ee Kamault a b | TABLE OF CONTENTS J- ENGLISH VERBAL ANALOGY... DING COMPREHENS WORD PARTS TABLE ON II - SOCIAL SCIENCE PSYCHOLOGY .. ANTHROPOLOGY SOCIOLOGY . J - QUANTITATIVE MATHEMATICS STATISTICS .. DATA INTERPRETATION IV - PHYSICS SCALARS & VECTORS NEWTON'S LAW .. WORK & ENERGY IMPULSE, MOMENTUM & COLLISIONS HYDROSTATICS AND FLUID DYNAMICS V-CHEMISTRY . INORGANIC CHEMISTRY 99-122 ORGANIC CHEMISTRY 123-141 BIOCHEMISTRY 142 - 160 VI- BIOLOGY COMPARATIVE ANATOMY ie - ie .NIMAL_ ‘OLOGY ei ee 177-181 GENETICS ECOLOGY 181-184 ANIMAL PHYSIOLOGY 185-190 BOTANY ..... 191 — 208 Scanned with CamScannerBIOCHEMISTRY SSS ———_ nn ae INTRODUCTION 4. COMPOSITION OF THE CELL ‘omponents classified either as polar or n At the molecular level, the cell is — ba ah ‘ mal ‘comprising 70% of the cell, Ha » ahaa tant non polar component is thy" most abundant molecular component is ry ine the sonent andlor reactive specie in cellular reactions. Aver) IMRT oats subst 3 phospholipid. It makes up a large fraction of the mem! processes ‘rom the environment. water due to either dipole-dipole interactions or ‘lve in jation of electrolytes, acids or bases tt Polar molecules are able to diss nsw Iso facilitate dissoci interactions with this solvent. HO can al aiding electrostatic interactions. either organic or inorganic. The ‘The component structure of cells can also be classified as organic, "ae olecules. These four biomolecules are the following: Organ, components include the four biom: Proteins + Carbohydrates * Nucleic acids © Lipids is non protein components such as neurotransmitter, ane ‘Other organic components include the nitrogenou: fed from the Vitamin B complex hormones or those derived from amino acids as well as coenzymes deriv The inorganic components include ions or electrolytes which are involved in the transmission of messages through cells or signaling, in catalysis and in regulation of some cellular processes. Others fam part of the structural material of cells, or form ligands, usually with proteins. There are some cellular components, both organic and inorganic that can also function as weak acids. When dissolved in water, these acids give off protons and coexist in equilibrium with their conjugate bases, The coexistence of these acids and their conjugates, as well as other dissolved salts help regulate changes in the H’ ion concentration and constitute the buffer systems of cells. 2. BUFFERS Buffers are solutions that resist drastic changes in pH upon the addition of small amounts of acts bases. Buffer systems in cells include (a) weak acids and its conju sds art ate bases/salts and (b) amino acs proteins. Weak bases cannot function as butters because bases tend fo decompose ith varafons 8 In solution, weak acids dissociate giving off i ir cont Proton(s) or hydronium ion: conjugate base Some ea acids give off one proton and are called monopratic acids while thers such #8 ‘carbone a Phosphoric acids give off more than one proton and are called polyprotic acids. The acidity of @ su Can be measured quantitatively by titration with a standard base. The H’ concentration at equilibrium, or®# the pH (=log 1/[H’] can then be plotted agair i fitration curve of a weak me enproticnc ia concentration of OH" added. This plot, shown below pH isoelectric pt [OH] Fig. 1. Titration curve of a weak monoprotc acid i 7 Scanned with CamScanner‘Althe Isoelectic point, the Concentration of th a ho weak acid, cnyaate B86, ©. OFTAVIHA) = 1.0. Solutions containing quisiera rh ene anata of fs Zhaone wil THAT buffering capacity Hf ghoul Pon whee ea eaamount of Acid OF bawow aod wil not sbitcanty aha on at the point whore the plot levels off, a Tho dissociation of any woak acid can be Oxpressed as the reversible reaction shown below. We Not Ka wel {ho equation for butler Kolutions is as follows pH pKa + log fA} {HAL This equation is called the Hond probleme. Jorson-Hasselbalch equation and has useful applications in buffer Amino nd protons in solution will also constitute buffer systems. Amino acids have the general formula given below. " Saige NH, Fig. 1, The structure of an a-amino acid This compound has both a carboxyl and an amino functional group. The carboxyl group is the acidic functional group of organic compounds while the amino functional group has basic properties. Since proteins are made up of amino acids, it follows that proteins are also able to absorb and neutralize H’ and OH’ added in solution. Thus, aside {rom the carbonate and phosphate systems, proteins and amino acids constitute the major buffering systems in the blood, PROTEINS 1. The term “protein* is derived from the Greek word “proteios*, meaning “of first importance”. Itis the most ‘abundant of cellular components making up 70% of the organic matter in a cell. 2. The simplest unit is the amino acid, Proteins are therefore, polymers of this repeating unit linked together by peptide bonds. 3. Amino acids are organic molecules containing both carboxyl and amino functional groups. There are ‘about 300 amino acids occurring in nature, but only about 20 are commonly occurring and are constituents of proteins. 4 Of the 20 commonly occurring protein amino acids, 19 have the common structure shown in figure 2.1. The remaining a named proline, is an amino acid and has the structure shown in Fig. 2.2 ' R—C—COOH | NH, Fig. 2.1 Structure of an a-amino acid COOH Fig. 2.2. The amino acid, proline 8 try or chirality (2) optical activity (3) polarity The properties of amino acids are: " } osynme ry Bay Scanned with CamScannerThe a-imino acid structure shows a central carbon Substituents are a carboxyl group, an amino denoted R. Consequently amino acids also with four different substituents bondeg toit pop a hydrogen and a variable side group, orn optical activity. py 8. The 20 common protein amino acids are classified on the basis of polarty of the R group The 20 common protein amino acids. AMINO ACIDS 1, NONPOLAR ALANINE VALINE LEUCINE ISOLEUCINE PHENYLALANINE TRYPTOPHAN METHIONINE PROLINE i! POLAR UNCHARGED GLYCINE SERINE THREONINE TYROSINE ASPARAGINE GLUTAMINE CYSTEINE ABREV. 3-let ala val leu ile phe tp met pro aly ser thr tyr asN gin tet A v <4 00 STRUCTURE OF R “CH -CH,OH sH-CH3 Oc -CH, NH, -CH,CH,-C NH? -CH,SH 4 Scanned with CamScanner& The condensation of the a-ami CHARGED Acidic ASPARTIGACID asp D enceen a GLUTAMIC ACID glu ae hi Basic . LYSINE ys K {CH\NH, ae ae chico “NH HISTIDINE his oH ea CHa 4 . Qualitative tests for amino acids 7.4. Ninhydrin (triketohydridantin) — reacts with a-imino group of amino acids giving a purple colored product called Ruhemann's purple. Proline, an imino acid gives a yellow colored product. 7.2. Xanthoproteic test — test for the presence of aromatic amino acids, tyr and trp which reacts ‘with NaNO2/HCI giving a yellow precipitate or a yellow-colored product. 7.3. Million-Nasse test — test for tyrosine which forms a complex with Hg” giving a precipitate characterized by the color of an old-rose, The reagents are HgSO, in H7SOx. 7.4, Bromine Water test — test for the presence of free tryptophan. Tryptophan reacts with Br H,0 giving a product which forms a pink color in n-amyl alcohol. 7.5. Pauly react test for the presence of histidine which forms a fuschia-colored complex with sulfanilic acid in NaNO>, 7.6. Lead Acetate reaction — test for the available sulfur of cysteine. Cysteine reacts with Pb(OAc)2 which upon heating gives a black precipitate of PhS. 7.7. Sakaguchi test — test for the presence of arginine, The guanidine group of arginine forms a ‘complex with a-naphthol and Br,-H,0 in alkaline conditions giving a red-orange solution. 78, Biuret test — a general test for proteins. Cu++ forms a complex with the a-amino groups of proteins giving a violet solution. The reagentis alkaline copper sulfate. ino group of one amino acid with the a-carboxyl group of another amino a bond referred to as the peptide bond. This reaction is the requisite in the formation of ; Seed Proteins contain at least 50 amino acids. reaction for the formation of proteins. inctions. These functions are dependent on the shape, which in turn is 9. Protel rm a variety of fu I ee i yf the amino acids in the protein molecule. dependent on the sequence of s in shape result also in proteins having different functions. ‘Some of these functions These variation: “and examples for these are given below. Some proteins and their functions. Examples: ion: based on function: Colagen, keratin Some classes of proteins Hemoglobin, transferring RBP Structural proteins Transport proteins Scanned with CamScannerAlbumin Buffer proteins Regulatory proteins Glucagon, insulin, transcription Defense proteins Immunoglobulins Factory DNA-binding proteins Seb, zinc fingers, leucine zippers Metallothionein, glutathione Free-radical scavengers Catalytic proteins enzymes NUCLEIC ACIDS 4. Nucleic acids are informational a 6. The genetic m: . There are two types of nucleic Functionally, DNA is the macromolecule which stor . The nucleotides are bonded together at the phos} All cells contain at least three major types of RNA involved in the transmis: -DNA for its molecules made up of polymers of nucleotides linked together by phosphodiester bonds. acids: deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and ribonucleic acid (RNA). These nucleic acids are similar in that the repeating unit of both is the nucleotide. es the genetic information of individuals. RNA transmits this information to make proteins, the molecule responsible for visible or observable tats phate and sugar groups by phosphodiester bonds ion of genetic information These are: 5.1. mRNA in prokaryotes, mRNA is the product after DNA is transcribed, or the direct transcript from DNA, In, eukaryotes, the direct transcript is the hnRNA which undergoes modification to mRNA. The structure Of hnRNA is shown in Fig, 4. The mRNA contains the codon for amino acids. SUSE Fig. 4. The structure of hnRNA 5.2, tRNA iptor molecule that recognizes the codon in mRNA and transfers the arnino acid The tRNA is the ada Corresponding to the codon. Recognition is effected through the anticodon, a sequence of bases complementary to the codon. 5.3. fRNA The ribosomal RNA are i complementary pairing. Ff ‘echanisms are summarized in an equation called the CENTRAL DOGMA: important RNA that allow binding of rRNA in the ribosomes by RNA, complexes with proteins to form a structure called the ribosomes: Wa Nb 1DNA —» RNA —» Proteins x “The genetic mechanisms involve 2 general processes. The first (I) is th information tO ‘conservation from cell to cell or from parent to progeny. a mI sine ae cf irforats ression to proteins. DNA gives the genotype or stored traits of the organism while protei"s 1A for expr be type or expressed traits, give the phenol 6.1. REPLICATION ; The process of transferring information to DNA for the conservation of inherited traits is called repical® Scanned with CamScanner62. TRANSCRIPTION : NA copies the information contained in the DNA by making complementary strands to these. The process is called transcription 6.3. TRANSLATION ‘The process by which the codons in RNA is decoded as amino acids, then subsequently linked by peptide bonds to form proteins. Genetic disorders is now known to be a result of alterations of DNA sequences which correspondingly * “Tesults in alternations of the amino acid sequence of the protein product. The consequence is an altered conformation and function of the protein, This alteration is called mutation. {8 There are two types of mutations: (1) point or single base mutations and (2) macrolesions. Point ‘mutations are either deletion, addition, or substitution. Substitution of a purine for a purine and a pyrimidine for another pyrimidine is a transition; substitution of a pyrimidine for a purine or vice versa isa transversion 9. Mutagens are agents of mutation. If a mutagen affects germ cells leading to birth defects, the mutagen is a terratogen; if the mutagen affects somatic cells causing cancer, the mutagen is a carcinogen. 10. There are three types of agents causing mutation. 40.1. PHYSICAL AGENTS Physical agents include ultraviolet and lonizing radiation, The base which is most affected by ultraviolet radiation is thymine. 10.2. CHEMICAL / ENVIRONMENTAL SUBSTANCES Chemical substances are considered as either alkylating, deaminating agents or intercalating agents, ‘Aikylating agents are the largest class of “potential” mutagens present in man’s environment, Examples are: N-nitrosoamines found in cigarette smoke, formalin, chloroform, epoxides. Guanine is the base most reactive toward nearly all alkylating agents. Deaminating agents include sodium nitrite, a preservative, color enhancer and color fixative in preserved meat. Benzopyrene, found in automotive exhaust and cigarette smoke; benzene, an organic solvent and aflatoxin, a metabolic product of molds in peanuts, oils and grains, are intercalating agents. Their structure is shown in Fig. 5 reveal a common characteristic ~ a cyclic system which can interact with the bases of DNA. oO oO. |; ag CO F CHO 07 ~o" : Fig. 5. The structure of a. benzopyrene and b. aflatoxin 10.3 VIRAL AGENTS 11. REPAIR MECHANISMS 111. Enzymes such as photolyase, demethylase, catalases, peroxidases. aay Scanned with CamScanneree my a 1d metallathi 11.2. Free radical scavengers / antioxidants such as glutathione and metallothioning yy, as Vitamin C, A and E. Me do (a) excision repair and (b) Post replication yp, 11.3. Dark repair mechanism which incl 12, RECOMBINANT DNA TECHNOLOGY 12:1. Restriction endonucleases are enzymes specific for particular sequences in the Ey, palindromes or inverted repeats jon In vitro. |t involves repeatag ly replicati ns SIP vn and annealing, fag y tion reaction ar m are fragments cleaved by restriction 12.2. PCR or polymerase chain reactio denaturation, elongation or polymeniza 42.3, RFLP for restriction fragment length polymorphs endonucleases. NA that may be inserted into a host DNA. These incluge Je. Plasmids are extragenomic DNA that confers 12.4, Vectors — carriers of foreign D! resistance to antibiotics. plasmids, bacteriophages and cosmid: bacteria certain characteristic traits such as re 12.5. Blotting techniques ‘Southem blotting ~ DNA is used as probe to detect DNA. ection of RNA by DNA or vice versa. Norther blotting ~ de : Western blotting - detection of proteins using its antibody. 12.6. Libraries 12.6.1. Genomic library 12.6.2. cDNA library CARBOHYDRATES 4, The most abundant organic molecule in the biosphere is the carbohydrate. Carbohydrates are polymers of polyhydroxyaldehydes and / or polyhydroxyketones and their derivatives, The name literally means “hydrates of carbon’, The simplest unit is the monosaccharide. 2. Oligosaccharides are saccharides made up of about 10 residues, Polysaccharides are made up of ‘monosaccharide units linked together by glycosidic bonds, These polymers are the most important sources of energy throughout the biological worlds. 3. The following terms are useful in discussing the general aspect of carbohydrate chemistry: 3.1. Carbohydrates are frequently referred to as sugars. 3.2. Hemiacetals formed from aldehyde sugars are aldoses and hemiketals formed from keto suges are ketoses. 3.3. Aldoses containing a five membered ring or tetrahy i \ydrofuran are aldofuranoses, while thos containing a six-membered ring or tetrahydropyran are aldopyranoses. 34, Acetals of sugars ae glycosides, they contain a five-membered ring they ae pyranosides ihe carbohydrate potion of a glycoside is the glycone and the alcohol portion isthe aglycone 3.5. Sugars are also named based on the number of carbons as follows; Number of Carbons Name based on no. of carbons Triose Tetrose Pentose Hexose Heptose Nouae ‘4, Convention for representing carbohydrates Scanned with CamScanner141 Fischer projection - open chain form of carbohydrates 42 Howarth projection oyster fat structure of monosaccharides informational si - i 43, Conformatona stuctures cchair, boat, twist or envelope is a more realistic structure of the perties of Monosaccharides 5.1. Asymmetry of carbohydrates 5.1.1. Enantiomers or D-L pair — compounds which are mirror images of each other. 5.1.2. Anomers — hemiacetals or hemiketals which differ only in configuration at carbon 1 Which is the asymmetric center. Its asymmetry is a consequence of mutarotation in the formation of a cyclic structure. 5.1.3. Epimers - isomers which differ in configuration at a single asymmetric center ie. the Position of the substituent in one asymmetric center only, differ from each other. 5 Pror 5.2. Optical Activity 6. Of the different monosaccharides, four are commonly occurring. These are D-glucose, D-galactose, D- mannose and D-fructose. The structure of these monosaccharides are shown in Fig. 6. (CH,OH OH (CH,OH | OH OH HO HO OH HO- CH L Mh (CH,OH oO (CH,OH "oY \, nds He He Q ¢H.0H dl 1201 OH mM. N. Fig, 6. The structure of the common monosaccharides, |. B-D-glucopyranose, I. f-D- galactopyranose, Il, a-D-mannopyranose, lV. D- fructofuranose. 7. Reactions of monosaccharides 7.4. Mutarotation — formation of intramolecular hemiketals' hemiacetals. This results in the formation of a cyclic compound. Hemiacetal / hemiketal formation creates a new chiral center at C-1 and these epimers are called anomers. 7.2. Oxidation of monosaccharides - formation of sugar acids. .s aldonic acids. This reaction is the basis for the Benedict's, 's test. The visible result which is the formation of a brick red 1u+2 which is converted to Cu+1 and precipitates as the 7.2.1, Oxidation at C1 produces Barfoed's and Seliwanoff’ precipitate is due to the reduction of Ct brick red precipitate Cu20. 7.22. Oxidation of the hydroxymethyl group (C-6 in the cas uronic acid. e of hexoses) results in the formation of - 149 - Scanned with CamScannerroup results In the formation of ay ation at both Gt and tha hydroxymethyl group fwsnne Tey Id Idaric acids are ia in water except galactaric ac Colortess tg yee Idaric acids are insoluble ee 4 als This is the basis of the ‘ohols of the more common monos tose and mannose, respective" ais mucl The sugar alc 8 Reduction ~ tor ction = formation of sugar alcohols J from glucose, galact Aorbitol, galactitol, and mannitol, derived © Formation of derivatives 91 Glycoside formation 9.2 Formation of amino sugars oF 8u 9.3. Formation of sugar sulfates 9.4. Formation of sugar phosphates igar amines 10 Qualitative tests Tet ate sat —tost for the presence of polyhydroxyaldehydes and ketones which form Ing upon the reaction of the sample with alcoholic a-naphthel and conc. H,SO,, 102. Reaction with lodine reaction of starch with l-KI which prgguces blue colored solution iy to amylose ‘ 10.3. Benedict's test — a test for reducing sugars. . 10.2. Ocacone test ~ test to differentiate sugars on the basis-gfts: reaction with phenylhydrazing producing yellow crystals. . 10.5. Mucie acid test ~ test for the presence of galactose which is converted to an insoluble crysty, galactaric acid, in the presence of concentrated HNOs, an oxidizing agent. Vol 11. Two monosaccharides can react together to form a covalent linkage. The linkage is called a ghycosige bond. The common disaccharides are maltose, cellobiose, lactose and sucrose shown in Fig. 7. The fist three are reducing disaccharides and the last is non-reducing. A reducing sugar has 2 free hyérony yroup at C-1, the carbonyl carbon. group a cto CH,OH CH;OH 0, CH,OH 0. HO. eo OH HO OH 0H Ho” \ HO ol ° HO OH HO. ‘OH 1 M CH,OH CH;OH CH,OH 0, 0. 0 HO. OH HO OH HO HO ‘OH CH,0H HO OW : H CH,OH Mm WV. 1H Fig. 7. The structure of the common disaccharides, |. Cellobiose, lI. Maltose, Ill. Lactose and iv, Sut 42, Carbohydrates mostly exist in nature as polysaccharides. These structures are large, high molecu ‘weight polymers composed of monosaccharide- or disaccharide-repeating units linked together weni€ glycosidic bonds. The existence of the carbohydrates as polysaccharides serves two COM purposes, namely: (1) as storage of chemical energy and 2) as suctual support Scanned with CamScannerjccharides are classified into two types: (1) hi 13 eenomer unit upon hydrolysis and (2) etapa are i monomer units upon hydrolysis, 4. The most common examples of homopolysaccharides a made up of glucose as the only monosaccharide consti starch, glycogen, cellulose and dextran, 18, Homopolysaccharides also include the following: re the glucans, Glucans are polysaccharides tuent and include amylose and amylopectin, 6.1. Chitin — a glycan found mainiyh in lower animal forms such as invertebrates. It is the main i component of the exoskeleton or shell of arthropods, annelids and mollusks. 15.2. Pectic acid — a polysaccharide that occurs mainly in cell walls and intercellular layers of all plant tissue, 15.3. Alginic acid — is the main structural polysaccharide of brown algae and is used mainly as a food additive, LIPIDS 1. Lipids refer to a group of heterogeneous substances with common properties. To be classified as a lipid the following properties must be met: 1.2, The substance must be insoluble in water. 1.3. The substance must be soluble in nonpolar solvents such as ether, acetone, benzene, methanol, etc. 1.4. The substance must be found in biological systems 2. The following classification is based on certain common structural feature among the members of the group and are as follows: 2.1. Simple lipids 2.1.1. fatty acids 2.1.2. glycerol esters 2.1.3. terpenes 2.1.4. sterols and steroids 2.1.5. eicosanoids 2.2. Conjugated lipids - phospholipids 3, Fatty acids - long chain carboxylic acids, some saturated, some unsaturated. The saturated aliphatic fatty acids have higher melting points than their unsaturated counterparts due to strong London forces or hydrophobic interactions with each other and because of the double bonds in cis configuration found in unsaturated fatty acids. The common fatty acids Short hand | Common! Notation Systematic Name SATURATED FATTY ACIDS 12:0 Lauric acid’ Dodecanoic acid 14:0 Myristic acid! tetradecanoic acid 160 Palmitic acid Hexadecanoic acid 180 Stearic acid! octadecanoic acid 20.0 Arachidic acid eicosanoic acid Molecular CH (CH2)10COOH CHs(CHz),COOH CHa(CH2)14COOH CHs(CH;)\sCOOH CHs(CH:)1sCOOH Occurrence Seed oil Widespread Widespread Widespread Seed oil, fish oil Scanned with CamScannerUNSATURATED FATTY ACIDS 12109 Lauroleic acid/cis-9- CH;CH,CH=CH(CHz),COOH Widespreag dodecanoic acid 14:19 Myristoleic acid/cis- CHy(CHz);CH=CH(CH2)7COOH Widespreag ‘9-tetradecanoic acid 16:19 Palmitoleic acid/cis- CHs(CH2)sCH=CH(CH;);COOH = Widespreag 9-hexadecanoic acid 18:19 Oleic acidicis-9- CHs(CH,)/CH=CH(CH:)COOH = Widespreag octadecanoic acid 182A" Linoleic acidicis- CHy(CH,4CH=CHCH:CH=CH- —— Widespreag 9,12 octadecanoic (CH,)7COOH 18:34" —_Linolenic acid/cis- (CHyCH,CH=CHCH,CH=CH,CH Widespread 9,12,15 octadecanoic acid =CH(CH,);COOH 20:4A5"'" Arachidonic acidicis- (CHs(CH2)«CH=CHCH;CH=CH- Widespread 5,8, 11, 14 CH,CH=CHCH;,CH=CH(CH,).- eicosatetraenoic acid COOH ; | Linoleic, linolenic and arachidonic acids are essential fatty acids. 4. Glycerides — are fatty acid esters of glycerol which are the major components of natural fats and cits, ‘There are two types of glycerol esters. There are (1) partial glycerides such as monoglycerides ang diglyceride and (2) the triglycerides. 5. Terpenes — a group of nonsaponifiable lipids that includes the fat-soluble vitamins and has a common structural unit, the isoprene unit shown in the figure below. These group of lipids have varied functions with some having hormone-like properties. CHs | CH, =C- CH=CH, Fig. 5.5 The isoprene unit in terpenes The structure of the different fat soluble vitamins, A, D, E and K is shown in Fig. 8 cn . yw VitaminA | : . tenia A m AK EX (20ers) Vitamin D mate - FL f* 5 ow PCH. HT no Ao, 4 Vitamin E oat a L by cls CHy Vitamin K a I }__{CH,-CH=C-CH2)H 6 Fig. 8. The structure of the fat-soluble vitamins. Scanned with CamScannerFig. 9. The cyclopentanoperhydrophenanthrene fing ’' Eeosanoids = ara a class of lipids which are derivatives of arachidonic acid (cis-5, 8, 11, 14- 7.1, Prostaglandins ~ a class of eicosanoids that are derivatives of prostanoic acid with the basic ‘structure shown below (Fig. 10) COOH CH Fig. 10. The common structure of prostaglandins 1.2. Thromboxane, such as TXA; or TX, s a substance Produced by thrombocytes. This eicosanoid Gqiuzes platelet coagulation and serves to balance the action of PI fa blood. The structure of TX, is shown below (Fig. 11), coon Fig. 11, The structure ofa thromboxane, TXA, 7.3, The leukotrienes 8. Phospholipids Tho structure and nomenclature of phosphatidic acid and derivatives Structure of X COMMON NAME: GENERICNAME — Occurrence +H Phosphatidic acid Phosphatidic acid Widespread HOCH,CH,N(CHs)s+ Lecithin Phosphatidyl choline Widespread HOCH;CH,NH Cephalin Phosphatidyl Widespread ethanolamine WO(CH.CH(NHy*)COO" Phosphatidyl serine Widespread Phosphatidyl inositol Widespread CHOH Cardiolipin Phosphatidy! Widespread CHOW glycerol HOH ‘ valtative test for lipids Scanned with CamScannerith KHSO, and emits 9.1. Acrolein test - test for the presence of glycerol which reacts with Me ana 2 ete ines the presence of phosphates and phospholipids due 93 Lebermann Burra test test forthe presence of chelestra ame Moe aby ren soliton upon the addon of aoete anhydride and con at te enact 9.4. Test for unsaturation — test for the presence of eae bane’ bin HgCl,) are decolorized when added to etueedl eee 8.5. Emulsification test - test for amphiphatic property of lipids. METABOLISM 1. The major ener ‘Gy producing reaction in all or catabolism of ganismsis celular respiration, This is a pathway fr thy glucose, fats and amino acids 2. Cellular res; piration is divided into the an: all organis aerobic phase, which occurs in the cytoplasm and is common to "mS, and a mitochondrial phase that consists of an intermediate phase and the Krebb's 3. The anaerobic phase is also call cycle, led alyhcolysis oF Embden Meyethot-Pamas pathway. This is a co Pathway for al organisms and produces 2 ATP unite 4. Krebb's cycle is also kr Of elyaar ine citi acid or tricarboxyic acid cycle. Itis in this cycle, where complete oridation of products of glycolysis, fats and amino acide ecers mon EXERCISES: 1, Which of the following elements is NOT A. Carbon essential for lite? C. Nitrogen B. Ribidium ©. Sulfur 2 What's the predominant molecular component of cells? A. Water C. Carbohydrates B. Proteins D. Phosphates, 3. Which solution has the greatest concentration of Ht ions? A. Asolution with pH = 1 C. Asolution with pH = 7 8. Assolution with pH = 2 A solution with pH = 10 ‘4. What is the pH of a ‘solution made ‘Up of 0.1M of a ‘Weak acid renee pH ota Nd 0.1M of its conjugate base? The pKa of A70 Cc. a2 B44 D4 following is a zwitterions? COOH coo coo COOH 1 ! ! 1 | \ \ H.N-C—H HN CH CHN-CaH MeN Go i | R R R i A B. c. D. omen RA ene | Scanned with CamScanner«what test wil differentiate a-amino acids f 6 rom imino acids ‘A Molisch C. ninhydrin * B Millon-Nasse D. Biuret 7, Which of the polar, uncharged amino b-cont nich of Tle aes tums black in Pb-containing hair dyes? B. Cysteine D. histidine 8, Among the aromatic amino acids, whi il it Aong it ich will not readily react with NaNO,/HCI7 B Tyr D. none of these 9, Whatis the visible result in the reaction betwe A. Fuchsia colored complex B. Red-orange complex en sulfanilic acid and histidine? C. Old rose ppt. D. Yellow ppt. 10, The ted orange complex in the Sakaguchi test indi A. Phenol ring C. guanidine group B. Imidazole ring D. indole ring 11. Which of the followin, icates the presence of which moiety? 1g is NOT a test for the phenolic group of tyrosine? A. Nillon-Nasse C. Xanthoproteic B. FeCi3 test D. Pauly 12, What technique separates amino acids based on the partitioning of these compounds in 2-3 different solvents? A. Centrifugation C. electrophoresis B, Chromatography D. filtration 13. Given the following chromatographic profile: What is the component of M? ° ° A. AandB B. BandC c. Aand C ° D. A,Bandc oO o M= mixture 14. How many amino acids should a peptide have for it to have a positive result with the Biuret test? A2 Cc. >50 B.3 D. 10 18. Which of the following is the most predominant structural protein? A Keratin C. immunoglobulin B. Collagen D. albumin 18 When one amino acid reacts with another amino acid, a bond that has a double bond character is. formed. What is this bond? A. Amide bond C. peptide 8 Anhydride D. sulfide Mi i Scanned with CamScannerwhat will be the saturase, es hemoglobin. 7 cen ie saturation curves of x 2g PME #77 curve of hemagiobn at high alttuse? A % —S = a a B c/p PmmHg 18 The storage of O, in tissues is the protein A Hemogiobin C. myoglobin B Transtemng D. albumin 49. What technique is used to separate proteins and aming acids according to both charge and size? A PAGE . Column chrom & SDS-PAGE D. microfiltration 20 Enzymes are catalysts How do they increase the rate of chemical reactions? A By raising the actwation energy B_ By stabilizing the transition state C. By nceasing temperature D By covalently binding the substrate 21. Which of the following will not influence enzyme activity? A pH C. excess substrate conc B. temperature D. denaturation 22 Additional chemical groups such as small organics or metals attached to proteins are called: ‘A. Subunits groups C. Prosthetic B Residues D. heme 23. The substance acted upon by enzymes is called? A. Substrate C coenzyme B. product D. cofactor 24 Most coenzymes are derived from the vitamin B complex Wh: i een pin es at is vitamin 812? B. Ritotiavin D. cyanocobalamine 25. What is the parameter that measures enzyme affinity for sub: Harel Caan " strate? B Vmax D vmazikm 26 DNAs made up of 4 bases, a deoxyribose and a phosphat The four bases are Adenine, Cytosine, Guanine and ‘phate group linked by a phosphodiester bond. A. Uracil Uridine B Thymine D Cytochalasin Scanned with CamScanner- wat ss Stucture? ° ul a DNA 0-P-o Bas 8 doxyibonucieoside 1 0. C deoryribonuctestide ° D. rbonucieatide OH A Replication C. translation 8. Transcription D. reverse transcription 20. The site of protein synthesis is: A Nucleus C. ribosome B. Cytoplasm D. cell membrane 31. What is the adaptor molecule that carries amino acid in protein synthesis? A mRNA C. rRNA B. tRNA D. siRNA, 32. What is the size of the functional ribosome in eukaryotes? A 40s C. 70s B. 50s D. &0s 33. RNA enzymes are called? A Enzymes C. ssRNA B. Ribozymes D. Telomerase 34, The product of transcription in eukaryotic cells is called? A mRNA C. snRNA B. hnRNA D. siRNA 35 A.compound that causes alterations in the sequence of DNA in germ cells is called: A Carcinogen C. terratogen B. Mutagen D. antibiotic 35. A mutagenic compound found in cigarette smoke and automobile exhaust? A. Tetracycline C. nicotine 8. Ethidium bromide D. benzo(a)pyrene 37. What is the extragenomic circular DNA produced by bacteria in response to environmental stresses such as presence of antibiotics, high salt concentration, etc? A Plasmids C. bacteriophage 8 Cosmids D. vectors 4% What is PCR? ‘Its replication in vitro & ‘tis copying the DNAto RNA © tis identifying the protein synthesized from mRNA ©. itis the process of copying RNA to DNA Scanned with CamScanner39, 40. 41. 42. 43, 45. 46. 47. 48. 49. 50. 51. -B, Sucrose D. cellobiose The Messelson and Stahl experiment determined the mode of replication which A. Conservative C. dispersive 8. Semi-conservative D. none of these The product of reverse transcription is: A DNA C. proteins B. cDNA D. mRNA i t molecules from whi Blotting techniques determine presence and/or concentration of target ich a the name ofthe bioting technique. What batting technique determines the amount of RNA pected in transcription? deg A. Southem blotting C. Western blotting B. Northern blotting D. none of these Organisms carrying foreign traits by transfection with DNA constructs are called: A. Clones . recombinants B. Transgenes D. all of these ‘The most extensively studied gene regulation involving repressors and inducers is: A Lac operon C. his operon B. Trp operon D. none of these ‘What is the principal storage form of carbohydrates in animal cells? A. Glucose C. amylopectic . B. Glycogen D. amylase Sugars have chiral centers. How many stereoisomers are there for a sugar with 3 chiral centers? A2 C8 B.4 D. 16 When sugar cyclizes to form either a hemiacetal from a aldehyde or a hemiketal from a ketone, the carbonyl carbon becomes a chiral center. The isomeric forms produced are called cand B which can interconvert. This process of interconversion is called: A. Anomerization C. epimerization B. Tautomerism D. mutarotation ‘What is the predominant monosaccharide found in nature? A. Glucose C. mannose B. Galactose D. fructose What test differentiates glucose from fructose? A. Osazone C. Benedicts B. Barfoeds D. Seliwanoffs Which of the following is commonly known as milk sugar? A Sucrose C. cellobiose B. Lactose D. maltose Which of the common disaccharides is a non-reducing su; A. Lactose C. maltose ola | Two monosaccharides combine to form disaccharides the OH group of one monosaccharide forming an ester inkage wi here othe second monosaccharide. This type of bond is called? ee A Phosphodiester bond C. O-glycosidie bond 6 neglycosidic bond. Peptide bond Scanned with CamScanner¢ What polysaccharide is reg Ponta A. Giygogen c mye we Color rotund whon 127K) ts addou? & Amyipectio D. cotttione 8 elite owing is NOT a supa aloe A Gatactital CS mannito B Sovtvtol Pentanol 4 Mucic acid test involves the ss aitest arate oe aklehyd and hydroxymethyl groups of a sugar, Tho A Aldanic acid B Glucare acid © galactarie acid D. mannaric acid 98 Why ae fatty acids amphiphilic molecules? h (+) and (-) charges Saturated and unsaturated groups havo long side chains made up of Carbon and hydrogen only + They have polar heads and non-polgr tails 56. Which of the flowing wil give the most number of drops before it ceases decolorizing 12/KI7 A. Linoleic acid C. oleic acid B. Arachidic acid D. arachidonic acid D. 57. Which of the following is considered a non-es A EPA sential fatty acid? C. Arachidonic acid B. DHA D. oleic acid 58. Which of the folowing classes of lipids is the most onpolar and the alternative source of energy of animals? A. Tricylglycerois C. steroids B. Phospholipids D. eicosanoids 59. What test will diffe entiate fatty acids from glycerols esters? A. Leibermann-Burchard B. Acrolein C. NH.MoO, D. Hubr's test £0. What class of lipids has this common structure? A. Sterols and sterolds —_C. fatty acids B. prostaglandins D. leukotrienes 81. Cholesterol belongs to what class of lipids? A Sterols and steroids 8. prostaglandins ©. fatty acids D. thromboxanes © What test will determine the presence of cholesterol and other sterols? A Acrolein test 8 Letbermann-Burchard © Fisher © NHWMo0, Scanned with CamScanner63, Adipocytes are fat storage cells in animals, These cells contain the enzyme lipase, which cataly, release of fatty acids, The reaction Is shown below: 8 the cCH—O—C R CH, — OH RCOOH I ° CH—O—C— CH, — OH R'COOH | + ° +340 | cH; O—C R" CH, OH "COOH | ° A Esterification C. saponification B. Hydrolysis D. hydrogenation G4. The most important component of membranes that gives it its amphiphatic character is: A Proteins C. phospholipids. B Sugars D. cholesterol PREPARED BY: DR. MARILOU G. NICOLAS Former Dean — University of the Philippines College of Arts and Sciences Scanned with CamScanner