dx
d 2Y
2
+ β 2.Y = 0 , (4.82)
dy
d 2Z
2
+ ( k 2 − α 2 − β 2 ). Z = 0 , (4.83)
dz
a πx
X ( x ) = A. cos 1 , ( a1 = 0,1,... ), (4.84)
Lx
a πy
Y ( y ) = B.cos 2 ( a 2 = 0,1,...) , (4.85)
Ly
− j ( k 2 −α 2 − β 2 )z j ( k 2 −α 2 − β 2 )z
Z ( z ) = C. e + D. e , (4.86)
p 1 ( x , y, z ) =
∞ ∞ − jk za1a2 z jk za1a2 z
∑ ∑ cos(k xa 1 x ).cos(k ya 2 y).( pa 1a 2 ,1 . e + pa 1 a 2 , 2 . e ),
a1 = 0 a 2 = 0
(4.87)
with
2
a1π a 2π 2 a1π
2
a π
k xa 1 = , k ya 2 = and k za1 a 2 = k − − 2 . (4.88)
Lx Ly Lx Ly
The arbitrary constants pa1a2,1 and pa1a2,2 are determined by the boundary
conditions (4.79),
∞ ∞
∑ ∑ Pa1 a 2 ,1 .cos( k xa 1 x ).cos( k ya 2 y) = v1 ( x, y) , (4.89)
a1 = 0 a 2 = 0
∞ ∞
∑ ∑ Pa 1a 2 ,2 .cos( k xa 1 x ).cos( k ya 2 y) = v 2 ( x, y) , (4.90)
a1 = 0 a 2 = 0
with
k za 1 a 2 − jk za1a2 L z jk z ,mn L z
Pa1 a 2 ,1 = ( p a 1 a 2 ,1 . e − pa1 a 2 , 2 . e ), (4.91)
ρ 0ω
k za1 a 2
Pa1 a 2 , 2 = ( pa 1 a 2 , 2 − pa 1 a 2 ,1 ) . (4.92)
ρ 0ω
The left-hand sides of (4.89) and (4.90) are double Fourier series (half-range
cosine series). For all (piecewise continuous) functions v1(x,y) and v2(x,y),
two sets of constants Pa1a2,1 and Pa1a2,2 can be found, such that both series
converge to v1(x,y) and v2(x,y) (see e.g. BERG and MCGREGOR (1964)).
In a completely similar way, a convergent pressure expansion can be
defined for the two other subproblems.
Application for three-dimensional coupled vibro-acoustic problems 223
∞ ∞ − jk za1a2 z
p( x, y, z ) = ∑ ∑ pa1a 2 .cos(k xa1 x ).cos(k ya 2 y). e
a1 = 0 a2 = 0
∞ ∞ − jk ya1a2 y
+ ∑ ∑ pa 3 a 4 .cos(k xa 3 x ). e .cos( k za 4 z ) (4.93)
a3 = 0 a4 = 0
∞ ∞ − jk xa5 a6 x
+ ∑ ∑ pa 5 a 6 . e .cos( k ya 5 y ).cos( k za 6 z )
a 5 = 0 a6 = 0
with
2
a1π a 2π 2 a1π
2
a π
( k xa 1 , k ya 2 , k za 1 a 2 ) = ( , ,± k − − 2 ),
Lx Ly Lx Ly
2 2
a π a π a π a π
( k xa 3 , k ya 3 a 4 , k za 4 ) = ( 3 ,± k 2 − 3 − 4 , 4 ), (4.94)
Lx Lx Lz Lz
2
a 5π 2
a 6 π a 5 π a6 π
( k xa 5 a 6 , k ya 5 , k za 6 ) = ( ± k −
− L , L , L ).
2
Ly z y z
This complete wave function set for homogeneous acoustic problems with
rectangular cavity domains allows the construction of a convergent pressure
expansion for any type of uncoupled interior acoustic problem. According to
the procedure, described in section 2.5.3., the convergence of a weighted
residual wave model of type (4.75) is ensured
• by decomposing the cavity domain into some convex subdomains or at
least into some subdomains, such that an arbitrary homogeneous pressure
field, defined in each subdomain, may be considered as part of a
homogeneous pressure field, defined in a rectangular domain,
circumscribing the subdomain
• and by approximating the pressure field in each subdomain in terms of an
expansion
224 Chapter 4
n a1 n a2 n a3 n a4
p( x, y, z ) = ∑ ∑ pa1 a 2 .Φ a 1a 2 ( x, y, z ) + ∑ ∑ pa 3 a 4 .Φ a 3 a 4 ( x, y, z )
a1 = 0 a 2 = 0 a3 = 0 a4 = 0
n a5 n a6
+ ∑ ∑ pa 5 a 6 .Φ a 5 a 6 ( x, y, z ) + pq ( x, y, z )
a 5 = 0 a6 = 0
(4.95)
where
− jk za1a2 z
Φ a 1a 2 ( x , y, z ) = cos( k xa 1 x ).cos( k ya 2 y ). e ,
− jk ya3a4 y
Φ a 3 a 4 ( x, y, z ) = cos( k xa 3 x ). e .cos( k za 4 z ), (4.96)
− jk xa5a6 x
Φ a 5 a 6 ( x, y, z ) = e .cos( k ya 5 y ).cos( k za 6 z ).
na1 na2 na 3 na 4 na 5 na 6 2k
≈ ≈ ≈ ≈ ≈ ≥ . (4.97)
Lx Ly Lx Lz Ly Lz π
2
n π
2
n π n π
2
ω = c. 1 + 2 + 3 ( n1 , n 2 , n 3 = 0,1,...) , (4.98)
Lx Ly Lz
it follows from (4.94) that not all wave functions are linearly independent
and that some wave functions must be eliminated to restore the linear
independence without reducing the span of the wave function set.
To illustrate the accuracy of the proposed acoustic wave model, the pressure
field in the cavity of a simplified car model is predicted, using the measured
structural velocity distribution of the enclosing car body as boundary
conditions to the car cavity. The wave model prediction results are
compared with finite element predictions and with the measured cavity
pressure field.
Figure 4.12 shows the simplified car model. It consists of a stiff beam
structure (rigid body frame) and a subframe, which are connected through
some rubber mounts. The engine excitation is simulated by exciting a mass
with an electrodynamic shaker. The mass is isolated from the subframe by
means of four rubber mounts. Aluminium panels of 3mm thickness are
sealed to the beam structure with silicone to constitute the car cavity.
The cavity wave model consists of 370 acoustic wave functions (na1=na3=10,
na2=na5=6,na4=na6=5), associated with the circumscribing rectangular domain
with dimensions 1.5m x 0.975m x 0.8m (see figure 4.12). In order to make
sure that the wave model and the finite element model are based on the same
normal velocity input, the spatial velocity distribution, used for the
calculation of the wave model elements, results from a linear interpolation
of the measured data. Note also that the number of wave functions is larger
than required by the truncation rule (4.97), since the spatial period of the
Application for three-dimensional coupled vibro-acoustic problems 227
Especially around the natural frequencies of the cavity (see 214 Hz, 219 Hz
and 243 Hz), where the acoustic response is very sensitive to the velocity
input, the substantially smaller wave model yields a better prediction
accuracy than the finite element model. This illustrates the fact that the
convergence rate of the wave based prediction technique benefits from the
fluid velocity expansions, having the same spatial variation as the pressure
expansions.
∇ 2 p( r ) + k 2 . p( r ) = − jρ 0ωq.δ ( r , rq ), r ∈V , (4.99)
p( r ) = p ( r ), r ∈Ω p , (4.100)
j ∂p( r )
= vn ( r ), r ∈ Ω v , (4.101)
ρ 0ω ∂n
j ∂p( r ) p( r )
= , r ∈Ω Z , (4.102)
ρ 0 ω ∂n Z (r )
j ∂p( r )
= jωw( r ), r ∈ Ω s , (4.103)
ρ 0 ω ∂n
4
if the domain geometry doesn’t satisfy this condition, the acoustic domain must
be decomposed into some subdomains, whose geometries do satisfy this
condition; in a completely similar way, as described in section 2.5.4. for two-
dimensional coupled vibro-acoustic problems, the acoustic part of the coupled
vibro-acoustic wave model results then from a weighted residual or least-squares
formulation of the acoustic boundary conditions (4.100)-(4.103), together with
the interface conditions, specified along the common interfaces of the various
acoustic subdomains
230 Chapter 4
na
p( x, y, z ) ≈ p( x , y, z ) = ∑ pa .Φ a ( x, y, z ) + pq ( x, y, z ) = [Φ a ]{ pa } + pq ( x, y, z ),
a=1
(4.106)
where
na n a1 n a2
− jk za1a2 z
∑ p a . Φ a ( x , y, z ) = ∑ ∑ pa1 a 2 .cos( k xa1 x ) cos(k ya 2 y)e
a=1 a1 = 0 a 2 = 0
n a3 n a4
− jk ya3a4 y
+ ∑ ∑ pa 3 a 4 .cos(k xa 3 x )e cos( k za 4 z ) (4.107)
a3 = 0 a4 = 0
n a5 n a6
− jk xa5 a6 x
+ ∑ ∑ pa 5 a 6 . e cos( k ya 5 y )cos( k za6 z )
a 5 = 0 a6 = 0
Compared with the dynamic equation (4.1) for uncoupled plate problems,
the dynamic plate equation (4.105) for coupled vibro-acoustic problems
contains an additional excitation term for the pressure loading effect of the
fluid on the plate. As a result, the expansion for the normal plate
displacement, as proposed in section 4.2 for uncoupled plate problems, must
be extended with some particular solution functions for the fluid pressure
loading. Therefore, the steady-state normal plate displacement w(x’,y’) is
w( x’, y’) ≈
ns na
w( x’, y’) = ∑ ws .Ψ s ( x’, y’) + ∑ pa . wa ( x’, y’) + w F ( x’, y’) + wq ( x’, y’)
s=1 a=1
= [Ψ s ]{w s } + [ w a ]{ pa } + w F ( x’, y’) + w q ( x’, y’).
(4.108)
Application for three-dimensional coupled vibro-acoustic problems 231
Provided that the plate domain Ωs is convex or that its geometry is at least
such that any homogeneous displacement field in the plate domain may be
considered as part of a homogeneous displacement field, defined in a
rectangular domain, circumscribing the plate domain5, the structural wave
function expansion in (4.108) is
ns ns1
− jk − jk
cos( k x’s1 x’). w s1 ,1 . e y’s1 ,1 + w s1 , 2 . e y’s1 , 2
y’ y’
∑ w s .Ψ s ( x’, y’) = ∑
s= 1 s1 = 0
ns2
− jk − jk
cos( k y’s2 y’). w s2 ,1 . e x ’s2 ,1 + w s2 , 2 . e x ’s2 , 2 ,
x’ x’
+ ∑
s2 = 0
(4.109)
where the wavenumber components of the structural wave functions are
defined as
2
sπ s π
( k x’s 1 , k y’s 1 ,1 ) = ( 1 ,± kb2 − 1 ),
Lx’ Lx’
2
sπ s π
( k x’s 1 , k y’s 1 , 2 ) = ( 1 ,± j kb2 + 1 ),
Lx’ Lx’
(4.110)
2
s π s π
( k x’s 2 ,1 , k y’s 2 ) = ( ± kb2 − 2 , 2 ),
L y’ L y’
2
s π s π
( k x’s 2 , 2 , k y’s 2 ) = ( ± j kb2 + 2 , 2 ),
L y’ L y’
in which Lx’ and Ly’ are the dimensions of the (smallest) rectangular plate
domain, circumscribing the considered plate domain Ωs.
5
if the domain geometry doesn’t satisfy this condition, the plate domain must be
decomposed into some subdomains, whose geometries do satisfy this condition;
in a completely similar way, as illustrated in section 4.2.5. for uncoupled
problems, the structural part of the coupled vibro-acoustic wave model results
then from a weighted residual or least-squares formulation of the plate boundary
conditions (4.7)-(4.12), together with the interface conditions, specified along the
common interfaces of the various plate subdomains
232 Chapter 4
as particular solution function w F (x’, y’) for the external point force term in
the inhomogeneous right-hand side of the dynamic plate equation (4.105),
w F ( x’, y’) = −
jF
[H ( 2)
0 ( kb r ) − H 0( 2) ( − jk b r ) ]
(4.111)
8 k b2 D
function for the part of the pressure loading term in the inhomogeneous
right-hand side of the dynamic plate equation (4.105), which results from
one of the acoustic wave functions Φ a in the pressure expansion (4.106).
The normal displacement of an infinite plate, excited by this pressure
distribution, may be used as particular solution function,
w a ( x’, y’) =
L x ’ f s 2 (ξ )
j Φ (u (ξ ,ζ ), u (ξ , ζ ), u (ξ ,ζ )). H ( 2) ( k ρ )dζ dξ
− ∫ ∫ (4.113)
8 kb2 D 0 f (ξ )
a x y z 0 b
s1
L x ’ f s 2 (ξ )
j Φ (u (ξ , ζ ), u (ξ ,ζ ), u (ξ ,ζ )). H ( 2) ( − jk ρ )dζ dξ
+ ∫ ∫ a x
8 kb2 D 0 f (ξ )
y z 0 b
s1
and where the functions fs1 and fs2 describe the geometry of the plate
boundary Γs (see figure 4.15).
wq ( x’, y’) =
L x ’ f s 2 (ξ )
j ξ ζ ξ ζ ξ ζ ρ ζ dξ
∫ ∫
( 2)
−
p ( u ( , ), u ( , ), u ( , )). H ( k ) d (4.115)
2
8 k b D 0 f (ξ )
q x y z 0 b
s1
L x ’ f s 2 (ξ )
j ξ ζ ξ ζ ξ ζ ρ ζ dξ .
∫ ∫
( 2)
+ −
p ( u ( , ), u ( , ), u ( , )). H ( jk ) d
8 k b2 D 0 f (ξ )
q x y z 0 b
s1
Due to the flat shape of the considered plate, alternative expressions for the
na n a1 n a2
[ wa ]{ pa } = ∑ pa . wa ( x’, y’) = ∑ ∑ pa1 a 2 . wa1 a 2 ( x’, y’) +
!
a=1 a1 = 0 a 2 = 0
(4.116)
n a3 n a4 n a5 n a6
∑ ∑ pa 3 a 4 . wa 3 a 4 ( x’, y’) + ∑ ∑ pa 5 a 6 . wa 5 a6 ( x’, y’).
" #
a3 = 0 a4 = 0 a 5 = 0 a6 = 0
w a1 a 2 ( x’, y’) =
%
w a 3 a 4 ( x’, y’) =
'
w a 5 a 6 ( x’, y’) =
)
From the above definitions, it may be concluded that the proposed acoustic
and structural expansions (4.106) and (4.108) exactly satisfy, respectively,
the Helmholtz equation (4.99) and the dynamic plate equation (4.105), no
matter what the values of the wave function contributions pa and ws are.
w s
[ Ass Csa ] = { fs } . (4.126)
î pa
The elements of the symmetric (nsxns) matrix [ Ass ] are defined in (4.26).
The element on row si and column aj of the (nsxna) matrix [ C sa ] is
238
Chapter 4
[Csa ]si a j =
∫ LQ [Ψ si ]. wa j . dΓ + ∫ Lm [Ψ si ]. Lθ [ wa j ]. dΓ
Γ wθ + Γ wm Γ wθ
− ∫ Lθ [Ψ si ]. Lm [ wa j ]. dΓ − ∫ Ψ si . LQ [ wa j ]. dΓ (4.127)
Γ wm + Γ mQ Γ mQ
nw nF
+ ∑ LF [Ψ si ]. wa j (rsc ) − ∑ Ψ si ( rsc ). LF [ wa j ]
c=1 c=1
{ f s } si =
− ∫ Lθ [Ψ si ].( mn - Lm [ w F + wq ]). dΓ − ∫ Ψ si .(Qn − LQ [ w F + wq ]). dΓ
Γ wm + Γ mQ Γ mQ
nw
+ ∑ LF [Ψ si ].( w ( rsc ) − w F ( rsc ) − w q ( rsc ))
c=1
nF
− ∑ LF [Ψ s i ].( mns ( rsc
+
) − mns ( rsc
-
) − LF [ w F + w q ]).
c=1
(4.128)
w s
[Cas Aaa + Caa ] = { fa } .
pa
(4.129)
The (naxna) matrices [ Aaa ] and [ Caa ] , the (naxns) matrix [ Cas ] and the
(nax1) vector { fa } are defined in, respectively, (2.28), (2.29), (2.30) and
(2.31).
Ass Csa w s f s
C = .
Aaa + Caa pa
(4.130)
as fa
Recall from section 2.4.2. that this coupled vibro-acoustic wave model is
non-symmetric, since [Csa ]T ≠ [Cas ] and [Caa ]T ≠ [Caa ] . Only the
acoustic and structural submatrices [ Aaa ] and [ Ass ] are symmetric.
na1 na 2 na 3 na 4 na 5 na 6 ns 1 ns 2 4
≈ ≈ ≈ ≈ ≈ ≈ ≈ ≥ . (4.131)
Lx Ly Lx Lz Ly Lz L x’ L y’ λb
240 Chapter 4
Recall also from sections 4.2.4. and 4.3.4. that the linear independence of all
ns=4(ns1+1)(ns2+1) structural wave functions Ψs and the linear independence
of all na=2(na1+1)(na2+1)+2(na3+1)(na4+1)+2(na5+1)(na6+1) acoustic wave
functions Φa must be verified a priori, in order to avoid the singularity of the
wave model (4.130).
validation examples
In order to illustrate the accuracy of the proposed wave model (4.130) for
three-dimensional coupled vibro-acoustic problems and to compare its
convergence rate with the convergence rate of an Eulerian coupled FE/FE
model (1.22), two validation examples are considered, one with a convex
and one with a concave cavity domain.
Figure 4.16 shows the first validation example. One boundary surface of an
acoustic cavity consists of a flat rectangular (Lx’=0.75 m, Ly’= 0.5 m) plate
with clamped boundaries, while all other cavity boundary surfaces are
perfectly rigid. The air in the cavity has an ambient fluid density ρ0=1.225
kg/m3 and a speed of sound c=340 m/s. The undamped (η=0) aluminium
plate has a thickness t=2.10-3 m, a density ρs=2790 kg/m3, a Poisson
coefficient ν=0.3 and an elasticity modulus E=70.109 N/m2. The acoustic
cavity is comprised in the volume of an enclosing rectangular prism with
dimensions Lx=1.5 m, Ly=0.5 m, Lz=1 m. The coupled vibro-acoustic system
is excited by a time-harmonic mechanical point force F, applied at location
(x’F,y’F)=(2Lx’/3,Ly’/3) on the plate, in the direction normal to the plate.
Figure 4.17 shows the second validation example. One boundary surface of
a funnel-type acoustic cavity consists of a flat rectangular (Lx’=1 m, Ly’= 0.5
m) plate with clamped boundaries, while all other cavity boundary surfaces
are perfectly rigid. The fluid properties of the air in the cavity and the
material properties of the plate are the same as in the first validation
example. The dimensions, indicated in figure 4.17, are Lx1=1 m, Lx2=0.6 m,
Ly=0.5 m, Lz1=0.5 m and Lz2=0.3 m. The coupled vibro-acoustic system is
excited by a time-harmonic mechanical point force F, applied at location
(x1,F,y1,F)=(Lx1/4,Ly/4) on the plate, in the direction normal to the plate.
For the second validation example, the acoustic cavity is decomposed into
two subcavities. The expansion for the steady-state pressure p1(x1,y1,z1) in the
first subcavity utilises the acoustic wave functions, which are associated
with the circumscribing rectangular domain Lx1xLyxLz1. The expansion for
the steady-state pressure p2(x2,y2,z2) in the second subcavity utilises the
acoustic wave functions, which are associated with this rectangular
subcavity Lx2xLyxLz2 (see figure 4.17). The expansion for the steady-state
normal plate displacement w(x1,y1) utilises the structural wave functions,
which are associated with the considered rectangular plate domain Lx1xLy.
To illustrate the accuracy of the proposed wave based prediction technique,
the prediction results for the field variable distributions in the second
validation example are shown for the case of a unit normal point force
excitation at 250 Hz.
Figure 4.18 : instantaneous plate displacement (a) and fluid displacement (b), normal
to the plate-cavity interface at 250 Hz
Application for three-dimensional coupled vibro-acoustic problems 243
Figure 4.18 shows the instantaneous normal plate displacement and normal
fluid displacement along the plate-cavity interface, obtained from a wave
model, which consists of 72 structural and 444 acoustic wave functions.
This figure illustrates that the clamped plate boundary conditions and the
displacement continuity conditions along the plate-cavity interface are
accurately represented.
Figures 4.19 and 4.20 show the contour plots of the corresponding
instantaneous cavity pressure in the planes y1=0.25*Ly and x1=0.25*Lx1. Since
the pressure contour lines are perpendicular to the rigid boundary surfaces
of the cavity, the zero normal fluid velocity conditions at these boundary
surfaces are accurately represented. The continuity of the pressure contour
lines at the common interface (z1=Lz1, z2=0) between both subcavities
indicates that the continuity conditions of the pressure and normal fluid
velocity are accurately represented. Since the above figures illustrate that all
structural and acoustic boundary conditions are accurately represented and
since the proposed field variable expansions satisfy a priori the dynamic
equations, it may be concluded that a highly accurate approximation of the
exact coupled vibro-acoustic response is obtained.
6
each node in the plate discretizations has 3 degrees of freedom, i.e. the
translational displacement component, normal to the plate, and the rotational
displacement components around the two orthogonal in-plane co-ordinate axes;
each node in the cavity discretizations has 1 pressure degree of freedom
Application for three-dimensional coupled vibro-acoustic problems 245
Table 4.1 : properties of the various prediction models for validation example 1
Table 4.2 : properties of the various prediction models for validation example 2
Figures 4.21 and 4.22 show some structural and acoustic frequency response
functions (with a frequency resolution of 1 Hz), obtained with the wave
model and the FE/FE models for the first validation example. These figures
clearly illustrate that, by increasing the number of elements in the plate and
cavity discretizations (see figures 4.21(a)→(c), 4.22(a)→(c)), the finite
element results gradually converge towards the results, obtained with the
small wave model. These figures illustrate also the typical approximation
errors, involved with finite element discretizations. As already indicated in
chapter 1 and illustrated in chapter 3, the low-order (polynomial) shape
functions in each (parent) element can only represent a dynamic response
with a limited spatial variation. As a result, the dynamic stiffness is usually
overestimated, yielding an overestimation of the resonance frequencies.
Since the structural and acoustic wavelengths decrease with increasing
frequency, the spatial variation of the dynamic response increases also with
frequency, so that, for a given discretization, the overestimation of the
246 Chapter 4
resonance frequencies gets worse for increasing frequency (see figures 4.21
and 4.22). Note also that this frequency overestimation is less pronounced
for the resonances at 121 Hz and 179 Hz than for the other resonances. This
is due to the fact that most of the energy at these two resonances is stored in
the cavity, while at the other resonances most of the energy is stored in the
plate. Since the acoustic wavelengths are substantially larger than the
Figure 4.22 : acoustic frequency response functions (cavity pressure over input force)
at cavity location (x,y,z)=(2Lx/3,2Ly’/3,Lz/4) of the first validation example (solid :
wave / dashed : FE/FE 1 (a), FE/FE 2 (b), FE/FE 3 (c))
248 Chapter 4
figures confirm the observations from the results of the first validation
example, in that the finite element results gradually converge towards the
prediction results, obtained with the small wave model, and that the
overestimation of the resonance frequencies gets worse for increasing
frequency. Note that, in the considered frequency range, only one cavity-
controlled resonance (192 Hz) of this vibro-acoustic system has been identi-
Figure 4.24 : acoustic frequency response functions (cavity pressure over input force)
at cavity location (x1,y1,z1)=(Lx1/4,Ly/4,2Lz1/5) of the second validation example (solid
: wave / dashed : FE/FE 1 (a), FE/FE 2 (b), FE/FE 3 (c))
250 Chapter 4
Figure 4.25 : convergence curves for the normal plate displacement (left) at the
excitation point (x’F,y’F)=(2Lx’/3,Ly’/3) and the cavity pressure (right) at cavity
location (x,y,z)=(2Lx/3,2Ly’/3,Lz/4) of the first validation example
(solid : wave , dashed : FE/FE) (+ : 60 Hz, ∇ : 180 Hz)
Application for three-dimensional coupled vibro-acoustic problems 251
experimental set-up
Figure 4.26 shows the considered double-panel partition. Two identical flat
aluminium panels with dimensions Lx1xLy1=1.14 m x 0.73 m are clamped to a
rigid framework with height Lz1=0.15 m. The thickness of both panels is
252 Chapter 4
modal properties
Due to the implicit frequency dependence of the acoustic and structural
wave functions, the resulting coupled vibro-acoustic wave model is
frequency dependent, so that the predictions of the undamped natural
frequencies and mode shapes of the considered double-panel partition
cannot be obtained from a standard eigenvalue problem. However, by
calculating the forced response of the undamped double-panel partition, the
resulting resonance frequencies and corresponding operational deflection
254 Chapter 4
shapes are very close to the exact modal parameters, provided that the
resonances are well separated from each other.
7
except for the panel displacements at frequencies, close to the resonance
frequencies of the uncoupled enclosure
256 Chapter 4
Note that the blanks in table 4.3 indicate that those particular modes could
not (clearly) be identified from the experimental frequency response
functions.
Figures 4.28 and 4.29 compare the predicted forced responses8 with the
corresponding, experimentally identified, modal panel displacements and
modal cavity pressure field of the (1,4) out-of-phase panel-controlled mode.
8
the forced responses on these figures are scaled, such that the maximum upper
panel displacement corresponds with the experimentally identified maximum
modal displacement of the upper panel
Application for three-dimensional coupled vibro-acoustic problems 257
Figure 4.28 : predicted forced responses of both panels (123.0 Hz) and
experimentally identified modal panel displacements (120.8 Hz)
for the (1,4) out-of-phase panel controlled-mode
Figure 4.29 : predicted forced response of the cavity (123.0 Hz) and
experimentally identified modal cavity pressure field (120.8 Hz)
for the (1,4) out-of-phase panel controlled-mode
This good agreement has also been observed for the other modes, listed in
table 4.3.
By taking into account, for instance, the inherent uncertainties on the
material properties and the (slight) imperfections, involved with the
practical realisation of the clamped panel boundary conditions, it may be
concluded from the above comparisons between the experimental and
numerical results that the proposed wave model provides a reliable
prediction of the low-frequency modal properties of the considered double-
panel partition.
258 Chapter 4
4.5. Conclusions
The first two parts of this chapter describe how the methodology of the
wave based prediction technique, outlined in chapter 2, is applied for the
prediction of the steady-state out-of-plane bending motion in thin, flat plates
and the steady-state pressure field in three-dimensional uncoupled interior
acoustic systems. Complete wave function sets, together with some
particular solution functions, are proposed for the field variable expansions
in both types of uncoupled dynamic problems. The contributions of the
wave functions to these expansions result from symmetric prediction
models, which are based on a weighted residual formulation of the boundary
conditions.
The third part of this chapter indicates how the proposed field variable
expansions and corresponding wave models for uncoupled acoustic and
uncoupled plate problems are modified for the prediction of the steady-state
dynamic behaviour of three-dimensional coupled vibro-acoustic systems, in
which part of the boundary surface of the acoustic domain consists of a thin,
flat plate.
In all three parts, the practical convergence of the proposed prediction
models is illustrated for several numerical as well as experimental validation
problems. In a similar way as performed in the previous chapter for two-
dimensional problems, the accuracy and the associated computational
efforts of the proposed wave models and corresponding FE/FE models are
compared for some three-dimensional coupled vibro-acoustic validation
problems. Again, these comparisons reveal the beneficial convergence rate
of the proposed wave based prediction technique, in that highly accurate
predictions are obtained with a substantially smaller computational effort.
5. CONCLUSIONS AND
FUTURE DEVELOPMENTS
5.1. Conclusions
At present, the finite element and boundary element method are the most
commonly used numerical prediction techniques for solving steady-state
dynamic problems, defined in structural and acoustic continuum domains.
An important implication of the element based modelling concept is that the
involved large model sizes practically restrict the applicability of these
deterministic prediction techniques to a limited frequency range. Above a
certain frequency limit, these methods would require, even with the
nowadays available high-performance computer resources, a prohibitively
large amount of computational effort and memory resources to get an
acceptable level of prediction accuracy.
For the case of coupled vibro-acoustic problems, this practical frequency
limitation is significantly smaller than for uncoupled structural or uncoupled
acoustic problems. This is mainly due to the following reasons.
• Coupled models are substantially larger, since a structural and an
acoustic problem must be solved simultaneously.
• The numerical solution procedure for coupled models is less efficient,
since coupled models, at least for the most commonly used acoustic
pressure/structural displacement formulation, are no longer symmetric.
• The efficiency of model size reduction techniques such as the modal
expansion and component mode synthesis technique is significantly
smaller.
260 Chapter 5
The new wave based prediction technique follows a Trefftz approach and is
based on three major modelling concepts:
• field variable expansions
The steady-state dynamic field variables in the entire - or at least in large
subdomains of the - acoustic and structural continuum domains of a
coupled vibro-acoustic system are approximated in terms of a set of
acoustic and structural wave functions, which are exact solutions of the
homogeneous parts of the governing dynamic equations, and some
particular solution functions of the inhomogeneous equations. In this
way, the governing dynamic equations are exactly satisfied a priori,
irrespective of the contributions of the wave functions to the field
variable expansions.
1
although not reported in this dissertation, the modelling procedure for three-
dimensional unbounded acoustic domains applies in a completely similar way as
for two-dimensional unbounded domains
2
for acoustic and structural dynamic problems, only very few, unsuccessful
attempts have been performed so far
262 Chapter 5
From the discussion of the methodology and the application of the wave
based prediction technique for two- and three-dimensional coupled vibro-
acoustic problems, it may be concluded that the proposed technique offers
an adequate way to comply with the current challenge in coupled vibro-
acoustic modelling. Due to its beneficial convergence rate, the practical
frequency limitation of the proposed technique is significantly larger than
for the existing prediction techniques and results in a significant narrowing
of the currently existing mid-frequency twilight zone.
For these new as well as for the already defined field variable
expansions, a mathematically firm definition will be explored for the
continuum domain geometry, in which the convergence of the field
variable expansions is ensured.
p( x, y, z, t ) = p0 ( x, y, z, t ) + p’( x, y, z, t )
ρ ( x, y, z, t ) = ρ 0 ( x, y, z, t ) + ρ’( x, y, z, t )
(A.1)
v ( x , y, z , t ) = v 0 ( x , y, z, t ) + v ’( x, y, z, t )
For the derivation of the dynamic equations that govern the acoustic
perturbation fields, an infinitesimal fluid volume dx.dy.dz is considered.
266 Appendix A
The conservation of mass requires that the increase per unit time of the mass
of the fluid volume equals the net mass entering the volume per unit time.
With the latter shown in figure A.1,
this yields
∂ρ ∂ ( ρv x ) ∂ ( ρv y ) ∂ ( ρv z )
dx. dy. dz = −( + + )dx. dy. dz . (A.3)
∂t ∂x ∂y ∂z
q( x, y, z, t ) = q 0 ( x, y, z, t ) + q’( x, y, z, t ) , (A.4)
and with the assumption that there is no ambient external flow ( q 0 ≡ 0 ), the
mass conservation law becomes
∂ ( ρ 0 + ρ’)
= ( ρ 0 + ρ’)q’−∇.[( ρ 0 + ρ’)v ’] . (A.5)
∂t
Finite element method for uncoupled acoustic problems 267
dv x ∂p
ρdx. dy. dz. = − dx. dy. dz , (A.6)
dt ∂x
where the total time derivative of the x-component of the fluid velocity
vector equals
dv x ∂v x ∂v x
= +
∂v ∂v ∂
. v x + x . v y + x . v z = ( + v . ∇ )v x .
(A.7)
dt ∂t ∂x ∂y ∂z ∂t
Together with similar expressions for the dynamic force balances in the y-
and z-direction, the conservation of momentum may be expressed as a
vector equation
( ρ 0 + ρ’)(
∂
+ v ’. ∇)v ’ = −∇( p0 + p’) . (A.8)
∂t
p = f ( ρ ) = C. ρ γ , (A.9)
where C is constant in time and position and γ=cp/cv is the specific heat ratio
between the specific heat coefficients cp and cv at constant pressure and
constant volume, respectively. For air, for example, this ratio γ equals 1.4.
Since this relation applies also to the ambient state, the constant C may be
expressed as
p
C = γ0 . (A.10)
ρ0
df 1 d2 f
p = ( f ρ= ρ ) + ( ).( ρ − ρ 0 ) + ( ).( ρ − ρ 0 ) 2 +... (A.11)
0 dρ ρ=ρ0
2 dρ 2
ρ=ρ0
γp0 γ (γ − 1)
p’ = . ρ’+ .( ρ’) 2 +... (A.12)
ρ0 2ρ 02
By retaining only the terms with one primed variable in the aforementioned
expressions, the linearized expressions for the conservation of mass, the
conservation of momentum and the pressure-density relation become
∂ρ’
= ρ 0 . q’− ρ 0 . ∇. v ’ , (A.13)
∂t
∂v ’
ρ0. = −∇p’ , (A.14)
∂t
γp
p’ = 0 . ρ’ . (A.15)
ρ0
Time derivation of (A.13) and substitution of (A.14) and (A.15), yields the
linear acoustic wave equation
Finite element method for uncoupled acoustic problems 269
1 ∂ 2 p’ ∂q’
∇ 2 p’− 2 = −ρ 0 , (A.16)
c ∂t 2 ∂t
γp0
c= . (A.17)
ρ0
j
v’= ∇p’ . (A.19)
ρ 0ω
Note that the primes on the acoustic variables in (A.18) and (A.19) are
usually omitted, when there is little possibility of confusing the total field
variables with their acoustic perturbations.
~ p + k 2 p + jρ 0ωq ). dV = 0
∫ p (∇
2
(A.20)
V
270 Appendix A
∂ ~ ∂p ∂ ~ ∂p ∂ ~ ∂p ∂~p ∂p ∂~p ∂p ∂~
p ∂p
∫ [ ∂x ( p ∂x ) + ∂y ( p ∂y ) + ∂z ( p ∂z )]. dV − ∫ ( ∂x ∂x + ∂y ∂y + ∂z ∂z ). dV
V V
+∫ k2~
pp. dV + ∫ jρ 0ω~
pq. dV = 0 . (A.21)
V V
According to the divergence theorem, the integral of the normal component
of a vector field φ , taken over a closed surface Ω, is equal to the integral of
the divergence of the vector field, taken over the volume V, enclosed by the
surface Ω,
A.3. FE implementation
acoustic boundary conditions
Since the second-order Helmholtz equation (A.18) describes one wavetype,
the pressure field in a bounded fluid volume V is uniquely defined, if one
boundary condition is specified at each point on the boundary surface Ω of
domain V. For uncoupled acoustic problems, three types of boundary
conditions may occur ( Ω = Ω p ∪ Ωv ∪ Ω Z ):
Finite element method for uncoupled acoustic problems 271
p= p on Ω p ,
(A.24)
v. n = v on Ω v , (A.25)
n
p
v. n = = Ap, on Ω Z , (A.26)
Z
n p
p( x, y, z ) ≈ p( x , y, z ) = ∑ Nie ( x, y, z ). ai ( x, y, z ) ∈ Ve . (A.27)
i =1
ne
p( x, y, z ) = ∑ Nie ( x, y, z ). pi ( x, y, z ) ∈ Ve . (A.28)
i=1
1
an uncoupled acoustic problem may also be cast into a variational formulation; for
a detailed discussion of this formulation, the reader is referred to e.g. MORAND and
OHAYON (1995)
272 Appendix A
Based on the element shape functions N ie , which are locally defined in one
element Ve, some global shape functions Ni may be constructed, which are
defined in the entire domain V. In each element domain Ve to which node i
belongs, the global shape function Ni is identical to the corresponding
element shape function N ie , while it is zero in all other element domains. In
this way, a global pressure expansion may be defined as
nf
p( x, y, z ) = ∑ Ni ( x, y, z ). pi = [ N ].{ pi } ( x , y, z ) ∈ V , (A.29)
i=1
∂p
∂x
∂p
∇p ≈ ∇p = = [∂ ].[ N ]. { pi } = [ B]. { pi } , (A.30)
∂y
∂p
∂z
nf
~
p ( x , y, z ) = ∑ Ni ( x, y, z ). ~pi = [ N ].{ ~pi } ( x, y, z ) ∈V , (A.31)
i=1
p = [∂ ].[ N ]. { ~
∇~ pi } = [ B]. { ~
pi } . (A.32)
Finite element method for uncoupled acoustic problems 273
T " # (A.33)
= {~
V
( )
pi } . ∫ [ B] T .[ B] . dV . { pi } = { ~
pi } .[ K ]. { pi },
T
274 Appendix A
Recall that the global shape functions Ni and N j (and their spatial
derivatives) have only non-zero values in the domains of those elements, to
which, respectively, node i and node j belong. As a result, the volume
integration in (A.34) may be confined to the integration over the domains of
those elements, to which both node i and node j belong. Since the latter
integration may be regarded as a sum of integrations over each of the
common element domains and since the global shape functions in each of
these element domains are identical to the corresponding element shape
functions, matrix element Kij may be expressed as
where mij is the number of elements, to which both node i and node j belong.
Since each node belongs to common elements with only a few, adjacent
nodes, only a few matrix elements Kij are non-zero. This results in a sparsely
populated stiffness matrix [ K ] .
Due to this advantageous matrix property, the practical calculation of the
stiffness matrix can be performed in a very efficient way. By confining the
volume integration in (A.33) to one element domain, one may write
)*) %
{& }
{ }
( [ ]) ( [ ]) e
T
e T . pe
∫ ( ∇~
p . ∇p ). dV = ~
pi .
∫ [∂ ]. N e
. [∂ ]. N
. dV
i
Ve Ve
{' } { } [ ] {( }
{ }
[ ] [ ]
pie . ∫ B e . B e . dV . pie = ~
T T T
= ~ pie . K e . pie ,
Ve
(A.36)
Finite element method for uncoupled acoustic problems 275
+
[ ]
where N e is a (1xnp) vector of element shape functions and { pie } is a
(npx1) vector of unknown nodal pressure values of the considered element.
The matrix elements in the associated (npxnp) element stiffness matrix K e [ ]
are
Note that, since all element shape functions have non-zero values in their
element domain Ve, each element stiffness matrix is now fully populated.
The calculation of the global stiffness matrix [ K ] may now be performed in
a two-step procedure. In the first step, all element stiffness matrices are
calculated. In the second step, each non-zero element Kij of the global
stiffness matrix is obtained, according to (A.35), from a simple addition of
the corresponding entries (A.37) in the appropriate element stiffness
matrices. With an appropriate numbering of the nodes in the FE
discretization, the non-zero entries in the stiffness matrix appear in a narrow
band around the matrix diagonal, yielding a sparsely populated, banded
stiffness matrix.
In a completely similar way, the second term in the left hand side of (A.23)
may be expressed as
1 ,
p. p). dV = −ω 2 { ~
−ω 2 ∫ ( 2 ~
T 1 -
pi } . ∫ 2 [ N ] T .[ N ] . dV . { pi }
V c V c (A.38)
= −ω 2 { ~
.
p } .[ M ]. { p }
T
,
i i
m ij
Mij = ∫ ( 2 N i N j ). dV = ∑ ∫ ( 2 N ie N ej ). dV .
1 1
(A.39)
e = 1 Ve c
V c
276 Appendix A
The first term in the right hand side of (A.23) may be expressed as
∫ ( jρ 0ωpq ). dV = { pi }
~
V
∫ 0 (
)
{ pi } . {Qi } ,
~ T . jρ ω [ N ] T q . dV = ~ T
(A.40)
V
q( x, y, z ) = qi .δ ( xi , yi , zi ) , (A.41)
{Qi } = jρ 0ω ∫ (qi .[ N ] T .δ ). dV . (A.42)
V
− ∫ ( jρ 0ω~
pvn ). dΩ − ~ / ~ 0 0
∫ ( jρ 0ωpAp). dΩ − ∫ ( jρ 0ωpv . n ). dΩ . (A.43)
Ωv ΩZ Ωp
The substitution of expansion (A.31) into the first term of (A.43) yields
Finite element method for uncoupled acoustic problems 277
− ∫ ( jρ 0ω~
pvn ). dΩ =
Ωv
(A.44)
{ pi } . ∫ ( − jρ 0ω [ N ] vn ). dΩ = { pi } . {Vni }
~ T T ~ T
Ωv
The component on row i of the (nfx1) input velocity vector {Vni } is thus
The boundary surface of an element is the union of all its faces. The
boundary surface of a linear tetrahedral or a linear hexahedral fluid element,
for instance, is the union of, respectively, four and six faces. For these
compatible elements, the value of a global shape function Ni at a certain
element face is only non-zero, if node i is located on the considered element
face. As a consequence, the value of a global shape function Ni at the
boundary surface Ωv and the subsequent vector component Vni are only
non-zero for those nodes that are located on the boundary surface Ωv .
Hence, the practical calculation of the input velocity vector is based on its
component expression
m vi f vie
( N e . v ). dΩ ,
Vni = − jρ 0ω ∑ ∑ ∫ i n
(A.46)
e = 1 f = 1 Ω f
e
where mvi is the number of elements, for which node i is located on their
fvie element faces Ωef , that are part of the boundary surface Ωv . The
prescribed normal velocity at a certain location in an element face is often
specified by a shape function expansion, comparable to the pressure
expansion (A.31),
[ ]{ }
vn ( x, y, z ) = {n} T . N ve
f
. vef ( x, y, z ) ∈ Ω ef , (A.47)
278 Appendix A
where the (3x1) vector {n} consists of the x-, y- and z-components of the
unit vector, normal to the considered element face. The matrix
N 1e 0 0 1 N nev 0 0
[ ] f
N ve
= 0 N 1e 0 1 0 N nev 0
(A.48)
0 0 N 1e 1 0 0
N nev
{vef } = {vx 1
T
v y1 vz 1 2 v xnv v yn v }
v zn v . (A.49)
3 4
− ∫ ( jρ 0ωpAp). dΩ = − jω { pi }
~
∫ 0 ( { }
~ T . ρ A [ N ] T .[ N ] . dΩ . p
i (A.50) )
ΩZ Ω Z
= − jω { ~
pi } .[ C ]. { pi }
T 5
m Zij
( ρ A . N e . N e ). dΩ ,
Cij = ∑ ∫ 0 i j
(A.52)
f = 1 Ω f
e
Finite element method for uncoupled acoustic problems 279
where mZij is the number of element faces Ωef , on which both node i and
node j are located and that are part of the boundary surface Ω Z . The
specification of the prescribed normal admittance is usually restricted to a
constant value per element face in Ω Z .
The substitution of expansion (A.31) into the third term of (A.43) yields
− ∫ ( jρ 0ω~
6
6
pv . n ). dΩ = { ~
6
6
pi } . ∫ ( − jρ 0ω [ N ] T v . n ). dΩ = { ~
T
pi } . {Pi }
T
Ωp Ωv
(A.53)
Due to the particular shapes of the global shape functions Ni , the
component on row i of the (nfx1) vector {Pi } ,
7 7
Pi = ∫ ( − jρ 0ωNi v . n ). dΩ , (A.54)
Ωp
8
{ ~pi }T . ([ K ] + jω [ C] − ω 2 [ M ]).{ pi } = { ~pi }T . ({Qi } + {Vni } + {Pi }) . (A.55)
Since the weighted residual formulation should hold for any expansion of
the weighting function, i.e. for any set of shape function contributions { ~
pi }
9
(see (A.31)), a set of nf equations in the nf unknown nodal pressure
approximations pi is obtained,
The pressure shape functions for the parent elements are defined as follows :
1
N ie = (1 + ξ i ξ )(1 + η iη ) (i = 1..4) (A.58)
4
N ie = Li (i = 1..3) , (A.59)
L1 b1 c1 a1 x
1
L2 = b2 c2 a 2 y (A.60)
L 2 ∆
î 3 b3 c3 a 3 î 1
where
1 x 1 y1
1
∆ = det 1 x 2 y 2 ,
2
y 3
(A.61)
1 x 3
a1 = x 2 y 3 − x 3 y 2 , b1 = y 2 − y 3 , c1 = x 3 − x 2
The other parameters are obtained from cyclic rotation of the indices.
1
N ie = (1 + ξ i ξ )(1 + η i η )(1 + ζ iζ ) (i = 1..8 ) (A.62)
8
N ie = Li (i = 1..4) , (A.63)
Finite element method for uncoupled acoustic problems 283
[ ]
ne
x= ∑ Nie (ξ , η,ζ ). xi = N e {xi }
i=1
[ ]
ne
y= ∑ Nie (ξ, η,ζ ). yi = N e { yi } . (A.64)
i=1
[ ]
ne
z= ∑ Nie (ξ, η,ζ ). zi = N e {zi }
i=1
284 Appendix A
Figure A.5 illustrates this concept for the isoparametric mapping of a linear
rectangular parent element onto a linear quadrilateral element.
∂N ie ∂x ∂y ∂z ∂Ni
e ∂Nie
∂ξ ∂ξ ∂ξ ∂ξ ∂x ∂x
∂N ie ∂x ∂y ∂z ∂Nie ∂Ni
e
= .
∂η ∂y
= [ J (ξ , η , ζ ) ] . (A.65)
∂η ∂η ∂η ∂y
∂N ie ∂x ∂y ∂z ∂N e ∂Nie
i
∂ζ ∂ζ ∂ζ ∂ζ î ∂z ∂z
î î
Ve
(A.66)
(
∫ ∫ ∫ [∂ ].[ N ]) .([∂ ].[ N e ]) det([ J ]). dξ. dη. dζ .
1 1 1
e
T
=
−1 −1 −1
• Since the indices i and j in the element expressions (A.34), (A.39) and
(A.51) may be interchanged, the matrices are symmetrical.
• Since the frequency ω doesn’t occur in (A.34) and (A.39), the elements
of the stiffness and mass matrices are frequency independent. Although
the frequency doesn’t occur in an explicit way in (A.51), the elements of
the damping matrix are usually frequency dependent, due to the
frequency dependence of the prescribed normal impedance (or
admittance).
• Since all element shape functions have real values, the elements of the
stiffness and mass matrices are real, while the elements of the damping
matrix are usually complex, since the prescribed normal impedance (or
admittance) is usually a complex function.
286 Appendix A
ma
{ pi } = ∑ φ m . {Φ m } = [Φ ]. {φ m } , (A.68)
m=1
([ K~ ] + jω[C~ ] − ω [ M~ ]).{φ
a a
2
a m } = {Fa } ,
~
(A.69)
Finite element method for uncoupled acoustic problems 287
and where the (maxma) modal stiffness, mass and damping matrices are
{Φ m } [ Ma ]{Φ m 2 } = 0,
T
1
if m1 ≠ m 2 , (A.72)
the modal mass and modal stiffness matrices are diagonal matrices. By
normalizing the modal vectors, according to
{Φ m } [ Ma ]{Φ m1 } = 1,
T
1
( m1 = 1.. ma ), (A.73)
1
=
[ ]
Ma =
~
,
(A.74)
1
ω 12
>
[ ] ~
Ka =
2
. (A.75)
ω ma
When the finite element model (A.57) has a proportional damping matrix,
i.e. a damping matrix, which may be written as a linear combination of the
stiffness and mass matrix,
288 Appendix A
[Ca ] = α [ K a ] + β[ Ma ] , (A.76)
2ζ 1ω 1
?
[ ]
~
Ca =
, (A.77)
2ζ m a ω m a
αω m β
ζm = + . (A.78)
2 2ω m
Although all modes should be used (ma=na) in the modal expansion (A.68) to
get the same prediction accuracy with the modal model (A.69) as with the
direct finite element model (A.57), a modal model with a relatively small
truncated set of modes yields already a level of accuracy, close to the one of
the much larger direct model. In this framework, a rule of thumb states that
an accurate prediction of the steady-state dynamic behaviour at a certain
frequency ω is obtained by using all the modes, whose natural frequencies
ωm are smaller than 2ω. In this way, a significant model size reduction is
obtained (ma<<na), especially in the low-frequency range, where the modal
densities are small. An illustration of the efficiency of the modal expansion
technique is given in the following section.
Figure A.6 : one-dimensional acoustic problem (a) and its FE discretization (b)
ωx 1 ωx
pexact ( x ) = ρ 0 cωX [sin( )+ cos( )], (A.79)
c ωL c
tan( x )
c
x − xi x − xi
p( x ) ≈ pi . N ii ( x ) + pi + 1. N ii+ 1 ( x ) = pi .(1 − ) + pi + 1 .( ) , (A.80)
L L
p1 − ρ 0 ω 2 X
p
( 2
) @ 2
[ K a ] − ω [ Ma ] . =
@
0
,
(A.82)
î pn + 1
î 0
1 / L −1 / L
−1 / L 2 / L −1 / L 0
−1 / L 2 / L −1 / L
ABABA
[ Ka ] = , (A.83)
−1 / L 2 / L −1 / L
0 −1 / L 2 / L −1 / L
−1 / L 1 / L
L / 3 L / 6
L / 6 2L / 3 L / 6 0
1 CDCDC
L / 6 2L / 3 L / 6
[ Ma ] = 2 . (A.84)
c
L/6 2L / 3 L / 6
0 L / 6 2L / 3 L / 6
L / 6 L / 3
Lx Lx 2
2 ∂p ∂pexact
∫ p − pexact . dx ∫ ∂x
−
∂x
. dx
∆p = 0
Lx
, ∆v = 0
Lx 2
. (A.85)
2 ∂pexact
∫ pexact . dx ∫ ∂x
. dx
0 0
292 Appendix A
Figures A.7 and A.8 illustrate some important features of the finite element
prediction for solving steady-state dynamic problems.
2πc
λ= . (A.86)
ω
pressure oscillations in the tube corresponds with the fact that Lx≈0.3λ at
100 Hz and Lx≈1.5λ at 500 Hz.
Since the pressure distribution is determined by low-order polynomial
shape functions, a finite element discretization yields only an
approximation with a limited spatial variation. In this respect, a rule of
thumb states that a discretization should have at least 10 elements per
wavelength to keep the discretization error within acceptable limits.
Hence, according to (A.86), the accuracy, obtained from a given
discretization (i.e. a given number of nodes and elements), decreases
with increasing frequency, as illustrated in figure A.8.
modal model
The exact natural frequencies of the modes of the considered acoustic tube,
assuming both tube ends to be perfectly rigid, are
ω m ( m − 1)c
f m, exact = = ( m = 1, 2,..). (A.87)
2π 2Lx
The predictions of the modes and their natural frequencies for the finite
element model (A.82), which results from a discretization of the tube into n
linear elements, are obtained from the eigenvalue problem
p1, m
p
{ m}
Φ =
2, m E , (A.89)
î pn + 1, m
and where its associated eigenvalue represents the squared value of the
predicted natural frequency.
Table A.1. compares the exact and predicted natural frequencies of the first
10 modes of an air-filled (ρ0=1.225 kg/m3, c=340 m/s) tube of length Lx=1
m, which is discretized into n=100 linear elements.
exact (A.87) FE (n=100)
0 Hz 0.000 Hz
170 Hz 170.007 Hz
340 Hz 340.056 Hz
510 Hz 510.189 Hz
680 Hz 680.448 Hz
850 Hz 850.874 Hz
1020 Hz 1021.511 Hz
1190 Hz 1192.399 Hz
1360 Hz 1363.582 Hz
1530 Hz 1535.101 Hz
This table illustrates the typical feature of a finite element model regarding
mode extraction: due to the element discretization, the natural frequencies
are systematically overestimated and the absolute and relative overesti-
mations increase for increasing frequency.
ω 12 − ω 2 φ 1 − ρ 0ω 2 X. p1,1
F 0
G G
. = (A.90)
0 ω m a − ω î φ m a î − ρ 0ω X . p1, m a
2 2 2
where the unknowns are the modal participation factors φm in the modal
expansion (A.68).
The modal model (A.90) was solved for the case of an air-filled (ρ0=1.225
kg/m3, c=340 m/s) tube of length Lx=1 m with an imposed displacement at
the left hand side with amplitude X=10-3 m and frequency ω/2π=500 Hz. The
tube discretization consisted of n=100 linear elements. Figure A.9 plots the
resulting accuracies of the pressure and velocity predictions, indicated by
their measures ∆p and ∆v (see (A.85)), against the number of modes ma in
the modal model.
This figure clearly indicates the efficiency of the modal expansion
technique. The steep decrease of the error curves for small values of ma
indicates that a modal model with a relatively small number of modes yields
an accuracy, close to the accuracy, obtained with a direct solution of the
much larger finite element model. Note that the latter accuracy corresponds
with a modal solution, in which all modes are taken into account (ma=n+1).
As mentioned in section A.3, a rule of thumb states that a good accuracy is
obtained by using all the modes, whose natural frequencies are smaller than
2ω. According to this rule of thumb and to table A.1, a modal solution with
the first 7 modes should have an accuracy, close to one of the direct
solution, for an excitation frequency of 500 Hz. This is indeed confirmed by
figure A.9, in which the error measures for this modal model are ‘+’-
marked.
296 Appendix A
Figure A.9 : pressure (solid) and velocity (dashed) convergence rates at 500 Hz
Appendix B. FINITE ELEMENT METHOD FOR
UNCOUPLED STRUCTURAL PROBLEMS
assumptions
• The plate material is elastic and its elastic quantities are governed by
Hooke’s law.
• The plate material is homogeneous and isotropic, with an elasticity
modulus E, a density ρs and a Poisson coefficient ν.
• The plate thickness t is small in comparison with the other dimensions of
the plate.
• The plate displacements are small in comparison with the plate thickness.
• Sections, normal to the middle plate surface, remain normal to this
surface after deformation.
• The stress component σz in the direction, normal to the plate surface, is
negligible.
• There are no stresses in the plate middle surface.
298 Appendix B
• The external loads are applied in the direction, normal to the plate
surface.
t/2 t/2
mx = ∫ σ x . z. dz , qx = ∫ τ xz . dz
−t / 2 −t / 2
t /2 t/2
my = ∫ σ y . z. dz , qy = ∫ τ yz . dz (B.1)
−t / 2 −t / 2
t/2 t/2
m xy = ∫ τ xy . z. dz = ∫ τ yx . z. dz = m yx
−t / 2 −t / 2
The positive orientations of these forces and moments are shown in figure
B.1(b).
∂w z ( x, y )
w x ( x , y, z ) = − z , (B.2)
∂x
∂w ( x , y )
w y ( x, y, z ) = − z z . (B.3)
∂y
∂w x ∂2
2
εx ∂x ∂x
∂w y ∂2
εy = ∂y = − z. ∂y 2 w z = − z.[ Lb ]w z . (B.4)
γ xy
∂w x ∂w y ∂2
+ 2
∂y ∂x ∂x∂y
300 Appendix B
Equations (B.1) and (B.4), together with Hooke’s law, relate the moments
mx, my and mxy to the normal middle surface displacement wz,
mx
m y = −[ Db ].[ Lb ]w z , (B.5)
m xy
1 ν 0
3
[ Db ] =
Et
with ν 1 0 . (B.6)
12(1 − ν 2 ) 1−ν
0 0 2
∂q x ∂q y
p+ + + ρ s tω 2 w z = 0 . (B.7)
∂x ∂y
Neglecting the rotational inertia and all second-order terms, the rotational
dynamic equilibrium around the y-axis requires
∂m x ∂m yx
qx = + . (B.8)
∂x ∂y
∂m y ∂m xy
qy = + . (B.9)
∂y ∂x
mx
T
p + ρ s tω w z + [ Lb ]
2
my = 0 . (B.10)
m xy
Substituting (B.5) into (B.10) yields the steady-state dynamic equation for
the bending motion in a thin, flat plate,
p
∇ 4 w z ( x, y ) − kb4 . w z ( x, y ) = , (B.11)
D
where
∂4 ∂4 ∂4
∇ 4 = [ Lb ] [ Db ][ Lb ] =
T
+ 2 + , (B.12)
∂x 4 ∂x 2∂y 2 ∂y 4
and where the plate bending stiffness D and the bending wavenumber kb are
Et 3 ρ s tω 2
D= , kb = 4 . (B.13)
12(1 − ν 2 ) D
302 Appendix B
t/2 t/2
tx = ∫ σ x . dz , ty = ∫ σ y . dz
−t / 2 −t / 2
(B.14)
t /2 t/2
t xy = ∫ τ xy . dz = ∫ τ yx . dz = t yx .
−t / 2 −t / 2
Since the stresses are invariant in the z-direction, the strains and the
displacement components wx and wy in, respectively, the x- and y-direction
are also invariant in the z-direction. The relation between the strains and the
displacement components wx and wy is
Finite element method for uncoupled structural problems 303
∂
0
ε x ∂x
∂ w x w x
εy = 0
∂y î w y
[ ]
= Lp .
î wy
(B.15)
τ xy
∂ ∂
∂y ∂x
This equation, together with Hooke’s law, relate the forces tx, ty and txy to the
(middle surface) displacement components wx and wy,
tx
w x
[ ]
t y = t[ D]. L p w
î y
(B.16)
t xy
1 ν 0
E
with [ D] = ν 1 0 . (B.17)
(1 − ν 2 ) 1−ν
0 0 2
∂t x ∂t yx
t. b x + + + ρ s tω 2 w x = 0 . (B.18)
∂x ∂y
∂t y ∂t xy
t. by + + + ρ s tω 2 w y = 0 . (B.19)
∂y ∂x
304 Appendix B
Substituting (B.16) into (B.18) and (B.19) yields the steady-state dynamic
equations for the in-plane motion in a thin, flat plate,
∂ 2w x 1 − ν ∂ 2w x 1 + ν ∂ w y 1 − ν 2
2
ρ s (1 − ν 2 )ω 2
+ + + b x + wx = 0 ,
∂x 2 2 ∂y 2 2 ∂x∂y E E
(B.20)
∂ wy 1 − ν ∂ wy 1 + ν ∂ wx 1 − ν
2 2 2 2
ρ ( 1 − ν )ω
2 2
+ + + by + s wy = 0 ,
∂y 2 2 ∂x 2 2 ∂x∂y E E
(B.21)
bx 2 x w x
[ ] [ ]
w T
b + ρ sω w + L p [ D] L p w = 0 . (B.22)
î y î y î y
Finite element method for uncoupled structural problems 305
The weighted residual formulation of the dynamic equation (B.11) for the
out-of-plane bending motion may be based on its originating equilibrium
equations (B.7), (B.8) and (B.9). The formulation defines the steady-state
normal displacement field wz(x,y) in a thin, flat plate Ωs as the displacement
field, for which the integral equation
~ ( p + ρ tω 2 w + ∂q x + ∂q y )dΩ
∫w z s z
∂x ∂y
Ωs
(B.23)
∂w~ ∂m ∂m xy ∂w~ ∂m y ∂m xy
+ ∫ z (q −
x
x − ) dΩ + ∫ z (q −
y − ) dΩ = 0
Ω
∂x ∂x ∂y Ω
∂y ∂y ∂x
s s
is satisfied for any weighting function w ~ , for which the function and its
z
first-order spatial derivatives are bounded and uniquely defined within the
plate surface Ωs and on its boundary Γs.
By rearranging some terms, the weighted residual formulation (B.23) may
be written as
~ q ) ∂ (w~ q )
~ ∂ (w z y
∫ w z ( p + ρ s tω w z ). dΩ +
∫ ). dΩ
2 z x + (
Ωs Ωs
∂ x ∂ y
(B.24)
∂w~ ∂m ∂m xy ∂w~ ∂m y ∂m xy
− ∫ ( z( x + )+ z ( + )). dΩ = 0
Ω
∂x ∂x ∂y ∂y ∂y ∂x
s
normal component of a vector field φ , taken over a closed boundary Γs, is
equal to the integral of the divergence of the vector field, taken over the
surface Ωs, enclosed by the boundary Γs,
~ ~
∫ w z ( p + ρ s tω w z ). dΩ + ∫ w z (q x n x + q y n y ). dΓ
2
Ωs Γs
(B.26)
∂w~ ∂m ∂m xy ∂w~ ∂m y ∂m xy
− ∫ ( z( x + )+ z ( + )). dΩ = 0
Ωs
∂x ∂x ∂y ∂y ∂y ∂x
By rearranging the terms in the third integral term, equation (B.26) may be
written as
~ ~
∫ w z ( p + ρ s tω w z ). dΩ + ∫ wz (q x n x + q y n y ). dΓ
2
Ωs Γs
∂w~ ~
∂
− ∫ ( (mx z ) + ∂ ( m ∂w z )). dΩ
Ωs
∂x ∂x ∂y y ∂y
∂w~ ∂w~ (B.27)
∂ ∂ z )). dΩ
− ∫ ( ( m xy z ) + ( m xy
Ω
∂x ∂y ∂y ∂x
s
~
∂ 2w 2~ 2~
z + m ∂ w z + 2m ∂ w z ). dΩ = 0
+ ∫ (mx
∂x 2
y
∂y 2
xy
∂x∂y
Ωs
Application of the divergence theorem to the third and fourth integral term
in (B.27) yields
~ ~
∫ w z ( p + ρ s tω w z ). dΩ + ∫ w z (q x n x + q y n y ). dΓ
2
Ωs Γs
∂w~ ∂w~
z ( m n + m n ). dΓ −
−∫ ∫ ∂y ( m y n y + m xy n x ). dΓ
z (B.28)
x x xy y
Γs
∂ x Γs
~
∂ 2w 2~ 2~
+ ∫ (mx z + m ∂ w z + 2m ∂ w z ). dΩ = 0
y xy
Ω ∂x 2 ∂y 2 ∂x∂y
s
Finite element method for uncoupled structural problems 307
∂w~ ~ ~ ~ ~
z = ∂w z ∂n ∂w
+ z
∂s
= nx
∂w z − n ∂w z , (B.29)
y
∂x ∂n ∂x ∂s ∂x ∂n ∂s
∂w~ ∂ ~ ~
∂n ∂w ∂s ∂w~ ∂ ~
z = wz + z = ny z + nx
w z . (B.30)
∂y ∂n ∂y ∂s ∂y ∂n ∂s
~ ~
∫ w z ( p + ρ s tω w z ). dΩ + ∫ wz (q x n x + q y n y ). dΓ
2
Ωs Γs
∂w~
−∫ z ( m n 2 + m n 2 + 2m n n ). dΓ
x x y y xy x y
Γs
∂ n
∂w~ (B.31)
−∫ z ( m ( n 2 − n 2 ) + ( m − m )n n ). dΓ
xy x y y x x y
Γ
∂ s
s
~
∂ 2w 2~ 2~
z + m ∂ w z + 2m ∂ w z ). dΩ = 0
+ ∫ (mx
∂x 2
y
∂y 2
xy
∂x∂y
Ωs
308 Appendix B
The internal forces and moments qx, qy, mx, my and mxy along the boundary Γs
may be related to the external forces and moments qn, mn and mns, as shown
in figure B.7(a),
qn = q x n x + q y n y
mn = m x n x2 + m y n y2 + 2m xy n x n y (B.32)
mns = m xy (n x2 − n y2 ) + ( m y − m x )n x n y
~
∂ 2w 2~ 2~
~ z + m ∂ w z + 2m ∂ w z ). dΩ
∫ w z ( p + ρ s tω wz ). dΩ +
∫
2
(mx y xy
Ωs Ωs ∂x 2 ∂y 2 ∂x∂y
~ ~
+ ∫w~ q . dΓ − ∂w z m . dΓ − ∂w z m . dΓ = 0
z n ∫ ∂s ns ∫ ∂n n
Γs Γs Γs
(B.33)
Since the boundary Γs is a closed curve, it can be proven (see e.g.
REKTORYS (1977)) that1
~
∂w ~ ∂mns
∫ ∂s mns . dΓ = − ∫ w z ∂s . dΓ .
z (B.34)
Γs Γs
The torsional moment mns may be omitted and its effect may be replaced by
a shear force, which is added to the shear force qn, yielding a generalised
shear force (see figure B.7(b))
∂mns
Qn = qn + . (B.35)
∂s
1 ~ and m are
provided that the boundary Γs is sufficiently smooth and that w z ns
Substituting (B.34) and (B.35) into (B.33) yields the ‘weak form’ of the
weighted residual formulation of the dynamic equation, which governs the
steady-state normal displacement in a thin, flat plate,
~
∂ 2w 2~ 2~
z + m ∂ w z + 2m ∂ w z ). dΩ + ρ tω 2 w ~ w . dΩ
∫ (m x
∂x 2 y
∂ y 2 xy
∂x ∂y
∫ s z z
Ωs Ωs
(B.36)
∂w~
~ ~
+ ∫ w z p. dΩ + ∫ w z Qn . dΓ − ∫ z m . dΓ = 0
Ω Γ Γ
∂n n
s s s
or in matrix form
Ωs Ωs
~ (B.37)
~ p. dΩ + ~ ∂w
+ ∫w ∫ w z Qn . dΓ − ∫ ∂ n m n . dΓ = 0
z
z
Ωs Γs Γs
310 Appendix B
~ (t. b + ρ tω 2 w + ∂t x + ∂t yx ). dΩ
∫ w x x s x
∂x ∂y
Ωs
(B.38)
~ ( t . b + ρ tω 2 w + ∂t y ∂t xy
+ ∫ w y y s y + ). dΩ = 0
Ωs
∂y ∂x
~ ~ (t. b + ρ tω 2 w )). dΩ
∫ (w x (t. bx + ρ s tω wx ) + w
2
y y s y
Ωs
~ t ) ∂ (w ~ t ) ~ t ) ∂ (w
∂ (w ~ t )
∂ (w y y y xy x xy
+ ∫ ( x x
+ ). dΩ + ∫ ( + ). dΩ (B.39)
Ωs
∂x ∂y Ωs
∂x ∂y
~ ∂w~ ~ ∂w~
∂w y ∂w y
− ∫ ( x
tx + ty + ( x
+ )t ). dΩ = 0
Ω
∂x ∂y ∂y ∂x xy
s
~ ~ (t. b + ρ tω 2 w )). dΩ
∫ ( w x (t. bx + ρ s tω wx ) + w
2
y y s y
Ωs
~ (t n + t n ) + w
+ ∫ (w ~ (t n + t n )). dΓ (B.40)
x x x xy y y y y xy x
Γs
~ ~
∂w ~ ~
∂w
∂w y ∂w y
− ∫ ( x tx + ty + ( x + )t xy ). dΩ = 0
Ωs
∂x ∂y ∂y ∂x
Finite element method for uncoupled structural problems
The internal forces tx, ty and txy along the boundary Γs may be related to the
external force vector T(Tx ,Ty ) , as shown in figure B.8,
311
Tx = t x n x + t yx n y
(B.41)
Ty = t xy n x + t y n y
Substituting (B.41) into (B.40) yields the ‘weak form’ of the weighted
residual formulation of the dynamic equations, which govern the steady-
state in-plane displacement fields in a thin, flat plate,
~ ∂w~ ~ ∂w~
∂w y ∂w y ~ w +w~ w ). dΩ
− ∫ ( x tx + ty + ( x + )t xy ). dΩ + ∫ ρ s tω 2 ( w x x y y
Ωs
∂ x ∂ y ∂y ∂ x Ωs
~ ~ ~ ~
∫ t (w x bx + w y by ). dΩ + ∫ ( w x Tx + w y Ty ). dΓ = 0
Ωs Γs
(B.42)
or in matrix form
w~ ~ T w
w x 2 w x x
[ ] x T
î wy
[ ]
− ∫ t ( L p ~ ) [ D] L p . dΩ + ∫ ρ s tω ( ~ ). dΩ
î wy î wy î wy
Ωs Ωs
(B.43)
w~ T b ~ T T
w
x x x x
+ ∫ t ( ~ ). dΩ + ∫ ~ . dΓ = 0
w b w T
Ωs î y î y Γs î y î y
312 Appendix B
w z = w z on Γ s 1 , (B.44)
∂w z
= −θ n on Γ s 1 , (B.45)
∂n
∂mns
Qn = q n + on Γ s 2 , (B.46)
∂s
mn = mn on Γ s 2 . (B.47)
w z = w z on Γ s 3 , (B.48)
mn = mn on Γ s 3 . (B.49)
The plate surface Ωs is discretized into a number of small subdomains Ωse
(‘finite elements’) and a number of nodes, say ne, are defined at some
particular locations in each element. Within each element, the distribution of
the field variable, i.e. the normal middle surface displacement wz, is
approximated as an expansion w z in terms of a number, say nw, of
prescribed shape functions, which are only defined within the considered
element domain Ωse. For the commonly used triangular and rectangular2
plate elements, the nodes are defined at each corner point of the element and
∂w ∂w
three degrees of freedom (w z ,θ x = − z ,θ y = − z ) are specified per
∂x ∂y
node (nw=3ne). Hence,
ne 3
w z ( x, y ) ≈ w z ( x, y ) = ∑ ∑ N nd
e
( x , y ). and ( x, y ) ∈ Ω se . (B.50)
n =1d =1
2
and their mapped quadrilateral plate elements
314 Appendix B
are defined in the entire plate surface Ωs. In each element domain Ωse to
which node n belongs, the global shape function N nd is identical to the
e
corresponding element shape function N nd , while it is zero in all other
element domains. In this way, a global displacement expansion may be
defined as
ns 3
∑ ∑ N nd ( x, y). and = [ N ]. {wi }
w z ( x, y ) = ( x, y ) ∈ Ω s , (B.51)
n =1d =1
(1x3ns) vector of global shape functions and {wi } is a (3nsx1) vector of
unknown nodal translational and rotational degrees of freedom,
{wi } = {wz 1 }
T
θ x 1 θ y1 w zn s θ xn s θ yn s . (B.52)
According to (B.5), the corresponding approximations for the moments mx,
my and mxy become then
mx mx
m y ≈ m y = −[ Db ].[ Lb ][ N ]{wi } = [ Db ].[ Bb ]{wi } , (B.53)
m xy m xy
with the (3x3ns) matrix
∂ 2N ∂ 2 N 12 ∂ 2 N13 ∂ 2 Nns 1 ∂ 2 Nns 2 ∂ 2 Nns 3
11
∂x 2 ∂x 2 ∂x 2 ∂x 2 ∂x 2 ∂x 2
∂ 2N ∂ 2 N 12 ∂ 2 N13 ∂ Nns 1 2
∂ Nns 2
2
∂ 2 Nns 3
[ Bb ] = − 211
∂y ∂y 2 ∂y 2 ∂y 2 ∂y 2 ∂y 2
2
2 ∂ N 11 ∂ 2 N12 ∂ 2 N 13 ∂ 2 Nns 1 ∂ 2 Nns 2 ∂ 2 N n s 3
2 2 2 2 2
∂x∂y ∂x∂y ∂x∂y ∂x∂y ∂x∂y ∂x∂y
(B.54)
Finite element method for uncoupled structural problems 315
variable expansion,
w z { ~i }
~ ( x, y ) = [ N ]. w ( x, y ) ∈ Ω s . (B.55)
~
∂ 2w ~
∂ 2w ∂ 2w~
∫ (mx z
+ m y
z
+ 2m xy
z
). dΩ =
Ωs ∂x 2
∂y 2 ∂ x ∂y
(B.56)
− ∫ (
[ B ]{w
b i} )
~ T . D . B w . dΩ = − w
[ b ] [ b ]{ i } { ~i }T .[ K b ]. {wi },
Ωs
Ωs
Ωs
∫ ( ρ s tω
2
2~
w z . w z ). dΩ =
( ~
)
∫ ( ρ s tω [ N ]{wi } .[ N ]{wi }). dΩ = ω {wi } .[ Mb ]. {wi },
T 2 ~ T (B.58)
These structural stiffness and mass matrices are sparsely populated, since
each global shape function N nd has only non-zero values in the domains of
those elements, to which node n belongs. As a result, the practical
calculation of these matrices may be based on an efficient assemblage
procedure of element stiffness and mass matrices, in a similar way as
already discussed in appendix A for acoustic finite element models.
The third integral term in (B.36) becomes
~
∫ (w z . p)dΩ = ∫ (
[ N ]{w
)
~ T . p dΩ = w
i} { ~i }T . {Pi } , (B.60)
Ωs Ωs
∂w~
~
∫ w z Qn dΓ −∫ ∂ n m n dΓ =
z
Γs Γs
∂w~ ~
∂w
~ Q dΓ − z m dΓ + ~ Q dΓ −
∫ z n ∫ ∫ z n ∫ ∂n mn dΓ = (B.62)
w w z
n
Γ s2 Γ s2 +Γ s3
∂ n Γ s1 +Γ s3 Γ s1
i { ni } { ni }
{w~ } .( Q − M ) + {w~ } .({Q } − {M }),
T T
i ni ni
{Qni } = ∫ ([ N ] )
Qn . dΓ ,
T
(B.63)
Γ s2
{Qni } = ∫ ([ N ] )
Qn . dΓ ,
T
(B.64)
Γ s1 + Γ s 3
{ Mni } =
(
)
T
∫ {n} [∂ ][ N ] mn . dΓ ,
T
(B.65)
Γ s2 +Γ s3
Finite element method for uncoupled structural problems 317
where the (2x1) vector {n} consists of the x- and y-components of the unit
vector, normal to the plate boundary and where the (2x1) vector [∂ ] consists
of the spatial gradient operators in the x- and y-direction. Note that, as it is
the case for the stiffness and mass matrices, only a few coefficients in the
vectors (B.63)-(B.66) are non-zero, due to the particular shapes of the global
shape functions.
By substituting (B.56), (B.58), (B.60) and (B.62) into (B.36), the weighted
residual formulation becomes
Since the weighted residual formulation should hold for any expansion of
the weighting function, i.e. for any set of shape function contributions {wi}
~ ,
a set of 3ns equations in the 3ns unknown nodal translational and rotational
degrees of freedom wi is obtained,
The kinematic boundary conditions (B.44), (B.45) and (B.48) are not yet
included in matrix equation (B.68). This is usually done by directly
assigning the prescribed values of the translational and/or rotational degrees
of freedom at each node location on the boundaries Γs1 and Γs3 to the
corresponding nodal unknowns wi . When this assignment is done for nw
nodal degrees of freedom, only n p ( = 3ns − nw ) nodal degrees of freedom
are still unknown. This means that nw equations should be eliminated in
matrix equation (B.68) to have a well-determined set of equations. This is
318 Appendix B
usually done by eliminating the rows in (B.68), which express the weighted
residual formulation, in which the global shape functions, associated with
the a priori assigned nodal degrees of freedom, are used as weighting
functions.
By eliminating the appropriate rows in (B.68) and by shifting all terms in
the left-hand side of (B.68), which contain the a priori assigned nodal
degrees of freedom, to the right-hand side vector, the finite element model
for the bending motion in a thin, flat plate is obtained,
where the (npx1) vector {wi } contains the remaining unknown nodal
translational and rotational degrees of freedom and where the stiffness and
mass matrices [ K b ] and [ Mb ] are now (npxnp) matrices. In discretizations
with the above mentioned rectangular and triangular plate elements, the
non-zero coefficients in {Qni } occur only in the eliminated equations of
(B.68). Due to the non-conformity of these discretizations, which will be
discussed later on, some non-zero coefficients in {Mni } occur also in non-
eliminated equations in (B.68). However, these non-zero coeffcients are
usually not taken into account in the right-hand side vector of the finite
element model (B.69). As a result, the (npx1) vector {Fbi } contains the
terms in the a priori assigned nodal degrees of freedom and the contributions
from the vector {Pi } , which results from the external load on the plate, and
from the vectors {Qni } and { Mni } , which result from the forces and
moments, applied on (parts of) the plate boundary.
In order to take into account the effect of the material damping in the plate,
a structural damping matrix [ Cb ] may be introduced in (B.69), yielding a
finite element model
[Cb ] = α [ K b ] + β[ Mb ] . (B.71)
E * = E ( 1 + jη ) , (B.72)
e
The 12 shape functions N nd of this parent element are
1
N ne1 = (1 + x n x )( 1 + yn y )( 2 + x n x + yn y − x 2 − y 2 )
8
1
N ne2 = x n (1 + x n x ) 2 (1 − x n x )( 1 + yn y ) ( n = 1..4) (B.73)
8
1
N ne3 = yn (1 + x n x )(1 + yn y ) 2 (1 − yn y )
8
w x = w x on Γ s 4 , (B.74)
w y = w y on Γ s 4 , (B.75)
Tx = Tx on Γ s 5 , (B.76)
Ty = Ty on Γ s 5 , (B.77)
The plate surface Ωs is discretized into a number of small subdomains Ωse
(‘finite elements’) and a number of nodes, say ne, are defined at some
particular locations in each element. Within each element, the distributions
of the field variables, i.e. the displacement wx and wy, are approximated as
expansions w x and w y in terms of a number, say nw, of prescribed shape
functions, which are only defined within the considered element domain Ωse.
For the commonly used triangular and rectangular4 plate elements, the nodes
4
and their mapped quadrilateral plate elements
322 Appendix B
are defined at each corner point of the element and, for each field variable,
one degree of freedom is specified per node. Hence,
ne
w x ( x, y) ≈ w x ( x, y) = ∑ Nie ( x, y). a xi ( x , y ) ∈ Ω se , (B.78)
i=1
ne
w y ( x, y ) ≈ w y ( x, y ) = ∑ Nie ( x, y). a yi ( x, y ) ∈ Ω se . (B.79)
i=1
The contributions axi and ayi in these expansions may be determined from
the weighted residual formulation (B.42).
Each shape function N ie is defined, such that it has a unit value at the
location of node i and that it is zero at all other node locations. In this way,
the contributions axi and ayi in the displacement expansions (B.78) and (B.79)
represent the approximated displacement values in, respectively, the x- and
y-direction at the location of node i.
Based on the element shape functions N ie , which are locally defined in one
element Ωse, some global shape functions Ni may be constructed, which are
defined in the entire plate surface Ωs. In each element domain Ωse to which
node i belongs, the global shape function Ni is identical to the
!! "
corresponding element shape function N ie , while it is zero in all other
element domains. In this way, global displacement expansions may be
defined as
w x ( x , y ) n s w xi
w ( x , y ) = ∑ Ni ( x, y ). w = [ N ]. {wi } ( x, y ) ∈ Ω s , (B.80)
î y i=1 î yi
##
where ns is the total number of nodes in the plate discretization, [ N ] is a
(2xns) matrix of global shape functions,
$
N1 0 N2 0 N ns 0
[ N] = 0 N1 0 N2 0 N n s
, (B.81)
w y1 wx 2 wy2 w xn s w yn s }
T
.
323
(B.82)
,, - .
According to (B.16), the corresponding approximations for the forces tx, ty
,
and txy become then
tx tx
[ ] [ ]
t y ≈ t y = t[ D]. L p [ N ]{wi } = t[ D]. B p {wi } , (B.83)
t xy t xy
//
with the (3x2ns) matrix
∂N 1 ∂N 2 ∂N n s
0 0 0
/
∂x ∂x ∂x
∂N 1 ∂N 2 ∂N n s
[ ]
Bp = 0
∂y
0
∂y
0
∂y
. (B.84)
∂N 1 ∂N 1 ∂N 2 ∂N 2 ∂N n s ∂N n s
∂y ∂x ∂y ∂x ∂y ∂x
w~ ( x , y )
~ ( x , y ) = [ N ]. {wi }
x ~
w ( x, y ) ∈ Ω s . (B.85)
î y
0 1
~ ~
∂w ~ ~
∂w
∂w y ∂w y
− ∫ ( x tx + ty + ( x + )t xy ). dΩ =
Ωs
∂x ∂y ∂y ∂x
(B.86)
− ∫
Ωs
([ ] )
i} [ ]
~ T .[ D]. B w . dΩ = − w
t B p {w p { i } { ~i }T . K p . {wi } [ ]
324 Appendix B
[K p ] = ∫ [ ] [ ]
t B T . D . B . dΩ .
p [ ] p
(B.87)
Ωs
2 3
~ w +w~ w ). dΩ =
∫ ρ s tω
2
(w x x y y
Ωs
(B.88)
∫ ρ s tω 2 ([ N ]{wi })
~ T .[ N ] w . dΩ = ω 2 w
{ i } [ ]
{ ~i }T . M p .{wi },
Ωs
As it is the case for the finite element model for the out-of-plane bending
motion, these stiffness and mass matrices are sparsely populated and their
practical calculation is based on an assemblage of element stiffness and
mass matrices.
The third integral term in (B.42) becomes
~ ~
∫ t (w x bx + w y by ). dΩ =
Ωs
(B.90)
~ T . bx . dΩ = w
∫
t (
[ N ]{w i} )
b { ~i }T . {Bi },
Ωs î y
b
{Bi } = t ∫ [ N ] T . b . dΩ
x
. (B.91)
Ωs îy
~ ~
∫ (w x Tx + w y Ty ). dΓ =
Γs
(B.92)
~ ~
∫ ( w x Tx + w y Ty ). dΓ +
~ ~ ~ T
{ }
∫ ( w x Tx + w y Ty ). dΓ = {wi } .( Ti + {Ti })
Γ s5 Γ s4
T
{Ti } = ∫ [ N ] . T . dΓ
T x
, (B.93)
Γ s5 î y
T
{Ti } = ∫ [ N ] T . T . dΓ
x
, (B.94)
Γ s4 y
î
4
By substituting (B.86), (B.88), (B.90) and (B.92) into (B.42), the weighted
residual formulation becomes
5
Since the weighted residual formulation should hold for any expansion of
the weighting functions, i.e. for any set of shape function contributions
6
{w~i } , a set of 2ns equations in the 2ns unknown nodal translational degrees
of freedom wi is obtained,
7
~ is zero, or vice versa.
~ , while the weighting function w
function w x y
The kinematic boundary conditions (B.74) and (B.75) are not yet included in
matrix equation (B.96). This is usually done by directly assigning the
prescribed values of the translational degrees of freedom at each node
location on the boundary Γs4 to the corresponding nodal unknowns wi .
When this assignment is done for nw nodal degrees of freedom, only
n p ( = 2ns − nw ) nodal degrees of freedom are still unknown. This means
that nw equations should be eliminated in matrix equation (B.96) to have a
well-determined set of equations. This is usually done by eliminating the
rows in (B.96), which express the weighted residual formulation, in which
the global shape functions, associated with the nodes on boundary Γs4, are
used as weighting functions.
By eliminating the appropriate rows in (B.96) and by shifting all terms in
the left-hand side of (B.96), which contain the a priori assigned nodal
degrees of freedom, to the right-hand side vector, the finite element model
for the in-plane motion in a thin, flat plate is obtained,
where the (npx1) vector {wi } contains the remaining unknown nodal
degrees of freedom and where the stiffness and mass matrices K p and [ ]
[M p ] are now (npxnp) matrices. In discretizations with rectangular and
triangular plate elements, the non-zero coefficients in {Ti } occur only in the
{ } contains
eliminated equations of (B.96). As a result, the (npx1) vector Fpi
the terms in the a priori assigned nodal degrees of freedom and the
contributions from the vector {Bi } , which results from the body forces in
{ }
the plate, and from the vector Ti , which result from the forces, applied on
(parts of) the plate boundary.
In a similar way as for the finite element model for out-of-plane bending
[ ]
motion, a structural damping matrix C p may be introduced in (B.97), in
Finite element method for uncoupled structural problems 327
order to take into account the effect of the material damping in the plate.
This yields the finite element model
• co-ordinate transformation :
Since each plate element model is expressed in its local element co-
ordinate system (xe,ye,ze), in which the plate element is located in the
(xe,ye)-plane, the plate element models must be transformed to one global
co-ordinate system (x,y,z). As shown in figure B.11, the displacement
components of the middle surface of a plate section in each direction of
the local co-ordinate system have the following relation with the
displacement components in the directions of the glocal co-ordinate
system:
w e w x
x
[ ]
w y e = R
w e
e
. w y
w
(B.99)
898:8
î z î z
T
s1ex s 2e x n ex
[ Re ] = {s1e }
T
with s 2e ne = s1ey s 2e y n ye (B.100)
s e s 2e z n ze
1z
assemblage of the plate element models into a global shell model. In this
way, each of the ne nodes in a plate element has 6 degrees of freedom and
;
the approximations for the middle surface displacement components in
each plate section become
w e
x
[ ]{ }
<
e e
w y e ≈ N se . w se . (B.101)
w e
î z
=
The (6nex1) vector {wsee } contains the nodal degrees of freedom,
= =>
expressed in the local element co-ordinate system,
ase
e
,1
{ }
? ?A? ?
?B?
? {@
e
w se = (B.102)
a e
î se, n e
with
{asee ,n } = }
T
wx en wye n wz e n θ x e n θ y e n θ z e n ( n: 1.. ne ) (B.103)
The (3x6ne) matrix [ Nsee ] contains the shape functions, used in the
C
element models for the in-plane and the out-of-plane motion of a flat
plate (see (B.50), (B.78) and (B.79)),
[ Nsee ] = [ Nsee,1 e
N se , ne ] (B.104)
N ne 0 0 0 0 0
with [ e
N se ]
,n = 0
0
N ne 0 0 0
0 (n: 1.. ne ) . (B.105)
0 N ne1 N ne2 N ne3 0
Note that the last column in the latter matrices (B.105) is the zero vector,
indicating that the additional degrees of freedom have no influence on
the displacement predictions.
330 Appendix B
D E
Based on the co-ordinate transformation (B.99), the nodal degrees of
freedom in each plate element may be transformed to the global co-
ordinate system,
[ ]
Re
0
T =
e
0
Re
F
,
(B.107)
G
e
R 0
R e
0
H
and where the (6nex1) vector {wse } contains the nodal degrees of
H HI
freedom, expressed in the global co-ordinate system,
ase,1
{ }
J JKJ'J JJJ
w se = (B.108)
a e
î s, n e
{ } { }
T
with ase, n = w xn w yn w zn θ xn θ yn θ zn ( n: 1.. ne ) . (B.109)
Combining (B.99), (B.101) and (B.106) yields the approximations for the
middle surface displacement components in each plate section, expressed
L
in the global co-ordinate system,
w x
w
[ ]{ }
w y ≈ N s . w s ,
e e
(B.110)
î z
Finite element method for uncoupled structural problems 331
M
obtained, yielding
w x
N
w y ≈ [ N s ]. {w s } , (B.112)
w
î z
O
expressed in the global co-ordinate system, of the ns nodes in the shell
discretization and where the (3x6ns) matrix [ N s ] contains all globally
defined shape functions.
P
the weighted residual formulation (B.36) is used, in which the expansions
for the out-of-plane displacement and the weighting function become now
{ } .[ N s ]. {w s }, { }
[ s ] { ~s } .
T ~ = ne T . N . w
wz e = n e w ze
(B.113)
This yields a plate element model for the out-of-plane bending motion
332
e
sb
2 e
sb Q
([ K ] − ω [ M ]).{w } = {P } + {F } + {F } .
s s
e e
sb
e
sb
Appendix B
(B.114)
e
The (6nsx6ns) stiffness and mass matrices K sb e
and M sb [ ] [ ] in this model
are
se
[ Msbe ] = ρ st Ω∫
[ Ns ] n . n
T e
{ }{ }
e T
[ N s ] . dΩ . (B.116)
se
The (6nsx1) generalised force vector {Pse } results from the external load
distribution p on the considered plate section,
The (6nsx1) generalised force vector {Fsbe } results from the prescribed
forces and moments, applied on the part of the plate element boundary Γ se ,
that belongs to the parts of the shell boundary with mechanical boundary
conditions,
{Fsbe } = Γ ∫ ([ N ] {n }. Q ). dΓ
s
T e
n
se ∩ Γ s 2
(B.118)
{ }
T
− ∫
{n} T
[∂ ] n e T
[ N ]
s . mn . dΓ
Γ se ∩ ( Γ s 1 ∪ Γ s 3 )
e
The (6nsx1) generalised force vector Fsb { } results from the internal forces
and moments along the plate element boundary,
Finite element method for uncoupled structural problems 333
{Fsbe } = Γ ∫
\Γ s2
([ N ] {n }.Q ). dΓ
s
T e
n
se
(B.119)
{ }
T
{n} T [∂ ] n e [ N s ] . mn . dΓ
T
− ∫
Γ se \(Γ s 1 ∪ Γ s 3 )
R
In a similar way, the weighted residual formulation (B.42) yields a plate
element model for the in-plane motion,
([ K ] − ω [ M ]).{w } = {B } + {F } + {F } .
e
sp
2 e
sp s
e
s
e
sp
e
sp (B.120)
The total model for each plate element in the shell discretization is obtained
S
from a simple addition of the out-of-plane element model (B.114) and the
in-plane element model (B.120),
([ K ] − ω [ M ]).{w } = {P } + {B } + {F } + {F },
e
s
2 e
s s s
e e
s s
e
s
e
(B.121)
with
[ Kse ] = [K sbe ] + [ Kspe ], [ Mse ] = [ Msbe ] + [ Mspe ], (B.122)
{Fse } = {Fsbe } + {Fspe }, {Fse } = {Fsbe } + {Fspe }.
global finite element model
The global finite element model for a shell discretization, which consists of
T
nse plate elements, is obtained from a simple addition of the different plate
element models (B.121),
[ ] [ ][ ] [ M se ],
n se n se
Ks = ∑ K se , M s = ∑
e=1 e=1
with (B.124)
{Fs } = e∑= 1{ } + e∑= 1{ } + e∑= 1{ }.
n se n se n se
Pse Bse Fse
334 Appendix B
Note that the internal nodal forces and moments vanish in the generalised
force vector { Fs } , since the equilibrium between the different plate
elements requires
∑ {Fse } = {0} .
n se
(B.125)
e=1
In a similar way as for flat plates, the kinematic boundary conditions of the
shell are taken into account by a priori assigning the appropriate values to
the corresponding nodal degrees of freedom. This yields, together with the
introduction of a (proportional) damping matrix, the finite element model
for a thin, elastic shell model,
where the vector {wi } contains all unconstrained, i.e. not a priori known,
nodal degrees of freedom in the shell discretization and where {Fsi }
contains the nodal forces and moments, resulting from the external
excitations on the shell and from the forces and moments, applied on the
shell boundaries. Note that, when all plate elements, meeting at a certain
node in the shell discretization, are co-planar, the matrix equation (B.126)
becomes singular, due to the additional out-of-plane rotational degrees of
freedom in that node. To eliminate this singularity, some dedicated
numerical treatments must be introduced. A commonly used treatment
consists of assembling the equations, associated with nodes where elements
are co-planar, in local co-ordinates, which allows to eliminate the
singularities and the associated out-of-plane rotational degrees of freedom.
For a detailed discussion of some alternative treatments, as well as for a
discussion of some special plate elements for axisymmetric shells and some
curved shell elements, the reader is referred to e.g. ZIENKIEWICZ and
TAYLOR (1991).
Appendix C. DIRECT BOUNDARY ELEMENT
METHOD FOR UNCOUPLED ACOUSTIC
PROBLEMS
− jk r − r
a
e
G( r , ra ) = (C.1)
4π r − ra
∇ 2 G( r , ra ) + k 2 . G( r , ra ) = −δ ( r − ra ) (C.2)
∂G( r , ra )
lim r - ra .( + jkG( r , ra )) = 0 . (C.3)
r - ra →∞ ∂ r - ra
Hence, the Green’s kernel function G(r,ra) represents the free-field pressure
at any position r due to an acoustic point source at position ra. Note that this
336 Appendix C
∂ψ ∂ϕ
∫ (ϕ . ∂n − ψ . ∂n ). dΩ = ∫ (ϕ . ∇ ψ − ψ . ∇ ϕ ). dV ,
2 2
(C.4)
Ω s V
where the direction n, normal to the boundary surface Ωs, has a positive
orientation away from domain V.
Figure C.1
At any position ra in the domain V, bounded by Ωa, ΩR1 and ΩR2 (shaded
region in figure C.1), the Green’s kernel function G(r,ra) is non-singular,
since the point at position r is not located in V, and the function satisfies the
homogeneous Helmholtz equation,
Direct boundary element method for uncoupled acoustic problems 337
∇ 2 G( r , ra ) + k 2 . G( r , ra ) = 0 , ( ra ∈ V , r ∉ V ). (C.5)
The application of the Green’s second identity (C.4) with the above defined
Green’s kernel function as ψ and with a function p, which satisfies the
homogenous Helmholtz equation and the Sommerfeld radiation condition,
∇ 2 p( ra ) + k 2 . p( ra ) = 0 , ra ∈ V , (C.6)
∂p( ra )
lim ra .( + jkp( ra )) = 0 , (C.7)
ra →∞ ∂ ra
as ϕ, yields
∂G( r , ra ) ∂p( ra )
∫ ( p( ra ). − G( r , ra ). ). dΩ ( ra ) = 0 . (C.8)
Ω a + Ω R1 + Ω R2
∂n ∂n
∂G( r , ra ) ∂p( ra )
∫ ( p( ra ). − G( r , ra ). ). dΩ ( ra ) =
Ω R1
∂n ∂n
2π π
∂ e − jkR1 e − jkR1 ∂p( R1 , φ ,θ ) 2
∫ ∫ − p ( R1 , φ , θ ). ( ) + ( ) . R1 sin θ . dθ . dφ =
0 0
∂R1 4πR1 4πR1 ∂R1
2π π
e − jkR1
R e − jkR1 ∂p( R1 , φ ,θ )
∫ ∫ p( R1 , φ ,θ ).(1 + jkR1 ). 4π + 1
4π
.
∂R1
.sin θ . dθ . dφ
0 0
(C.9)
p( ra ) = p( R1 , φ , θ ) → p( r ) , (C.10)
338 Appendix C
∂G( r , ra ) ∂p( ra )
lim ∫ ( p( ra ). − G( r , ra ). ). dΩ ( ra )
R1 → 0 Ω ∂n ∂n
R1
2π π sin θ
= p( r ). ∫ ∫ dθ . dφ (C.11)
4π
0 0
= p( r ).
∂G( r , ra ) ∂p( ra )
∫ ( p( ra ). − G( r , ra ). ). dΩ ( ra ) =
Ω R2
∂n ∂n
2π π
∂ e − jkR2 e − jkR2 ∂p( R2 , φ ,θ ) 2 . dφ =
∫ ∫ p ( R2 , φ , θ ). ( ) − ( ) . R2 sin θ . d θ
0 0
∂ R2 4πR2 4 π R2 ∂ R2
2π π e − jkR2
∂p( R2 , φ , θ )
− ∫ ∫ p( R2 , φ ,θ ) + R2 ( ∂R2
+ jkp( R2 , φ ,θ )) .sin θ . dθ . dφ
0 0 4π
(C.12)
∂G( r , ra ) ∂p( ra )
lim ∫ ( p( ra ). − G( r , ra ). ). dΩ ( ra ) = 0. (C.13)
R2 →∞ Ω ∂n ∂n
R2
∂G( r , ra ) ∂p( ra )
∫ ( p( ra ). − G( r , ra ). ). dΩ ( ra ) = − p( r ). (C.14)
Ωa
∂n ∂n
By defining the direction ν, normal to the closed boundary surface Ωa, with
a positive orientation into the unbounded domain V (ν=-n), the direct
boundary integral formulation for exterior problems is obtained. This
formulation states that, for any pressure field, which satisfies the
homogeneous Helmholtz equation (C.6) and the Sommerfeld radiation
condition (C.7), the pressure at any point r in the unbounded domain V\Ωa is
related to the pressure distribution p(ra) and the normal velocity distribution
vν(ra) on the closed surface Ωa,
∂G( r , ra )
p( r ) = ∫ ( p( ra ). + jρ 0ωG( r , ra ). vν ( ra )). dΩ ( ra ). (C.15)
Ωa
∂ν
When the point at position r is located on the closed surface Ωa, as shown in
figure C.2,
Figure C.2
the surface ΩR1, becomes a hemisphere for R1→0. Provided that the surface
Ωa is smooth, i.e. that the normal direction is uniquely defined at any
position on the surface, expression (C.11) yields
340 Appendix C
∂G( r , ra ) ∂p( ra )
lim
R1 → 0 Ω
∫ ( p( ra ). ∂n − G( r , ra ). ∂n ). dΩ ( ra )
R1
2π π / 2 sin θ
= p( r ). ∫ ∫ dθ . dφ (C.16)
0 0 4π
1
= p( r ).
2
1 ∂G( r , ra )
p( r ) = ∫ ( p( ra ). + jρ 0ωG( r , ra ). vν ( ra )). dΩ ( ra ). (C.17)
2 Ω
∂ν
a
Figure C.3
∂G( r , ra )
0= ∫ ( p( ra ). + jρ 0ωG( r , ra ). vν ( ra )). dΩ ( ra ). (C.18)
Ωa
∂ν
The formulations (C.15), (C.17) and (C.18) for smooth surfaces Ωa may be
combined into the general direct boundary integral formulation for exterior
acoustic problems,
∂G( r , ra )
C( r ). p( r ) = ∫ ( p( ra ). + jρ 0ωG( r , ra ). vν ( ra )). dΩ ( ra ) , (C.19)
Ωa
∂ν
with
1, r ∈ V \ Ωa ,
C( r ) = 0, r ∉ V , (C.20)
1
, r ∈ Ωa .
î 2
For non-smooth surfaces Ωa, it can be proven that, for positions r at the
edges and corners on the surface, where the normal direction is not uniquely
defined, this coefficient is
∂
1 1
Ω
∫ ∂ν r − ra
C( r ) = 1 + ( ). d ( r )
a (C.21)
4π Ω a
and represents the exterior solid angle, expressed as a fraction of 4π, of the
boundary surface Ωa at the surface position r.
Figure C.4
∇ 2 p + k 2 . p = − j ρ 0 ωq, (C.22)
p= p on Ω p , (C.23)
v . n = vn on Ω v , (C.24)
v. n =
p
= Ap, on Ω Z , (C.25)
Z
∇ 2 pa + k 2 . pa = 0, (C.26)
p a = p − pb on Ω p , (C.27)
j ∂pa j ∂pb
= vn − on Ω v , (C.28)
ρ 0ω ∂ n ρ 0ω ∂n
j ∂pa ∂pb
pa = Z ( ( + )) − pb , on Ω Z . (C.29)
ρ 0 ω ∂n ∂n
For exterior problems, the pressure field pa must also satisfy the Sommerfeld
radiation condition. As a result, a numerical solution procedure is needed
only for the homogeneous subproblem. Therefore, the below discussion of
the boundary element method may be confined to homogeneous problems
without loss of generality.
For the determination of the pressure and normal velocity distribution on the
closed boundary surface Ωa, the surface is discretized into a number of small
subsurfaces Ωae (‘boundary elements’) and a number, say ne, of nodes are
defined at some particular locations in each element. Within each element,
344 Appendix C
the distributions of the two boundary variables, i.e the pressure p and the
normal velocity vn, are approximated as expansions p and vn in terms of a
number of prescribed shape functions, which are only defined within the
considered element domain Ωae. For the most commonly used types of
triangular and quadrilateral boundary elements, the nodes are defined at
each corner point of the element and, for each boundary variable, one degree
of freedom is specified per node. Hence,
ne
p( ra ) ≈ p( r a) = ∑ Nie (ra ). a pi ( ra ∈ Ω ae ) , (C.30)
i=1
ne
vn ( ra ) ≈ vn ( ra ) = ∑ Nie ( ra ). avi ( ra ∈ Ω ae ) . (C.31)
i=1
Each shape function N ie is defined, such that it has a unit value at the
location of node i and that it is zero at all other node locations. In this way,
the contributions api and avi in the expansions (C.30) and (C.31) represent,
respectively, the approximated pressure and normal velocity values at the
location of node i.
Based on the element shape functions N ie , which are locally defined within
one boundary element Ωae, some global shape functions Ni may be
constructed, which are defined in the entire boundary surface Ωa. In each
element domain Ωae to which node i belongs, the global shape function Ni
is identical to the corresponding element shape function N ie , while it is zero
in all other element domains. In this way, global boundary variable
expansions may be defined as
p( ra ) = [ N ]. { pi } ( ra ∈ Ω a ) ,
(C.32)
v n ( ra ) = [ ] { ni }
N. v ( ra ∈ Ω a ) , (C.33)
Abi = δ bi . 1 +
1 ∂ 1
Ω − N ( r ). ∂G( rb , ra ) . dΩ ( r )
∫ (
4π Ω ∂n rb − ra
). d ( ra ∫
) i a
∂n a
a Ω a
(C.35)
where the normal direction n has a positive orientation into the acoustic
domain and where δbi is the Kronecker delta, which is 1 for b=i and 0 for
b≠i. The coefficient Bbi on column i in the (1xna) matrix [ Bb ] is
Bbi = ∫ Ni ( ra ). G( rb , ra ). dΩ ( ra ) . (C.36)
Ωa
By writing an equation of type (C.34) for each node b=1..na, the direct
boundary element model is obtained,
[ A]{ pi } = jρ 0ω [ B]{vni } , (C.37)
where the (1xna) matrices [ Ab ] and [ Bb ] (b=1..na) form the rows of the
(naxna) matrices [ A] and [ B] , respectively.
The boundary element model (C.37) is a set of na algebraic equations in the
2na nodal unknowns. However, since the boundary conditions (C.23), (C.24)
and (C.25) impose, respectively, a prescribed pressure, a prescribed normal
velocity or a prescribed impedance relation between both boundary
variables, at each node either the pressure value pi or the normal velocity
value vni or their impedance relation is known a priori. The remaining na
unknown nodal degrees of freedom result from the na equations in the
boundary element model (C.37).
346 Appendix C
∂G( r , ra )
Ci = ∫ Ni ( ra ). . dΩ ( ra ) , (C.39)
Ωa
∂n
Di = jρ 0ω ∫ Ni ( ra ). G( r , ra ). dΩ ( ra ) . (C.40)
Ωa
convergence
Since the direct boundary integral formulation (C.19) contains no spatial
derivatives of the boundary pressure and boundary normal velocity, the
convergence of a boundary element discretization is ensured, even if the
expansions (C.32) and (C.33) are discontinuous along the interelement
boundaries (C-1-continuity).
As indicated e.g. by BREBBIA et al. (1984), a family of C-1-continuous
(‘discontinuous’) elements can be defined, for which the nodes are located
within the element and for which the element shape functions are based on
-1
Lagrangian polynomials. The most simple C -continuous elements are
constant elements, which have one node, defined at the centre of the
element, and one constant shape function.
Although the convergence of discretizations with constant elements is
ensured, the convergence rate may be rather slow. Therefore, 3-noded linear
triangular and 4-noded linear quadrilateral elements are commonly used
elements. The nodes of these elements are located at the corner points of the
element and their linear element shape functions allow a C0-continuous field
variable expansion (see appendix A). A commonly used tool to enhance the
convergence rate is the duplication of nodes at the edges and corners of the
boundary surface, where the normal direction to the boundary surface is not
uniquely defined (see figure C.5(a)), and at the intersecting curves between
Direct boundary element method for uncoupled acoustic problems 347
parts of the boundary surface with different boundary conditions (see figure
C.5(b)). Instead of defining one node, which belongs to m different
elements, m different nodes are defined at the same location, but the global
shape functions, associated with each of these nodes, are only non-zero
within one of the m elements, as illustrated in figure C.6. This allows to take
into account the different boundary conditions, imposed at one location.
Note that the m rows in the boundary element model (C.37), each of them
expressing the direct boundary integral formulation for a position r,
348 Appendix C
The coefficients Bbi on row b and column i in the (mxna) matrices [ Bm ] are
defined by (C.36) and the coefficients Abi1 on row b and column i in the
(mxna) matrix [ Am1 ] are
∂G( rb , ra )
Abi 1 = − ∫ Ni ( ra ). . dΩ ( ra ) . (C.42)
Ωa
∂n
Since all duplicated nodes are located at the same position rb, all rows in
matrix [ Bm ] are identical and all rows in matrix [ Am1 ] are identical.
All coefficients in the (mxna) matrix [ Am2 ] are zero, except the ones, which
belong to the diagonal of the global model matrix [ A] and which all have an
identical value C,
0 0 C 0 0
0
[ Am2 ] = 0 C
0
0
(C.43)
0
0 C 0
0
1 ∂ 1
with C = 1+ ∫ ( ). dΩ ( ra ) . (C.44)
4π Ω ∂n rb − ra
a
Due to this particular form, each part of type (C.41) in the boundary element
model (C.37) ensures that the pressure degrees of freedom of all duplicated
nodes, defined at the same location, are identical.
However, it can be seen from the equations (C.35) and (C.36), which define
the coefficients in the matrices [ A] and [ B] , that
• both matrices are fully populated, since all coefficients are non-zero,
• both matrices are non-symmetric, since Abi≠Aib and Bbi≠Bib,
• both matrices are complex and frequency dependent, since the Green’s
kernel function is a complex and frequency dependent function.
vn ( 0, y, z ) = 0, vn ( x,0, z ) = 0, vn ( x , y,0 ) = 0,
(C.45)
vn ( L, y, z ) = V , vn ( x , L, z ) = 2V , vn ( x, y, L ) = 3V .
jρ 0 cV ωx ωy ωz
pex ( x, y, z ) = (cos( ) + 2 cos( ) + 3 cos( )) . (C.46)
ωL c c c
sin( )
c
L=1 m. All models were built with the SYSNOISE software and solved for
the case of V=1 m/s at frequency ω/2π=100 Hz. Table C.1 lists the number
of elements of the different models and the CPU times1, needed on a
Hewlett-Packard-C180 workstation (SPECfp95=18.7, SPECint95=11.8).
1
the CPU times for the BE models include the times, needed for constructing the
model matrices and for solving the model, while the CPU times for the FE
models include only the solution times; this is motivated by the fact that, for the
calculation of the pressure field over a wide frequency range, the stiffness and
mass matrices in an FE model are frequency independent and must be
constructed only once, while the frequency dependent BE matrices must be
constructed at each frequency
350 Appendix C
FEM BEM
n # elem. CPU (s) # elem. CPU (s)
10 1000 1 600 12
20 8000 65 2400 500
30 27000 1020 5400 4420
Figure C.7 plots the relative prediction errors for the pressure at
(x,y,z)=(L/2,L/2,L/2) (solid lines) and at (x,y,z)=(4L/5,4L/5,4L/5) (dashed
lines) against the associated CPU times for the various FE and BE models.
Figure C.7 : convergence rates with FEM (∇) and BEM (o)
This example clearly illustrates the usually much higher efficiency of the
finite element method for solving interior acoustic problems. The assets of
the boundary element method become mostly apparent for exterior acoustic
problems, involving unbounded acoustic domains.
Appendix D. COUPLED FE/FE AND COUPLED
FE/BE MODELS
acoustic FE model
As derived in appendix A, the finite element approximation of the steady-
state pressure p in the bounded fluid domain V of an interior uncoupled
acoustic system is an expansion p in terms of a set of global shape
functions Ni,
na np
p( x, y, z ) = ∑ Ni ( x, y, z ). pi + ∑ Ni ( x, y, z ). pi
i=1 i =1 (D.1)
[ ]
= [ Na ]. { pi } + N p . { pi }, ( x, y, z ) ∈V ,
352 Appendix D
∫ ( − jρ 0ω [ N a ]
T
vn ). dΩ , (D.3)
Ωv
structural FE model
As derived in appendix B, the finite element approximations of the steady-
state dynamic displacement components of the middle surface Ωs of an
elastic shell structure in the x-, y- and z-direction of a global cartesian co-
ordinate system are
w x ( x , y, z )
w y ( x , y, z ) = [ N s ]. {wi } + [ N w ]. {wi } ,
(D.4)
w ( x, y, z )
î z
Coupled FE/FE and coupled FE/BE models 353
where the (3xnw) matrix [ N w ] comprises the global shape functions, which
are associated with the nw constrained degrees of freedom, i.e. the prescribed
translational and rotational displacements wi at nodes, which are located on
the part of the shell boundary, on which prescribed translational and/or
rotational displacements are imposed. The ns unconstrained translational and
rotational displacement degrees of freedom are comprised in the (nsx1)
vector {wi } and their associated global shape functions are comprised in
the (3xns) matrix [ N s ] . The resulting finite element model for the
unconstrained degrees of freedom takes the form,
( { } )
n se
∑ ∫ [ s]
T
N . n e
. p . d Ω (D.6)
e = 1 Ω se
where nse is the number of flat plate elements Ωse in the shell discretization
and where the unit vector, normal to a plate element, is represented in the
{ }
(3x1) vector n e .
n se
[ c] ∑ ∫ [ s]
K = −
e = 1 Ω se
N
T
.(n e
. N { }
[ a ]
. dΩ
) (D.8)
( { }[ ] )
n se
{Fsi } = {Fs } + ∑ ∫ [ Ns ] . n . N p { pi } . dΩ .
T e
(D.9)
e = 1 Ω se
The continuity of the normal shell velocities and the normal fluid velocities
at the fluid-structure coupling interface may be regarded as an additional
velocity input on the part Ωs of the boundary surface of the acoustic domain.
As a result, an additional term of type (D.3), using the shell displacement
approximations (D.4), must be added to the acoustic FE model (D.2). This
modified acoustic FE model becomes
{ }
n se
[ Mc ] = ∑ ∫ 0[ a ]
ρ N
T
. n e T
. [ s ]
N . d Ω (D.11)
e = 1 Ω se
{ }
n se
{Fai } = {Fa } + ∑ ∫ ρ 0ω 2 [ N a ] . n e
.[ N w ]{wi } . dΩ .
T T
(D.12)
e = 1 Ω se
Coupled FE/FE and coupled FE/BE models 355
A comparison between the coupling matrices (D.8) and (D.11) indicates that
[ Mc ] = − ρ 0 [ K c ]T . (D.13)
Note that for the practical calculation of this coupled model, it is convenient
that the acoustic and structural meshes are matching, i.e. that the nodes of
the acoustic and the structural meshes at the fluid-structure coupling
interface coincide. If not, the structural nodal displacement degrees of
freedom must be related to the acoustic nodal pressure degrees of freedom
along the fluid-structure coupling interface through some geometrical
transfer matrices, as proposed e.g. by COYETTE and DUBOIS-PÉLERIN
(1994).
Ks Kc Ms 0
{Φ c } = ω c2 T
M a {Φ c } (c = 1.. ns + na ) , (D.15)
1 1
0 ρ0
Ka − K c ρ0
where each ((ns+na)x1) right eigenvector {Φc } represents a mode shape and
where the associated eigenvalue corresponds with the squared value of the
natural frequency ωc of that mode.
Since, in contrast with uncoupled acoustic and uncoupled structural FE
models, the stiffness and mass matrices in a coupled Eulerian model are no
356 Appendix D
Ks Kc Ms 0
{Φ c } T
. 0
1
Ka { }
= ω c2 Φ c T . T
− K c
1
Ma , (D.16)
ρ0 ρ0
differ from the right eigenvectors {Φc } . However, LUO and GEA (1997)
indicated that, due to the particular matrix relation (D.13), the components,
which correspond with the na acoustic degrees of freedom in each pair of
associated left and right eigenvectors, are identical and that the components,
which correspond with the ns structural degrees of freedom in the left
eigenvectors, are proportional to the corresponding right eigenvector
components with a factor, equal to the associated eigenvalue,
Φ sc ω c2 .Φ sc
{ c } Φ = Φ (c = 1.. ns + na ) .
Φ = (D.17)
î ac î ac
wi m c Φ sc
= ∑ φ c. = [Φ ]. {φ c } , (D.18)
î pi c = 1 î Φ ac
Fsi
{} [ ]
~ T
F = Φ 1 F
(D.20)
î ρ 0 ai
and where the (mcxmc) modal stiffness, mass and damping matrices are
Ks Kc Ms 0
[ ] [ ]
~
K = Φ 0
T
1 [Φ ], M
Ka
~
[ ] [ ]
= Φ − K T
T
c
1
M a [Φ ],
ρ0 ρ0
. (D.21)
Cs 0
[] [ ]
~
C = Φ 0
T
1
ρ0
Ca [Φ ].
Due to the orthogonality of the left and right eigenvectors with respect to the
mass matrix,
Ms 0
{Φ c } { }
T
. − K T 1
M a . Φ c 2 = 0, if c1 ≠ c 2 , (D.22)
1 c ρ0
the modal mass and modal stiffness matrices are diagonal matrices. By
normalising the eigenvectors, according to
Ms 0
{Φ c } { }
T
. − K T 1
M a . Φ c 1 = 0, ( c1 = 1.. mc ), (D.23)
1 c ρ0
1
[ ]
~
M = ,
(D.24)
1
ω 12
~
[ ]
K =
. (D.25)
2
ω mc
The efficiency of the model size reduction with this modal expansion
technique is illustrated for a one-dimensional example in section D.1.4.
The fact that the left and right eigenvector result from a non-symmetric
eigenvalue problem, puts, however, a severe practical limitation on the use
of the modal expansion technique for coupled vibro-acoustic problems. In
contrast with the symmetric eigenvalue problems for uncoupled structural
and uncoupled acoustic models, the non-symmetric eigenvalue problems for
coupled models are much more computationally demanding. To illustrate
this, a rectangular acoustic cavity with a length of 1m, a width of 0.5m and a
height of 0.15m was considered. One side of the cavity consists of a
flexible, rectangular plate of 1m x 0.5m with clamped boundaries, while the
five other cavity side walls are perfectly rigid. Three structural
discretizations were built with 4-noded rectangular plate elements
(CQUAD4), six acoustic discretizations were built with 8-noded rectangular
fluid elements (CHEXA8), yielding six discretizations for the coupled
system. Table D.1 lists the number of elements in the structural and acoustic
discretizations and the resulting numbers ns, na and nc of unconstrained
degrees of freedom of the different FE models.
The first 10 modes of the considered finite elements models have been
calculated with the MSC/NASTRAN software on a Hewlett-Packard-C180
workstation (SPECfp95=18.7, SPECint95=11.8). The involved CPU-times
Coupled FE/FE and coupled FE/BE models 359
Figure D.1. : CPU time for mode extraction from the uncoupled structural (x),
uncoupled acoustic (o) and coupled vibro-acoustic (∇) models
ms
{wi } = ∑ φ sm . {Φ su, m } = [Φ su ]. {φ s } , (D.26)
m=1
ma
{ pi } = ∑ φ am . {Φ au, m } = [Φ au ]. {φ a } , (D.28)
m=1
φ
([ K ] + jω[C] − ω 2[ M ]). îφ as = {F} .
(D.30)
T 0 Fsi
{F} = Φ0su
. . (D.31)
Φ Tau î Fai
Λ
[ K ] = 0s
A
Λ a
, (D.32)
where the (msxms) matrix [ Λ s ] and the (maxma) matrix [ Λ a ] are diagonal
matrices,
ω s2,1 0 ω a2,1 0
[Λ s ] = [Λ a ] =
, , (D.33)
0 ω s, m s
2 0 ω a, m a
2
[ A] = [Φ su ]T .[ K c ].[Φ au ] (D.34)
Is 0
[ ]
M =
I a
, (D.35)
− ρ 0 A
T
T
[C] = Φ su . C0s .Φ su 0
. (D.36)
Φ Tau . Ca .Φ au
Figure D.2 : one-dimensional coupled problem (a) and its acoustic discretization (b)
The exact steady-state pressure response in the fluid and the exact steady-
state piston displacement are
ρ 0 cωF ωx
pexact ( x ) = − cos( ) , (D.37)
ωL x ωL c
ρ 0 cω cos( ) + ( k s − msω 2 ) sin( x )
c c
Coupled FE/FE and coupled FE/BE models 363
ωL x
F.sin( )
wexact = c , (D.38)
ωL x ωL
ρ 0 cω cos( ) + ( ks − msω 2 ) sin( x )
c c
w F
p 0
0
1
k s Kc ms
−ω2 p = 0 .
Ma 2
. (D.39)
− ρ 0 K c
T
0 Ka
î pn + 1 î 0
[ Kc ] = [0 0
0 −1] . (D.40)
expansion model of the same size, the accuracy with a component mode
synthesis model is significantly smaller, due to the zero fluid displacement
in all uncoupled acoustic modes at the fluid-structure coupling interface
(x=1).
Figure D.3 : instantaneous steady-state pressure (a) and displacement (b) at 200 Hz
(solid: exact, x-marked: modal expansion (mc=5,n=50),
dashed : component mode synthesis (ma=4,n=50))
acoustic BE model
As derived in appendix C, the boundary element approximations of the
steady-state pressure and normal velocity on the closed boundary surface Ωa
of a fluid domain are expansions p and vn in terms of a set of global shape
functions,
p( ra ) = [ N a ]. { pi }, ( ra ∈ Ω a ),
(D.41)
vn ( ra ) = [ N a ]. {vni }, ( ra ∈ Ω a ),
(D.42)
366 Appendix D
{vni }
[ A]{ pi } = jρ 0ω [ B]{vni } ,
(D.43)
structural FE model
The FE model for an elastic shell structure is derived in appendix B and
briefly summarised in section D.1.1.
p( ra ) = [ N a1 ]. { pi 1} + [ N a 2 ]. { pi 2 }, ( ra ∈ Ω a ),
(D.44)
vn ( ra ) = [ N a 1 ]. {vni 1} + [ N a 2 ]. {vni 2 }, ( ra ∈ Ω a ).
(D.45)
and {vni1} . The (1xna2) matrix [ N a2 ] contains the global shape functions,
vector { pi2 } and the prescribed normal velocity degrees of freedom in the
(na2x1) vector {vni2 } .
The force loading of the acoustic pressure on the elastic shell structure along
the fluid-structure coupling interface in an interior or exterior coupled vibro-
acoustic system may be regarded as an additional normal load. As a result,
an additional term of type (D.6), using the acoustic pressure approximation
(D.44), must be added to the structural FE model (D.5), yielding
[ Lc ] = − ∑ ∫ ([ N s ]T . {n e }.[ N a1 ]). dΩ ,
n se
(D.47)
e = 1 Ω se
where nse is the number of flat plate elements Ωse in the shell discretization
and where the unit vector, normal to a plate element, is represented in the
{ }
(3x1) vector n e . Note that, since the positive orientations of these normal
vectors are defined, such that a positive pressure load applies in the positive
normal displacement direction, the structural normal vectors have a positive
orientation away from the fluid domain, whereas the acoustic normal
vectors have a positive orientation into the fluid domain. Note also that the
nodal pressure degrees of freedom in { pi2 } do not appear in (D.46), since
"
their global shape functions are zero along the fluid-structure coupling
interface.
Assuming that the structural and acoustic meshes are matching, i.e. that the
acoustic nodes on the fluid-structure coupling interface Ωs coincide with the
structural nodes, the continuity of the normal shell velocities and the normal
fluid velocities at the fluid-structure coupling interface is expressed as
(D.48)
{ } .[ N s ( ri 1 )]
T
− ne (i1 = 1.. na 1 ), (D.49)
where the (3x1) vector n e { } represent the structural normal vector of the
plate element, of which one of the nodes coincides with the acoustic node i1,
located at ri1. The negative sign in (D.49) results from the opposite
orientations of the structural and acoustic normal vectors. Row i1 in the
(na1xnw) matrix [ Tw ] is defined in a similar way,
{ } .[ N w ( ri 1 )]
T
− ne (i 1 = 1.. na 1 ). (D.50)
A =
21 A22 î pi 2 B21 B22 î jρ 0ωvni 2
$
K s + jωCs − ω 2 M s Lc 0 wi Fs
%
(D.52)
ρ 0ω 2 B21Ts A21 A22 î pi 2 î Fa 2
with
{Fa1} = − ρ 0ω 2 [ B11 ][Tw ]{wi } + jρ 0ω [ B12 ]{vni 2 } , (D.53)
{Fa1} = − ρ 0ω 2[ B21 ][Tw ]{wi } + jρ 0ω [ B22 ]{vni 2 } . (D.54)
For the special case of a coupled vibro-acoustic system, in which the whole
boundary surface consists of a closed elastic structural surface, the coupled
FE/direct BE model is
K s + jωCs − ω 2 M s Lc wi Fs
= (D.55)
ρ 0ω 2 BTs A î pi î Fa
&
Coupled FE/FE and coupled FE/BE models 369
with
{Fa } = − ρ 0ω 2 [ B][Tw ]{wi } . (D.56)
370 Appendix D
Appendix E. WAVE PROPAGATION IN FLUID-
SATURATED POROELASTIC MEDIA
u x ( x, y ) jωt
u ( x , y, t ) = . e (E.1)
î uy ( x, y)
and the mean macroscopic displacement of the fluid phase may be described
by the vector field
372 Appendix E
U x ( x , y ) jωt
U ( x, y, t ) =
. e . (E.2)
î U y ( x, y )
∂u x
σ x = 2 N. + A. es + Q. ε , (E.3)
∂x
∂u y
σ y = 2 N. + A. es + Q. ε , (E.4)
∂y
∂u ∂u y
τ xy = τ yx = N ( x + ), (E.5)
∂y ∂x
s = R. ε + Q. es , (E.6)
where σx and σy are the forces per unit material area, acting in, respectively,
the x- and y-direction on the solid phase, where τxy is the shear force per unit
material area, acting on the solid phase in the y-direction in a plane, whose
normal vector is oriented in the x-direction, and where s is the force per unit
material area, acting on the fluid phase. Note that the latter is assumed to be
negative in compression. The terms es and ε in equations (E.3)-(E.6) denote,
respectively, the volumetric strain in the solid phase,
∂u x ∂u y
es = ∇. u = +
, (E.7)
∂x ∂y
∂U x ∂U y
ε = ∇.U =
+
. (E.8)
∂x ∂y
E1
N= , (E.9)
2(1 + ν )
Wave propagation in fluid-saturated poroelastic media 373
where E1 is the in-vacuo modulus of elasticity of the bulk solid phase and ν
is its Poisson coefficient. To account for internal friction losses, the modulus
of elasticity of the solid phase can be made complex, E1=Em(1+jη), where
Em is the real, static modulus and η is a loss factor, that accounts for the
mechanical damping, associated with the motion of the solid phase of the
material.
The constant A is the first Lamé constant,
ν . E1
A= . (E.10)
(1 + ν )(1 − 2ν )
The coefficient Q represents the coupling between the volume change of the
solid and that of the fluid, and may be defined as
Q = (1 − h) E2 , (E.11)
where h is the porosity, i.e. the ratio of the fluid volume to the total material
volume, and where E2 is the modulus of elasticity of the bulk fluid phase. To
account for the losses, associated with heat transfer from the fluid within the
pores to the pore walls, this modulus of elasticity can be made complex
(BOLTON et al. (1996)),
E0
E2 = , (E.12)
− j 8ωρ 0 ε ’ N pr
J1 ( )
2(γ − 1) hσ
1+ .
− j 8ωρ 0 ε ’ N pr − j 8ωρ 0 ε ’ N pr
J0 ( )
hσ hσ
R = hE 2 . (E.13)
374 Appendix E
∂σ x ∂τ yx
+ = −ω 2 ( ρ 1. u x + ρ a .(u x − U x )) + jωb(u x − U x ) , (E.14)
∂x ∂y
∂τ xy ∂σ y
+ = −ω 2 ( ρ 1. u y + ρ a .(u y − U y )) + jωb(u y − U y ) , (E.15)
∂x ∂y
∂s
= −ω 2 ( ρ 2 .U x + ρ a .(U x − u x )) + jωb(U x − u x ) , (E.16)
∂x
∂s
= −ω 2 ( ρ 2 .U y + ρ a .(U y − u y )) + jωb(U y − u y ) , (E.17)
∂y
where ρ1 is the bulk density of the solid phase and where ρ2=h.ρ0 is the bulk
density of the fluid phase. The first terms in the right-hand sides of
equations (E.14)-(E.17) represent the solid or fluid accelerations. The
second terms represent inertial coupling forces, which result from
momentum transfer between the solid and the fluid due to the pore tortuosity
and variation of the pore diameter. The latter effects may be quantified by
the geometrical structure factor ε‘. This factor is equal to unity, if the pores
are straight and uniform (in which case there is no inertial coupling), and
increases as the pores become irregularly constricted and more tortuous.
Hence, the inertial coupling forces, which are proportional to the relative
acceleration of both phases, may be quantified by the inertial coupling
parameter ρa (ALLARD et al. (1989), BOLTON et al. (1996)),
ρ a = ρ 2 (ε ’−1) . (E.18)
The last terms represent viscous coupling forces, which are proportional to
the relative velocity of both phases and may be quantified by the viscous
coupling factor b. This factor may be related to the macroscopic flow
resistivity σ of the porous material (ALLARD et al. (1989), BOLTON et al.
(1996)),
Wave propagation in fluid-saturated poroelastic media 375
− j 8ωρ 0 ε ’
J1 ( )
j 2ωρ 2ε ’ hσ 1
b= . . .
− j 8ωρ 0 ε ’ − j 8ωρ 0 ε ’ − j 8ωρ 0 ε ’
J0 ( ) 2. J 1 ( )
hσ hσ hσ
1−
− j 8ωρ 0 ε ’ − j 8ωρ 0 ε ’
. J0 ( )
hσ hσ
(E.19)
(E.20)
∇[ Q. es + R. ε ] = −ω ( ρ *12 . u + ρ *22 .U ) ,
2
(E.21)
where
b
ρ *11 = ρ 11 + , ρ 11 = ρ 1 + ρ a , (E.22)
jω
b
ρ *12 = ρ 12 − , ρ 12 = − ρ a , (E.23)
jω
b
ρ *22 = ρ 22 + , ρ 22 = ρ 2 + ρ a . (E.24)
jω
The constant ρ11 represents the effective mass density of the solid moving in
the fluid and is equal to the real solid mass density ρ1 plus an additional
mass density ρa (see (E.18)) to account for the non-uniform relative fluid
flow through the pores. Similarly, the effective fluid mass density is the sum
of the real fluid mass density and the coupling parameter ρa. The constants
ρ11
*
, ρ12
*
and ρ22
*
are the counterparts of ρ11,, ρ12 and ρ22, when allowance is
made for viscous energy dissipation, resulting from the relative motion
between the solid and the fluid phases of the poroelastic material.
376 Appendix E
∇ 4 es + A1 . ∇ 2es + A2 . es = 0 , (E.31)
with
A1 = ω 2 ( ρ *11 R − 2ρ *12Q + ρ *22 P ) / ( PR − Q 2 ) , (E.32)
A2 = ω 4
[ ρ *11ρ *22 − ( ρ *12 ) 2 ] / ( PR − Q 2 ) . (E.33)
A1 A12 A1 A12
k1 = + − A2 , k2 = − − A2 . (E.34)
2 4 2 4
Wave propagation in fluid-saturated poroelastic media 377
The application of the curl operation to the vector equations (E.20) and
(E.21) yields
∂u y ∂u x
ωs = − , (E.37)
∂x ∂y
∂U y ∂U x
Ω= − . (E.38)
∂x ∂y
∇ 2ω s + kt2 .ω s = 0 , (E.39)
indicating the existence of one rotational wave type with wavenumber kt,
As will become apparent in the next section, all three wave types, i.e. the
two longitudinal wave types and the transverse wave type, involve coupled
motion in the solid and the fluid.
∂ 2u x ∂ 2u x ∂es ∂ ( ∇ 2es )
N( + ) + [( A + N + a 1Q ) + a 2 Q ]=
∂x 2 ∂y 2 ∂x ∂x (E.41)
− ω 2 ( ρ *11 . u x + ρ *12 .U x ),
∂es ∂ (∇ 2 es )
[(Q + a1 R) + a2 R ] = −ω 2 ( ρ *12 . u x + ρ *22 .U x ) , (E.42)
∂x ∂x
( ρ *11 R − ρ *12Q) ( PR − Q 2 )
with a1 = , a2 = . (E.43)
( ρ *22Q − ρ *12 R) ω 2 ( ρ *22Q − ρ *12 R)
∂ ∂u x ∂u y ∂ ∂u y ∂u x ∂es ∂ω s
∇ 2u x = + − − = − (E.46)
∂x ∂x ∂y ∂y ∂x ∂y ∂x ∂y
By using the expressions (E.32), (E.33), (E.40) and (E.43), equations (E.47)
and (E.48) become
ux = −
1 ∂
A2 ∂x
( )
1 ∂ω s
∇ 2es + A1. es + 2
kt ∂y
, (E.49)
a ∂
Ux = − 1
A2 ∂x
( )
∂e ρ * ∂ω s
∇ 2es + A1 . es + a 2 . s − * 12 2
∂x ρ 22 . kt ∂y
. (E.50)
uy = −
1 ∂
A2 ∂y
( )
1 ∂ω s
∇ 2es + A1. es − 2
kt ∂x
, (E.51)
a ∂
Uy = − 1
A2 ∂y
( )
∂e ρ * ∂ω s
∇ 2es + A1. es + a 2 . s + * 12 2
∂y ρ 22 . kt ∂x
. (E.52)
τ xy = τ yx = −
2N ∂ 2
A2 ∂x∂y
(
∇ 2es + A1. es + 2 (
kt ∂y 2
)
N ∂ 2ω s ∂ 2ω s
−
∂x 2
), (E.55)
Since
it follows from the above expressions that, for any longitudinal wave with
wavenumber ki (i=1,2), the involved two-dimensional distributions of the
dynamic field variables are
− j ( k i,x . x + k i,y . y )
es ( x , y ) = e with ki2, x + ki2, y = ki2 , ω s ( x, y ) = 0 , (E.58)
1 ∂e 1 ∂e
u x ( x, y ) = − 2 s , u y ( x, y ) = − 2 s , (E.59)
ki ∂ x ki ∂y
a − a k 2 ∂es a − a k 2 ∂es
U x ( x , y ) = − 1 22 i , U y ( x , y ) = − 1 22 i , (E.60)
ki ∂x ki ∂y
2 N ∂ 2es
σ x ( x, y ) = [ A + ( a1 − a 2 ki2 )Q ]. es − , (E.61)
ki2 ∂x 2
2 N ∂ 2es
σ y ( x, y ) = [ A + ( a1 − a 2 ki2 )Q ]. es − , (E.62)
ki2 ∂y 2
2 N ∂ 2 es
τ xy ( x, y ) = τ yx ( x, y ) = − , s( x, y ) = [( a1 − a 2 ki2 ) R + Q ]. es .(E.63)
ki2 ∂x∂y
For any transverse wave with wavenumber kt, the involved two-dimensional
distributions of the dynamic field variables are
− j ( kt ,x . x + kt ,y . y )
ω s ( x, y ) = e with kt2, x + kt2, y = kt2 , es ( x , y ) = 0 , (E.64)
1 ∂ω s 1 ∂ω s
u x ( x, y ) = 2 , u y ( x, y ) = − 2 , (E.65)
kt ∂y kt ∂x
ρ * ∂ω s ρ *12 ∂ω s
U x ( x, y ) = − * 12 2 , U y ( x, y ) = , (E.66)
ρ 22 . kt ∂y ρ *22 . k t2 ∂x
Wave propagation in fluid-saturated poroelastic media 381
2 N ∂ 2ω s 2 N ∂ 2ω s
σ x ( x, y ) = , σ y ( x, y ) = − , (E.67)
kt2 ∂x∂y kt2 ∂x∂y
N ∂ 2ω s ∂ 2ω s
τ xy ( x, y ) = τ yx ( x, y ) = ( − ), s( x, y ) = 0 . (E.68)
kt2 ∂y 2 ∂x 2
where the indices n and s refer to the normal and tangential directions γn and
γs of the boundary surface (see figure E.1)
For the case of two longitudinal waves, the proof of relation (E.69) consists
of demonstrating whether
382 Appendix E
( a1 − a 2 k 2j )[( a1 − a 2 ki2 ) R + Q ] ∂e s, j
− ∫ e dΓ
2 s , i
∂γ
Γp k j n
2 N ∂ 2es, j ∂es,i A + ( a1 − a 2 k j2 )Q ∂e s, i ?
− ∫ − [ ]e dΓ = 0
k 2 k 2 ∂γ 2 ∂γ 2 s , j
∂γ
Γp i j n n k i n
Since
∂ 2 e s, i ∂ 2 e s, i ∂ 2 es , i
= ∇ 2
e s, i − = − k 2
e
i s, i − , (E.71)
∂γ n2 ∂γ s2 ∂γ s2
∂ 2 e s, j ∂ 2 e s, j ∂ 2 e s, j
= ∇ 2
e s, j − = − k 2
e
j s, j − , (E.72)
∂γ n2 ∂γ s2 ∂γ s2
2N ∂ 2 e s , j ∂e s, i ∂ 2es, i ∂es, j ∂ 2es, i ∂es, j ∂ 2 es, j ∂es, i
2 2 ∫
. ( + − − ) dΓ
ki k j Γ ∂γ s ∂γ n ∂γ n ∂γ s ∂γ s
2
∂γ s ∂γ n ∂γ n ∂γ s ∂γ s
2
p
es, j ∂es, i es, i ∂es, j ?
+ B. ∫ ( 2 − 2 ) dΓ = 0
Γ k ∂γ n k j ∂γ n
p i
(E.73)
with B= P + [ 2a1 − a 2 ( ki2 + k j2 )]Q + ( a1 − a 2 ki2 )( a1 − a 2 k 2j ) R . (E.74)
Wave propagation in fluid-saturated poroelastic media 383
When both longitudinal waves have the same wavenumber, i.e. ki2 = k j2 =
kα2 (α = 1 or 2) , the application of the two-dimensional version of Green’s
second identity (see equation (2.51)) for the second term in (E.73) yields
e s , j ∂e s , i e s , i ∂e s , j
B. ∫ ( 2 − 2 ) dΓ
Γ k ∂γ n k j ∂γ n
p i
B ∂e s , i ∂es, j B
= 2 . ∫ ( e s, j − e s, i ) dΓ = 2 . ∫ ( e s , j . ∇ 2 e s , i − e s , i . ∇ 2 e s , j ) dΩ
kα Γ ∂γ n ∂γ n kα Ω
p p
B
= 2 . ∫ ( − kα . es, j . es, i + kα . es,i . es, j )dΩ = 0.
2 2
kα Ω
p
(E.75)
When the two longitudinal waves have different wavenumbers, i.e. ki2 = k12
and k j2 = k 22 , the substitution of (E.57) into (E.74) yields
R( ρ *11Q − ρ *12 P )
P + ( 2a1 − a 2 A1 )Q = , (E.77)
( ρ *22Q − ρ *12 R)
( a12 − a1a 2 A1 + a 22 A2 ) R =
ρ *11ρ *12QR 2 + ρ *12 ρ *22 PQR − ρ *11ρ *22Q 2 R − ( ρ *12 ) 2 PR 2
= (E.78)
( ρ *22Q − ρ *12 R) 2
R( ρ *22Q − ρ *12 R)( ρ *12 P − ρ *11Q)
= ,
( ρ *22Q − ρ *12 R) 2
B = 0. (E.79)
384 Appendix E
Hence, it follows from (E.75) and (E.79) that expression (E.73) simplifies to
where nc is the number of corner points of the boundary, at which the normal
and tangential directions are not uniquely defined (see figure E.2).
which proves that relation (E.69) is valid for any two longitudinal waves.
For the case of one longitudinal wave and one transverse wave, the proof of
relation (E.69) consists of demonstrating whether
2 N ∂ 2es, i ∂ω s, j A + ( a1 − a 2 ki2 )Q ∂ω s, j
∫ − k 2k 2 ∂γ 2 ∂γ + [ 2
]e s , i
∂γ
dΓ
Γp i t n s k t s
∂ 2ω s, j ∂ 2ω s, j ∂ 2ω s, j
= ∇ ω s, j −
2
= − kt2ω s, j − , (E.84)
∂γ n2 ∂γ s2 ∂γ s2
2N ∂ 2es, i ∂ω s, j ∂ 2es,i ∂ω s, j ∂ 2ω s, j ∂es,i ∂ 2ω s, j ∂es, i
2 2 ∫
( + + + ) dΓ
ki k t Γ ∂γ s ∂γ s
2
∂γ n∂γ s ∂γ n ∂γ s ∂γ s ∂γ n∂γ s ∂γ n
2
p
∂ω s, j N ∂es,i ?
+ ∫ (C. es, i + 2 .ω s , j )dΓ = 0,
Γ ∂γ s ki ∂γ s
p
(E.85)
ρ *22 P − ρ *12Q + a1 ( ρ *22Q − ρ *12 R) − a 2 ki2 ( ρ *22Q − ρ *12 R)
with C = . (E.86)
ρ *22 kt2
Since equation (E.31) implies that
it follows that
The application of integration by parts on the first, second and fifth line
integral term in (E.89) yields
nc ∂es, i ( rc ) ∂ω s, j ( rc ) ∂es, i ( rc ) ∂ω s, j ( rc )
∑ −
c = 1 ∂γ −s ∂γ −s ∂γ s+ ∂γ s+
(E.90)
nc ∂es,i ( rc ) ∂ω s, j ( rc ) ∂es, i ( rc ) ∂ω s, j ( rc ) ?
+ ∑ − = 0.
c = 1 ∂γ n
−
∂γ n− ∂γ n+ ∂γ n+
∂es, i ∂ e s, i ∂ω s, j ∂ω s, j
( − n y− + n x− )( − n y− + n x− )
∂x ∂y ∂x ∂y
∂ω s, j
∂e ∂e
−( − n y+ s,i + n x+ s,i )( − n y+ + ∂ω s, j
nc
+ n x )
∂x ∂y ∂x ∂y n c !
∑ = ∑ 0 = 0, (E.90)
c = 1 − ∂es, i − ∂ e s, i − ∂ω s, j − ∂ω s, j c=1
+(n x ∂x + n y ∂y )( n x ∂x + n y ∂y )
+ ∂ e ∂ e ∂ω ∂ω
+ n y+ )(n x+ + n y+
s, i s, i s , j s , j
−( n x )
∂x ∂y ∂x ∂y
which proves that relation (E.69) is valid for any pair of one longitudinal
and one transverse wave.
For the case of two transverse waves, the proof of relation (E.69) consists of
demonstrating whether
N ∂ 2ω s, i ∂ω s, j ∂ 2ω s, i ∂ω s, j ∂ 2ω s, j ∂ω s, i ∂ 2ω s, j ∂ω s, i
− 4 ∫ ( − − + ) dΓ
kt Γ ∂γ s ∂γ n
2
∂γ n ∂γ n
2
∂γ s ∂γ n
2
∂γ n ∂γ n
2
p
2N ∂ 2ω s, i ∂ω s, j ∂ 2ω s, j ∂ω s, i ?
+ 4 ∫ ( − )dΓ = 0.
kt Γ ∂γ n∂γ s ∂γ s ∂γ n∂γ s ∂γ s
p
(E.91)
388 Appendix E
2N ∂ 2ω s, i ∂ω s, j ∂ 2ω s, j ∂ω s, i ∂ 2ω s, i ∂ω s, j ∂ 2ω s, j ∂ω s, i
4 ∫
( − − + ) d Γ
kt Γ ∂γ n ∂γ s ∂γ s ∂γ n ∂γ s ∂γ s ∂γ s ∂γ n
2
∂γ s ∂γ n
2
p
N ∂ω s, i ∂ω s, j ?
+ 2 ∫ (ω s, j − ω s, i )dΓ = 0.
kt Γ ∂γ n ∂γ n
p
(E.92)
The application of the two-dimensional version of Green’s second identity
for the second term in (E.92) yields
N ∂ω s, i ∂ω s, j N
2 ∫
(ω s, j − ω s, i )dΓ = 2 ∫ (ω s, j ∇ ω s, i − ω s, i ∇ ω s, j )dΩ
2 2
kt Γ ∂γ n ∂γ n kt Ω
p p
N
= 2 ∫ ( − kt ω s, j ω s, i + kt ω s, i ω s, j )dΩ = 0,
2 2
kt Ω
p
(E.93)
so that expression (E.92) simplifies to
∂ 2ω s, i ∂ω s, j ∂ 2ω s, j ∂ω s, i ∂ 2ω s, i ∂ω s, j ∂ 2ω s, j ∂ω s, i ?
∫ ( − − + )dΓ = 0.
Γ p ∂γ n ∂γ s ∂γ s ∂γ n ∂γ s ∂γ s ∂γ s2 ∂γ n ∂γ s2 ∂γ n
(E.94)
The application of integration by parts on the first and second line integral
term in (E.94) yields
nc ∂ω s, i ( rc ) ∂ω s, j ( rc ) ∂ω s, i ( rc ) ∂ω s, j ( rc )
∑ −
c = 1 ∂γ −
n ∂γ −
s ∂γ n+ ∂γ s+
(E.95)
nc ∂ω s, j ( rc ) ∂ω s, i ( rc ) ∂ω s, j ( rc ) ∂ω s, i ( rc ) ?
− ∑ − = 0.
c = 1 ∂γ n− ∂γ s− ∂γ n+ ∂γ s+
Wave propagation in fluid-saturated poroelastic media 389
∂ω s,i ∂ω s,i ∂ω s, j ∂ω s, j
( n x− + n y− )( − n y− + n x− )
∂x ∂y ∂x ∂y
−( n x+
∂ω s, i + ∂ω s, i + ∂ω s, j + ∂ω s, j
nc
+ n y )( − n y + nx )
∂x ∂y ∂x ∂y nc !
∑ = ∑ 0 = 0, (E.96)
c = 1 − ∂ω s, i − ∂ω s, i − ∂ω s, j − ∂ω s, j c = 1
−( − n y ∂x + n x ∂y )( n x ∂x + ny
∂y
)
+ ∂ω s, i ∂ω s, i + ∂ω s, j ∂ω
+ n x+ + n y+
s , j
+( − n y )( n x )
∂x ∂y ∂x ∂y
which proves that relation (E.69) is valid for any two transverse waves.
As a result, it may be concluded from (E.82), (E.90) and (E.96) that relation
(E.69) is valid for any two waves in a two-dimensional poroelastic domain.
390 Appendix E
Appendix F. COUPLED VIBRO-ACOUSTIC
BEHAVIOUR OF DOUBLE-PANEL PARTITIONS
F.1. Introduction
Double-panel partitions often provide an efficient solution for noise control
engineering applications due to their high sound transmission loss,
combined with a fairly low specific weight. Examples include machinery
sound encapsulations, double glazing windows, partition walls in buildings,
movable walls in recording studios and aircraft fuselages. However, the
sound transmission loss of double-panel partitions rapidly deteriorates
towards the low frequency range, at which it can even fall short of a single
panel of the same total mass. Since in many practical applications double-
panel partitions are exposed to significant low-frequency dynamic loads,
active and/or passive control measures are often required to enhance the
low-frequency sound transmission loss. With respect to an adequate and
efficient design of these measures, reliable prediction models are very useful
tools to get a good insight in the physical phenomena that govern the
dynamic behaviour of double-panel partitions.
Prediction models for the sound transmission of double-panel partitions with
infinitely extended panels go back to the work of BERANEK and WORK
(1949), who studied the sound transmission of normally incident plane
waves through unbounded double-panel partitions. With some additional
modifications for obliquely incident waves and improvements with respect
to the panel flexibility (MULHOLLAND et al. (1967), SHARP (1978),
TROCHIDIS and KALAROUTIS (1986)), these simple prediction models have
392 Appendix F
For a harmonic time dependence e jωt of the applied force and using a
Cartesian co-ordinate system (x,y,z) (see figure F.1), the steady-state
acoustic pressure p in the inviscid, homogeneous fluid in the rectangular
cavity is governed by the Helmholtz equation
∂2 ∂2 ∂2
( + + + k 2 ). p( x, y, z ) = 0 , (F.1)
∂x 2
∂y 2
∂z 2
with k being the acoustic wavenumber (k=ω/c), ω the circular frequency and
c the speed of sound in the fluid. Due to the mechanical point force F,
applied at position (xF,yF), and the cavity pressure loading on the panel,
located in plane z=0 and further denoted as ‘lower panel’, its steady-state
normal displacement w1, having a positive orientation in the positive z-
direction, is governed by the dynamic equation
∂4 ∂4 ∂4 F.δ ( x − x F , y − y F ) p( x, y,0)
( + 2 + − k b4 ). w1 ( x, y ) = − .
∂x 4
∂x ∂y
2 2
∂y 4 D D
(F.2)
For the other panel, located in plane z=Lz and further denoted as ‘upper
panel’, its steady-state normal displacement w2 with positive orientation in
the positive z-direction, is governed by the dynamic equation
394 Appendix F
∂4 ∂4 ∂4 p( x, y, Lz )
( + 2 + − kb4 ). w 2 ( x, y ) = . (F.3)
∂x 4
∂x ∂y
2 2
∂y 4 D
The panel bending stiffness D and the structural bending wavenumber kb are
E (1 + jη )t 3 ρ s tω 2
D= , kb = 4 , (F.4)
12(1 − ν 2 ) D
where E is the elasticity modulus of the panel material, η is the material loss
factor, ν is the material Poisson coefficient, ρs is the material density and t is
the panel thickness.
Since both panels are clamped, the boundary displacements as well as the
in-plane gradients, normal to the boundaries, must be zero
(0 ≤ x ≤ L x , 0 ≤ y ≤ L y ) ,
∂wi ( 0, y ) ∂wi ( Lx , y )
wi ( 0, y ) = 0, wi ( Lx , y ) = 0, = 0, = 0, i = 1,2 ,
∂x ∂x
∂wi ( x,0 ) ∂wi ( x, Ly )
wi ( x,0) = 0, wi ( x, Ly ) = 0, = 0, = 0, i = 1,2 . (F.5)
∂y ∂y
Since there is no fluid displacement, normal to the four rigid side walls of
the cavity, the cavity pressure must satisfy the boundary conditions
(0 ≤ x ≤ L x , 0 ≤ y ≤ L y ,0 ≤ z ≤ Lz ) ,
∂2 ∂2 ∂2 ω2
( + + + ). p( x, y, z ) =
∂x 2 ∂y 2 ∂z 2 c 2 (F.11)
2ρ 0ω 2 [ w1 ( x, y ).δ ( z,0) − w 2 ( x, y ).δ ( z, Lz )].
To determine the modal participation factors Pa ,Ws(1) and Ws(2) in the field
variable expansions (F.8)-(F.10), these expansions are substituted in the
modified Helmholtz equation (F.11) and the structural equations (F.2) and
(F.3). Since the analytical model is used to identify the modal properties of a
double-panel partition, the damping η and the external force excitation F are
396 Appendix F
ω 2 − ω a2
∑ . Pa .Φ a ( x , y, z )
a c2 (F.12)
= 2ρ 0ω [ ∑Ψ s ( x, y ).(Ws( 1) .δ ( z,0 ) − Ws( 2) .δ ( z, Lz )],
2
s
∑ ms (ω s − ω ). Ws( 1) .Ψ s ( x, y) = − ∑ Pa .Φ a ( x, y,0) ,
2 2
(F.13)
s a
∑ ms (ω s − ω ). Ws .Ψ s ( x, y) = ∑ Pa .Φ a ( x, y, Lz ) ,
2 2 ( 2)
(F.14)
s a
(ω 2 − ω a2 ). Λ a . Pa = ρ 0 c 2ω 2 [ ∑ (Ws( 1) . Cas
( 1)
− Ws( 2) . Cas
( 2)
)] ( ∀a ). (F.15)
s
In a completely similar way, the participation factors Ws(1) and Ws(2) of each
uncoupled structural mode result from
ms (ω s2 − ω 2 ). Λ s . Ws( 1) = − ∑ Pa . Cas
( 1)
(∀s ), (F.16)
a
ms (ω s2 − ω 2 ). Λ s . Ws( 2) = ∑ Pa . Cas
( 2)
(∀s ). (F.17)
a
(1) (2)
The modal coupling factors Cas and Cas are defined as
Coupled vibro-acoustic behaviour of double-panel partitions 397
Lx Ly
= ∫ ∫ Φ a ( x, y,0).Ψ s ( x, y)dxdy ,
( 1)
Cas (F.18)
0 0
Lx Ly
= ∫ ∫ Φ a ( x, y, Lz ).Ψ s ( x, y)dxdy ,
( 2)
Cas (F.19)
0 0
and express the geometrical matching between the uncoupled acoustic and
structural modes at their common interfaces.
The uncoupled modes of the rectangular cavity are
uπx vπy
Ψ s ( x, y ) ≈ sin( ).sin( ), (u, v = 1, 2,....) . (F.21)
Lx Ly
With these mode shape expressions, the modal coupling factors become
(1)
Table F.1 : modal coupling factors Cas = ( −1) n .Cas
(2)
With the mode shape expressions (F.21) and (F.22), the modal scale factors
Λa and Λs in (F.15)-(F.17) become
L x L y Lz
L x L y Lz
Λa = ∫ ∫ ∫ Φ a ( x, y, z )dxdydz =
2
, (F.23)
0 0 0 2i
Lx Ly
L x Ly
Λs = ∫ ∫Ψ s ( x, y)dxdy ≈
2
, (F.24)
0 0
4
jω
λ=− and − jρ 0ωφ a = Pa (∀a) , (F.25,26)
c
~
K ~ ~
0 0 0 C1 C2 0
Ia 0
a ~
2
I s 0 . { X} = {0}.
~
0 Ks 0 + λ . C 3 0 0 + λ . 0
~ ~
C
0 0 K s 4 0 0 0
0 I s
(F.27)
Assuming that the number of considered uncoupled acoustic modes in the
expansion (F.10) are confined to na and that the number of uncoupled panel
Coupled vibro-acoustic behaviour of double-panel partitions 399
modes in (F.8) and (F.9) are confined to ns, the solution vector { X} contains
the (na+2ns) modal participation factors,
φa
{ X} = Ws(1) . (F.28)
W ( 2)
î s
The matrices [ I a ] and [ I s ] are, respectively, the (naxna) and (nsxns) unitary
~
[ ] ~
matrices. The (naxna) matrix K a and the (nsxns) matrix K s are diagonal [ ]
matrices,
0 0
[ ]
~ 1
Ka = 2
c
ω a2 ,
[ ]
~ 1
Ks = 2
c
ω s2 .
(F.29)
0 0
The elements on row a and column s (a=1..na, s=1..ns) in the (naxns) matrices
[ ]
~ ~
[ ]
C1 and C2 are, respectively,
[ ]as [ ]
( 1) ( 2)
~ c. Cas ~ c. Cas
C1 =− , C2 = . (F.30)
Λa as Λa
The elements on row s and column a (s=1..ns, a=1..na) in the (nsxna) matrices
[ ]
~ ~
[ ]
C3 and C4 are, respectively,
[C~3 ]sa = cρ. m0 .sC. Λass , [C~4 ]sa = − cρ. 0m.sC. asΛ s .
( 1) ( 2)
(F.31)
The predictions for the undamped natural eigenfrequencies and mode shapes
of the double-panel partition can be obtained from the following eigenvalue
problem,
0 I X X
− K
~ ~ . = λ . . (F.32)
−C î Y î Y
400 Appendix F
p( x, y, z ) ≈
n a1 na 2
− jk z ,a1a2 z jk z ,a1a2 z
∑ ∑ cos( k xa1 x ) cos(k ya 2 y)( pa1 a 2 ,1. e + pa 1 a 2 , 2 . e ),
a1 = 0 a2 = 0
(F.33)
with
aπ a π
k xa 1 = 1 , k ya 2 = 2 , k z, a1 a 2 = k 2 − k xa
2
1
− k ya
2
2
. (F.34)
Lx Ly
w1 ( x, y ) ≈ ws( 1) ( x, y ) + w F ( x, y ) + wa( 1) ( x, y ) ,
(F.35)
w 2 ( x, y ) ≈ w s( 2) ( x, y ) + w a( 2) ( x, y ) .
(F.36)
(w )
n s1
w s(i ) ( x, y ) = ∑ s 1 ,1 .Ψ s 1 ,1 ( x , y ) + w s 1 , 2 .Ψ s 1 , 2 ( x , y )
(i ) (i )
s1 = 0
(F.37)
(w )
n s2
+ ∑ s 2 ,1 .Ψ s 2 ,1 ( x , y ) + w s 2 , 2 .Ψ s 2 , 2 ( x , y )
(i ) (i )
s2 = 0
Coupled vibro-acoustic behaviour of double-panel partitions 401
where
− jk ys1 , 1 . y
Ψ s1 ,1 ( x, y ) = cos( k xs 1, 1 . x ). e ,
− jk ys1 , 2 . y
Ψ s1 , 2 ( x, y ) = cos( k xs1, 2 . x ). e ,
(F.38)
− jk xs2 , 1 . x
Ψ s 2 ,1 ( x , y ) = e .cos( k ys 2, 1. y ),
− jk xs2 , 2 . x
Ψ s 2 , 2 ( x, y ) = e .cos( k ys 2, 2 . y ),
with
2
sπ s π
( k xs 1 ,1 , k ys 1 ,1 ) = ( 1 ,± kb2 − 1 ),
Lx Lx
2
sπ s π
( k xs 1 , 2 , k ys 1 , 2 ) = ( 1 ,± j k b2 + 1 ),
Lx Lx
(F.39)
2
s π s π
( k xs 2 ,1 , k ys 2 ,1 ) = ( ± kb2 − 2 , 2 ),
Ly Ly
2
s π s π
( k xs 2 , 2 , k ys 2 , 2 ) = ( ± j k b2 + 2 , 2 ).
Ly L y
The particular solution function for the mechanical point force excitation is
jF
w F ( x, y ) = − [ H 0( 2) ( kb r ) − H 0( 2) ( − jk b r )]
(F.40)
8 kb2 D
with
r = ( x − x F ) 2 + ( y − yF ) 2 . (F.41)
The particular solution functions for the cavity pressure loading are
n a1 n a2
cos( k xa 1 x )cos( k ya 2 y )( pa 1 a 2 ,1 + pa 1 a 2 , 2 )
w a( 1) ( x, y ) = − ∑ ∑
, (F.42)
a1 = 0 a 2 = 0
2
D[( k xa 1
+ k ya
2
2
) 2 − kb4 ]
402 Appendix F
w a( 2) ( x , y ) =
− jk z ,a1a2 L z jk z ,a1a2 L z
n a1 n a2
cos( k xa 1 x ) cos( k ya 2 y )( pa 1 a 2 ,1. e + pa 1 a 2 , 2 . e )
∑ ∑ .
a1 = 0 a2 = 0
2
D[( k xa 1
+ k ya
2
2
) 2 − kb4 ]
(F.43)
1 ∂p
the modal fluid displacement field ( ) in an out-of-phase mode is
ρ0 ω 2 ∂z
anti-symmetric with respect to plane z=Lz/2, two contributing cavity modes
with even mode numbers n1 and n2 are used in the analytical model. As a
result, according to (F.22), the modal coupling factors between these cavity
modes and the upper and lower panel mode are the same
( Ca(1)s = Ca(2)s = C1 and Ca(1)s = Ca(2)s = C2 ). With these considerations and
1 1 2 2
with the substitution of expressions (F.44) and (F.45) for the cavity mode
contributions Pa1 and Pa2 into the equations (F.46) and (F.47), one can see
that the two latter equations become identical,
C2 ω2 C22 ω2
Ws .[ ms .(ω 2 − ω s2 ). Λ s ] = Ws .[ 2K ( 1 . 2 + . )] ,
Λ a1 ω − ω a21 Λ a 2 ω 2 − ω a2 2
(F.48)
where K= ρ0 c 2 is the bulk modulus of the fluid.
K lπ 2 mπ 2 nπ 2
ωa = [( ) + ( ) + ( ) ], (l, m,n = 0,1,...) . (F.50)
ρ 0 Lx Ly Lz
(i.e. l and m smaller compared with u resp. v), which have a smaller modal
coupling factor, but whose eigenfrequencies ωa are much closer to ωS, can
have a substantial contribution to the coupled modal pressure field of the
low-frequency out-of-phase panel-controlled modes.
As stated by CRAGGS (1971a), the overall stiffening or added mass effect of
the cavity on the panels is not only revealed by the increase or decrease of
the coupled eigenfrequencies, compared with the uncoupled panel
eigenfrequencies, but also by the phase relationship between the modal
pressure and modal panel displacements along the panel-cavity interfaces,
or, in general, by the work of the cavity on the panels. If the cavity has a
pure stiffening effect on the panel (case 4), a positive modal pressure occurs
together with a modal panel displacement into the cavity, while a negative
modal pressure occurs together with a modal panel displacement away from
the cavity along the whole panel-cavity interfaces, indicating the restoring
force effect of the cavity on the panel. If the cavity has a pure added mass
effect on the panel (case 1), a positive modal pressure occurs together with a
panel displacement away from the cavity, while a negative modal pressure
occurs together with a modal panel displacement into the cavity along the
whole panel-cavity interfaces. When the coupling interaction is a
combination of both stiffness and inertial effects, the phase relations
between the modal panel displacements and modal cavity pressure along the
panel-cavity interfaces are such that the work of the cavity on the panels,
which is defined as
∫ p. w dΩ (F.51)
Ωs
with the modal panel displacement w, being positive in the direction away
from the cavity, is negative, when the stiffness effects predominate the
inertial effects (case 2), while a positive work indicates the domination of
the inertial effects (case 3).
modes, the cavity modes which have the largest modal coupling factor with
the considered panel mode usually dominate the modal pressure field in the
in-phase modes, since the modal coupling factor varies strongly with mode
numbers l and m, while the corresponding frequency differences ω a2 − ω s2
vary only slightly. The latter is due to the fact that the eigenfrequencies ωa
(see (F.50)) of the cavity modes (l,m,1) are mainly determined by the small
cavity thickness Lz, so that a variation on the mode numbers l and m only
slightly affects the eigenfrequencies ωa. As a result, the modal pressure field
in the low-frequency in-phase panel-controlled modes is mainly determined
by the cavity modes (l,m,n)=(u±1, v±1,1).
The mass-loading effect of the cavity on the panels is not only revealed by
the decrease of the coupled eigenfrequencies, compared with the uncoupled
panel eigenfrequencies, but also by the modal fluid displacement patterns
and by the phase relationship between the modal pressure and modal panel
displacements along the panel-cavity interfaces. Since the modal pressure
field is dominated by the cavity modes with mode numbers n=1, the z-
component of the cavity fluid displacement has the same sign in most parts
of the cavity, so that the cavity fluid can be regarded as a lumped mass,
mainly moving in phase with the upper and lower panels. As mentioned in
section F.3.1.1., these inertial effects yield a positive modal pressure,
occurring together with a panel displacement away from the cavity, while a
negative modal pressure occurs together with a modal panel displacement
into the cavity along the whole panel-cavity interfaces.
Λ C12 ω2 C22 ω2
Pa .[(ω 2 − ω a2 ). a ] = Pa .[ 2( . 2 + . )] .
K ms Λ s 1 ω − ω s21 ms Λ s 2 ω 2 − ω s22
(F.52)
eigenfrequencies of the cavity-controlled modes
Again, the non-trivial solution (Pa ≠ 0) of the characteristic equation can be
represented graphically (see figure F.3).
Based on the two uncoupled structural eigenfrequencies ωs1 and ωs2 and
frequency Ω, at which the right-hand side of (F.52) becomes zero, i.e.
Coupled vibro-acoustic behaviour of double-panel partitions 411
mode with the smallest frequency shift, i.e. the out-of-phase mode,
controlled by the (1,3) panel mode, the analytical model yields a small
frequency increase, while the actual coupled eigenfrequency is slightly
smaller than the uncoupled eigenfrequency of the (1,3) panel mode.
uncoupled coupled
panel mode (u,v) in-phase out-of-phase
(odd,odd) fs (Hz) fc (Hz) (fc-fs)/fs (%) fc (Hz) (fc-fs)/fs (%)
(1,1) 47.4 47.1 -0.6 71.8 +51.5
(3,1) 86.4 85.8 -0.7 94.4 +9.3
(5,1) 168.4 167.4 -0.6 167.8 -0.4
(1,3) 237.9 236.5 -0.6 237.6 -0.1
(3,3) 274.7 273.4 -0.5 271.9 -1.0
(7,1) 290.6 289.2 -0.5 288.1 -0.9
(even,odd) fs (Hz) fc (Hz) (fc-fs)/fs (%) fc (Hz) (fc-fs)/fs (%)
(2,1) 61.4 61.0 -0.6 57.2 -6.8
(4,1) 122.2 121.4 -0.6 118.2 -3.3
(6,1) 224.6 223.4 -0.5 225.3 +0.3
(2,3) 251.6 250.2 -0.5 252.8 +0.5
(odd,even) fs (Hz) fc (Hz) (fc-fs)/fs (%) fc (Hz) (fc-fs)/fs (%)
(1,2) 123.5 122.7 -0.6 120.6 -2.3
(3,2) 160.7 159.8 -0.6 158.6 -1.3
(5,2) 238.7 237.5 -0.5 237.8 -0.4
(even,even) fs (Hz) fc (Hz) (fc-fs)/fs (%) fc (Hz) (fc-fs)/fs (%)
(2,2) 137.2 136.3 -0.7 134.7 -1.8
(4,2) 194.5 193.4 -0.6 192.5 -1.0
(6,2) 293.2 291.8 -0.5 290.8 -0.8
cavity mode in-phase out-of-phase
(l,m,n) fa (Hz) fc (Hz) (fc-fa)/fa (%) fc (Hz) (fc-fa)/fa (%)
(1,0,0) 170.0 180.2 +6.0
panel-controlled modes
unc. in-phase out-of-phase
(u,v) (l,m,n) (l,m,n) Ω (Hz) fc (Hz) (l,m,n) (l,m,n) Ω (Hz) fc (Hz)
fs (Hz) fa1(Hz) fa2(Hz) case fa1(Hz) fa2(Hz) case
(1,1) (0,0,1) (2,0,1) 1174.3 47.2 (0,0,0) (2,0,0) 307.5 88.2
47.4 1133.3 1183.2 case 1: ωs < ωa1 0 340 case 2:ωa1 < ωs < Ω
414 Appendix F
The findings from the analytical model concerning the contributions of the
different cavity modes to the modal pressure field in the low-frequency
panel-controlled modes are also confirmed by the wave model predictions.
The modal pressure fields in the out-of-phase and in-phase panel-controlled
modes consist mainly of the uncoupled cavity modes with mode numbers
n=0 and n=1, respectively. Figures F.4 and F.5 show, for instance, the wave
model prediction results for the forced responses at 71.8Hz and 47.1 Hz,
which are very close to the eigenfrequencies of, respectively, the out-of-
phase and in-phase modes, controlled by the (1,1) panel mode.
These figures confirm that the modal pressure field of the (1,1) out-of-phase
and in-phase panel-controlled modes consist mainly of, respectively, the
(0,0,0)/(2,0,0) and (0,0,1)/(2,0,1) cavity modes, as indicated by the
analytical model (see table F.3). Note also that the z-component of the
modal fluid displacement is indeed anti-symmetric with respect to the mid-
plane of the cavity for the out-of-phase mode (figure F.4) and symmetric for
the in-phase mode (figure F.5). Note that the lines of symmetry in the
operational deflection shapes on these figures are not entirely preserved, due
to the non-symmetric location of the force excitation of the considered
double-panel partition.
The wave model results confirm also the phase relationship between the
modal pressure and modal panel displacements at the panel-cavity
interfaces. For the (1,1) out-of-phase panel-controlled mode, for instance,
the increased eigenfrequency results mainly from the stiffening effect of the
Coupled vibro-acoustic behaviour of double-panel partitions 417
(0,0,0) cavity mode, which predominates the inertial effect of the (2,0,0)
cavity mode (see table F.3). Consequently, most parts of the panels - at least
those with the largest displacement amplitudes - move into the cavity at the
time the pressures along the panel-cavity interfaces are positive (see figure
F.4). On the contrary, the (1,1) in-phase panel-controlled mode is mainly
determined by the inertial effects of the (0,0,1) and (2,0,1) cavity modes.
Consequently, the upper and lower panel move into and away from the
cavity at the time the pressure along the corresponding interface is,
respectively, negative and positive (see figure F.5). Note also that the
418 Appendix F
coupling effect and subsequent frequency shift is substantially larger for the
(1,1) out-of-phase panel-controlled mode than for the corresponding in-
phase mode (see table F.2). This can be derived also from a comparison of
their modal patterns (figures F.4 and F.5). The modal pressure amplitudes
are substantially larger in the out-of-phase mode, while the amplitudes of
the modal panel displacements are similar. The fluid displacement patterns
in figure F.5 illustrate also that, for the in-phase panel-controlled modes, the
cavity fluid can be regarded as a lumped mass, mainly moving in-phase with
the upper and lower panels.
For the out-of-phase modes, controlled by panel modes with higher mode
numbers u and/or v, the cavity modes (l,m,n)=(u±1,v±1,0), which have the
largest modal coupling factors with a certain panel mode (u,v), are not
necessarily the most contributing modes; instead, the cavity modes with
Coupled vibro-acoustic behaviour of double-panel partitions 419
lower mode numbers l and m are more dominant. On the contrary, the cavity
pressure field for the in-phase modes is always dominated by the cavity
modes with the largest modal coupling factors, i.e. (l,m,n)=(u±1,v±1,1).
These findings from the analytical model are confirmed by the wave model
results. Figures F.6 and F.7, showing the forced responses, corresponding
with, respectively, the (6,2) out-of-phase and in-phase panel-controlled
modes, confirm, for example, that the cavity pressure field consists mainly
of, respectively, the (1,1,0)/(5,1,0) and (5,1,1)/(7,1,1) modes, as indicated in
table F.3.
1
provided that the modified cavity thickness Lz is still smaller, compared to the
panel dimensions Lx and Ly
Coupled vibro-acoustic behaviour of double-panel partitions 421
cavity-controlled modes
The modal pressure in a low-frequency cavity-controlled mode is dominated
by an uncoupled cavity mode with mode number n=0. Consequently, as it is
422 Appendix F
the case for the out-of-phase panel-controlled modes, only the factor Λa
changes and the same uncoupled panel modes dominate the coupled modal
panel displacements, so that only the left-hand side of the characteristic
equation (F.52) changes. Figure F.10 shows the effect of a cavity thickness
modification on the coupled eigenfrequency of a cavity-controlled mode for
all four cases, mentioned in section F.3.2. This figure indicates that a
decrease of the cavity thickness (Lz2<Lz1) intensifies the fluid-structure
coupling interaction, so that the frequency shifts ω c2 − ω a2 increase for all
four cases.
uncoupled panel and uncoupled cavity modes is also influenced, since one
of its determining factors is the difference between their uncoupled
eigenfrequencies. In contrast with a modification of the cavity thickness, the
coupling interaction with a certain panel mode is not changing with the
same extent for every cavity mode. Consequently, it is not ensured that
always the same uncoupled cavity modes dominate the modal pressures in
the panel-controlled modes. Figure F.11 shows the effect of a fluid density
modification on the coupled eigenfrequency of a panel-controlled mode,
assuming that the dominating uncoupled cavity modes do remain the same.
Provided that the an uncoupled panel mode still belongs to the same case,
defined in section F.3.1.1., after decreasing the fluid density (ρ0,2< ρ0,1), the
fluid-structure coupling effect and subsequent frequency shifts ω c2 − ω s2
may increase or decrease, depending on the case. When the two dominant
cavity modes have an added mass effect on the considered panel mode (case
424 Appendix F
1 : figure F.11a), which is the case, for example, for all low-frequency in-
phase panel-controlled modes, or when the mass effect of the first cavity
mode predominates the stiffening effect of the second cavity mode (case 3 :
figure F.11c), the decrease of the coupled eigenfrequency ωc with respect to
the uncoupled panel eigenfrequency ωs becomes smaller for a decreased
fluid density. When the two dominant cavity modes have a stiffening effect
on the considered panel mode (case 4 : figure F.11d) or when the stiffening
effect of the first cavity mode predominates the mass effect of the second
cavity mode (case 2 : figure F.11b), a decrease of the fluid density yields a
larger increase of the coupled eigenfrequency.
The validity of the above identified modal sensitivities is verified with the
wave model results for two cases. In the first case, the thickness of the
double-panel partition, considered in section F.3.3., is reduced from 0.15m
to 0.10m. In the second case, the cavity of the double-panel partition is filled
with helium (ρ0=0.166 kg/m , c=1017 m/s) instead of air.
2 3
2
the cavity of a double glazing window is sometimes filled with helium
Coupled vibro-acoustic behaviour of double-panel partitions 425
and 3 in figures F.11a and F.11c) of the cavity on the out-of-phase panel-
controlled modes, provided that, on the one hand, the assumption is correct
uncoupled coupled
panel mode (u,v) in-phase out-of-phase
(odd,odd) fs (Hz) fc (Hz) (fc-fs)/fs (%) fc (Hz) (fc-fs)/fs (%)
(1,1) 47.4 47.2 -0.4 74.6 +57.4
(3,1) 86.4 86.0 -0.5 102.6 +18.7
(5,1) 168.4 167.6 -0.5 168.0 -0.2
(1,3) 237.9 236.8 -0.5 238.2 +0.1
(3,3) 274.7 273.6 -0.4 271.1 -1.3
(7,1) 290.6 289.4 -0.4 287.6 -1.0
(even,odd) fs (Hz) fc (Hz) (fc-fs)/fs (%) fc (Hz) (fc-fs)/fs (%)
(2,1) 61.4 61.1 -0.5 55.4 -9.8
(4,1) 122.2 121.6 -0.5 116.8 -4.4
(6,1) 224.6 223.6 -0.4 226.2 +0.7
(2,3) 251.6 250.5 -0.4 254.3 +1.1
(odd,even) fs (Hz) fc (Hz) (fc-fs)/fs (%) fc (Hz) (fc-fs)/fs (%)
(1,2) 123.5 122.8 -0.6 119.4 -3.3
(3,2) 160.7 160.0 -0.4 157.8 -1.8
(5,2) 238.7 237.6 -0.4 236.0 -1.1
(even,even) fs (Hz) fc (Hz) (fc-fs)/fs (%) fc (Hz) (fc-fs)/fs (%)
(2,2) 137.2 136.5 -0.5 133.8 -2.5
(4,2) 194.5 193.7 -0.4 191.9 -1.3
(6,2) 293.2 292.0 -0.4 290.1 -1.1
cavity mode in-phase out-of-phase
(l,m,n) fa (Hz) fc (Hz) (fc-fa)/fa (%) fc (Hz) (fc-fa)/fa (%)
(1,0,0) 170.0 184.0 +8.2
that the modal pressure is still dominated by the same uncoupled cavity
modes and that, on the other hand, the considered uncoupled panel mode
still belongs to the same case. Both conditions are satisfied for all uncoupled
panel modes, marked with an asterisk in table F.5. A comparison of the
eigenfrequencies of the out-of-phase modes, controlled by one of these
panel modes (see tables F.2 and F.5), confirms that all frequency increases
and decreases become, respectively, larger and smaller, due to a fluid
density reduction.
426 Appendix F
For the (5,1), (6,1) and (2,3) out-of-phase modes, the same cavity modes are
still dominating the modal cavity pressure, but the relative position of the
uncoupled panel frequency with respect to the uncoupled acoustic
eigenfrequencies is modified, so that a frequency increase becomes a
frequency decrease and vice versa.
uncoupled coupled
panel mode (u,v) in-phase out-of-phase
(odd,odd) fs (Hz) fc (Hz) (fc-fs)/fs (%) fc (Hz) (fc-fs)/fs (%)
(1,1) * 47.4 47.3 -0.1 75.1 +58.5
(3,1) * 86.4 86.3 -0.1 98.6 +14.1
(5,1) 168.4 168.3 -0.06 169.5 +0.65
(1,3) * 237.9 237.7 -0.08 240.0 +0.88
(3,3) 274.7 274.5 -0.06 274.8 +0.02
(7,1) 290.6 290.4 -0.07 290.7 +0.03
(even,odd) fs (Hz) fc (Hz) (fc-fs)/fs (%) fc (Hz) (fc-fs)/fs (%)
(2,1) * 61.4 61.3 -0.08 60.8 -0.9
(4,1) * 122.2 122.1 -0.08 121.8 -0.3
(6,1) 224.6 224.4 -0.09 224.1 -0.2
(2,3) 251.6 251.4 -0.08 250.8 -0.3
(odd,even) fs (Hz) fc (Hz) (fc-fs)/fs (%) fc (Hz) (fc-fs)/fs (%)
(1,2) * 123.5 123.4 -0.08 123.1 -0.3
(3,2) * 160.7 160.6 -0.06 160.4 -0.2
(5,2) 238.7 238.6 -0.04 238.4 -0.1
(even,even) fs (Hz) fc (Hz) (fc-fs)/fs (%) fc (Hz) (fc-fs)/fs (%)
(2,2) * 137.2 137.1 -0.07 136.8 -0.3
(4,2) * 194.5 194.4 -0.05 194.3 -0.1
(6,2) * 293.2 293.1 -0.04 293.0 -0.07
For the (5,2) out-of-phase mode, the (2,1,0) and (4,1,0) cavity mode are
dominant, instead of the (0,1,0) and (4,1,0) cavity mode. Since both cavity
modes still have an added mass effect, the panel eigenfrequency still
decreases. For the (3,3) and (7,1) out-of-phase modes, one of the dominant
cavity modes has also changed: the (0,0,0) rather than the (2,0,0) cavity
mode becomes dominant. Due to the stiffening effect of the (0,0,0) mode,
instead of the added mass effect of the (2,0,0), the panel eigenfrequencies no
longer decrease but increase. All these modifications on the coupling effects
Coupled vibro-acoustic behaviour of double-panel partitions 427
and frequency shifts, identified from the analytical model, are confirmed by
the wave model predictions (see table F.5).
The comparison of tables F.2 and F.5 confirms also the reduced frequency
decreases of the eigenfrequencies of the in-phase panel-controlled modes,
due to the reduced mass of the cavity fluid.
for the forced response at 135.5 Hz, which lies between the eigenfrequencies
of the (2,2) out-of-phase and (2,2) in-phase mode. As a result, the energy
ratio curve shows sharp dips in each narrow frequency region between the
eigenfrequencies of an out-of-phase and corresponding in-phase mode,
indicating a poor sound insulation of the double-panel partition. In the other
frequency regions, the kinetic energy of the lower panel becomes
substantially larger than the upper panel energy, indicating a good sound
insulation. Since the latter frequency regions are usually much wider, the
sharp energy ratio dips almost disappear in a commonly used band
representation, even in the narrow bands of a 1/12 octave band
representation, as shown in figure F.12b.
Figure F.12 : ratio of the kinetic energy of the lower panel to the kinetic energy of
the upper panel ((a) linear, (b) 1/12 octave bands)
of-phase modes (47.1 Hz and 71.8 Hz), but no additional dip, besides the dip
associated with the (2,1) modes, occurs between these frequencies.
This is due to the fact that the destructive and constructive interferences of
the (1,1) in-phase and out-of-phase modes, which would cause an additional
dip, are disturbed by the (2,1) out-of-phase and in-phase modes, since their
eigenfrequencies (57.2 Hz and 61.0 Hz) are located in the considered
frequency region (47.1 Hz - 71.8 Hz). When the point force is applied in the
middle of the lower panel (i.e. (xF,yF) = (0.5*Lx,0.5*Ly) instead of
(0.25*Lx,0.25*Ly)), the destructive and constructive interferences of the (1,1)
in-phase and out-of-phase modes are no longer disturbed by the (2,1) in-
phase and out-of-phase modes, since the latter modes cannot be excited by
the applied force. As a result, a strong dip occurs between the
eigenfrequencies of the (1,1) in-phase and out-of-phase mode, as shown in
figure F.14. Note also that the smaller number of excited modes yields a
larger energy ratio in the higher frequency region.
From these considerations on the kinetic energy levels of both panels, it may
be stated that double-panel partitions have good sound insulation properties,
except in the very low frequency range. In this respect, the insulation
properties of bounded double-panel partitions are similar to those of
unbounded double-panel partitions. For the latter, the poor low-frequency
sound insulation occurs in the region of the so-called mass-air-mass
resonance frequency, where a strong out-of-phase displacement of the
unbounded panels is maintained by the stiffness of the enclosed fluid (FAHY
430 Appendix F
(1985)). For the bounded case, however, the poor sound insulation no longer
results from one, but from several resonance phenomena.
Figure F.14 : ratio of the kinetic energy of the lower panel to the kinetic energy of
the upper panel for a point force excitation at (xF,yF)=(0.25*Lx,0.25*Ly) (solid) and at
(xF,yF)=(0. 5*Lx,0. 5*Ly) (dashed) on the lower panel
Figure F.15 shows the effect on the kinetic energy ratio of the double-panel
partition, when the cavity thickness is reduced from 0.15 m to 0.10 m and
when the cavity is filled with helium instead of air. This figure clearly
indicates that a cavity thickness reduction yields a decrease of the kinetic
energy ratio, due to the increased fluid-structure coupling effect, as
indicated in section F.4. Changing the cavity fluid to helium reduces the
fluid-structure coupling effect and yields an increased kinetic energy ratio.
These sensitivities of bounded double-panel partitions are similar to the
ones, that were identified earlier for unbounded double-panel partitions
(BREKKE (1981), GÖSELE et al. (1977)).
Figure F.15 : ratio of the kinetic energy of the lower panel to the kinetic energy of
the upper panel for a point force excitation at (xF,yF)=(0.25*Lx,0.25*Ly) on the lower
panel of three different double-panel partitions : an air-filled cavity with thickness
Lz=0.15 m (solid), a helium-filled cavity with thickness Lz=0.15 m (dashed) and an
air-filled cavity with thickness Lz=0.10 m (dotted)
Coupled vibro-acoustic behaviour of double-panel partitions 431
Figure F.16 : normalised panel displacement in plane y=0.5*Ly for the (1,1) (a) and
(3,1) (b) out-of-phase panel-controlled modes
(air-filled cavity with thickness Lz=0.15m (solid), helium-filled cavity with thickness
Lz=0.15m (dashed) and air-filled cavity with thickness Lz=0.10m (dotted))
432 Appendix F
Figure F.16 shows the shape of the normalised panel displacement in the
plane y=0.5*Ly for the out-of-phase modes, controlled by the (1,1) (figure
F.16a) and the (3,1) (figure F.16b) uncoupled panel mode. In comparison
with the uncoupled (1,1) panel mode, the net fluid volume displacement and
subsequent radiation efficiency of the (1,1) panel-controlled mode decrease,
due to the significant contribution of the (3,1) panel mode to the coupled
modal panel displacement. On the other hand, the radiation efficiency of the
(3,1) panel-controlled mode increases since the contribution of the (1,1)
panel mode enhances the net fluid volume displacement. Figure F.16
illustrates also that these changes in radiation efficiency increase when the
fluid-structure coupling interaction becomes stronger, as it is the case for the
considered modes, when the cavity thickness is reduced or when the cavity
is filled with helium instead of air.
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