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    27 views192 pages

    Training Course For Junior Piping Designers

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    Adriano Galvão Martins

    Copyright:

    © All Rights Reserved
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    TRAINING COURSE FOR JUNIOR PIPING DESIGNERS Held at O.LE.C. s TEHRAN Notes on the topics developed during the Course July-October 1991 Mordad-Mehr 1370 ‘Snamprogetti Snamprogetti TRAINING COURSE FOR JUNIOR PIPING DESIGNERS Note: U. Malaspina Held at 0,1.E.C.'s / TEHRAN s on the Topics developed during the Course res documents CONFIDENTIAL ana he soe srovery of Sramcropet aay panes no: used tr puboses othe nan those fr whch nas been sert cod 84.4700 Snamprogetti Sh.2 of 133 INDEX 1. FOREWORD 2 GENERAL INFORMATION ON THE OIL REFINING PLANT DESIGN MAIN TYPES OF PLANTS AND EQUIPMENT USED WITHIN A REFINERY 3 WORK SEQUENCE FOR PLANT LAYOUT & PIPING DEPARTMENT ~ 4 PLOT PLAN AND SINGLE LINE STRUCTURE DRAWING 5 PIPING AND PIPING COMPONENTS, PIPING STANDARDIZATION 6. PIPING CLASSES 7 P&I DIAGRAMS AND LINE LISTS 8 PIPING ASSEMBLY DRAWING SYMBOLOGY 3. TYPICAL INSTALLATION OF DIFFERENT TYPES OF EQUIPMENT 10. INSTRUMENT INSTALLATION 1 PRODUCTION OF PIPING ASSEMBLY DRAWINGS FROM A MODEL 12. PRODUGTION OF MATERIAL LISTS 13 PRODUCTION OF ISOMETRIC DRAWINGS AND RELATED MATERIAL] Lists a. BASIC INFORMATION ON PIPE SUPPORTS ‘ns gocurente 1 CONFIDENTIAL and te sale propery of Seameroge "Tynat nate: be shown f hw pares nor ceed fr purges ome than tose or whch has een sen cod 844701 Snamprogetti sh.3 1, FOREWORD “ts documents CONFIDENTIAL an ne ele propery of Snamorageth Tanai sete be show fo wd pares nor vsed ot purposes cer than tose fr whch has Been sent of 133 Snamprogetti Sh.4 of 133 RI RD ‘The purpose of these notes is to supply a guideline for both the lecturers and the attendee of the training course. As the concepts expressed therein are general ones, they should be intended as guidance only, to be integrated, as the time goes by and the trainees increase their experience, with the application of the appropriate criteria and Standards to be used for the operational Job. We deem interesting, anyvay, to point out that the Piping Engineers, once in command of the basic concepts which rule their discipline, should be prepared to some flexibility as far as the implementation of their work is concerned. In fact, some interpretations may be slightly different vhen seen from the point of view of different Committents or Third Parties which our Piping Engineers will meet as their career will progress. In these cases, the consultation of the Job Documentation and of the applicable Standards together with the advice of other more experienced colleagues will help ‘Ts documents CONFIDENTIAL and eso propery of Sramprogen: {sna retner be shown 10th pares nor sea for purposes cnet than those fr which has been sect cod 0447010 Sh.5 of 133 Snamprogetti 2. GENERAL INFORMATION ON THE OIL REFINING PLANT DESIGN MAIN TYPES OF PLANTS AND EQUIPMENT USED ‘Ths eocuments fe CONFIDENTIAL ang ne sole prope ot Srameroget sna nemer be shown 0 Wh parbes nor ute fr purposes oer an ose or whch thas been sent Snamprogetti Sh.6 of 133 21 GENERAL INFORMATION ON THE OIL REFINING PLANT DESIGN MAIN o ULPMEN’ troduction When designing a modern refinery or a petrochemical complex, a lot of vast and complicated subjects must be discussed; this involves an organization being articulated into different operating teams, each of them specialized in performing a well defined part of the whole design. We call these teams Technical Departments and as such, irrespective of the type of plant being designed, they always operating within the frame of | their specialization and contribute to carry-out the whole design. The above points out how important the coordination of Technical Departments work is, and the need of information exchanges among the different Departments. In engineering work almost all the information is forwarded through drawings, specifications and written notices. Let's now see in short which Technical Departments are mainly involved in carrying out an operational design. Process: this department states which and how many machineries and pieces of equipment are needed, and how they are connected; it also states the characteristics of every piece of equipment and machinery. Mechanical: this department designs such pieces of equipment as heaters, heat exchangers, columns, reactors, pressure vessels, tanks etc. Instrument: this departments design the plant control and measurement systems and defines the necessary equipment. Plant layout and Piping: this department designs the arrangement of the plant layout, and in particular the piping network, ‘Ts documents CONFIDENTIAL ana ie Sle peperty of Saameroger "gall metre” be shown 1 1h pares nor use To purpote ae tan hose for wnich nas been Sen. cod 8447010 Snamprogetti Sh.7 of 133 Electrical: this department design the electric pover system of the plant and defines the suitable motors for each piece of machinery Machinery; this department establishes the suitable machinery for the plant, particularly compressors, pumps, mixers etc. Energy Technologies: this department designs such pieces of equipment as Power Plants, Boilers, Turbines, cooling towers etc. Packages: this department takes care of any item within the plant, which is going to be procured and installed as a package system (i.e. air fractionation, water sweetening etc.) Civil Works: this department design all structural and reinforced concrete works, civil buildings, road, ground settlement, etc. Procurement: this department provides information for procurement, testing shipment of all the components of a plant. Supervision of Construction: this department takes care of the economic administration of designs We mentioned only the main activities every Technical Department is involved with, therefore the above descriptions are not to be intended with their limita tive meaning. It should be noted that the above a list is not extensive, and it represents the responsibilities each department faces within our company. Even if minor variations may occur in a different environment, the basic pattern does not change Let's now see in details how the Piping Department works and which operational interdependencies it has with other departments. “Th cocumentst# CONFIGENTIAL and ie sole propery ot Scamoroge Snamprogetti Sh.8 of 133 2.2 2.2.1 The design The necessary requisites, sufficient for any design to be considered satisfactory, are essentially only two: Saving: all the problems a design engineer is concerned with, never have, or seldom have, one solution only. It is the design engineer's task to chose among them all, the most money-saving one. the solution chosen by the design engineer must be functional too: it must be intelligently conceived for the purposes the solution is aiming at. In order to clearly state the concept of "functionality" within the frame of a refinery, we say a solution is functional when it is technically correct and its erection is practical and easy to be carried out and also to ensure that the Safety requirements of the personnel and plant; maintenance during operation must also be easy. At this stage a deeper evaluation is required, involving the knowledge of the problems arising with erection and the maintenance requirements of the various equipments. It is however worth pointing out that in most cases saving and functionality are contrasting requisites, as functionality achievement is a cost-involving process. The final solution will result from a compromise whose terms will be fixed by the design engineer experience. Selection of the land It is a very complicated problem whose solution is influenced by many parameters. Here we give the main a) Vicinity of raw material procurement source (crude). Usually crude is supplied from the sea by oil tankers; this could lead to chose the land as near as possible to the sea. But this is not a general rule: refineries can be designed in the vicinity of an existing oil pipeline terminal. “tn aocumerts CONFIDENTIAL ang nese property ol Snamroget Tana sether be shown fo fw pares nor creo for purpoter oe! Ia ose for which # hasbeen set cod 8447010 Snamprogetti Sh.9 of 133, b) Possibility of connection to a high tension electric power network. ¢) Possibility of connection to the water supply system. 4) Nature of the soil. The presence of raisings and depressions in the chosen land gives rise to several constructional problems. Although in some cases it is possible to take advantage of the level differences, the benefits therefrom resulting are always remarkably inferior to disadvantages; whenever possible, a plain or lightly undulatory ground is therefore more desirable. e) Vicinity of a high-way £) Type of transport foreseen for finished products. According to the type of transport (by road, rail, sea) the vicinity of a high-way or of the sea is required in order to minimize either the construction of connecting roads and railways or the length of pipelines carrying finished products from the refinery to the jetty. These are just the main characteristics a plot of land on which @ refinery is being erected should have. The subject vould certainly deserve further consideration; infact these requirements are always accompanied by others of a particular nature, but not of less importance, that escape a precise listing as they are mainly connected with the features peculiar to the place in which the refinery has to be erected. The right solution will certainly come out of a compro- mise among the various requirements as it almost impossible to find out a place meeting all the demanded requisites. The two main concepts of functionality and saving shall alvays be borne in mind when studying the various alternatives. “Tis cocumerts 6 CONFIDENTIAL andthe sole poerty of Samproget Isat nner be shown te th pares nor use fr purposes ire than those lor whch d has been sent cod 8447010 Snamprogetti Sh.10 of 133 2.2.2 The general plot plan Before getting involved with the study of the general plot plan, it is necessary to be acquainted with some information. Avoiding a dry list of the same, ve shall try to explain how the study must be carried on, stopping to consider the information necessary to the design engineer as the opportunity arises during explanation. First of all we must have a spot height map of the area on which the refinery is likely to be erected, as well as a list of the tanks (quoting the duty and destination of the product therein contained) and of the process units (with their capacity). We must also know the location of the raw material inlet and the destination of the finished products. At this stage we proceed to size the tank basins, considering that - The basin may have earth banks or cement-made walls: earth-made banks are cheaper and therefore they should be adopted vhen remarkable area restrictions have not to be met, as earth banks have a larger dimension on plan than cement-made walls. A cost investigation proved the most economical height to be about 3 to 3,5 mts for cement walls and 2.5 mts for earth banks = As we can play on a double infinity of values, it is worth its while, as far as possible, to make the basin sizes of the various tanks uniform by playing possibly on the banks height; all the way we must be careful not to draw too much away from the best value as determined. This allows a certain interchangeability that vill be very useful when prosecuting the study. We don’t think it is necessary to dwell upon the various distances to be respected between tank and basin, tanks and buildings, roads and external railways; in fact these distances vary according to the country in which the construction is erected and a generalization is very difficult. Before drafting the layout, the design engineer shall consider ‘hss documents CONFIDENTIAL and ne sol property of Ssampropent stat nether be shown lela pares nor used or puboses cher tose for when hasbeen set cod 8447010 Snamprogetti Sh.11 of 133 carefully the rules to be followed each time. Furthermore: a) When seafreight is provided and one direction only is practicable, the loading pump house must be located along the chosen route, or in adjacent areas. In order to have a money-saving arrangement it is then necessary to locate also the other area loading points (road and rail, if existing) in the same area. By this way the pipes carrying the product from the pump house to the road and rail terminals and to the evacuation pipeline will require a minimum development. But, as it is convenient that loading points be as close as possible to the entrance (in order to avoid trucks drive long runs inside the refinery) it follows that all the buildings connected with the entrance cannot be too far from said loading points The solution to this problems is different every time and case, and it is up to the design engineer skill and experience to find out the right one to be adopted. For LPG shipment too we must attain centralization and it equipment not be far from the above stated In the second stage of the design, when plants are arranged, attention must be paid that LPG stockyard be located not too far from the piping linking the plants to the loading points. If lubricants, bitumen, aromatics and other finished products are present, the layout must be developed in such a way that all loading points be centralized in the same area. b) In the area adjacent to loading points the tank yard for finished products shall be installed. It is advisable to arrange the tanks in such a way that the pump house is barycentrical in respect of the tanks from which it takes suction and located at a lower elevation, in order to prevent cavitation. The problem of the pump house elevation is most important, to such an extent that if the above “Tis documents CONFIDENTIAL ang he soe eropey of Searorogem W anal netner be shown 10 Wt pares or use lor puotes ome an Nose fr whch has Been sen Snamprogetti Sh.12 of 133 ©) 4) e) £) condition is not complied with, the arrangement so far studied must be revised till a satisfactory solution is found out. Sometimes, due to economical reasons, it is advisable to split the pump house into two parts so as to allow a reduction in the piping lenght. It is an example shoving once again that often functionality and money-saving oppose and therefore the choice of the right solution will certainly be determined by economical considerations, yet by a spice of common sense too. It is now time for the plants arrangement: they shall be as close as possible to the finished products. There is a remarkable quantity of little tanks acting as storage units of semifinished products before they go through the subsequent processing. In the case of plants working in cascade they act as feeders to downstream plant. All these tanks, grouped in basins, shall be located in an area close to the plants one at an altitude not beneath the area itself in order to avoid the cavitation of the loading pumps which are usually located inside the plants. For pipe-saving purposes, the Steam Generation Plant and, if existing, water treatment, shall be located in the area adjacent to the plants. Crude stocking points are now to be located, considering the arrival place of the loading pipel ne and the location of the plants processing the crude. Always to avoid cavitation of the pump loading the TOPPING plant, it would be advisable that the altitude of the lowest crude tank be not beneath the plants altitude: in this case the loading pump will be installed in the plant area and will be constantly under control of the operations appointed people. Should this not be the case, we shall be forced to displace the loading pump near to the tanks to the prejudice of the plant functionality. ‘Ths documents & CONFIDENTIAL and he sol propery of Saamege’h IT atar semen be shown fod pares nor use for purposes che han thas or whch # has been sent Snamprogetti Sh.13 of 133 2.2.3 g) We can now proceed with the general arrangement of buildings, taking into consideration that workshop, warehouse and laboratory shall not be located too far from the plants, due to obvious functionality reasons. This area’ shall however be carefully studied by a specialized engineer (an architect) who will forgulate the final arrangement. At this stage the work is not to be considered over: it is just outlined. The overall sight of the complex allows to examine closely the choices made so far and to refine the work further, eliminating any little unavoidable incongruity which might have come out after the first summary drawing up. This process of continuous improvement will accompany the layout from this stage to the end of the final construction. In this refining process we must not forget to fix and size the areas for pipe-ways. To do this with sufficient precision, the design engineer needs all the schemes relevant to handling and shipping of all the refinery products. But not only must he define the room necessary for "process" pipes: he must take into consideration the dimensions - certainly not negligible - of pipes for facilities and requirements connected with any future enlargement. Concerning the latest problem the design engineer should know in advance whether and to which extent the future enlargement of the refinery is foreseen. He shall not exceed in providing free space to allot to future enlargements as, of course, this space affects the price; on the other hand he shall not "drown" the layout so as to make any future enlargement, though little, problematic. And once again "common sense" governs the compromise between money-saving and functionality. The unit plot plan We give hereunder some instructions to be followed when preparing the plant layout: these instructions are mainly supported by experience and in some case by precise rules. ‘rss cocuments$ CONFIDENTIAL ane he gle propery of Srameroget It grat netner be shown 10 th pares nr used for purposes cer han ose for whch W has Been sent cod 8447010 Snamprogetti Sh.14 of 133 a) b) 3) a) e) “Ths eacumens ss CONFIDENTIAL a at meaner Be show 1 te pares nor sed or purposes oer tan tose for which has been sent To provide for a pipe-rack: it can be one or two tiers and in any case it must have a minimum height from the ground of at least 3.50 to 4.00 m in order not to hinder maintenance operations. This rack shall also be arranged in such a way as not to circumscribe any area (it should be branched but not closed link) in order not to make any future equipment installation inside them problematic. To determine the pipe rack width a trial value will be initially assumed, as taken out on the basis of previous experiences of similar plants; at a later stage a more detailed study will allow to check that the value as assumed is right. Based on economical consideration the pipe rack may be of Concrete or Steel Structure. To install under the pipe rack (in single line or double one, according to the pipe rack width) the various pumps for plants; they shall be grouped as much as possible, consistently with operation and cost requirements. To place the various equipment outside the pipe rack providing a pathway of 2.5 to 3 m between the equipment and the pumps. The sequence of equipment shall be such as to allow the shortest piping development without limiting the accessibility needed for maintenance. To install heaters at a safety distance (12 to 15 m) from all equipments containing flammable liquids. For cabin heaters, the room necessary for pulling out pipes during maintenance is also to be provided; vertical cylindrical heaters have not such a planimetric requirement as drawing is made from above by means of a suitable hoist. ‘An often adopted solution is the one providing heaters installation on a same front, windward side the plants, in order to meet safety and maintenance requirements and to allow the possible setting of one single centralized stack. There are then some equipments having special requirements: reactors are an example thereof, for tne sole sropery ot Seamprogen £) 2) Sh.15 of 133 which the room necessary to feed the catalyst from upper gate is to be provided. For same equipment, installation at a certain height is required due to processing reasons: The column head accumulators are an example thereof, in which a steam-liquid of the same product is present; they must have a certain head on suction pump in order to avoid cavitation. In such cases a supporting frame must be provided and if on them heat exchangers are installed, also a monorail with hoist must be fitted for pulling out the tube bundle (see para.g) When installing traditional exchangers that, if in series, can be also mounted one on top of the other, the room necessary for pulling out the tube bundle during maintenance operations must be left. Between exchangers one meter space must be left. For air exchangers the subject is more complicated owing to the distances between them in addition to maintenance operations. We put forward some considerations about the height of air coolers. The air cooler has vertical dimensions (metered between the upper part of the box and the gangway to the motor) of about 4.50 m When there are no contraindications it can be installed on the ground eliminating the gangway and reaching the motor directly from the soil. This is case of final coolers of finished products before they are sent to stocking points. But should it not be possible, due to any reason whatsoever, to install the air cooler on the ground, the whole unit shall be 4 to 5 m heightened so as to let under the gangvay some room for other equipments. It is in fact senseless to provide a lower height and therefore have an unusable space. Going on with this reasoning, we can determine “preferential levels of installation". If as air ‘Ths documents 18 CONFIDENTIAL and ne sle propery o!Srameroge I'shat ether be shown 1 wa pares nor used for puoses cme than those lor wnen «Mas Beer sent Snamprogetti Sh.16 of 133 cooler height we take the maximum height, we shall say that preferential heights are 4.5; 9; 13 m. In other cases installation must be higher than a minimum height: this occurs when the air cooler is fitted on the vapour-line of a column; to avoid operation irregularities it is absolutely necessary to avoid the line pockets as in them part of the condensate would concentrate. Since lower installations are obviously cheaper, it results as a consequence that in one plant air coolers at different heights can be placed. In this case it is advisable to provide a distance of 4 to 5 m between each other in order to avoid that the upper one sucks already heated air from the lower The "on ground” solution has another little obvious lack: there is no possibility of inserting any equipment under the air coolers and therefore it needs a larger area covered by the plant. Aix coolers cleaning is usually carried out on the ground after demounting the complete unit without disconnecting the box pipes. Positioning shall therefore be made in such a way as to allow the crane for demounting to approach form the bottom. This accessibility is almost automatic if air coolers are mounted on the equipments located at the sides of the Pipe Rack, it is more problematic if they are mounted on the pipe-rack. The latest solution combines the undeniable advantage of a plant area reduction (remarkable only in the case of several and big-sized air coolers) with some disadvantages, the main two of which are: - The underlying pipe rack compels to heighten the level of those air coolers that, thanks to their special nature, could be installed on the ground. In addition to increasing the piping cost, this brings about an increase of foundations and, in some case, of the steel structures themselves (in fact the moments generated by the wind at the plinth bases are remarkably increased). ‘Tis dociments ' CONFIDENTIAL and ne sole propery of Snamerogen {alt ener be sown 10 rd pares nr uses fr purBoseS oes than ines for which #has been sent Snamprogetti Sh.17 of 133 hy ay Cranes often meet approaching difficulties for demounting, even if they are equipped with a very long jib, as they are hindered by the equipment range existing between the pipe rack and the transit area for maintenance means. When this solution is adopted, every now and then (at a distance to be studied each time) a gap must be provided in the equipment range, so as to create an access that should be kept free from pipes. This makes often remarkable complications when mounting the piping. It is good rule to make the plants independent from each other: this means that inside a plant no piping pertaining to another process unit should pass through: this on order to avoid that during the stop for maintenance of the former plant, the pipes pertaining to the latter may hinder the works or create any source of danger. This happens for instance when two plant are installed in succession, astride or on the two sides of a same branch of the main pipe rack. But this installation has the drawback of a higher development of facilities pipings as branch connections for orifice flange are usually made for each plant from the header of each utility running along the main rack. Attention must be paid when placing the electric sub-stations inside the plants as they often bring about remarkable constructional problems. Inside the plants area one medium tension electric station and several low tension stations must be located. As every station has one or more transformers that must be easily reached, it is advisable to place the stations on the outskirts of the plants near the surrounding roads. The problem of electric cables is not to be underestimated: right from the beginning passage areas must be studied in order not to interfere with underground pipings (sewerage and anti-fire) “Ths documents 1s CONFIDENTIAL athe soe sropey ol Srameroge i sratretnerbe shown fo Int pares nor usec fr puoses che than tose for when thas Been sen cod 0447010 Snamprogetti ceeeeeieeiee Note: (1) Plant sub-stations are not the only ones in the refinery, Other sub-stations are located near the pump house, the workshop and the various building near the entrance. In these areas, anyway, it is comparatively easier to find out a suitable location. J) For the control room we have some problems quite similar to the ones relevant to the electrical sub-stations: it must be located in a barycentrical position in order to minimize the instruments cables development and at the same time it must be located at least 15 m far from equipment containing flammable liquids When instruments cables run underground, they present the same problem of interference as we mentioned above regarding electric cables;moreover,when they run alongside with the electrical cables, a suitable distance has to be kept,in order to avoid electrostatic interferences between the two bundles. On the contrary, no Limitation exists regarding the distance between control room and power station: they can also be placed one beside the other. ‘Ts gocuments @ CONFIDENTIAL an ie ste prope of Sramorope "hat neter be shown 0 thd pares nar use fr pases ave nan thse for which has Been sent cod 6447010 Snamprogetti Sh.19 of 133 2.2.4 Flare and Blowdown The installation of the blowdown and the positioning of the flare offer some interesting alternatives. For the flare, it is necessary to know the direction of main winds; the location will be chosen so that the flare is lee side as to the units. Moreover, the position shall be chosen at a minimum distance’ of 60 m from any equipment containing flammable products. Consequently, considering that connection pipes shall be in an inclined position as to the flare and the units to the blowdown vessel, the 3 possible solutions are: a) Flare area lower than the unit area In this case the natural inclination of the soil will be exploited by installing the blowdown vessel at the base of the flare. ») The natural difference in height is exploited by positioning the blowdown vessel near the unit area, for instance near the service area. This solution presents also the advantage of a condensate and steam connection pipe much shorter than the previous c) Flare area at the same level of the unit area In this case it will be necessary to compare the 2 possible solutions in order to choose the most convenient one, In fact, if the Blow Down vessel is going to be installed near the flare,it will be probably installed in a ditch (to give the required inclination to the pipe connecting the plant and the vessel) whilst the location near the plants involves a higher charge for the support structures (as the support poles increase their height as they became closer to the flare, to observe the necessary inclination towards the vessel). “Ths cocumerts st CONFIDENTIAL andthe sol propery of Seamproge What sete" be shown 0 hd partes nor vee for purposes cme han hate for when Pas Been sent Snamprogetti Sh.20 of 138 2.3.11 Conclusion The previous pages contain the study of the main problems to be faced in the preparation of a plot-plan without pretending to have exhausted the matter. The development of a plot plan is not a thing that can result from a calculation. Mainly its the experience of the design engineer which determines the choice of the best solution Main types of plants and equipment Every process, either in the oil refining industry or in the petrochemical industry may be divided into some basic operations. In order to understand the operation of some of the plants we usually design, a brief review of the most important ones is given herebelow Distillation This operation is possibly the most used in the oil refining industry. It is implemented in order to split a mixture of liquid components and separate each one of them. It is based on the different boiling temperature of each liquid. As an example, if two liquid are mixed, it is sufficient to raise the temperature of the blend up to the boiling point of the most volatile one (i.e. the one with the lower boiling point) then collect its vapours and condensate them separately, back to the liquid phase. The heaviest liquid, with higher boiling point remains within the boiler, thus achieving the desired separation The case described hereabove is a simple discontinuous separation of two liquid, whose boiling points are fairly distant ones. In fact, the crude oil distillation is more complicated, as the crude is a mixture of several components with adjacent boiling points; moreover, due to the large quantities to be treated, their separation has to be achieved on a continuous basis. The crude oil distillation, therefore, has to be carried out by mean of successive fractions. This operation is pratically achieved using the so colled "Columns" or "Towers" with internal trays, each “Tvs documents 6 CONFIDENTIAL anc he sole propeny of Snameropen Wana nemer be sown 1 1 pares nr used Tor purposes cher Man Nose for whic as been sent cod 0447000 Snamprogetti Sh.21 of 133 2.3.1.2 tray provided with "bells" or "valves": as a schematic description of the process, the hot hydrocarbon vapours, raising from through the liquid on each tray, transfer some of their heat to the liquid itself; in such a way, the heaviest components of the vapours condensate into the liquid, which in exchange, releases part of its more volatile components which mixes with the vapours. Each tray has an overflow, which discharges the excess liquid to the lower elevation. As the process continues, the vapours will become richer in lighter components as far as the column elevation rises. Each tray, in exchange, will be full of liquid with a well defined boiling point. As the top end of each coluan is going to be occupied only by the vapours of the most volatile hydrocarbons, it has been found convenient to condensate part of the same vapours and to recycle them on the top tray: this procedure is known as reflux. From what said above it is clear the necessity of the reflux for each distillation column. Gas absorption/washing This operation is implemented in order to separate one gas from a mixture of gaseous components. Tt is based on the use of some special liquids having the capability of absorbing one only gaseous component in each gas mixture. The absorption operation is implemented using some types of column either similar to the ones used for the distillation, or equipped with some packing,as the main purpose of the operation is to favour a close contact between the absorbing liquid and the gas mixture. One typical eample of the above process is the Hydrogen sulphide removal from all the gaseous Hydrocarbons: in this process the gas to be treated is fed into the lower part of the column where, in counter-flow, comes in contact with a liquid pumped at the top of the same column Said liquid may be either DEA (Di-Ethanol-Ammine) or MEA (Mono-Ethanol-Ammine): both of them combine with the Hydrogen Sulphide which is thus absorbed and removed from the bottom of the column, whilst the purified gas is withdrawn from the top. Using another piece of equipment, the solution may be heated-up, thus releasing the Hydrogen Sulphide, which ‘hs eocuments 1 CONFIDENTIAL and he sole propery of Soamoget anal sete” Be shown 1 wa pares or vee fr pupotes one than thse fr whch «NAS Deen Sent Snamprogetti Sh.22 of 133 can now be processed to obtain sulphur, or disposed-off by combustion. ‘Ths cocumens 6 CONROENTIAL ard he sole papery of Soameroget [anat sete be show 1 Inv pares nor used for purposes oe’ than Mose fr when Pas been sent Snamprogetti Sh.23 of 133 2.3.1.3 eeoule a) 2 a 2 Liquid/Liquid Extraction This operation is based on the fluid/miscibility (e.g. water/alcohol) or non-miscibility (e.g. water/oil). In case tvo miscible liquids get in contact with a third one which is miscible with one only of the previous two, the latter one (which we may call solvent") will incorporate part of the miscible (soluble) fluid. The new mixture is separated from the first one because of the difference between their specific gravities. The industrial process takes place once more inside a column, from which the mixture solvent/soluble is withdrawn and then separated by means of distillation or of different systems Separation of dust or droplets from their carrying gas This operation is used to separate the majority of dust/liquid drops sometimes carried from some gases,in order to avoid pour performance of some process. In order to separate the dust, one may use the centrifugal separators (or cyclones"). In these pieces of equipment, the gas is compelled to rotate within a circular room: the solid particles are thus directed by centrifugal force towards the wall, slow down and fall to the bottom of the vessel, whilst the depurated gas is flowing out from the top. In order to separate the liquid droplets, one may use the K.0, Drums Vessels, where the separation happens by means of the force of gravity which directs the droplets to the bottom of the vessel. The vessel itself has to be calculated so that the fluid velocicy is reasonably low thus allowing the right permanence of the same within the vessel Sometimes the gas inlet on the vessel shell is a tangential one, so that the centrifugal effect may also be used. Primary Process Plants The Process operations used to split the crude oil into its different fractions are the so called primary ones. The basic Primary Process Plants to be installed within one Refinery are: ‘Ths documents CONFIDENTIAL and he Sle progeny of Snemaroger Ieanal nemer be shown 1 ws pares nr used fr puroses ole than those fr whch thas been sent Snamprogetti Sh.26 of 133 2.3.2.1 1.1 Atmospheric Distllation (Topping) 2 Vacuum Distillation (Wacuua) Atmospheric Distillation (Topping) This plant is the basic one for each Refinery, as it supplies the products to be fed into the other plants. As one knows every crude oil component is boiling at its appropriate temperature, from ambient temperature (lightest components) to such an high temperature as to obtain a molecular fracture (Cracking). The Atmospheric Distillation is performed by means of a Distillation Column, as described in the previous Paragraphs, having the possibility of withdrawing the products at different elevations of the column itself. Fig. 2.1 shows the typical flow sheet for a Topping plant, the description of which is given herebelow. The crude oil feed, after increasing its temperature through an heat exchange with the outgoing products it is conveyed into a fired heater, where its temperature is further increased up to 300 / 380 “°C (the temperatu- re at the heater outlet should not be higher than this, to avoid any "cracking" of the heavier fractions). The crude oil, which is by now about 40 to 60 percent vaporized is thence fed into the column, where the liquid part is collected at the bottom as a residue and the vaporized part ascends the column and condensates at different elevations as said before. The lightest hydrocarbons only (gas and light gasoline) leave the column top as a vapour, which is condensated through a refrigerator and collected into a vessel (accumulator) which also acts as a separator for the non-condensible gases. The light gasoline collected therein is sent to the storage; only part of it is routed as a reflux up to the top tray of the column Each fraction withdrawn from the Distillation Column at different elevations is sent to a minor side column where any traces of lighter product is separated by means of a superheated steam injection and sent back to the main column. The superheated steam treatment of each side cut is known as "stripping". Each minor column where this operation takes place is known as "Stripper". The product collected at each Stripper’s bottom is sent to storage. “Tus documents CONFIOENTIAL and ne sole propery of Sramoroge Snamprogetti Sh.25. of 133 It should be noted that a superheated steam injection is made at the main column bottom as well: this injection helps the vaporisation of some fractions of hydrocarbons, improving the efficiency of the system. The 4/5 bottom trays of the main column may therefore be considered as the residue stripper. Sone other features may be noted in the Fig.2.1 flow sheet: a) the “pumparound" streams, which are withdrawn at well defined elevations, cooled down through an heat exchange with the crude feed and recirculated into the column at some higher elevation. These streams are improving the system as the external heat subtraction decreases the flow of the required reflux and, increasing the crude feed temperature, reduces the expenditure for heating fuel. b) The ammonia injection at the column top, which acts as a corrosion inhibitor, counter-acting the influence of the hydrocaloric acid developed during the distillation, because some chlorides are always present within the crude oil feed. The normal Topping outlet includes the following products (in variable percentages according to the various origin of the crude), and from the top to the bottom of the Column: = non-condensable gases (methane, ethane and light gasoline) - heavy gasoline (or naphtha) = kerosene (to be used as jet fuel) - diesel oil + residue It should be noted that the light gasoline produced from a Topping unit needs to be “stabilized” which means that the propane and butane gases usually dissolved into the light gasoline, are separated from the same by means of a further distillation through the "Stabilizer" column always present aside one Topping plant. The propane + butane mixture, which is a liquid at ambient temperature under a comparatively moderate pressure, is known as LPG (Liquified Petroleum Gases) and sold for domestic use or for car feed. “ss documents CONFIDENTIAL anc he sole propery of Srampropet Snamprogetti Sh.26 of 133 2.3.2.2 Vacuum Distillation (Vacuum) As it is known, for one physical law, about the boiling point, the decreasing of the pressure allows the decreasing of the boiling temperature of each fluid. This law allows the distillation of heavy hydrocarbons at one temperature below their cracking point (i.e. below the temperature which causes the modification of the molecule of that given hydrocarbon). A vacuum condition is therefore obtained by means of steam ejectors, when the distillation of heavy hydrocarbons such as the Topping residue, is required. Fig. 2.2 shows one typical flow sheet for a Vacuum Distillation plant. The Vacuum products are basically used to feed the lube oil plant and to prepare the heavy gasoil feedstock for the catalitic cracking plant. When a Topping Unit and a Vacuum Unit are located within the same refinery area we are thus identifying a “Combined Unit" or a "Two Stage Distillation Plant". Fig. 2.3 shows a typical flow sheet for such an unit. “Ths documents CONFIDENTIAL and he soe propery of Seamarogem Sh.27 of 133 Snamprogetti wou CONDENSIBLE ous CORROSION INMIAITOR MG ECTION

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