RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

1. a) List and explain the steps of research process? Do you think that every
project must pass through each stage of the research process? Give reasons to support
your answer.

Ans: Research Process: It is a process of multiple scientific steps in conducting the research
work. Each step is interlinked with other steps. The process starts with research problem at
first. Then it advances in the next steps sequentially. Research process takes place in
following six steps:-

1. Defining the research problem: The first step in the process is to identify a
problem or develop a research question. It is a statement about an area of concern, a
condition to be improved, a difficulty to be eliminated or in practice that points to the
need for meaningful understanding and deliberate investigation.

2. Research objectives: They describe concisely what the research is trying to

achieve. It is a clear, concise, declarative statement, which provides direction to
investigate the variables under the study. A well-known objective will be SMART-
specific, measurable, attainable, realistic and time bound. Research objective should
be relevant, feasible, logical, observable, unequivocal and measurable.

3. Research Design: It is the framework of research methods, strategy and

techniques chosen by the researcher to carry out research. The design of a research
topic explains the type of research (experimental, survey, correlational, semi-
experimental, review) and also its sub type (experimental design, research problem,
descriptive case study). There are three main types of design of research- Data
collection, Measurement, and Analysis.

4. Data Collection and Processing: It is the process of gathering and measuring

information on variables of interest, in an established systematic fashion that enables
one to answer stated research questions, test hypotheses and evaluate outcomes. In
this step, raw data is collected using research tools identified during the research
design stage. It can be primary data collection using qualitative, quantitative and
observation techniques or it can be secondary data collection using desk research,
syndicated data collection and case study analysis.

Data Processing is the procedure in which research frame collected data through
editing, coding, classifying, tabulating, charting and diagramming.

5. Data Analysis and Interpretation: Data analysis is defines as the process of

cleaning, transforming, and modelling data to discover useful information. The
purpose of Data analysis is to extract useful information from data and taking. The
decision based upon the data analysis. It consists of following phases:-

 Data requirement/ gathering

 Data collection
 Data cleaning
 Data analysis
  Data interpretation
 Data visualisation
Data interpretation is the process of reviewing data through some pre-defined
processes which will help assign some meaning to the data and arrive at a relevant
conclusion. It involves taking results of data analysis. There are two methods in which
this can be done- Quantitative and Qualitative methods.

6. Presenting the Results: This step of research process based upon the
information gathered as a result of the methodology applied. The results should
simply state the findings, without bias or interpretation, and arranged in a logical
sequence.

Every project must pass through each stage of the research process as it is an important step
towards executing a thorough research or study. A deeper understanding of the process of
research helps to identify the similar features that occur in the different fields, and the variety
in the purpose and approaches to some studies. It also helps to understand the implication of
deviating from a systematic approach to research, as well as the associating consequences of
ineffective and ineffectual research. A close examination of the stages of research process
reveals that each of these stages, by and large, is dependent upon the others. Violation of this
sequence can cause irreparable harm to the study.

1. b) Differentiate between Deductive and Inductive logic?

Ans: Inductive and deductive reasoning are the two kinds of logic, which are used in the field
of research to develop the hypothesis, so as to arrive at a conclusion, on the basis of
information, which is believed to be true. Inductive reasoning considers events for making
the generalization. In contrast, deductive reasoning takes general statements as a base to
arrive at an particular conclusion.

The main difference between inductive and deductive reasoning is that inductive reasoning
aims at developing a theory while deductive reasoning aims at testing an existing theory.
The differences are tabulated below:-

Sl No Basis for Comparison Deductive Logic Inductive Logic

1. Meaning It is the fundamental It connotes the argument
form of valid reasoning, in which the premises
wherein the premises give reasons in support of
give guarantee of the the probable truth of the
truth of conjecture. conjecture.
2. Approach Top-down approach Bottom-up approach
3. Starting Point Premises Conclusion
4. Based on Facts, truths and rules Patterns or trends
5. Process Theory> Hypothesis> Observation > Pattern >
Observations> Tentative > Hypothesis >
Confirmation Theory
6. Argument May or may not be valid May or may not be strong
7. Structure Goes from specific to Goes from general to
general specific
8. Draws differences with Probability Certainty
To summarise, inductive reasoning moves from specific observations to broad
generalizations. Basically, there is data, then conclusions are drawn from the data. Deductive
reasoning is a basic form of valid reasoning. Deductive reasoning, or deduction, starts out
with a general statement, or hypothesis, and examines the possibilities to reach a specific,
logical conclusion.

Key Differences Between Inductive and Deductive Reasoning:-

 The argument in which the premises give reasons in support of the probable truth of
the conjecture is inductive reasoning. The elementary form of valid reasoning,
wherein the proposition provide the guarantee of the truth of conjecture, is deductive
reasoning.

 While inductive reasoning uses the bottom-up approach, deductive reasoning uses a
top-down approach.

 The initial point of inductive reasoning is the conclusion. On the other hand,
deductive reasoning starts with premises.

 Thebasisofinductivereasoningisbehaviourorpattern.Conversely,deductivereasoningdep
ends on facts and rules.

 Inductive reasoning begins with a small observation, that determines the pattern and
develops a theory by working on related issues and establish the hypothesis. In
contrast, deductive reasoning begins with a general statement, i.e. theory which is
turned to the hypothesis, and then some evidence or observations are examined to
reach the final conclusion.

2. There is a difference in the types of research and the modus operandi of

research. Explain the statement with an example.

Ans: Modus operandi is a Latin term used in English-speaking circles to describe an

individual's or group's habitual way of operating, which forms a discernible pattern. The term
is primarily used when discussing criminal behaviour, but it is not exclusively uttered in this
context. Modus operandi can also be defined as a specific method of operation.

Groups of people or different societies often exhibit thought patterns or behavioural patterns
that are specific to those cultures. These M.O.s may vary widely across cultural or geographic
boundaries. Furthermore, M.O.s are fluid, in that they may change as values evolve or as
demographic breakdowns shift within a particular society.

Individuals also often behave in the same way that they have done before, exhibiting similar
patterns throughout their lifetime. Studying individuals and their decisions over time can lead
one to predict an individual or business's next move.

Examples of Modus Operandi

As an example, a Ponzi scheme's M.O. involves taking money from new investors and using
it to pay off existing investors, to create the appearance that the latter group of individuals is
drawing impressive returns on their capital investments.

A straight-A student's M.O. might be to complete homework assignments before they are
due, achieve a perfect attendance record, and visit with professors weekly during their office
hours.
An individual's daily routine may be considered an M.O. where someone follows the same
order of activities, to regulate their lifestyles and live as efficiently as possible. M.O.s may
also apply to business protocol. For example, when meeting a new contact, an M.O. might be
to shake hands and make eye contact to establish a connection.

Research is about using established methods to investigate a problem or question in detail

with the aim of generating new knowledge about it. The research can be classified in different
manners. Modus operandi is Latin term which essentially means- modes of operations or a
particular way/ method of doing something. The types of research can be classified in various
ways, however, modus operandi of conducting a research is different. More specifically, it’s
about how a researcher systematically designs a study to ensure valid and reliable results
that address the research aims and objectives. 

There are various types of research that are classified according to their objective, depth of
study, analysed data, time required to study the phenomenon and other factors. It’s important
to note that a research project will not be limited to one type of research, but will likely use
several. Hence, in order to achieve the objective or answer the research question, the
researcher may use different methods or modus operandi to suit the requirements- viz
constraints due to available time, resources and funding etc.

The research may be classified according to its purpose (e.g., Theoretical Research and
Applied Research), according to the depth of scope ( e.g., Exploratory Research, Descriptive
Research, Explanatory Research and Correlational Research), according to the type of data
used (e.g., Qualitative Research, Quantitative Research), according to degree of manipulation
of variables (e.g., Experimental Research, Non-experimental Research, Quasi-experimental
Research), according to type of inference (e.g., Deductive Investigation, Inductive Research,
Hypothetical-Deductive Investigation), according to the time in which it is carried out (e.g.,
Longitudinal Study, Cross-sectional Study), according to the source of information (e.g.,
Primary Research, Secondary Research), according to how the data is obtained (e.g.,
Documentary, Field, from Laboratory, Mixed-method).

In contrast, modus operandi of research may be classified as Qualitative, Quantitative and

mixed-methods , distinguished by whether they focus on words, numbers or
both. Qualitative research refers to research which focuses on collecting and analysing
words (written or spoken) and textual data, whereas quantitative research focuses on
measurement and testing using numerical data. Qualitative analysis can also focus on other
“softer” data points, such as body language or visual elements. It is evident from the above
discussion that the modus operandi of research is heavily influenced by its aims and
objectives. E.g, If research aims and objectives are primarily exploratory in nature, the
research will likely be qualitative and therefore, the researcher might consider qualitative data
collection methods (e.g. interviews) and analysis methods (e.g. qualitative content
analysis). Conversely, if the research aims and objective are looking to measure or test
something (i.e. they’re confirmatory), then the research will quite likely be quantitative in
nature, and the researcher might consider quantitative data collection methods (e.g. surveys)
and analyses (e.g. statistical analysis).

3. How do you define a research design? What are the objectives and different
types of research design?

Ans: Research Design: The research design is the “framework or blueprint” for collecting
the information.

Research design refers to the overall strategy utilized to carry out research that defines a
succinct and logical plan to tackle established research questions through the collection,
interpretation, analysis, and discussion of data.

Objectives of Research Design are:-

(a) To gain background information, to define terms, to clarify problems and

develop hypothesis, to establish research priorities, to develop questions to be
answered

(b) To describe and measure marketing phenomenon at a point in time.

(c) To determine causality, test hypothesis, to make “if- then” statements, to

answer questions.

There are three main research designs:-

 Exploratory Research
 Descriptive Research
 Causal research

Exploratory Research: This design is followed to discover ideas and insights to

generate possible explanations. It helps in exploring the problem or situation. It is,
particularly, emphasized to break a broad vague problem statement into smaller pieces
or sub-problem statements that help forming specific hypothesis. 

Exploratory research design is used to establish priorities among those

competitive explanations. 
 The exploratory research design is used to increase familiarity of the analyst
with problem under investigation. This is particularly true when researcher is new in
area, or when problem is of different type.

Descriptive Research: Descriptive research design is typically concerned with

describing problem and its solution. It is more specific and purposive study.
Descriptive study rests on one or more hypotheses. 

Descriptive research requires clear specification of who, why, what, when,

where, and how of the research. Descriptive design is directed to answer these
problems.

Methodologies include surveys, dairy panel and observations.

Causal research: Causal research design deals with determining cause and effect
relationship. It is typically in form of experiment. In causal research design, attempt is
made to measure impact of manipulation on independent variables (like price,
products, advertising and selling efforts or marketing strategies in general) on
dependent variables (like sales volume, profits, and brand image and brand loyalty).

It is believed that there may also be a fourth type of research-

Definitional Research: To define the domain of issues and is frequently used in

developing ways to measure a given phenomenon.

Example:  When researchers examine service quality, they frequently undertake a

preliminary phase of research to identify how service quality should be measured in a
given service experience.

4. a) What is the difference between census and Sample Survey? Under which
situation, sample surveys will be appropriate? Explain the reason.

Ans: Census and sampling are two methods of collecting survey data about the
population. Census refers to the quantitative research method, in which all the members of
the population are enumerated. On the other hand, the sampling is the widely used method,
in statistical testing, wherein a data set is selected from the large population, which represents
the entire group.

Census implies complete enumeration of the study objects, whereas Sampling connotes
enumeration of the subgroup of elements chosen for participation. 

Differences between Census and Sample Survey has been tabulated as below:-
 BASIS FOR COMPARISON CENSUS SAMPLING
Meaning A systematic method that Sampling refers to a
collects and records the data
portion of the population
about each members of the selected to represent the
population is called Census entire group, in all its
characteristics.
Enumeration Complete Partial
Study of Each and every unit of the Only a handful of units of
population the population
Time required It is a time-consuming It is a fast process
process
Cost Expensive method Economical method
Results Reliable and accurate Less reliable and accurate,
due to the margin of error
in the data collected
Error Not present Depends on the size of the
population
Appropriate for Population of heterogeneous Population of
nature homogeneous nature.

Under the following situations, sample surveys will be appropriate:-

 When it is impracticable to survey the entire population

 When budget constraints prevents one from surveying the entire population
 Time constraints prevent from surveying the entire population
 When results are needed quickly

In most situations, however, data are collected from only a subset of the population, in
which case the survey is called a sample survey. One must use probability sampling methods
in order to make statistically valid conclusions about the target population.

4. b) Give a brief outline of the type of sampling?

Ans: The sampling techniques can be divided into two types-

1. Probability Sampling: It is a sampling technique in which researchers choose

samples from a larger population using a method based on the theory of probability. This
sampling method considers every member of the population and forms samples based on a
fixed process.

There are four types of probability sampling techniques:-

(a) Simple random sampling: One of the best probability sampling techniques

that helps in saving time and resources. It is a reliable method of obtaining
information where every single member of a population is chosen randomly, merely
 by chance. Each individual has the same probability of being chosen to be a part of a
sample.

(b) Cluster sampling: It is a method where the researchers divide the entire
population into sections or clusters that represent a population. Clusters are identified
and included in a sample based on demographic parameters like age, sex, location,
etc.

(c) Systematic sampling: It is the method used by researchers to choose the

sample members of a population at regular intervals. It requires the selection of a
starting point for the sample and sample size that can be repeated at regular intervals.
This type of sampling method has a predefined range, and hence this sampling
technique is the least time-consuming.

(d) Stratified random sampling: It is a method in which the researcher divides

the population into smaller groups that don’t overlap but represent the entire
population. While sampling, these groups can be organized and then draw a sample
from each group separately.

2. Non Probability Sampling: It is a sampling technique in which researcher chooses

members for research at random. This sampling method is not a fixed or predefined selection
process. This makes it difficult for all elements of a population to have equal opportunities to
be included in a sample.

(a) Convenience sampling: This method is dependent on the ease of access to

subjects such as surveying customers at a mall or passers-by on a busy street.
Researchers have nearly no authority to select the sample elements, and it’s purely
done based on proximity and not representativeness. This non-probability sampling
method is used when there are time and cost limitations in collecting feedback. In
situations where there are resource limitations such as the initial stages of research,
convenience sampling is used.

(b) Purposive Sampling: It is formed by the discretion of the researcher.

Researchers purely consider the purpose of the study, along with the understanding of
the target audience.

(c) Snowball Sampling: It is a sampling method that researchers apply when the
subjects are difficult to trace. Researchers also implement this sampling method in
situations where the topic is highly sensitive and not openly discussed.

(d) Quota sampling:  The selection of members in this sampling technique

happens based on a pre-set standard. In this case, as a sample is formed based on
specific attributes, the created sample will have the same qualities found in the total
population. It is a rapid method of collecting samples.
5) Define the term measurement and scale and explain various types of
measurement and scale with suitable example? Why is that data measured in interval
and ratio scale of measurements are available for all the statistical analysis?

Ans: Measurement: The process of assigning number or labels to different objects under
study to represent them quantitatively or qualitatively. It can also be defined as the process of
observing and recording the observations that are collected as part of research. The recording
of the observations may be in terms of numbers or other symbols to characteristics of objects
according to certain prescribed rules. The respondent’s, characteristics are feelings, attitudes,
opinions etc. The most important aspect of measurement is the specification of rules for
assigning numbers to characteristics. The rules for assigning numbers should be standardized
and applied uniformly. This must not change over time or objects.

Different types of measurement scales are:-

a) Nominal Measurement: A scale in which the numbers or letters to objects serve as

labels for identification or classification. When used for identification, there is a strict
one-to- one correspondence between the numbers and the objects. The numbers do
not reflect the amount of the characteristic possessed by the objects. The only
permissible operation on the numbers in a nominal scale is counting. Only a limited
number of statistics, all of which are based on frequency counts, are permissible, e.g.,
percentages, and mode. For example gender, marital status, eye colour, ethinic group.

b) Ordinal Measurement: A scale that arranges objects or alternatives according to

their magnitudes. A ranking scale in which numbers are assigned to objects to indicate
the relative extent to which the objects possess some characteristic. Can determine
whether an object has more or less of a characteristic than some other object, but not
how much more or less. Any series of numbers can be assigned that preserves the
ordered relationships between the objects. In addition to the counting operation
allowable for nominal scale data, ordinal scales permit the use of statistics based on
centiles, e.g., percentile, quartile, median. For example age group, socio economic
classification, survey items.

c) Interval Measurement: A measure in which differences between numbers are

meaningful and it includes both nominal and ordinal information. Numerically equal
distances on the scale represent equal values in the characteristic being measured. It
permits comparison of the differences between objects. The location of the zero point
is not fixed. Both the zero point and the units of measurement are arbitrary. Statistical
techniques that may be used include all of those that can be applied to nominal and
ordinal data, and in addition the arithmetic mean, standard deviation, and other
statistics commonly used in marketing research For example temperature (Degree and
Fahrenheit), the difference between 30 and 40 degrees is the same as that between 70
and 80 degrees, but 80 is not twice as hot as 40.
 d) Ratio Measurement: A scale having absolute rather than relative quantities and
possessing an absolute zero, where there is an absence of a given attribute. Possesses
all the properties of the nominal, ordinal, and interval scales. All statistical techniques
can be applied to ratio data. It is meaningful to compute ratios of scale values. For
example: time, height, weight, money, age, speed etc.

Interval and Ratio data are sometimes referred to as parametric and Nominal and Ordinal data
are referred to as nonparametric. Parametric means that it meets certain requirements with
respect to parameters of the population (for example, the data will be normal - the distribution
parallels the normal or bell curve). In addition, it means that numbers can be added,
subtracted, multiplied, and divided. Parametric data are analyzed using statistical techniques
identified as Parametric Statistics. As a rule, there are more statistical technique options for
the analysis of parametric data and parametric statistics are considered more powerful than
nonparametric statistics. Nonparametric data are lacking those same parameters and cannot
be added, subtracted, multiplied, and divided. For example, it does not make sense to add
Social Security numbers to get a third person. Nonparametric data are analyzed by using
Nonparametric Statistics. Hence, data measured in Interval and Ratio scale is available for all
statistical analysis.

Scaling is the assignment of objects to numbers or semantics according to a rule. In scaling,

the objects are text statements, usually statements of attitude, opinion, or feeling.

Types of Scaling technique are:-

(a) Comparative Scales. In Comparative scaling, the respondent is asked to
compare one object with another. The Comparative scales can further be divided into
the following four types of scaling techniques.

(i) Paired comparison scale

(ii) Rank order scale
(iii) Constant Sum scale
(iv)Q-Sort scale

(b) Non-Comparative Scales. In Comparative scaling, the respondents need only

to evaluate a single object. Their evaluation is independent of the other object which
the researcher is studying. The non-comparative scaling techniques can be further
divided into:-

(i) Continuous Rating Scale

(ii) Itemized Rating Scale

6. A manager faces a problem of increasing cost in his company. This problem is

specific to him. It might so happen that similar problems are faced by others in the
industry. He tries to find the reason(s) for the rising cost and falling profit that might
involve different areas of research. Which type(s) of research or mode will be necessary
to solve the problem? Explain with reasons.

Ans: The scenario given here is that the manager is facing issue of “increasing cost in his
company”. Now, he has to find out reason(s) for the rising cost and falling profit. We have to
formulate the research problem as, “What are the causes for rising cost?” and “What are the
causes for falling profit?”. Both these problems are interlinked. First we need to understand
what may lead to rising cost in the company.

The problem may be approached in a stepwise manner. This should include following five
essential steps:-

Prepare the Prepare the

problem structure

Close the Analyse the Analyze the

profitability cost side revenue

1. Prepare the problem statement. As discussed above, the aim of the study is to
find out causes for the rising cost and falling profit.

2. Prepare the structure for the study. The problem statement hints at a
profitability case. Hence, we have to isolate the problem and quantify it. The analysis of the
profit problem will require use of profitability equation as shown below:-
Profit = Revenue – Costs

As per profit equation, when profit goes down, there is either a decline in revenue, rising
costs or both. The best way to find out the root cause is to sketch the problem as an issue tree,
may be called as ‘profit tree’ as shown below:-

Profit

Revenue Cost

Revenue/ Units Sold Variable Fixed Cost

Unit Cost

Cost/ unit Units Sold

Now, we can start with one of the branches of the profit tree to investigate the problem. One
should try to start with the branch of the tree that also has the biggest impact as per the
‘pareto principle’. In a competitive market, the revenue is considered the biggest driver for
the profitability. Hence, the revenue leg of the profit tree should be investigated first.

3. Analyse the revenue side. Segment the revenue in its component part using ‘ABC
analysis’. Tabulate the change in revenue (segments) for last two to three years to isolate root
of the problem. This will allow a better, more targeted analysis. E.g. if all revenue comes
from two products, plotting development of sales of these products for last couple of years
(say, three years). The pattern of ‘sold units’ and their price points (cost/ unit) may give
insight into the problem. As shown in the bar chart below, we can see that the revenue has
actually grown steadily in recent years. Therefore, it must be costs that rose significantly,
leading to drop in profitability.
As we can see, this is quantitative analysis so far. Once the biggest driver of the problem has
been identified, we may have to switch to a more qualitative framework for analysis like ‘4
Cs’ to find the underlying root cause. E.g., when we have less revenue but the price is the
same and units sold dropped then the cause could be ‘new competitor in the market’ or
‘quality issues’ or may be a marketing initiative was dropped that was run for years prior to
this drop.
4. Analyse the cost side. Once the revenue side has been investigated, we need to
investigate the other branch of the ‘profit tree’ i.e. costs. The costs can be broken down into
direct and indirect costs. Now, we can inquire about the breakdown of costs- direct/ indirect
cost split for the products. As for above example of two products of a company, if following
cost composition is obtained:-

Since there are two product lines, we should

calculate their ‘margins’ to check if there is amore
profitable product line. The margin can be

calculated using following formula:-

Margin (%) = (Selling price per unit- cost per unit)/ Selling price per unit
If the split of costs for these two products are as shown in the table below, we may be able to
calculate the margins for both the products based on the above formula.

Margins for product 1 (flavored chewing

gum):

Margins (%) =(90c-48c)/90c=0.4667=46.67

%

Similarly, margin for product 2 (flavorless

chewing gum) will be 52.22 %.

5. Inference/ Conclusion. “Above

analyses show that the product whose sales have increased (flavored chewing gum) is also the
one with lower margins due to the added flavor. Therefore, total profit margins have
decreased while sales have increased.”

After the root cause is determined, we may be able to develop a good logical solution (e.g.,
developing a competitive response, starting a marketing initiative, etc.)

Therefore, we should categorize our approaches for instance by short-term/ easy to

implement solutions and long-term ones.
Short term solutions
 Negotiate with current suppliers.
 Look for other suppliers (form partnerships or buy greater amounts with batch
discounts).
Long term solutions
 Vertical integration.
 Release new products with better margins (e.g., low-calorie flavor gum or tooth
cleaning gum).
 The client could also increase the price of the flavored gum, risking decreasing
sales if customers do not see any added value with the price rise (high price
sensitivity).

As discussed above, both quantitative and qualitative methods will be required to

investigate the problem to identify the root cause. The methods or mode of research in the
above scenario can be divided into two major groups- Primary research and Secondary
research.

Research

Primary Secondary
Research Research
 Public
Quantitati Qualitative sources
ve Research
commercia
l sources
Surveys Focus
groups Education
al
Questionn In depth
aires interviews

Phone/ Observatio
one-to-one ns

In order to chose which kind of research method is best for the goal, following graph can be
used as a handy tool:-

7. Select any research paper from a management journal in any area of your
choice. Work backwards for it, i.e., if you were to submit a research proposal for this
study, how would you design it?

Ans. The research paper, “Facilitating the Implementation of Self-Service Business

Intelligence” by Christian Lennerholt, Informatics Research Centre, University of Skövde
published in Proceedings of the 51st Hawaii International Conference on System Sciences|
2018
has been used to prepare a research proposal. My research proposal is presented as below:-

Research proposal: Facilitating the Implementation of Self-Service Business Intelligence

1. Introduction

Today, Business Intelligence (BI) is widely used by many organisations, since it helps them
make better decisions on time (LogiAnalytics, 2015; Imhoff and White, 2011). The BI
collection of technologies and software is needed, because it enables organisations to be
innovative, creative and competitive. In order to make better decisions, users need a solid
foundation of data that is available and accessible at all times within the entire organisation,
from strategic to operational levels. When casual users of a traditional BI system need to
make decisions, they ask power users to create a report that visualizes and simplifies the
process of making decisions. Power users interpret the request from casual users, combine the
needed data, perform a customized analysis and then produce a report that visualizes the
result. If the casual users want to view the report from a different angle, this request-respond
process is repeated, making the entire procedure a time-consuming undertaking (Alpar and
Schulz, 2016).
Since ever more data from internal and external sources is being stored in the data warehouse,
and more users are applying the BI system, the request- response process between power and
casual users is exerting much more stress on the IT department to deliver reports on time
(Alpar and Schulz, 2016; Kabakchieva et al., 2013). The resulting bottleneck in the
communication between power and casual users can therefore hinder time critical decisions
without processing all the available data in the report. According to Imhoff and White (2011),
many casual users in organisations make decisions that are not based on BI, due to the power
users inability to deliver reports on time. Furthermore, due to cost-saving measures, many IT
departments have been reduced, even though the number of casual users is increasing and the
need for more access of BI and its available data is growing among the increasing number of
casual users (Imhoff and White, 2011).

The self-service business intelligence (SSBI) approach is the result of the increase in
available data and users of a BI system (Kabakchieva et al., 2013). The SSBI approach
enables users to be more self-reliant. It allows all users to access data and to conduct their
own analyses for decision-making, without the need to engage an IT department and their BI
experts. Reports that could take months to deliver can now produced on the fly (Imhoff and
White, 2011). The most compelling motivation for implementing SSBI is the increased
flexibility it offers users, making them more self-reliant and thus improving the operational
efficiency of organisations.

1.1. Problem Description

SSBI is considered to be the current and promising BI trend with long-term prospects
(Kabakchieva et al., 2013). The focus is to empower casual users to use BI more easily and in
a self-reliant manner (Alpar and Schulz, 2016; LogiAnalytics, 2015; Kabakchieva et al.,
2013; Imhoff and White, 2011).

According to LogiAnalytics (2015) and their 2015 state of SSBI report, which is based on an
online survey of more than 800 business and technology professionals, the traditional BI
approaches are changing. Instead of focusing on supporting power users, organisations in
general must be able to work more easily with data. According to 91% of the survey’s
respondents, easy access to data without help from IT departments and power users is needed.
In response to this demand, the new BI trend is Self-Service Business Intelligence (SSBI)
(Kabakchieva et al., 2013). According to LogiAnalytics (2015), 95% of the respondents plan
to invest in SSBI within the next two years. Several authors argue that organisations are
willing to invest more on SSBI compared to previous years (LogiAnalytics, 2015; Imhoff and
White, 2011; Svahn et al., 2017). Based on 281 respondents in Sweden, 58% are investing
more on SSBI in year 2017 compared to 2016 (Svahn et al., 2017). According to
(LogiAnalytics, 2015), 95% of their 800 respondents plan to invest in SSBI between year
2015 and 2017, which is an increase by 11% from previous report (LogiAnalytics, 2015).

Even though SSBI is a trend that existed for many years, it has not received its fullest
breakthrough. The adoption rate of SSBI is still low and in practice, implementing SSBI is
not as easy as expected (Alpar and Schulz, 2016; Stodder, 2015; LogiAnalytics, 2015;
Kabakchieva et al., 2013). According to a survey of 234 respondents, conducted by Eckerson
(2012), two thirds, (64%), of the 70% that are qualified BI professionals, rate their success
with the SSBI approach as average or lower, while more than half (52%) of the newcomers
rate their attempts at SSBI as fair or lower. According to LogiAnalytics (2015), only 22% of
the respondents have access to data when needed (LogiAnalytics, 2015). Such results
highlight the fact that in practice, implementing SSBI is not as easy as expected (Alpar and
Schulz, 2016; Stodder, 2015; LogiAnalytics, 2015; Weber, 2013; Kabakchieva et al., 2013;
Eckerson, 2012). The process to implement SSBI is difficult. Organisations struggle to
implement SSBI and some authors (Johannessen and Fuglseth, 2016; Alpar and Schulz,
2016) argue that more detailed research on how organisations can implement SSBI is needed.

To support the implementation of traditional BI, different maturity models are available
(Khuen and Rehman, 2017; Chuah and Wong, 2011). The purpose of using a BI maturity
model is to give a helping hand when measuring the current BI state and visualise the missing
characteristics needed to implement BI to some ideal state (Khuen and Rehman, 2017;
Wixom and Watson, 2010). However, there is a missing gap in the literature since there is no
maturity model available for SSBI. A major idea behind a maturity model is to define and set
characteristics that are allowed to change over time and in a predictable way. It consists of
different stages that incrementally increase depending on the organisational maturity of these
characteristics.

Different authors have developed a range of BI maturity models. However, most of them do
not consider all characteristics that affect BI (Khuen and Rehman, 2017). Most BI maturity
models do not cover the entire area of BI and are often poorly documented (Hribar Rajterič,
2010). Instead, they focus on a specific point of view or a problem domain. Some focus on
technical aspects while others are more business-oriented including management
perspectives, organisational processes and people (Chuah and Wong, 2011; Hribar Rajterič,
2010). Other models that are more documented are still difficult to understand (Hribar
Rajterič, 2010). Not covering all BI factors, poor documentations and difficulty to understand
can leave the impression that the authors of the models have left important information out
intentionally, just to enable the use of the models commercially (Hribar Rajterič, 2010).

TDWI, Gartner, Forrester, Hewlett-Packard, LOBI, BIDM and EBIM are considered the
major existing and widely used BI maturity models available today (Khuen and Rehman,
2017; Chuah and Wong, 2011). However, they do not describe the characteristics needed to
take full advantage of SSBI or how to actually implement SSBI. The BI maturity models that
mention SSBI, or consists of characteristics that could be interpreted as SSBI-related exists
during the final stages of the BI maturity model, which target the most advanced and
experience BI implementations. The current literature lacks maturity models for SSBI and
more research is needed to identify the characteristics to take advantage of the SSBI
initiative. Therefore, this research will facilitate the implementation of SSBI by giving
recommendations that manage associated challenges to achieve the desired maturity level of
SSBI.

1.2 Aim and objectives

The overall aim of this research is to facilitate the implementation of SSBI by suggesting
recommendations for how to manage the associated challenges when implementing SSBI.
Given this aim, the following objectives have been specified:

Objective 1. Identify associated challenges when implementing SSBI.

The first objective aims to identify the challenges that organisations are managing when
implementing SSBI. The result is a framework that covers current challenges that exist when
implementing SSBI.

Objective 2. Develop a SSBI maturity model that includes the levels and characteristics of
SSBI.

The second objective aims to develop the maturity levels and its characteristics needed to
start the implementation of SSBI and to advance the SSBI implementation. The result is a
SSBI maturity model that defines the levels and its characteristics needed to implement SSBI,
ranging from newcomers to users aiming to achieve full benefits of SSBI.

Objective 3. Identify recommendations needed to support the implementation of SSBI.

A synthesis of the result from objective 1 and 2 makes it possible to formulate

recommendations that support organisations to achieve the desired maturity level of SSBI and
to manage the associated implementation challenges.

1.3 Contributions

The result of this research contributes to both research and practice. From an organisational
perspective, the result will support their preparation and planning needed to implement SSBI.
The framework of challenges increases the awareness of potential pitfalls in order to achieve
a desired maturity level of SSBI. SMEs or large organisations can use the framework
differently, depending on their current BI maturity. Newcomers to SSBI will probably need
to be aware of all challenges, while more experienced organisations only need parts. The
importance is to increase the awareness of associated challenges and to avoid unnecessary
negative surprises. The framework of challenges will contribute to research since there is no
overview available for all associated challenges when implementing SSBI. Future research
can evolve the framework when the adoption rate of SSBI increases and achieves a more
mature breakthrough, similar to the evolved knowledge of the implementation of traditional
BI. Implementation challenges of traditional BI decades ago are not the same as today.

A SSBI maturity model contributes to practice since organisation can identify their current
SSBI maturity, similar to the available BI maturity models. It can be used as a roadmap that
defines the characteristics needed to achieve their desired maturity level of SSBI. The
contribution to research defines the different levels of SSBI and the needed characteristics.
The available definitions of SSBI in literature suit all implementations of SSBI, even though
there is a difference implementing spread-sheets or self-service data preparation tools.
Combining the definitions of SSBI and the SSBI maturity model will minimize the different
understanding of SSBI and its characteristics needed. Both research and practice will increase
the awareness of the different levels of SSBI and its characteristics to achieve a desired
maturity level.

Different implementation challenges can be associated to different SSBI maturity levels. The
recommendations of how to achieve a desired maturity level of SSBI will manage the
associated challenges. This will increase the adaption of SSBI since organisations are more
aware of the resources needed to implement SSBI. Since there are no scientific
recommendations of how to implement SSBI, the contribution to research is valuable. It
creates a foundation for further research to facilitate the implementation of SSBI even more.

2. Background

This chapter describes the theory related to the research aim and objectives. It involves the
foundation for business intelligence and its related maturity models and how self-service
business intelligence aims to improve business performance.

2.1. Business Intelligence

BI is widely used by many organisations even though there is no universal- accepted

definition of BI (Wixom and Watson, 2010). There is a collection of different definitions of
BI that fall into three main categories: BI as technology, product or as process (Lahramnn et
al., 2010; Chee et al., 2009). BI as technology includes the tools and technologies to use,
manipulate and analyse data. BI as product is the result achieved when data is analysed, like
spreadsheets, dashboards and ad-hoc data queries. BI as process focus on how data is
processed and transformed into action. Data is gathered and stored and then transformed into
information by analysis. Information is the foundation for making decisions (Chee et al.,
2009). Some definitions fall into one category while others span across more. Common
definitions of BI only include technology or analytical front-end applications (Lahramnn et
al., 2010; Chee et al., 2009).

The definition of BI in this research adhere to a broad scope and include all categories
according to Chee et al. (2009) and goes inline with (Sulaiman et al., 2013; Wixom and
Watson, 2010; Lahramnn et al., 2010; Foley and Guillemette, 2010). Traditional BI in this
research is defined as an umbrella term that include technology, software applications,
processes for retrieving and storing internal and external data, and to analyse data to help
organisations make better decisions on time (Sulaiman et al., 2013; Wixom and Watson,
2010; Foley and Guillemette, 2010).

The heart of a BI is often considered a data warehouse that store all relevant internal and
external data (Surajit et al., 2011). The sources of data vary in quality and format, and have
different meanings, depending on their origin. Today, data has a finer granularity and is
generated in much larger volumes than before. ETL-tools (Extract, Transform and Load) are
normally employed to integrate this data and to make sure it is valid and useful for an
organization. In addition, ETL-tools clean the data for storage in the data warehouse and
prepare it for BI tasks. These processes refer to the back-end of a traditional BI system
(Surajit et al., 2011). When data is available in the central data warehouse, different mid-tier
servers are used for data analysis, which is the foundation of the decision reports used by
decision makers. This process refers to the front- end of a traditional BI system (Surajit et al.,
2011).

There are different groups of users according to the literature (Alpar and Schulz, 2016;
Sulaiman et al., 2013; Hostmann, 2007). Based on how they interact with BI and decision-
making these users are information consumers, analysts and specialists. Analysts and
specialists are the defined as power users that have the ability and technical skills to select
and use data, generate reports and analyse its content. Their generated information is used by
themselves or served to casual users when making decisions (Alpar and Schulz, 2016;
Sulaiman et al., 2013). Operational staff, managers and executives normally belong to the
information consumers users that are defined as the casual users since they are not considered
any BI experts that have technological BI skills. They make decisions that are based on
information provided by BI experts. Casual users use predefined reports or dashboards and
they do not require any technological knowledge compared to power users (Alpar and Schulz,
2016; Sulaiman et al., 2013).

The request-response between power and casual users is a time-consuming process (Alpar
and Schulz, 2016). If casual users want to view data differently or add components to view
from another angle, power users must fulfil their requirements and create a new report.
Casual users that need to make time- critical decisions and want to change the report have
two options: wait and hope for a new report in time or make decision without taking
advantage of all available data and options (Alpar and Schulz, 2016; Sulaiman et al., 2013).
We all know that guessing is not the strongest ingredient when making decisions.

When the organisation increases the frequency requests also increase. Power users serving
casual users are an increasing bottleneck that organisations have to manage today. Self-
service BI is the suggested solutions to deal with these problems (Alpar and Schulz, 2016;
Imhoff and White, 2011).

2.2 Self-Service Business Intelligence

The aim of SSBI is to set up a BI system that makes it possible for casual users to make
decision without help from power users. Casual users should be able to access and query
data, use predefined reports, analyse data or create their own reports in order to make
decisions on time. SSBI wants the casual users to be more self-reliant and less dependent on
the power user. Imhoff and White (2011) define SSBI as: “The facilities within the BI
environment that enable BI users to become more self-reliant and less dependent on the IT
organization. These facilities focus on four main objectives: easier access to source data for
reporting and analysis, easier and improved support for data analysis features, faster
deployment options such as appliances and cloud computing, and simpler, customizable, and
collaborative end-user interfaces.” This definition of SSBI is used in this research since it
focuses on simplifying the process to use BI. To achieve the aim of this research, to facilitate
the implementation of SSBI, means to fulfil the definition of SSBI, ranging from newcomers
to organisations aiming to achieve full benefits of SSBI.

Casual users shall become self-reliant and access data as desired without being dependent on
the IT department, while power users can accomplish their task more quickly and efficiently
(Alpar and Schulz, 2016). All users have different demands and skills when using BI tools
and if they have the appropriate skills they do not have to wait for power users to prepare
their request.

SSBI is presented in the literature as the future and a lasting trend that promises more benefits
than traditional BI. Some benefits worth mentioning follow (Alpar and Schulz, 2016;
LogiAnalytics, 2015; Imhoff and White, 2011):

 Users conduct their own analysis: Empowered casual users can access data more
easily and with more self-reliance for the purpose of making decisions. Instead of
asking power users for alternative reports, users can analyse data on their own.

 Shift from reactive to proactive: Stored data becomes old. Since SSBI facilitates the
access of data, users can gain insight as soon as data arrives. Proactive decision-
making can help organizations make decisions on time, which can increase market
shares, cut costs, and aid expansions in many different ways, etc.

 Relieve the pressure on the IT department: More and more data is becoming available
for decision-making. In a traditional BI system, power users support casual users by
creating reports that are used for analysis and decision-making. If casual users want to
analyse such reports from a different angle, they ask the power users to amend the
report as desired. Since many users apply BI, a lot of pressure is put on the IT
department and its power users. SSBI empowers casual users and enables them to
perform this process on their own, thereby relieving the pressure on power users.

 Eliminate guessing when making decisions: Making decisions on time require a good
foundation, such as a report or dashboard that visualizes the underlying data required
for the decision. If casual users do not understand such a report and find analysing the
data difficult, they normally have two options to choose from: request a new report
from the power users or base the decision on guessing. SSBI eliminates guessing,
since data can be included and amended as desired, without help from a power user.

 Save resources: Empowered casual users can perform their daily work more
effectively, compared to working with traditional BI systems, which saves
organizational resources.

According to Imhoff and White (2011)’s survey designed for business and technical
executives within BI, 47% of their 587 respondents want to create their own reports without
waiting for power users. To make better decisions, SSBI is a significant tool that improves
the decision making process. But it requires that users have easy access to data at the right
time and format and that it is easy to use and consume compared to traditional BI. Challenges
to overcome in order for users to be more self-reliant is to make existing data flexible to
retrieve and use, remove the difficulty of using multiple data sources and to enable multiple
options to use and consume data differently, without need of help from power users (Alpar
and Schulz, 2016). SSBI should be an environment that is easy to access, use and share data,
information, reports and analysis (Alpar and Schulz, 2016; Imhoff and White, 2011).
However, implementing SSBI is not as easy as expected (Alpar and Schulz, 2016; Stodder,
2015; LogiAnalytics, 2015; Weber, 2013; Kabakchieva et al., 2013; Eckerson, 2012). Several
authors (Johannessen and Fuglseth, 2016; Alpar and Schulz, 2016) argue that more detailed
research on how organizations can implement SSBI is needed.
2.3 Facilitate implementation

Research into supporting the implementation of SSBI is still limited. Some authors briefly
describe tips and strategies how to get started with SSBI, but do not address how to facilitate
the implementation of SSBI in detail (Weber, 2013; Imhoff and White, 2011). Eckerson
(2012) describes recommendations for how to succeed with the SSBI implementation.
However, these recommendations are rather general do not discuss associated challenges
when implementing SSBI and do not describe in detail how to actually achieve a more
matured implementation.

SSBI is the current trend in BI (Kabakchieva et al., 2013). The BI initiative has existed for
many years and many organisations have already managed to implement BI (Wixom and
Watson, 2010). To facilitate the implementation of traditional BI, many BI maturity models
(BIMM) exist (Khuen and Rehman, 2017; Chuah and Wong, 2011). All of them have the
same mission, to help organisations to evaluate their current maturity of BI and suggest how
to move forward towards some ideal state (Khuen and Rehman, 2017; Wixom and Watson,
2010). Whereas maturity models are commonly used to facilitate the implementation of
traditional BI, a maturity model for SSBI is currently missing. Therefore, this research will
use the advantages of maturity models to facilitate the implementation of SSBI and aim at
developing a maturity model for SSBI.

2.4 BI Maturity Models

A major concept of a maturity model is to define and set characteristics that are allowed to
change over time and in a predictable way (Wixom and Watson, 2010; Hribar Rajterič,
2010). It consists of different stages that incrementally increase depending on the
organisational maturity of these characteristics. For example, data access is one of many
common characteristics that consist in different stages of BIMMs. Organisations need some
solution to be able to handle a huge amount of data (Khuen and Rehman, 2017). BI can solve
this problem differently. It is a difficult process to implement and it requires lots of resources.
Existing BIMMs capture the current organisational BI state by identifying their strengths and
weaknesses and visualise the missing characteristics to get full benefits of BI (Khuen and
Rehman, 2017; Wixom and Watson, 2010).

Different authors have developed many BIMMs. Most of them do not consider all factors that
affect BI (Khuen and Rehman, 2017). According to Chuah and Wong (2011) some BIMMs
focus on technical aspects while others are more business oriented including management
perspectives, organisational processes and people. It is difficult to achieve a holistic
understanding of the BI maturity level since organisations must use multiple models (Khuen
and Rehman, 2017).

Results between different maturity models are not comparable since they do not share the
common levels and keys. At the same time, not all BIMMs are well defined and do not
provide any guidelines of how to evaluate the maturity level or how to achieve the ideal state
(Skyrius, 2015; Chuah and Wong, 2011). If BIMMs are supposed to be realistic, especially at
their final stages, more criteria are needed on how to achieve the stage and what
characteristics that are required (Skyrius, 2015).

Khuen and Rehman (2017) have addressed the problem of BIMMS that focus on different
aspects, the difficulties to evaluate the current BI state and how to achieve the ideal state by
developing a more comprehensive BIMM. It is called EBIM (Enterprise BI maturity model)
and is supposed to be more comprehensive compared to existing BIMMs and also present a
clearer way for organisations to move forwards towards their ideal BI state (Khuen and
Rehman, 2017).

However, not any of the current, major and widely used BI maturity models: TDWI, Gartner,
Forrester, Hewlett-Packard, LOBI, BIDM or EBIM include details about how to implement
self-service BI (Khuen and Rehman, 2017; Howson and Duncan, 2015; Packard, 2011;
Chuah and Wong, 2011; Sacu and Spruit, 2010; Packard, 2009; Evelson et al., 2009;
Eckerson, 2006; Cates et al., 2005; Eckerson, 2004).

The closest mentioned details about SSBI exist in TDWI, Forrester and Hewlett- Packard’s
BIMMs. TDWI mention that the last stages include solutions that speed up the delivery of
information requirements. In combination with the BI usage stage where people uses BI tools
more and more, these are requirements SSBI tries to meet. Thus, TDWI does not mention
anything about SSBI (Eckerson, 2006; Eckerson, 2004). The only thing Forrester mention
about SSBI is to measure the amount of requests that users can do on their own (Evelson et
al., 2009). Hewlett-Packard’s mentions SSBI in the second stage where users should be able
to take advantage of some SSBI capabilities. They should be able to customize some reports
and analyse its content on a limited bases. At the last stage, users should be able to access
information when needed and its content should be delivered in a way that seamlessly support
their role in the organisation (Packard, 2011; Packard, 2009).

Unfortunately, none of the BIMMs mentioned above include any details regarding SSBI,
what it means, how SSBI is defined or how organisations should implement SSBI.

Further research is required to address the missing gap of SSBI in existing literature and
current BIMMs. To facilitate the implementation of SSBI is to create a distinct maturity
model focusing entirely on SSBI, ranging from the first steps of data discovery to self-service
data preparation. A clear maturity model targeting SSBI is one step closer towards facilitating
the implementation of SSBI.

2.5 Challenges and recommendations

SSBI promises more benefits than traditional BI. Still, the existing literature on the field of
SSBI is limited. Detailed discussions on how to implement SSBI are scarce. However,
according to best practice reports, the interest in implementing SSBI is increasing
(LogiAnalytics, 2015; Imhoff and White, 2011). Nonetheless, the progress of SSBI
implementation is slow and problematic (Alpar and Schulz, 2016; Stodder, 2015;
LogiAnalytics, 2015; Weber, 2013; Kabakchieva et al., 2013; Eckerson, 2012). For example,
it is difficult to motivate organizations to implement SSBI and make the related cost
investments when they have already made significant investments in traditional BI and have
not achieved the desired results (Weber, 2013). To gain the motivation needed to make the
change to SSBI, organizations must overcome the problems related to traditional BI. SSBI
will improve issues experienced with traditional BI use. The first step is to identify the
challenges associated when implementing SSBI. This will motivate organizations to better
prepare the implementation of SSBI.
During spring of 2017, a literature review was conducted to identify the associated challenges
when implementing SSBI, see chapter 5. The result of reviewing 21 papers identified 10
challenges within 2 main categories:

1. Access and use of data

 Make data sources easy to access
 Identify data selection criteria
 Use correct data queries
 Control of data integrity, security and distribution
 Define policies for data management and data governance
 Prepare data for visual analytics

2. Self-reliant users
 Make BI tools easy to use
 Make BI results easy to consume and enhance
 Give the right tools to the right user
 Educate users in how to select, interpret and analyse data for decision-making

Even though there are listed challenges, there is no literature that describes how to manage
these challenges when implementing SSBI. Some limited recommendations and getting
started tips exist in literature (Weber, 2013; Eckerson, 2012; Imhoff and White, 2011). They
are however rather general and do not clearly manage associated challenges known in
literature. Recommendations will be formulated in this research to manage the associated
challenges when implementing SSBI, which clearly describe how to achieve a desired
maturity level of SBBI.

3. Research approach
This chapter presents the philosophical paradigm, the research method and the project plan.

3.1 Philosophical paradigm

Information systems research is often associated with two main philosophical paradigms:
positivism and interpretivism (Oates, 2006; Klein and Myers, 1999; Orlikowski and Baroudi,
1991). First, the positivist stance is based on the assumption that the world is ordered and
regular and that the research works in some kind of laboratory setting where all affecting
variables are controlled and the researcher is free of subjective bias and objectively observes
the phenomena of interest. Positivist research primarily aims to prove or disprove a
hypothesis. Secondly, interpretivism assumes that reality is relative and that multiple realities
can be discerned (Oates, 2006). Consequently, it tries to identify, explore and explain how
human beings interpret the same phenomena differently (Oates, 2006; Klein and Myers,
1999; Walsham, 1995; Orlikowski and Baroudi, 1991).

This research falls into the interpretivist paradigm, since it aims to gain understanding of how
to improve the implementation of SSBI. The aim is not to test a hypothesis or investigate a
phenomenon in a controlled setting. Therefore, the positivist paradigm is not appropriate for
this research. Instead, the intent is to achieve a deeper understanding of a social phenomenon
that is perceived differently by different users, which is characterised by the interpretive
research paradigm (Oates, 2006; Klein and Myers, 1999; Walsham, 1995; Orlikowski and
Baroudi, 1991).
3.2. Research Method

The research method for this research is a longitudinal study using multiple case studies
(Oates, 2006; Walsham, 1995; Leonard-Barton, 1990). The strategy is to achieve a real-life,
in-depth understanding on how different organisations implement SSBI. It includes
understanding the achieved results and the decisions made how to implement SSBI, i.e. why
the decisions were made and how they were implemented. This is the main motivation for
choosing multiple case studies for this research.

Conducting case studies are suitable when trying to achieve a great insight and understand a
phenomenon (Braa and Vidgen, 1999). A case study research strategy focuses on
understanding an instance of a phenomenon in-depth using a variety of suitable data
collection methods such as interviews, documents and observations (Pan and Tan, 2011;
Oates, 2006; Carroll and Swatman, 2000; Eisenhardt, 1989). Therefore, case studies are
considered to be an appropriate approach to fulfil the research objectives and overall aim.

An alternative research strategy that could have been useful is design science (DS), especially
to fulfil objective 2 when developing a SSBI maturity model that includes the levels and
characteristics of SSBI. Design science research focuses primarily on the development of an
artefact that solves a related problem (Papas et al., 2012; Oates, 2006). It is a problem-solving
paradigm that focuses on the role of the artefact in an implementation process. DS pays
however less attention to creating an in-depth understanding of the involved people,
organisational practices and organisational context, compared to conducting case studies
(Papas et al., 2012; Oates, 2006; Marshall and McKay, 2005). Even though a design science
strategy could have been followed, the focus of this research is wider than only the
development of a SSBI maturity model (objective 2). To arrive at meaningful challenges and
recommendations (objective 1 and 3), in depth insight into the organisational practice of
SSBI implementation is required, which can more suitable be obtained by conducting
multiple case studies (Yin, 2013).

In this research, collection of user insights and experiences when implementing SSBI are
important. Therefore, the selection of cases is also important. Choosing a single case has
limitations in regards to generalizability and potential biases that mislead the result. Multiple
cases guards against observer bias and supports external validity (Leonard-Barton, 1990).
Only selecting an organisation that already has experienced SSBI implementation may
provide a great story about the experiences, but the story may only prove useful to other
organisations with similar BI skills and experiences. It will not be useful on a general level to
a broader range of organisations. A better approach is to select multiple cases that can
produces similar and contrary results by combining different experiences regarding the
implementation of SSBI, ranging from newcomers to more experienced SSBI users.

3.3 Selected cases

The strategy when selecting cases is to achieve experiences from newcomers and experienced
SSBI users. Therefore, 3 cases are selected, one consulting organisation that has experiences
supporting other organisation with their SSBI implementation, one organisation that has
implemented SSBI for many years, and one organisation that has recently started their
implementation of SSBI. The combination of their experiences will provide results that fulfil
the research aim and objectives.
This research project will conduct a longitudinal study using multiple cases that consists of 3
case studies that will be conducted in parallel for all research objectives during 3 years. They
are descriptive studies that aim to achieve a rich and detailed analysis that relates to the
research objectives within their context that is based on different user perceptions (Oates,
2006). All cases are conducted as a longitudinal study that are investigated over years to
come, which will gain understanding that are continuous or change over time (Oates, 2006).
The cases will also include a historical perspective to examine the past regarding the research
aim and objectives. These are the selected cases for the research:

Case #1, Advectas: Is a consulting organisation that has worked with many organisations to
support their implementation of SSBI. The selection of case #1 is considered a typical
instance according to Oates (2006) since they have experiences that can stand as
representative of other organisations who want to implement SSBI. The case will achieve an
in-depth understanding that is based on their customer projects where organisations have
different skills and experiences implementing and using BI and SSBI. Advectas is a
consulting organisation with 140 employees and over 200 customers that focus entirely on
implementations of BI and SSBI. Project leaders, consultants, programmers and business
developers within Advectas have experiences that relates to the research objectives.

Case #2, IF Skadeförsäkringar: Is chosen based on recommendations from Advectas who

have been involved and supported their implementation of SSBI. They are considered one of
the most experienced SSBI adopters and have achieved many benefits of SSBI compared to
other organisations. This case is considered an extreme case that is not typical of others since
their SSBI implementation is beyond what other organisations has managed today. The in-
depth understanding from this case will gain insight that is useful for other organisations that
want to implement SSBI.

Case #3, Skandia: They are newcomers to SSBI and have started to implement SSBI
recently. They are preparing for their future SSBI implementation. The selection of this case
is more of a test bed for theory that is identified in literature and within the other case studies.

These three cases combined will enable both breadth and depth in knowledge that will be
relevant on a general level. Should any of the three cases not deliver the necessary output,
two other organisations have stated a willingness to participate in the research. These
organisations therefore work as a backup plan, in order to ensure the success of the research.

3.3 Data Collection

There are several data collection techniques when conducting case study research: interviews,
observation, questionnaires and analysing documents (Pan and Tan, 2011; Oates, 2006;
Carroll and Swatman, 2000). Since this research will identify in-depth experiences regarding
implementation of SSBI, semi-structured interviews and document analysis are the chosen
data collection strategies for this research. As the interview respondents have different
backgrounds, experiences and skills, semi-structured interviews are appropriate for this
research since the questions are allowed to change depending on the answers. Predefined
questions that target respondents without any experiences relating to the questions will not
yield any relevant information or any in-depth discussion. Instead, semi-structured interviews
invite to follow up on questions that suit the respondents. In this case, an in-depth
understanding can be achieved since questions can be guided to thoroughly identify answers
to the research questions, independent on the background of the respondent. Unstructured
interviews could be an option since it lets the respondents freely discuss about their
experiences. However, semi-structured interviews are considered a better option since
respondents can be interrupted if answers do not relate to the research questions. It is not
fruitful to interview respondents that discuss phenomena that do not relate to the research
questions.

The chosen cases in the study have documentations regarding previous and future
implementation of SSBI. Since these documentations will consist of experiences, they are
fruitful to analyse in order to identify new theories regarding the implementation of SSBI,
and to validate the findings from the interviews (Pan and Tan, 2011; Oates, 2006; Carroll and
Swatman, 2000).

3.4 Data analysis

The appropriate technique for analysing interviews and documents are qualitative data
analysis (Pan and Tan, 2011; Oates, 2006; Carroll and Swatman, 2000). Transcribed
interviews and documents are in text format and suit the qualitative data analysis technique
since the data is non-numeric. Quantitative data analysis is not the best option for this
research since it focuses on numerical data when trying to find patterns and conclusions.
Instead, the data in this research is major qualitative since interviews are transcribed into text
and documents are available in text and images.

When all transcripts and document data are available, a content analysis coding process is
performed (Pan and Tan, 2011; Oates, 2006; Carroll and Swatman, 2000). The theory related
to the research objectives is used as themes when analysing the data. Therefore, the research
approach is deductive since it uses the existing theories related to the research objectives
(Oates, 2006). Data that belongs to a theme is coded and grouped. If data belongs to a theme
that does not exists in previous theory, a new theme is created. The analysis is considered
done when all data is coded and grouped to a themes (Oates, 2006). The aim with qualitative
data analysis is to abstract data and patterns that are relevant to the research objectives (Pan
and Tan, 2011; Oates, 2006; Carroll and Swatman, 2000).

3.5 Research process

This section illustrates the research process.

Figure 1: Research process diagram

This research process is divided into the research objectives. Objective 1 starts by conducting
a literature review that identifies associated challenges when implementing SSBI that
currently exist in the literature. The identified challenges are used as themes when
investigating more in-depth experiences in the case studies, aiming to create a deeper
understanding of known challenges as well as identifying additional challenges. The result of
the data collection and analysis is synthesized into a more comprehensive framework of
challenges. The framework is the result of objective 1, which identifies the associated
challenges when implementing SSBI.

The framework combined with a literature review is the foundation for objective 2. The
strategy is to investigate how the organisations have managed the associated challenges when
implementing SSBI. Based on their experiences, a SSBI maturity model is developed. The
result is achieved once each maturity level and related characteristics are developed. Case #1
and #2, who are considered experienced SSBI users can give insight based on their previous
experiences when implementing SSBI. Case #3, who is newcomer to SSBI can enrich the
maturity model by reasoning if the result is in line with their ongoing implementation of
SSBI. The SSBI maturity model is the result of objective 2.

Objective 3 starts by combining the results from objective 1 and 2 and a complementary
literature review. The aim is to understand how the associated challenges when implementing
SSBI relate to each level of the SSBI maturity level. SSBI recommendations from literature
are enriched and complemented by confronting the preliminary categorisations and
descriptions with empirical experiences from the case studies. The strategy is to investigate
what recommendations are needed to address each challenge to achieve a desired maturity
level and its characteristic. A synthesis of the results makes it possible to formulate
recommendations that support organisations to achieve the desired maturity level of SSBI and
to manage the associated implementation challenges, which is the result of objective 3. These
results will facilitate the implementation of SSBI, which is the aim of this research.

3.6 Research Plan

The overall plan of the research is presented in table 1 and covers all courses and research
needed to answer the main research question. The plan stretches five years since my work is
not fulltime during the first two years.

Table 1: Research Plan

All courses are planned to be finished mid 2019. The selection of courses will be adapted to
suit the research project. The idea is to conduct the case studies without interruptions. The
right mixture of courses and research is important since no full time work is planned until
2019.

To keep up with the latest theories related to the research, literature study is conducted from
start and until answers to the research questions has results. It is conducted in parallel during
the project and is also a part of reading courses.

All the case studies will be conducted in parallel and shift focus once results for each research
question is achieved. All results are validated with the involved cases and existing literature
before mid 2020.

There are three main deadlines during the entire project. This report presents the research
proposal that is done in December 2017. The research proposal seminar is planned to be held
late December or beginning of January. The thesis proposal is planned to be finished in late
2019. Working with the thesis proposal is done in parallel starting in the second quarter of
2019. Writing the final thesis is planned for a year and the ending seminar is planned in
December 2021.

4. Expected Results

The aim of this research is to facilitate the implementation of SSBI by suggesting

recommendations for how to manage the associated challenges when implementing SSBI.

The result of this research will describe how to implement SSBI to a desired maturity level
while managing the associated challenges. Facilitating the implementation of SSBI will
increase the implementation rate of SSBI. The result includes guidelines that recommend
how to overcome all identified challenges associated to each maturity level of SSBI, ranging
from newcomers to organisations looking to take full advantage of SSBI. Organisations can
use the result of this research to prepare for their journey implementing SSBI to their desired
maturity level. The result will provide results that contribute to both research and practice.
The expected results and its contribution are divided for each objective.

Objective 1. Identify associated challenges when implementing SSBI.

The first objective aims to identify the associated challenges when implementing SSBI. The
result consists of a framework that list all known associated challenges when implementing
SSBI to its full potential. Newcomers to SSBI can use the result to be aware of the challenges
and to prepare for their journey implementing SSBI. More experienced SSBI users that
already have managed to overcome some challenges can use the framework when aiming to
advance their SSBI implementation even more. To be aware of the associated challenges are
a tool that support organisation to manage potential pitfalls, which increase the
implementation rate of SSBI.

The result of the first objective will contribute to increase the body of knowledge of the
existing implementation challenges of SSBI, which is a foundation for future research. SSBI
aims to simplify the usage of BI, which is one branch in the BI initiative. The framework of
challenges can support research in related BI branches that also aims to increase the
usefulness of BI.
Objective 2. Develop a SSBI maturity model that includes the levels and characteristics of
SSBI

SSBI is not just an implementation of single software. Instead, it includes characteristics that
range from newcomers to well-experienced SSBI users. The result of the second objective is
a maturity model for SSBI. It defines the levels and characteristics needed to advance the
SSBI implementation ranging from newcomers to those who want full advantages of SSBI.
The SSBI maturity model will not include levels and characteristics that are available in the
already existing BI maturity models. Instead, organisations can use the SSBI maturity model
as a plugin for any of the existing maturity models of traditional BI. There is no need to
achieve a certain level of BI maturity to use the SSBI maturity model. Instead the SSBI
maturity model is ranging from newcomers to organisations seeking to implement SSBI to its
full potential, independently on their traditional BI maturity. Organisation can use the SSBI
maturity model to understand the characteristics needed to achieve a desired maturity of
SSBI. Awareness of the different levels and its characteristics support the preparation needed
to start the implementation journey toward the desired level of SSBI. Since there is no
maturity model focusing entirely on SSBI, the contribution to research is valuable. Other
researchers can use the SSBI maturity model to prepare their future research of SSBI and
increase the implementation rate even more.

Objective 3. Identify recommendations needed to support the implementation of SSBI.

The framework of challenges will be mapped into each level according to the SSBI maturity
model. Once each challenge is associated to a certain level of the SSBI maturity model,
guidelines can be provided that support organisations to achieve the desired maturity level
and overcome the associated challenges. The result will support organisations to implement
SSBI since they are more aware of the effort needed to achieve a desired maturity level of
SSBI. Organisations are able to be more self-reliant and more prepared when implementing
SSBI.

5. Publication
Lennerholt, C., Laere, J. van and Söderström, E. (2018). Implementation challenges of Self-
Service Business Intelligence: A literature review. Proceedings of the HICSS-51, the 51st
Hawaii International Conference on System Sciences, Big Island, Hawaii, January 3-6 2018.

Abstract:

In a traditional Business Intelligence (BI) system, power users serve less experienced casual
users. Power users analyse and gather data requested by casual users, and produce the reports
and visualizations that casual users base their decisions on. When data volumes and the usage
frequency of a traditional BI system increase, power users have problems serving all the
requests from casual users. The Self-Service Business Intelligence (SSBI) approach can
enable users to be more self-reliant and less dependent on power users. Although SSBI
promises more benefits compared to a traditional BI system, many organizations fail to
implement SSBI. The literature review presented in this paper discusses six SSBI challenges
related to “Access and use of data” and four challenges related to “Self-reliant users”.
Awareness of these ten challenges can help practitioners avoid common pitfalls, when
implementing SSBI, as well as guide SSBI researchers in focusing on their future research
efforts.
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8. The training manager at ABC corporation has asked you to identify the kind of
training programmes general management programmes along with their specific job
training modules. The trainees are a mixed bunch be offered to the young recruits who
have joined as management trainees and are to be imparted five additional of
engineering and management graduates.

(a) Formulate your research problem.

(b) Identify the sources you would use to carry out a problem audit.
 (c) State your research objectives and the research hypotheses.

Ans: (a) Formulating the research problem. Formulating research problem

enables us to make a purpose of our study clear to ourself and target readers, focus paper on
providing relevant data to address it. A problem statement is an effective and essential tool to
keep you on track with research and evaluate it. There are different ways to formulate a
research problem as mentioned below:-

5 ways to formulate the research problem:-

(i) Specify your research objectives

(ii) Review its context or environment
(iii) Explore its nature
(iv) Determine variable relationships
(v) Anticipate the possible consequences of alternative approaches.

(b) Sources to carry out a problem audit. Following sources may be used to caeey out a
problem audit:-

(i) Confirmation letters.

(ii) Original source documents.
(iii) Physical observations.
(iv) Comparisons to external market data.
(v) Recalculations.

(c) Research objectives. These are specific results that a person or system aims to
achieve within a time frame and with available resources. It is the aim of the work, i.e. the
overall purpose of the study, should be clearly and concisely defined.

A Research hypothesis is a specific, clear, and testable proposition or predictive

statement about the possible outcome of a scientific research study. It is a tentative statement
about the relationship between two or more variables and a tentative solution of problem.

9. Define 'data’. Give some examples. Discuss the importance of data. Suppose you
want to ascertain the amount of money students spend on eating outside. Assuming you
want to ask just one question, how would you phrase it in each of the following forms:
open-ended, dichotomous, and multiple category? In what ways would the type of data
obtained through each form differ?

Ans: Data: Data can be defined as a collection of facts or information from which
conclusions may be drawn. It is a set of values of subjects with respect to qualitative or
quantitative variables. Data is raw, unorganized facts that need to be processed. It can be
something simple and seemingly random and useless until it is organized. Research data is
any information that has been collected, observed, generated, or created to validate original
research findings.
Although usually digital, research data also includes non-digital formats such as laboratory
notebooks and diaries.

When data is processed, organized, structured or presented in a given context so as to make it

useful, it is called information.
Examples: A day’s temperature, humidity and wind speed. Marks obtained by students of a
class, Height of basketball players etc.

Types of Research Data

Research data can take many forms. It might be:-

(i) Documents, Spreadsheets

(ii) Laboratory notebooks, field notebooks, diaries
(iii) Questionnaires, transcripts, codebooks
(iv) Audiotapes, videotapes
(v) Photographs, films
(vi) test responses
(vii) Slides, artefacts, specimens, samples
(viii) Collections of digital outputs
(ix) Data files
(x) Database contents (video, audio, text, images)
(xi) Models, algorithms, scripts
(xii) Contents of an application (input, output, logfiles for analysis software,
simulation
software, schemas)
(xiii) Methodologies and workflows
(xiv) Standard operating procedures and protocols

Sources of research data

Research data can be generated for different purposes and through different processes.
Observational data is captured in real-time, and is usually irreplaceable, for example sensor
data, survey data, sample data, and neuro-images.

Experimental data is captured from lab equipment. It is often reproducible, but this can be
expensive. Examples of experimental data are gene sequences, chromatograms, and toroid
magnetic field data.

Simulation data is generated from test models where model and metadata are more
important than output data. For example, climate models and economic models.
Derived or compiled data has been transformed from pre-existing data points. It is
reproducible if lost, but this would be expensive. Examples are data mining, compiled
databases, and 3D models.

Reference or canonical data is a static or organic conglomeration or collection of smaller

(peer-reviewed) datasets, most probably published and curated. For example, gene sequence
databanks, chemical structures, or spatial data portals.

Importance of data

Data is one of the most important and vital aspect of any research studies. Research
conducted in different fields of study can be different in methodology but every research is
based on data which is analyzed and interpreted to get information. Data is the basic unit in
statistical studies.

1. Data empowers to make informed decisions: Good data provides the justification
and evidence needed to back up decisions.

2. Data helps to identify problems: Access to good data will help to identify significant
problems early on and take action to solve them.

3. Data allows to develop accurate theories: It also provides the tools necessary to
develop more accurate long-term theories. Data can be thought of as the building blocks
necessary to build coherent models that allows to visualize what is happening around.

4. Data will back up the arguments: Backing of sound data allows to take better
decisions and push the ideas forward.

5. Data makes the approach strategic: One importance of data collection is that it
increases efficiency while helping to eliminate doubt. 

6. Data helps to get hands on funding: Funding is increasingly a matter of proving

achieved outcomes. Due to the fact that much of funding is data-driven, it is critical that
organizations are able to establish evidence-based practices and develop coherent systems
that collect and analyse data.

7. Data tells what is done well: In addition to identifying problems and inefficiencies,
data also gives the power to see strengths and to implement the same methods across the
organization.

8. Data saves time: Having a smart data collection system in place will save valuable
time. A smart system will gather and display data in a way that is easy to access and navigate,
meaning everyone who is part of the organization will save time.

9. Data increases return on assets: More and more studies are proving the crucial role
that data plays in pushing ROA forward and making the most of what your organization
already has at its disposal.

10. Data improves quality of life

11. Data are critical for characterization, calibration, verification, validation, and

assessment of models for predicting the long-term structural durability and performance of
materials in extreme environments. Without adequate data to verify and assess them, many
models would have no purpose.

Open ended question to ascertain amount of money students spend on eating outside
How much money do you spend in eating outside?

Dichotomous question to ascertain amount of money students spend on eating outside

Do you spend money in eating outside?

(a) Yes (b) No

Multiple Category question to ascertain amount of money students spend on eating

outside

How much money do you spend in eating outside? Tick one of the following:-

(a) 1000 (b) 3000 (c) 5000 (d) None

Open ended question may be continuous data. However, it may produce unexpected results,
which can make the research more original and valuable. It is difficult to analyze the results
of the findings when the data is obtained through the questionnaire with open questions.

Dichotomous question will have Nominal data. This type of questions gives two options to
respondents – yes or no, to choose from. It is the easiest form of questionnaire for the
respondent in terms of responding it.

Multiple Category Question will have categorical or Nominal data. Respondents are offered
a set of answers they have to choose from. The downsize of questionnaire with multiple
choice questions is that, if there are too many answers to choose from, it makes the
questionnaire, confusing and boring, and discourages the respondent to answer the
questionnaire.

10. Define a research report and explain its purpose, what are the characteristics of
a research report? What functions does this report perform?

Ans: Research Report: Research report is the systematic, articulate, and orderly presentation
of research work in a written form.

It is a well-crafted document that outlines the processes, data, and findings of a systematic
investigation. It is an important document that serves as a first-hand account of the research
process, and it is typically considered as an objective and accurate source of information. A
research report can be considered as a summary of the research process that clearly highlights
findings, recommendations, and other important details. Reading a well-written research
report should provide all the information about the core areas of the research process.

Research reports are recorded data prepared by researchers or statisticians after analysing
information gathered by conducting organized research, typically in the form of surveys or
qualitative methods.
Reports usually are spread across a vast horizon of topics but are focused on communicating
information about a particular topic and a very niche target market. The primary motive of
research reports is to convey integral details about a study for marketers to consider while
designing new strategies. Certain events, facts and other information based on incidents need
to be relayed on to the people in charge and creating research reports is the most effective
communication tool. Ideal research reports are extremely accurate in the offered information
with a clear objective and conclusion. There should be a clean and structured format for these
reports to be effective in relaying information.

A research report is a reliable source to recount details about a conducted research and is
most often considered to be a true testimony of all the work done to garner specificities of
research.

Purpose of Research Report

The purpose of research report is to convey the target audience/ reader the whole result of
study in sufficient detail so as to allow them to determine the validity of the conclusions.

Additionally, a Research Report demonstrate or develop ability to undertake a complete

piece of research including research design, and an appreciation of its significance in the
field.

Characteristics of Research Report

1. Simplicity: The language shall be as simple as possible so that a report is

easily understandable. Jargons and technical words should be avoided. Even in a
technical report there shall be restricted use of technical terms if it has to be presented
to laymen.

2. Clarity: The language shall be lucid and straight, clearly expressing what is
intended to be expressed. For that the report has to be written in correct form and
following correct steps.

3. Brevity: A report shall not be unnecessarily long so that the patience of the
reader is not lost and there is no confusion of ideas. But, at the same time, a report
must be complete. A report is not an essay.

4. Positivity: As far as possible positive statements should be made instead of

negative ones. For example, it is better to say what should be done and not what
should not be done.

5. Punctuation: Punctuations have to be carefully and correctly used otherwise

the meaning of sentences may be misunderstood or misrepresented.

6. Approach: There are two types of approaches:-

(a) Personal: When a report is written based on personal enquiry or

observations, the approach shall be personal and the sentences shall be in the
first person and in direct speech
 (b) Impersonal: When a report is prepared as a source of information and
when it is merely factual (e.g. a report on a meeting), the approach shall be
impersonal and the sentences shall be in the third person and in indirect
speech.
7. Readability: The keynote of a report is readability. The style of presentation
and the diction (use of words) shall be such that the readers find it attractive and he is
compelled to read the report from the beginning to the end.’ Then only a report serves
its purpose. A report on the same subject matter can be written differently for
different classes of readers.

8. Accuracy: A report shall be accurate when facts are stated in it. It shall not be
biased with personal feelings of the writer.

9. Logical Sequence: The points in a report shall be arranged with a logical

sequence, step by step and not in a haphazard manner. A planning is necessary before
a report is prepared.

10. Proper Form: A report must be in the proper form. Sometimes there are
statutory forms to follow.

11. Presentation: A report needs an attractive presentation. It depends on the

quality of typing or printing as well as quality of paper used. Big companies make
very attractive and colourful Annual Reports.

12. It has following sections:-

(a) Summary

(b) Background/ Introduction

(c) Implemented Methods

(d) Results based on Analysis

(e) Deliberation

(f) Conclusion

13. Following are the basic features that define a Research Report:-

(a) It is a detailed presentation of research processes and findings, and it

usually includes tables and graphs.

(b) It is written in a formal language.

(c) A research report is usually written in the third person.

(d) It is informative and based on first-hand verifiable information.

(e) It is formally structured with headings, sections, and bullet points.

 (f) It always includes recommendations for future actions.

Functions of Research Report

1. Research report serves as a mean of presenting the problem studied, methods

and techniques used for collecting and analyzing data, the findings, conclusions and
recommendations in an organized manner.

2. It provides the factual base for formulating policies and strategies related to
the subject matter studied.

3. It serves as a reference material for future use in developing research

proposals in the same and related area.

4. It is used to evaluate researchers’ ability and competence to do research.

5. It is used for judging the quality of completed research work

In summary, Research Reports communicate information which has been compiled because
of research and analysis of data and of issues. Reports can cover a wide range of topics, but
usually focus on transmitting information with a clear purpose, to a specific audience. Good
reports are documents that are accurate, objective, and complete.