International Journal of Mining Science and Technology 24 (2014) 369–372

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

International Journal of Mining Science and Technology

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/ijmst

A new fracture model for the prediction of longwall caving

characteristics
Venticinque Gaetano ⇑, Nemcik Jan, Ren Ting
Faculty of Engineering and Information Sciences, University of Wollongong, NSW 2522, Australia

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: A new numerical model is presented to simulate fracture initiation and propagation in geological
Received 10 October 2013 structures. This model is based on the recent amalgamation of established failure and fracture mechanics
Received in revised form 15 November 2013 theory, which has been implemented to the finite difference FLAC code as a constitutive FISH user-
Accepted 8 December 2013
defined-model. Validation of the model has been studied on the basis of comparing the transitional
Available online 30 April 2014
failure modes in rock. It is shown that the model is capable of accurately simulating fracture distributions
over entire brittle to ductile rock phases. The application of the model during longwall retreat simulation
Keywords:
highlighted several caving characteristics relevant to varying geological condition. The distribution and
Numerical modelling
Longwall mining
behaviour of modelled fractures were both realistic and shown to provide an enhanced post failure
Fracture propagation analysis to geological structures in FLAC. Moreover, the model introduces new potential insight towards
Caving characteristic the failure analysis of more complicated problems. This is best suited towards improving safety and
Mine safety efficiency in mines through the prediction of various key fractures and caving characteristics of geological
structures.
Ó 2014 Published by Elsevier B.V. on behalf of China University of Mining & Technology.

1. Introduction of the model towards a wider range of geological structures and

problems.
The authors have been undertaking research into the fracture
mechanics and fracture geometry of rocks to better understand
2. Constitutive fracture model
the failure of geological structures.
The knowledge of when fractures initiate and how they may
The new fracture model is a newly developed constitutive FISH
propagate through a rock mass is fundamental to the safety and
based UDM in FLAC that introduces rock fracture simulation capa-
efficiency of stable mine design. During simulation it is often useful
bilities [6]. Through application users can explore both the initial
to determine if and more importantly how a structure will fail.
onset and final fracture distribution within FLAC 2D. For two or
Research carried out by others have produced accurate models
three dimension-advanced continuum modelling of rock, soil and
for simulating fractures in rock; however an extensive prior knowl-
structural support, FLAC in general is the most popular and com-
edge of fracture locations, frequency and orientation required to
monly used geotechnical analysis software used worldwide.
generate these models prohibits independent fracture simulation
Features of the new model are distinguished through a discrete
rendering their application largely to guesswork [1–5].
dynamic fracturing process. This is governed by an inclusion
Recognising these shortcomings, a user-defined-model (UDM)
between failure mechanics methods of Mohr–Coulomb and
within FLAC 2D geotechnical software package was recently devel-
Hoek–Brown, and fracture mechanics methods described by
oped, offering independent simulation of fracture initiation and
Griffith Theory’s and LEFM principles. Through failure mechanics,
propagation behaviour [6].
fractures are initiated within most critically stressed grid zones.
This paper presents the validation and implementation of this
From fracture mechanics, in particular the effects of coupled static
new model towards the simulation of fracture distribution during
and dynamic load, fracture propagation is fitted to always extend
a longwall retreat. The aim of this study is to present the diversity
towards the direction of dynamic stress.
Recognising that the post failure properties of rocks are
attributed towards the mechanical properties along fractured joint
⇑ Corresponding author. Tel.: +61 414 799 325. surfaces, ubiquitous zone properties are altered to produce a true
E-mail address: gv667@uowmail.edu.au (G. Venticinque). representation of fracture behaviour. This is notably characterised

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ijmst.2014.03.014
2095-2686/Ó 2014 Published by Elsevier B.V. on behalf of China University of Mining & Technology.
370 G. Venticinque et al. / International Journal of Mining Science and Technology 24 (2014) 369–372

by diminished cohesion and tension, as well as a joint angle of fric- FLAC grid 150 mm×50 mm
tion equivalent to the internal angle of friction of the intact rock. By
altering the ubiquitous zone properties in this way, post failure
model response in FLAC is significantly enhanced.
In its current form, the model incorporates all three combina-
tions of fractures: Mode I tensile, Mixed mode I–II and Mode II pure
shear. Fig. 1 presents these forms through various loadings on sim-
ulated cylindrical rock cores.

150 mm
3. Validation of fracture model

The newly developed fracture model has been validated

against the theoretical range of failure modes for isotropic marble
rock. In particular, a FLAC model with application of the new
constitutive fracture model was constructed to simulate several
biaxial and triaxial loading excursions for isotropic intact marble
rock cores. 50 mm

Depending on load and confinement conditions, overstressed Fig. 3. FLAC model geometry for cylindrical rock.
rocks exhibit several distinct transitional failure modes ranging
from brittle tension and or shear fracture to ductile shear network
formation, as shown in Fig. 2. Table 1
Modelled rock parameters.

3.1. Validation model Rock type Isotropic intact marble

Bulk Modulus (GPa) 58.5
The geometry of the model cylindrical rock cores is shown in Shear Modulus (GPa) 27.0
Fig. 3. Load excursions are applied to the model through an appli- Cohesion (MPa) 19.3
Tension (MPa) 3.5
cation of pressures to the grid surface boundaries. The mechanical Internal friction (°) 38.5
properties for the marble rock were obtained from laboratory test- Density (kg/m3) 2700
ing, and are presented in Table 1. Documentation regarding the
laboratory testing performed, application and validation run of
the fracture model can be found in the research investigated by
Venticinque [6].

t t t

σ σ σ
σ 3 =σ t Mode I tensile t 3 0 Mixed mode I-II σ3 0
fracture fracture Mode II shear fracture
Triaxial 140 MPa/10 MPa
Tensile loading 3 MPa

Compression 80 MPa

Fig. 1. Incorporated modes of fracture.

Fig. 4. Brittle-to-ductile failure transition of isotropic marble.

Table 2
FLAC Critical stress initiating failure in isotropic marble rock (MPa).

Confining pressure r1 theory r1 modelled

0⁄ 3.5 3.3
0 80.0 80.0
3 99.0 99.0
5 111.0 115.0
10 137.0 138.0
25 199.0 202.0
50 283.0 283.0

Fig. 2. Brittle to ductile failure of wombeyan marble after [7]. Note: ⁄Means under tensile loading condition.
 G. Venticinque et al. / International Journal of Mining Science and Technology 24 (2014) 369–372 371

seam measures. Rock properties applied for weak and strong cases
-55 are respectively listed in Tables 3 and 4. Values adopted are to
Sandstone some extent representative to those obtainable in the field based
-65 on an extreme best and worst basis.
Coal
4.1. Longwall model
-75 Siltstone
Coal
In-situ principle horizontal and vertical stresses were initiated
Depth of cover (m)

-85 in model strata at a ratio of 3:1. Following this an incremental

Lower sandstone
1 m advance extraction is performed over the course of a 200 m
retreat. All fractures and associated caving are produced indepen-
-95 Mudstone
dently throughout this entire process.
Coal
To simulate the longwall power support, a distributed force
Mudstone
- 105
totalling 500 t was applied over the 4 m roof and 3 m floor adjacent
to the longwall face. This reflects realistic shield and pressure dis-
tribution described by Peng, as shown in Fig. 6 [8].
- 115
Siltstone

- 125

Fig. 5. Geometry of modelled strata.

3.2. Validation results

The modelled fracture distributions presented in Fig. 4 are

adequately aligned with expected brittle-to-ductile failure. This is
where low confining stresses were associated with tensile and slab
fracturing; whilst higher confining stress became distinctively
characterised by shearing and eventual development of complex Fig. 6. Modelled canopy and base pressure distribution.
shear fracture networks. Furthermore, in Table 2, critical stresses
initiating model fractures produced close agreement towards the
theoretically calculated stresses for rock failure. In this way,
fracture distributions predicted through the fracture model are
-55
considered realistic and somewhat verified.
-65

Depth of cover (m)

4. Longwall fracture simulation -75
Shading
indicates -85
fractured
The application of a new fracture model for predicting longwall rock -95
caving characteristics has been substantiated in this project. Three
-105
examples demonstrating this new model’s ability are presented
through the definition of vastly different caving styles in varying -115
geological condition. The FLAC model used in these simulations -125
reflected a hypothetical 100 m deep shallow retreat longwall 270 285 300 315 330 345
through 4.5 m thick coal seam. The geological section for the mod- Distance retreat (m)

elled stratigraphy is illustrated in Fig. 5, and this consists several

Fig. 7. Heavily fractured longwall bedding planes.
alternating sandstone, claystone, siltstone, mudstone and coal

Table 3
Modelled rock properties for weak geological condition.

Rock type Bulk modulus (GPa) Shear modulus (GPa) Cohesion (MPa) Tension (MPa) Internal friction (°) Density (kg/m3)
Upper sandstone 6.67 5.00 3.00 0.2000 38 2500
Lower sandstone 5.56 4.17 1.50 0.1000 34 2500
Siltstone 6.67 5.00 1.50 0.0400 33 2500
Mudstone 4.17 1.92 0.50 0.0400 19 2500
Coal 2.20 1.00 0.10 0.0001 32 1350

Table 4
Modelled rock properties for strong geological condition.

Rock type Bulk modulus (GPa) Shear modulus (GPa) Cohesion (MPa) Tension (MPa) Internal friction (°) Density (kg/m3)
Upper sandstone 12.30 9.67 4.50 2.50 38 2500
Lower sandstone 12.30 7.67 3.00 2.00 36 2500
Siltstone 9.80 7.60 2.20 1.50 35 2500
Mudstone 5.44 8.00 1.50 1.00 35 2500
Coal 2.50 1.10 0.20 0.20 32 1350
372 G. Venticinque et al. / International Journal of Mining Science and Technology 24 (2014) 369–372

-55 the likely risk of air blasts being produced by the fall of simulated
Shading indicates large intact 20–30 m blocks in the goaf. It is also found that frac-
fractured rock -65
ture distribution coincides with conclusions described by Zhang

Depth of cover (m)

-75 et al., as cracks relatively far above the goaf developed at shallow
Intact -85 angles whilst cracks close to the goaf were high angled and criss-
rock
crossed [10].
-95
Furthermore another way of determining effectiveness of the
-105
new model was to measure displacement differences after
-115 additional model stepping. This is highlighted in Fig. 9, which for
-125
an unaltered standard FLAC model illustrates an initial goaf roof
290 305 320 335 350 365 displacement of 4.5 m at 35,000 steps whilst only a fractional
Distance retreat (m) 20,000 steps in the new model were required to produce the same
result. In this way the new model is considered a significant
Fig. 8. Longwall fractures distribution of large blocks.
enhancement towards previous standard FLAC analysis methods.

5.0 5. Conclusions
Initial goaf displaceme nt (m )

4.5 New fracture

model
4.0 This study demonstrates the ability of the new fracture model
3.5 Standard FLAC
model to produce accurate and realistic prediction of geological failure
3.0
2.5
through independent fracture simulation. As demonstrated
2.0 through the verification and longwall problems such analyses
1.5 would not have been possible under conventional modelling
1.0 approaches. The significance of this is a new ability enabling
0.5
greater failure analysis and prediction of fractures lending towards
0 5000 10000 15000 20000 25000 30000 35000 improved safety, efficiency, stability and design of geological
No . Steps structures. Through continued validation and additional applica-
Fig. 9. Comparison between displacement for new and standard FLAC model with
tion towards other complex problems this new model is envisaged
respect to stepping. to offer better service to both mining and the wider geotechnical
industries.

4.2. Modelling weak geological condition References

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