Psychological Practical Journal

PSYCHOLOGICAL PRACTICAL JOURNAL
Submitted for the partial fulfillment of the

Degree of Bachelor’s Of Science in Clinical Psychology
Semester V
(2019-2022)
Submitted by:
Ashfaque Mapker Saad
19021, Roll Number- 21
A70240719041
Submitted to-
Mr. ARBAZ MIYAJI
(Visiting Faculty)
Amity Institute of Behavioral and Allied Sciences
(AIBAS)
AMITY UNIVERSITY, MUMBAI
1
THIRD YEAR BACHELOR OF SCIENCE- CLINICAL PSYCHOLOGY
PSYCHOLOGY PRACTICALS
SEMESTER V
Roll no.: 19021 Year: 2021-2022
Sr.no Title of Test Page Remark Teacher’s

. no. s sign
1 Learned Optimism Scale (PCD 6
LOS)
2 Eysenck’s Personality 30
Questionnaire- Revised (EPQ- R)
3 Multidimensional Aptitude 74
Battery-II (MAB II)
4 Raven’s Standard Progressive 107
Matrices (RSPM)
2
5 Social Intelligence Scale (SIS-CG) 134
This is to certify that Mr. Ashfaque Mapker Saad has completed all five
psychological tests/ experiments of semester V.
____________________
Mr.Arbaz Miyaji
Visiting Faculty
3
Acknowledgement
I would like to express my deepest appreciation to all those who provided me with the
possibility to complete this report. A special gratitude I would like to give to Mr Arbaz
Miyaji, our practical faculty for guiding us.
Furthermore, I would like to acknowledge with much appreciation the crucial role of my
friends and batchmates for their endless support and help. Last but not least, I would like to
thank my parents for their endless support and almighty for all the blessings.
B.Sc. Clinical Psychology
Semester V
Section-A, 19021
Amity University, Mumbai
4
Declaration
I do hereby solemnly declare that the work and learning presented in this practical file have
been carried out by me and has not been previously submitted to any other University,
College, and Organization for any academic Qualification, Certificate or Degree. This report
is submitted to Amity Institute of Behavioral and Allied Sciences, Amity University Mumbai,
is the record of my original work and learnings under the supervision of Mr.Arbaz and is
submitted towards the partial fulfilment of requirements for the degree of Bachelor of
Science e Clinical Psychology, Amity University, Mumbai.
I hereby warrant that the work I have presented does not breach any existing copyright acts
and has not been taken from other sources except where my work has been cited and
acknowledged within the text.
Date: 23/11/2021
Saad
B.Sc. Clinical Psychology
Semester V
Roll Number 19021
Amity University, Mumbai
5
AIBAS
Title: Learned Optimism Scale
Practical No.: 1 Class: B.Sc. Clinical Psychology, Section-A
Roll No.: 19021 Teacher’s Sign: ___________
INDEX
Sr. Topic
No.
Introduction- 9
1 Benefit of Learned Optimism- 11
Optimism and Pessimism- 13
2 Related Researches- 14
Methodology- 15
3 Reliability, Validity, Scoring- 16

Interpretation- 17
4 Demographic Details- 18
Procedure- 20
5. Observation and Discussion- 22

Conclusion- 23
6
6 Recommendation- 24
7 Consent Form- 26
8 References- 27
7
PRACTICAL ASSIGNMENT
Learned Optimism Scale

B.Sc. Clinical Psychology / Section-A | A70240719041
Submitted to: Arbaz Miyaji
8
Learned Optimism Scale
Purpose of the test:
To measure the level of learned optimism in an individual using the ‘Learned Optimism
Scale’ given by Sanjay Pethe, Sushma Chaudhari, Santosh Dhar and Upinder Dhar.
Introduction
Optimism: It can be defined “as a generalised expectancy that good as opposed to bad
outcomes will generally occur when confronted with problems across important life
domains.” [Scheier and Carver, 1985]
Learned Optimism: Professor Martin Seligman, a prominent psychologist and one of the
founders of the positive psychology movement, first offered this theory in his book Learned
Optimism (Seligman, 1990). It means that once you achieve a certain level of success, you
feel enthusiastic, confident, and in control. Seligman (1991) asserted that how one views an
event or situation greatly influences how one acts.
Theoretical Framework of Learned Optimism: The concept of ‘Learned Optimism’ was

given by Martin Seligman, who is known for being the founding father of the field of positive
psychology. Positivity needs to be cultivated. The opposite of learned optimism is learned
helplessness, which is another concept identified by Seligman, wherein people believe they
cannot change their circumstances after repeatedly experiencing stress. In his early work,
Seligman focused on pessimism, but he found it fascinating how some people do not feel
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helpless even when they are used to it. Thus, he began to look into what could be done to
ensure that individuals were more optimistic. In the 1980s and 90s, Seligman developed a
related concept called explanatory style to explain his famous work of the 70s and 80s on
learned helplessness. This approach was developed after analyzing how individuals explain
events that happened to them. His books have also discussed optimism and pessimism and
explained some styles of explanation. Optimism is viewed as a learned trait, not one inherited
from our parents. Positive psychology views it as how we interpret our surroundings. As an
alternative, we can see it as a strategy or an attitude that one can learn to incorporate in their
lives where they start challenging their automatic negative thoughts.
The ABCDE Model of Learned Optimism: Seligman believes that anyone can learn how to
become more optimistic. To learn optimism, Seligman turns to the cognitive-behavioral
techniques of Aaron Beck as well as the rational emotive behavioral therapy of Albert Ellis.
Identifying what drives behaviors and actively challenging them are the goals of both
approaches.
● Adversity: The situation that calls for a response.
● Belief: How one interprets the event.
● Consequence: The way an individual behaves, responds, or feels.
● Disputation: The effort one expends to argue or dispute the belief.
● Energization: The outcome that emerges from trying to challenge
one’s beliefs.
Consider this example of implementing the ABCDE model: You have recently begun a new
diet plan, but you have difficulty sticking with it [Adversity]; as a result, you may think that
you will never be able to achieve your goal of eating healthy [Belief].; we recognize that the
negative beliefs we expressed made it more difficult to follow the diet plan [Consequence];
we may start to consider that we did successfully follow the diet plan, or that we worked
towards it, and then achieved it [Dispute]; knowing that we worked hard to reach a goal may
motivate and energize us to continue our actions [Energizing].
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Benefits of learned optimism
According to Seligman’s explanatory style definition, “The basis of optimism does not lie in
positive phrases or images of victory, but in the way you think about causes”.
A few benefits of learning to be optimistic include:
Better health outcomes
The Annals of Behavioural Medicine published a meta-analysis which showed

optimism moderates the symptoms of pain, cancer, and physical ailments. A study
conducted by Matthews et al. suggests that optimistic women tend to have slower
progression of atherosclerosis (carotid atherosclerosis) after menopause compared to
their pessimistic peers.
Better mental health
People who are optimistic tend to be happier in general. In addition, the teaching of learned
optimism techniques has also shown to reduce depression significantly.
Higher motivation
Being optimistic can also help one pursue his or her goals when one is motivated.
When trying to lose weight, an individual may give up because they assume diets
won't work. An optimist, on the other hand, focuses on the positive changes that can
be made in this scenario that will enable them to achieve their long-term and
short-term goals.
Longer lifespan
The Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America
(PNAS) reports an association between optimism and an 11 to 15% longer life expectancy.
Furthermore, optimism was associated with a better chance of living to age 85 or older, as
defined by the researchers.
Lower stress levels
Besides experiencing less stress, optimistic individuals also cope with stress better.
These individuals are resilient and better at bouncing back from failure. Life's
negative events do not overwhelm optimists but rather encourage them.
More happiness
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In addition to trying to control as many positive outcomes as possible in their lives, optimistic
individuals tend to have an optimistic outlook on life as a whole. As a result of their
confidence and drive, they tend to be happier as well as believing that their dreams will come
true.
Improved coping mechanism
An optimist doesn't wait for a stressful situation to pass before acting. Their innately
optimistic mindset kicks in when they see something unpleasant happening, hoping
that it will get better.
Enhancement in performance
Researchers have found that optimists exhibit greater persistence in achieving goals and
thriving in difficult circumstances, according to Suzanne Segerstrom. The frontal lobes of
optimists try to determine why something great did not happen and store this information for
future use. In another study, optimists were found to be less likely to drop out of college due
to their more determined and less anxious nature. Seligman's research has demonstrated that a
person with a positive explanatory style is more productive than a person with a negative
explanatory style.
More job offers and promotions
During their first few months on the job market, a group of Duke University MBA
graduates were observed. It was easier for those with a more optimistic attitude to find
employment than those with a more pessimistic attitude. Pessimists are also more
likely to earn lower salaries, and optimists are more likely to be promoted.
Better adaptability
Adapting to new information in our lives is an incredibly important skill that few of us
possess. The first year of college was more enjoyable and successful for students in Australia
who were less stressed, anxious, and insecure.
Make for better sportspeople
In crunch time, teams with an optimistic reasoning style tend to be better each year.
Several seconds were added to the actual swim time of a group of swimmers who
were told to go the hardest. The study was conducted with colleagues by Seligman.
As a result of that feedback, the optimists did better in the following swim, while the
pessimists did even worse.
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Optimism and Pessimism
When dealing with stressful situations, pessimistic people often resort to escapist or avoidant
behavior; their doubts about the future may also discourage them from taking risks.
Optimistic individuals strive to improve their quality of life and minimize stress, on the other
hand. It is generally believed that they have more hope for the future. Pessimists and
optimists tend to have very different explanations for what happens in their lives. These
explanatory styles differ primarily in these areas:
Permanence: Poor times are temporary to optimists. Due to this, they also tend to bounce
back more quickly after setbacks or failures. The pessimist perceives negative events as
permanent and unchangeable. In such a situation, they are more likely to give up.
Personalization: It is common for optimists to blame external circumstances or

forces when things go wrong. In contrast, pessimists are more likely to blame
themselves for unfortunate events in their lives. On the other hand, optimists tend to
see good results as the result of their own actions, while pessimists attribute them to
external factors.
Pervasiveness: Optimists do not let their failures in one area affect their assessments of their
capabilities in other areas. However, pessimists believe setbacks are more prevalent. As a
result, if they fail at one thing, they believe they will also fail at everything else.
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Related Researches:
Research 1: Happiness, Locus of Control and Learned Optimism Among University

Students.
The research paper, written by Aditya Chamuah and Dr. R. Sankar, was published in 2019.
Among its objectives are:
1) To research the relationship between learned optimism, happiness, and locus of control
among university students,
2) Analyze the influence of learned optimism and internal and external locus of control on
university students' happiness. It is hypothesized that multiple combinations of resources can
have a positive and significant effect/contribution variables being studied in this research.
The tests used in this research include Learned Optimism Scale (developed by Pethe, Dhar,
Upinder Dhar and Chaudhuri) (2010), Locus of Control Scale (developed by Bhutia and
Nongtdu) (2018) and Happiness Scale (developed by Rastogi and Moorjani) (2017).
Student questionnaires assessed Locus of Control, Learned Optimism, and Happiness.

Anonymity and confidentiality were assured to all informants. Data were computed by
Pearson's coefficient of correlation after manual scoring of the questionnaires. All three
hypotheses were confirmed as learned optimism is significantly correlated with happiness,
external locus of control is significantly correlated with happiness, and internal locus of
control is significantly correlated with happiness. Furthermore, both locus of control (internal
as well as external) and learned optimism are found to negatively influence university
students' happiness.
Research 2: Positive Forces of Life and Psychological Well-being among Corporate

Professionals.
Published in 2011, Deepali Mittal and Madhu Mathur conducted a study, it aimed at:
1) Investigating levels of optimism and life satisfaction among corporate employees
2) The role that optimism plays in psychological well-being among corporate professionals.
The study used 3 questionnaires: Learned Optimism Scale (Pethe, Dhar, Upinder Dhar and
Chaudhuri, 2010), Life Satisfaction Scale (Q.G Alam and Dr. Ramji Shrivastava, 2001), and
General Health Questionnaire-12 (Goldberg and Williams, 1988).
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A mixture of software companies from Noida and Delhi participated in the workshop. Before
the test was administered, participants were informed of the study's purpose and a rapport
built. To minimize the possibility of mechanical responses between the three questionnaires -
LOS, LS Scale, and GHQ-12 - a gap of about one week was allowed between each test.
Chi-square (χ2) test and graphical representation by bar graph; and correlation and regression
analysis were carried through SPSS to attain the results. In order to assess the effect of
different variables, regression analysis was conducted. In the corporate workforce, most
professionals scored high or moderate, whereas small percentages scored low. As a result of
the study, life satisfaction is positively and significantly related to psychological well-being
and is also the major contributor (40% of the total variation). Moreover, optimism and
psychological well-being show a 0.48 correlation. Positive and significant relationships are
evident between the variables, with optimism playing an important role in psychological
well-being (9%).
Methodology:
Questionnaire Description
Norms
Norms of the scale are available on a sample of undergraduate and postgraduate subjects
below.
Mean (M): 88.35
Standard Deviation: 10.68
Normal Range: 78-99
High: 100 (and above)
Low: 77 (and below)
For interpreting learned optimism scores, these norms can be regarded as references. Based
on their own samples, users of this scale are recommended to develop their own norms. A
high score indicates that a person has an extraordinary level of learned optimism and is likely
to be a high performer.
15
Reliability
An analysis of reliability coefficients for 210 subjects determined the reliability of the scale.
The reliability coefficient for split-half is 0.99.
Validity
The scale also has high content validity, as the items are all related to the desired outcome.
Using the reliability index (Garret, 1981) to determine validity, we determined that it was
0.99, indicating high validity.
Scoring
The scale consists of 51 items with choices on a 5-point Likert scale, ranging from ‘Strongly
agree’ to ‘Strongly disagree’. The scores corresponding each of these choices are as follows:
Serial Number Choice Score
1 Strongly Agree 5
2 Agree 4
3 Neutral 3
4 Disagree 2
5 Strongly Disagree 1
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Procedure of scoring
Step 1
The scores of each of the 51 items on the learned optimism scale must be added together to
get the overall score.
Step 2
At the end of each page of the questionnaire booklet, the subject is to add these markings at
the bottom of that page.
Step 3
It is necessary to record all three scores on the first page of the questionnaire booklet and to
write down the total of the three scores.
Interpretation
The obtained final score on the Learned Optimism Scale can be interpreted as follows:
Serial Number Score obtained Level of learned optimism
1. 77 (or below) Low
2. 77-99 Normal
3. 100 (or above) High
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Demographic Details of my Participant:
Name: S. S.
Age: 22
Gender: Male
Marital Status: Unmarried
Educational background: Association of Certified Chartered Accountants
Occupation: Accountant
Family structure: Joint Family
Ordinal Position: 1st born
Mother’s Occupation: Housewife
Mother’s Educational Status: (not disclosed)
Father’s Occupation: Businessman / Construction line of work
Father’s educational qualification: (undisclosed)
Geographic location: Jeddah, Saudi Arabia
Socio-economic status: Upper-Middle Class
Case History of my Participant:
Born and raised in Jeddah, Saudi Arabia. Visited his hometown of Hyderabad, India every
two years during school vacation and temporarily moved there for internship after completion
of ACCA studies.
The participant had a good childhood and has good relations with his parents. He has
completed his education in Accounts. He worked as a junior sales associate as internships in
3 different firms over the years, and now has joined on as an accountant at a well established
firm. He has no history of medical or mental illness. He developed an interest in movies and
poetry from one of his close friends. He has been a keen participant in cultural events. He is
also passionate about cooking. He likes to experiment with new dishes after having seen them
on social media or online elsewhere for family and friends. He has been living in the same
place since birth and hasn’t ever had to shift. He is finding it a little difficult to manage time
18
now after having gotten an actual job, because he finds it more serious than the internships
he’s done before. He spends enough quality time with his friends as well as his family. As a
responsible older brother, he tries his best to teach his younger brother the many different
things he finds important.
Whenever the participant faces a set-back, he takes a step back and then sees the bigger
picture. He takes his time and space while facing a stressful situation. He doesn’t find himself
asking for help often as he tries to be prepared for any setback that may befall him. He
focuses towards the solution of the problem instead of dwelling on it.
The participant is a confident person in the social settings. He is very helpful to others and
will without a hesitation give it his time and effort. He does not like to get too close with a lot
of people and only keeps a few people in a close circle. He believes in his future and has his
goals set for ahead. He believes to improve himself over the time and develop more resilience
in order to deal effectively.
He’s had an average school life; made many friends and hung out with them often. Joined
ACCA upon completion of 10th grade and did well there. The participant has been in a few
casual relationships. The participant has always been extroverted and friendly and does enjoy
being a part of social situations with strangers.
The participant has been feeling on edge and annoyed lately and has not been “feeling like
himself lately”
The participant was not accompanied by any informant. When asked about the issues or
complaints he has been facing lately, he said that he has been on the edge lately and many
things now begin to annoy him. He explained that he doesn’t lash out on people but it has
been bothering him how quick he has been to it lately.
Present routine:
i. 8:00am – Awaken and have breakfast
ii. 8:30am – Go to work
iii. 12:00pm – Lunch
iv. 6:30pm – Comes home
v. 9-11:30pm – Hang out with friends
vi. 12am – Sleeps
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Materials Required:
● Appropriate stationary like paper, pencil, eraser, and sharpener

● LOS test booklet
Procedure:
Arrangement of material:
In a quiet room that was well-lit and ventilated, the participant was taken. It was made
comfortable for him to sit. During the case history, he was given instructions about the type
of questions he should expect. He was then given instructions for the administration of LOS
after taking the case history. Next, he was given LOS and stationary.
Precautions:
The precautions to be taken when administering the test include:
i. Participant's must not be allowed to review test materials before taking the test.
ii. A clear explanation of the test instructions should be provided and any doubts of the
subject should be cleared up.
Instructions for the subject:
Before the test:
“You will find some statements on the following pages related to your behavior. You will
have five options to choose from. Please mark the appropriate box. The answer isn't correct
or incorrect. I would appreciate it if you answered honestly. We will keep your responses
confidential.”
After the test:
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“Thank you very much. Please check the paper once more to ensure that you have not missed
any statements by accident."
Retrospective Report
“Psychological tests are always fun to be a part of, it is like the way a car gets checked for
any repairs, these help in understanding where I may be lagging behind so I may work on it..”
-Shamoeel
Scoring and Interpretation:
The subject scored a total of 103 on the ‘learned optimism scale’, which corresponds to a
‘high level of learned optimism’.
Page Number SCORE
1 40
2 28
3 35
TOTAL 103 – High on“Learned Optimism”
The Learned Optimism Scale consists of 51 items with a Likert scale of 5 points. The subject
S.S. obtained a score of 103 on the learned optimism scale, that corresponds to a ‘High Level
of learned optimism’. This can be understood also from the fact that although the participant
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wants to seem aloof with the attitude as if he doesn’t care, but he was honest about his
troubles and cared enough to seek further understanding about his condition by talking about
it even if it is only a test to measure optimism.
Observations:
The participant was clad in casual clothing, properly groomed, and hygiene
maintained. He was calm, co-operative, on the verge of seeming aloof, but was polite.
His speech was of normal volume, rate, and rested tone.
Hishought process was logical, yet almost as if not willing to give a thought. His
orientation to self, time, place, and person was intact. Intellectual and emotional
insight was present.
Discussion
The participant scored 40 on the first page, 28 on the second page, and 35 on the third page.
Upon totalling it was calculated that he scored a total of 103.
The total of 103 reflects a HIGH optimism.
Optimism is often thought of as a relatively trivial quality. Optimists view the world through
rose-tinted glasses and see the silver lining in every cloud. Based on different conceptions of
optimism, there are two main approaches (Peterson, 2000a). At one extreme, optimism can be
conceptualized as an optimistic expectation that more good things will happen in the future
than bad, also known as dispositional optimism (Scheier and Carver, 1985). While at the
other extreme, optimism has been construed as an explanatory style, rather than a broad
personality trait (Seligman, 1998).
According to this perspective, optimistic people explain negative events or experiences by
attributing their cause to external, transient factors, such as the prevailing circumstances.
22
Several researchers have argued that optimism is a thinking style that can be learned in
addition to these two methods.
Conclusion:
Learned Optimism Scale measures the level of learned optimism in an individual. As a result
of recognizing the negative thoughts and addressing them, we develop more optimistic
behavior.
The participant is a 21 year old male. He is an accountant, and this is his first job. During the
conduction of the Learned Optimism Scale, he was very cooperative and confident in
interacting with me. The participant got a score of 103 which indicates high optimism level.
Hee is optimistic about his future, both professional and personal, and believes that he can
overcome everything with just enough planning and understanding of both his successes and
shortcomings
Despite his slightly aloof demeanor about taking the test and his curiosity about his scores
and their interpretation, we see that he is optimistic and hopeful about exploring ways to
improve his mood.
In the Indian perspective, a substantial body of researches have demonstrated the positive
correlation between hopefulness (Gupta & Suman, 2004), resilience and happiness
(Srivastava & Sinha, 2005; Deb & Arora, 2008), social support (Singh et al., 2007; Srivastava
& Mishra, 2007), religiosity (Srivastava & Krishna, 2007) and spirituality (Latha & Yuvaraj,
2006; Pareek & Singh, 2008) and psychological well-being.
Recommendation:
23
The participant mentioned how he wasn’t feeling himself lately, and he said it started since he
started feeling that way since he started working 2 months ago at a company. He is doing well
at his job but mentioned not having spoken to many people there.
His bad mood might be him not having made acquaintances there even though he is generally
an extrovert. It would greatly affect his mood if he spoke to more people there and made
acquaintances, his high optimism might be helpful there as he knows he can overcome this
challenge as well.
Getting adjusted to new places is tedious at first, but once he’s adjusted he would do better.
Many examples from his life point to him being optimistic, he recently purchased a car which
had lots of repairs to be done, he did it bit by bit and that is one among the various described
situations where the participant has mentioned being hopeful and working towards changing
things for the better.
Brief Mental Status Exam (MSE) Form
1. Appearance: Casual dress, well taken care of,

known brands
2. Attitude: Calm and cooperative with a hint of

skepticism
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3. Behavior: No unusual movements or
psychomotor changes
4. Speech: Normal rate/tone/volume without

pressure
5. Affect: Normal Range
6. Mood: Elevated(seemingly tired)
7. Thought process: Normal, organized
8. Thought content: Suicidal Ideation: None
Homicidal Ideation: None
9. Perception: No hallucinations or delusions during

interview
10. Orientation: Oriented: Time, Place, Self, Person
11. Short-Term Intact and Long-Term

Memory/Concentration: Intact
12. Good
Insight/Judgement:
25
Consent Form
I, Ashfaque Mapker Saad, a student from B.Sc. Clinical Psychology, am conducting a
Psychological Test on S.S. Your participation is solicited, yet it is strictly voluntary. Please be
aware that you are free to withdraw at any point throughout the duration of the
experiment/test.
Your results will be kept confidential and not disclosed to anyone without your permission or
your name will not be associated with any test findings.
Your participation in this study will require approximately 20-25 minutes. Please indicate
with your signature on the space below that you understand your rights and agree to
participate in the experiment
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
By my signature below, I acknowledge that I consent to a psychological experiment/test
conducted by Ashfaque Mapker Saad. I have been informed of the study and have read
consent form
I fully understand my rights and obligations as a participant and I freely agree to this
assessment/test
Shamoeel
SIGNATURE OF THE PARTICIPANT
Date: 01/09/2021 Name of the student administering the test:
26
References:
● Amity University e-library
https://shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/handle/10603/166644
amity.refread.com/#/emailDocument/20980187[Ar7]
● How Learned Optimism Can Improve Your Life. Verywell Mind. (2021).
https://www.verywellmind.com/learned-optimism-4174101#the-abcde-model.
● Heather N. Rasmussen, Ph.D., Michael F. Scheier, Ph.D., Joel B. Greenhouse,

Ph.D., Optimism and Physical Health: A Meta-analytic Review, Annals of Behavioral
Medicine, Volume 37, Issue 3, June 2009, Pages 239–256,
https://doi.org/10.1007/s12160-009-9111-x
● How Learned Optimism Can Improve Your Life. Verywell Mind. (2021).
https://www.verywellmind.com/learned-optimism-4174101#benefits-of-optimism
● Positive Forces of Life and Psychological Well-being among Corporate

Professionals Deepali Mittal & Madhu Mathur Chaudhary Charan Singh University,
Meerut, India
27
AIBAS
Title: Eysenck’s Personality Questionnaire- Revised (EPQ- R)
INDEX
Sr. Topic
No.
Introduction- 31
1 Related Theories- 32
Additional Personality Tests- 37
2 Relevant Researches- 44
Application of Personality Tests- 48
3 Methodology- 51
Demographic details- 54
4 Scoring and interpretation- 56

Interpretation, procedure- 60
5 Observation and Discussion- 62

Recommendation and Conclusion- 65
6 References- 66
7 Appendix- 68
28
29
EYSENCK’S PERSONALITY TEST – REVISED
-(EPQ-R)
The following document is the second practical report for the 4th semester.
This report is being submitted for grading to Dr. Aakash Wankhede by
Ashfaque Mapker Saad, A70240719041, Roll Number 21, Section A, B.Sc.

Clinical Psychology

30
Eysenck’s Personality Questionnaire- Revised (EPQ- R)
Purpose of the test:
Using the Eysenck Personality Questionnaire, we will measure the three major aspects of our
personality: extraversion, neuroticism, and psychoticism.
Introduction:
Definition
According to Hans J Eysenck, “Personality is the sum total or potential behavior
pattern of the organism, as determined by heredity and environment it originates and
develops through the functional interaction of the four main sectors into which these
behavior patterns are organized. For Eysenck, personality consists of acts and
dispositions organized in a hierarchical fashion in terms of their level of generality.
The cognitive sector (intelligence), the cognitive sector (character), the affective
sector (temperament), and the somatic sector (constitution).”
According to Hollander, “Personality is the sum total of an individual’s psychological
characteristics which make him or her unique.”
According to Pervin (1993), “Personality represents those characteristics of the person
that account for consistent patterns of behavior.”
According to J.B. Watson (1930), “Personality is the sum of activities that can be
discovered by actual observations over a long enough period of time to give reliable
information”.
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According to Allport (1961), “Personality is the dynamic organization within the
individual of those psychophysical systems that determine his characteristics,
behavior and thought”.
Related Theories
Freud’s Personality Theory: Freud's personality theory (1923) saw the psyche
structured into three parts (i.e., tripartite), the id, ego, and superego, all
developing at different stages in our lives. These are systems, not parts of the
brain, or in any way physical.
The Id in Freud's psychoanalytic theory is the primitive and instinctual part of
the mind that belongs to sexual and aggressive drives, the Superego is the
moral conscience, and the Ego is the realistic part that mediates between the
desires of the Id and Superego.
In spite of the fact that each part of the personality is unique, they work
together to form a whole, and each part contributes in a relative way to each
individual's behavior.
'Id' is our impulsive (and unconscious) part of the mind which reacts directly
and instinctively to fundamental urges, needs, and desires. A new-born's
personality consists purely of id, and only later does it develop an ego and a
superego.
Ego is the aspect of the id created by the direct influence of the external world.
Superego embodies the values and morals of society, which are learned from
one's parents and others.
32
The Trait and Type Theories
1. Hippocrates Approach
The type hypothesis was proposed by Hippocrates around 400 BC. Based
on the premise that the human body contains four fluids (blood, phlegm,
black bile, and yellow bile), he has also been referred to as the "Father of
Modern Medicine.". Based on his classification, he categorizes human
personality into four types:
a) Phlegmatic (phlegm): a state of calm, cool, sluggish, and
uninterested.
b) Choleric (yellow gall): fiery, passionate, active, energetic, and
imaginative in nature.
c) Sanguine (blood): a buoyant, cheerful, and open-minded
individual.
d) Melancholic (black bile): depressed and pessimistic, dejected,
resentful, deplorable, and self-centered.
2. Kretschmer's Approach
In his biological classification system, German psychiatrist Ernst
Kretschmer categorized people by physical characteristics. Kretschmer
identified three categories of personality:
a. Pyknic: good-natured, jolly, and friendly people.
b. Athletic: well-balanced, optimistic, energetic, and adaptable
bodies.
33
c. Asthenic: a thin and a lean physique, introversion, shyness,
and pessimism.
3. Sheldon Williams’s Approach
In addition to physical appearance and temperament, Sheldon's personality
types are well known for their reliance on these factors. There are three
groups of creatures according to Sheldon: endomorphs, mesomorphs, and
ectomorphs.
a. People who are endomorphs are physically relaxed, sociable,
slow, and tolerant. They like comfort and food and are soft and
spherical.
b. People who are mesomorphs are assertive, athletic, energetic,
and have a fiery temper. A physical challenge and a risk are what they
enjoy. From the outside, they have a strong and robust appearance.
c. Ectomorphs are lone, fragile, sensitive, scared, introverted, and
artistic individuals.
4. Carl Jung's Approach
A further typology of humans was developed by Carl G. Jung. They are
really well-known. Separated into two groups, he defined introverts and
extroverts.
The first point. Individuals who are introverts prefer to be alone,
avoid social situations, withdraw when confronted with emotional
difficulties, and are shy.
The second one. People who are extroverts are sociable,
34
outgoing, and drawn to occupations that allow them to interact with
others. When stressed, they try to lose themselves in people and social
activities.
Thirdly, ambiverts are widely distributed. In a lot of cases, our
reactions are affected by the situation. A person in a position of
authority, for instance, will be more introverted. We tend to be
extroverts when we are with our own people or close friends.
Trait Approaches to personality
The trait theorists assert that personality can be explained by assuming
everyone possesses certain traits.
1. Gordon Allport's Approach
Trait theorists in the past attempted to describe all human personality
qualities. Gordon Allport (Allport & Odbert, 1936), for example,
discovered 4,500 words in the English language that might be used to
characterize persons. Cardinal qualities, central traits, and subsidiary traits
were the three categories he used to arrange these personality traits.
Having a characteristic that permeates your whole being is a cardinal
personality trait. Rare are the individuals with a single trait that dominates
their personality. Individuals possess a diversity of characteristics that
constitute their personalities.
Central traits are defining characteristics of our personalities (such as
loyalty, kindness, agreeable, friendly, sneaky, wild, and grumpy).
35
Unlike primary characteristics, secondary characteristics aren't as obvious
or constant. In particular contexts, they contain preferences and attitudes.
2. Cattell's Approach
A more comprehensible list of features was created by Raymond Cattell
(1946, 1957) by reducing it to approximately 171 features. Although a
characteristic isn't necessarily present or absent, that doesn't give an
accurate reflection of a person's individuality since no two people's
personalities are the same. The only difference lies in how strongly a given
characteristic is displayed. Cattell (1957) defined 16 personality variables
or dimensions: Warmth, reasoning, emotional stability, dominance,
liveliness, rule-consciousness, social boldness, sensitivity, vigilance,
abstractedness, privacy, apprehension, openness to change, self-reliance,
perfectionism, and tension are all qualities that can be found in people.
Based on these 16 elements, he developed the 16PF personality
assessment. An evaluation of a quality based on its presence is more like
grading it from high to low instead of whether it is present or not. As an
example, your warmth is a reflection of your warmth, compassion, and
good nature towards others. You tend to be cold and distant if you score
low on this scale. The higher your score on this metric, the more you are
understood and appreciated.
3. Eysenck’s Approach
Characteristically, the theories of Hans and Sybil Eysenck concentrated on
36
temperament, traits inherited genetically that shape our personality. In their
view, biology contributes greatly to personality. Eysenck identified two
personality traits: extroversion and introversion, as well as neuroticism and
stability. (Eysenck, 1990, 1992; Eysenck & Eysenck, 1963).
Those with a high level of extrovert traits are friendly and outgoing, and
easily connect with others, whereas those with a high level of introversion
want to be by themselves, engage in solitary activities, and limit their
personal interactions. High neuroticism or stability tends to make people
anxious. Their sympathetic nervous system is overactive, and their bodies
and emotions move toward flight or fight even without stress.
A third dimension was later added by the Eysencks: psychoticism versus
superego control (Eysenck, Eysenck & Barrett, 1985). Persons who are
high on psychoticism are more independent thinkers, cold,
nonconformists, impulsive, antisocial, and hostile, whereas people who are
high on superego control are more altruistic, sympathetic, cooperative, and
conventional.
Additional Personality Tests
Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory
A widely used psychological test in the world is the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality
Inventory (MMPI).
The test was developed by clinical psychologist Starke Hathaway and neuropsychiatrist J.C.
McKinley, two faculty members at the University of Minnesota. The tool was created so that
37
mental health professionals could diagnose mental disorders.
Several updates have been made to the test since its publication in 1943, to remove racial and
gender bias and to make it more accurate. More than 40 countries use the updated MMPI-2
test.
How does the MMPI-2 work?
MMPI-2 asks 567 true or false questions about your behaviour. You can
provide your answers to help mental health professionals determine whether
you suffer from a mental illness. In most cases, the MMPI-2 takes 60 to 90
minutes to finish. There are 338 questions on the MMPI-2 Restructured Form
(RF), a shorter version of the test. It usually takes people between 35 and 50
minutes to complete this shortened version. Another version of the test has
also been designed for adolescents between the ages of 14 and 18. In this test,
called the MMPI-A, there are 478 questions. It takes about an hour to
complete. Teenagers can also take a shorter version of the test called the
MMPI-A-RF..
The 10 MMPI clinical scales are:
Scale 1: Hypochondriasis
Scale 2: Depression
Scale3: Hysteria
Scale 4: psychopathic deviate
Scale 5: masculinity/femininity
Scale 6: Paranoia
Scale 7: Psychasthenia
38
Scale 8: Schizophrenia
Scale 9: Hypomania
Scale 10: social introversion
Big Five Personality Test
A model based on the Big Five Personality Traits was devised in the late
1950s by a group of independent researchers. It was not until the 1990s that
the model we know today began to emerge.
It has long been considered to be an accurate personality scale used by
businesses and psychologists, thanks in part to Lewis Goldberg, a researcher at
the Oregon Research Institute.
The Big Five Personality Traits Model measures five key dimensions of
people's personalities:
i. Openness
Often called "Imagination" or "Intellect," this is a measure of your level of creativity, as well
as your desire to learn new things.
ii. Conscientiousness
As you live and work, this factor looks at how much care you take. A conscientious person is
likely to be organized and thorough, and to know how to plan and execute. Low scores
indicate laxity and disorganization.
iii. Extraversion/Introversion
You can measure your level of sociability with this dimension. What is your personality like,
39
for instance? Is it easy for you to communicate with other people or does it take a lot of
energy to draw energy from a crowd?
iv. Agreeableness
People's ability to get along with you is measured here. Do you show consideration,
helpfulness, and a willingness to compromise?
v. Natural Reactions
A measure of emotional reactions and stability, it is also called "neuroticism.". What is your
reaction to bad news? Are you upset or calm? How relaxed are you in stressful
circumstances? Are you obsessive about the smallest details?
Myers & Briggs
The Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI) is a self-report questionnaire designed to
determine how people perceive the world and make decisions based on their psychological
preferences. According to Isabel Myers and Katherine Briggs, the questionnaire was
developed by using Carl Jung's theory of personality types. In most tests, four categories are
assigned: introversion or extraversion, intuition or sensing, thinking or feeling, and judging or
perceiving. The four-letter test result is derived by taking one letter from each category, such
as "INFJ" or "ENFP".
People are classified into one of 16 personality types based on the responses to
the questions on the inventory. With the MBTI, respondents can better
understand their own personality, including preferential interests, dislikes,
strengths, weaknesses, and relationships.
Although the MBTI is based on psychological theories, it has been criticized as
40
pseudoscience and has not been widely endorsed by academic research in the field. This
indicator has significant scientific (psychometric) deficiencies, particularly: Poor validity (i.e.
not measuring what it purports to measure, not having predictive power, and items not
generalizable), Poor reliability (giving different results for the same person from time to
time), not being independent in measuring categories (some dichotomous traits are
correlated) and not being comprehensive (missing neuroticism)
NEO-FFI
This brief, comprehensive personality model has 60 items, and measures the five domains of
personality. The scales measure each domain and consist of five 12-point scales. Because the
scales are shortened, no information is provided on particular facets within the domains, and
they are not as reliable and valid as the full NEO-PI-3 scales.
The scale is available in two separate versions, one for adults and one for
adolescents.
NEO inventories consist of descriptive statements (e.g., "I am not a worrier," "I like people
very much") rated on a 5-point Likert scale (1 being strongly opposed, 5 being strongly in
agreement). There are five domains measured by the test. The 12 items are added together to
calculate the domain scores. There are 28 NEO FFI items that are reverse-worded
The test measures 5 domains:
i. Neuroticism
ii. Extraversion
iii. Openness
iv. Agreeableness
v. Conscientiousness
41
Eysenck Theory of Personality
Eyesenck's theory of personality is based on biological factors: individuals inherit a
form of nervous system that affects their ability to learn and adapt to the environment,
which are reflected in the physiological, neurological, and biochemical structure of
the individual. Genetics, he believed, has a large impact on temperament. He
described Extraversion and Neuroticism as the two primary dimensions of personality.
Psychoticism is another factor he added to the PEN model later on.
Psychoticism-Normality
Individuals with high psychoticism scores are said to engage in antisocial behaviors,
impulsiveness, and nonconformism. Motivated by immediate gratification, they act without
taking their actions into consideration. Rewards and punishments do not help them learn.
These individuals, according to the theory, are more prone to criminal behavior since they
only seek to pursue their own personal interests without regard for the rules and accepted
behavior. Their creativity and deep thinking also tend to make them stand out. You can be
high in psychoticism without being psychotic or doomed to become one-- just an indication
that you have some qualities in common with psychotics, and may be susceptible to
developing them under certain conditions. Low psychotics tend to have a high impulse
control, and are more altruistic, empathetic, cooperative, and conventional.
Extraversion-introversion
The characteristics of an extrovert include being outgoing, sociable, and easily making
friends. When they're around other people, they get energised. A person with more or less of
42
this trait can be found; it is a continuum. Introverts are considered to have a lower level of
extraversion. Introverts usually feel uncomfortable when they're a center of attention in large
groups of people. In large crowds, they get drained. The company of their own makes them
feel comfortable and content.
According to Eyesenck, the balance between inhibition and excitement is what determines
extraversion and introversion in the brain. When the brain is excited, it is waking itself up and
becoming alert and learning. A brain that inhibits itself is calming down, either to relax and
sleep or to protect itself from overstimulation. He hypothesized that someone who is
extraverted has strong inhibition. In contrast, the introvert lacks strong inhibition.
Neuroticism-Emotional Stability
In his research, Eysenck identified a dimension of nervousness that ranges from calm,
collected people to those that are relatively "nervous." These nervous people commonly
suffer from the kinds of disorders we call neuroses, hence Eysenck's name. However, he
wasn't saying that people who score high on the neuroticism scale are necessarily neurotic --
only that they are more prone to having neurotic problems. People with a high level of
stability require more stimulation to activate their flight-or-fight response, so they can be
considered emotionally stable. Neuroticism is a personality trait characterized by the degree
to which the person feels that the world is distressing and unsafe. Stress and anxiety are high
among them. Stress and dissatisfaction are the main concerns of this factor. Almost
everything around them is under their control, and they strive for perfection. As opposed to
those who score high on neuroticism, people who score low on neuroticism tend to be more
emotionally stable, and they are more likely to be happy and confident.
43
Relevant Researches
Study of the Relationship between happiness and dimensions of Psychosis, Neurosis and
Personality Extraversion.
The pursuit of human satisfaction hinges on people and their appraisals, and
everyone strives to reach it. Happiness is related to some cognitive or
intellectual personalities of people, such as seeing the positive side of things.
According to research, extraversion relates positively to happiness, while
OCD negatively affects it. There is no connection between psychosis and
schizophrenia. The goal of the study was to examine how happiness relates to
each of the three personality factors. Students made up the study population,
with a sample size of about 150 students in a descriptive study. Psychoticism,
extraversion, neuroticism, and psychological dissociation are all measures in
the Eysenck Personality Questionnaire developed by Eysenck and Barrett
(1985). Rgyl and Lu (1989) created a list of 29 statements to measure
happiness. There are eight positive psychological factors, including social
commitment, happiness, feeling in control, physical health, satisfaction, and
self-consciousness.
Findings and conclusions
Relationship between happiness and eccentricity was revealed to be positive
and significant. (R = ./47) significance level of P = ./001. Mental thought was
also significantly related to either happiness or suffering in a negative and
significant way. (r = -./56). Relationship between happiness and personality
psychosis was not significant. (r = ./43 p = ./247). According to the Results,
extraversion is associated with increased happiness and flowers have an
44
inverse relationship with happiness (Sousan Salary, 2013).
Use of the Eysenck Personality Questionnaire in China
Researchers administered the Eysenck Personality Questionnaire (EPQ) to
6,418 participants across 13 provinces of China, including 2,517 adults, aged
7–25 years old, with a variety of education levels and occupations, and 3,901
schoolchildren. EC Dimitriou and SB Eysenck (1978), with their study of
Greek and English samples, compared the results of this experimental study to
the results of that study. Cross-cultural variation in personality traits is evident
in this questionnaire: Items suggestive of prepsychotic traits were more
commonly affirmed by Chinese and Greek students than by English students;
the English and Greeks were more extraverted than the Chinese; the Greeks
were more neurotic and emotionally labile than the English and the Chinese;
and the Chinese and Greeks had higher Lie scale scores than the English. In
order to develop a culturally appropriate version of the EPQ, 1,000 adults and
1,000 students were chosen from the original 6,418 students for a
standardization sample. It is concluded that the EPQ measures 3 dimensions of
personality; that many of its items are cross-culturally valid; and that it has
several clinical applications in addition to its value as a research tool (Gong,
1983).
45
Relationship between Eysenck’s Personality Questionnaire and Internet use.
Psychoticism, extroversion, and neuroticism were investigated and their
relationship to Internet usage as Eysenck Ian personality dimensions. Four
hundred and twenty-seven Turkish university students completed the
Eysenck's Personality Questionnaire, an Internet survey which contained
questions on interpersonal motives for Internet usage and a scale for
measuring the tendency to express one's "true" self on the Internet. Psychotic
tendencies were only associated with establishing new relationships and
having "internet only" friends, and extroversion was the only personality
dimension associated with maintaining long-distance relationships, and
helping maintain daily face-to-face relationships. The results supported the
idea that for some individuals, the Internet may act as a substitute for
face-to-face social interactions, while for others it might serve as an extension
of social activities. A study also found that psychoticism and neuroticism were
positively correlated with the tendency to express one's true self on the
Internet, and that this relationship was mediated by the tendency to express
one's true self on the Internet (Leman Pinar Tosun, 2010).
The relation between Eysenck’s Personality Traits, Coping styles and Moods.
The purpose of this study was to examine the effect of Eysenck's personality
traits on coping styles and moods, as well as the effect of coping styles on
moods. To assess a sample of 177 subjects, the Eysenck Personality
Questionnaire (EPQ), the Coping Orientation to Problems Experienced
46
(COPE) and a mood scale were administered. Results obtained from the
research indicate that Eysenck's personality traits have direct effects on
positive and negative moods, while they have much less of an impact on
coping styles under stressful situations. Coping styles, especially avoidance
and problem-focused, contribute to the emotional outcomes directly and
indirectly, mediating the effects of Eysenck's personality traits on moods (Igor
Kardum, 1996).
Eysenck Personality Questionnaire scores of Heroin addicts in India.
During this study, four male heroin addicts got treatment at the AIDMS De-addiction Clinic
between January 1988 and December 1988, as well as at the Sanjivni De-addiction Clinic on
July 6, 1989. Psychoticism, neuroticism, extroversion, and introversion are some of the traits
assessed by Eysenck's Personality Questionnaire. There was also a lie scale included. In
addition to being easily administered, self-reporting measures can be presumed to be reliable
and valid. Those with psychiatric disorders present or a history of such disorders were
excluded from the study. We used the ICD-9 (WHO) for diagnosis. In this study, polydrug
abuse was not considered. The use of heroin was allowed along with the smoking of tobacco.
Using standardized norms of normal adults (Eysenck & Eysenck, 1975) and 50 normal
controls (Das, 1986), patient scores were compared. Comparing EPQ scores between the
patient and control groups. Normative data are also provided. There were very high
significant 't' values for all the tests. According to Eysenck (1975), heroin addicts score
relatively high on psychoticism, neuroticism, and lie scale, while scoring low on
extroversion. This study aims to test the effectiveness of the Eysenck Personality
Questionnaire, and to learn about personality characteristics and other factors that predispose
individuals to heroin addiction in Indians (G. Sahasi, 1990).
47
Applications of Personality Assessment
The purpose of a personality test is to assess a person's personality. The use of personality
tests can help clarify diagnoses, guide therapeutic interventions, and help predict how people
will react to different situations. There are several different purposes for administering
personality tests, including:
· Assessing theories
· Evaluating the effectiveness of therapy
· Diagnosing psychological problems
· Looking at changes in personality
· Screening job candidates
Additionally, personality tests are sometimes used in forensic settings to conduct risk
assessments, determine competence, and settle custody disputes. Psychological tests are also
used in school psychology, career and occupational counseling, relationship counseling,
clinical psychology, and employment testing.
Factors Determining Personality
A person's personality can be classified into five broad categories:
· Biological Factors
· Cultural Factors
· Family Factors
· Social Factors
· Situational Factors
48
Biological Factors
Under three headings can be studied the biological contributions to personality:
a) Heredity
During conception, hereditary factors are established. Inherent characteristics from one's
parents include physical stature, facial attractiveness, sex, temperament, muscle composition
and reflexes, energy level, and biological rhythms. A person's personality is ultimately
determined by the genes within their chromosomes, as explained by the heredity theory.
b) Brain
A second biological approach examines the role of the brain in determining personality.
However, psychologists have yet to demonstrate empirically how the brain affects
personality. Electrical stimulation of the brain (ESB) research suggests that it might be
possible to learn more about human personality and behavior from studying the brain.
c) Biofeedback
Psychologists and physiologists believed that certain biological functions could not be
controlled by conscious means, such as brainwave patterns, hormonal secretions, blood
pressure fluctuations, and skin temperature, until recently. Despite this, some scientists
believe that these involuntary functions can be consciously controlled through biofeedback
techniques.
d) Physical Features
One of the most vital components of personality is an individual's external appearance.
Cultural Factors
Culture plays an important role in forming the personality, as do early conditioning,
49
prevailing norms in the family, among friends, and in social groups, as well as other
miscellaneous experiences. The culture heavily influences human behaviour, including
attitudes towards independence, aggression, competition, and cooperation. As Paul H Mussen
says, "where cultures overlap, people behave in ways that are acceptable to them.". "The
child's cultural group determines to a significant degree what experiences and situations he is
likely to encounter, as well as the values and characteristics that will be reinforced and,
therefore, learned."
Family Factors
Early personality development is probably most affected by the family. A substantial amount
of empirical evidence indicates that a parent's overall home environment is key to the
development of a child's personality, in addition to their direct influence. Parents play a
particularly important role in the identification process, which has a direct effect on the
person's early development. Three perspectives can be considered when analyzing the
process, according to Mischel. A child and a model might exhibit similar behavior, including
feelings and attitudes. Children's identification can be viewed as their motives or desires to
emulate their models. In other words, it refers to the process of acquiring the traits of the
model through a child.
Social Factors
The process of socialization occurs when individuals acquire a wide range of possibilities
through synthesis and absorption of the enormous spectrum of behavioural possibilities
available to them. An infant's socialization begins with their initial contact with their mother.
The other members of the immediate family - father, brothers, sisters, and close relatives or
friends - play an increasingly important role after infancy, followed by the social group:
50
peers, school friends, and members of the work group. In organizational behavior,
socialization is of particular significance since it occurs throughout a person's life rather than
only during early childhood.
Situational Factors
In addition to situational factors, human personalities are also influenced by them. The
environment has quite a strong effect on us. Language, skill, and knowledge are obviously
acquired and lead to important alterations in behavior. A person's personality, though
generally stable and consistent, changes depending on their situation. People respond to the
varying demands of different situations in different ways. Milgram argues that "situation
exerts an important pressure on the individual." It provides a push and exercises constraints.
Sometimes, a man's actions are determined by his position in society, and not by the kind of
person he is. Thus, personality patterns should not be viewed in isolation.
Description of the test
In the book titled "psychoticism," the final EPQ version is detailed in great detail. Eysenck
developed this dimension of personality in 1975. According to the design of the test, 3
important dimensions were measured in rough and ready form. Responses to the statements
are either "yes" or "no," and the respondent has to choose the answer that is appropriate for
them. A total of 90 items are used for each trait (including a lie scale).
Nature of the lie score
Fake personality questionnaires are common. There is a possibility that the subject
may lie or give misleading answers in personality tests. As part of a psychological
evaluation, lie scale items are included to show whether or not the respondent has
51
been truthful elsewhere. The results are invalid if the lie score for males is 7 and
above, and 8 for females (raw score).
Domains
Neuroticism
Psychologists measure neuroticism by measuring a person's sympathetic
nervous system reactivity. People who are stable usually remain calm,
level-headed, and unreactive to stressful situations. On the other hand, a
person who is strongly influenced by neuroticism will be unstable, easily
influenced by stimuli, and likely to overreact. Once upset, they have trouble
calming down. Stress is a triggering factor for the ANS of neurotic
individuals.
Psychoticism
People with psychotic characteristics are aggressive and abrasive. In Eysenck's view, high
levels of this trait were associated with a greater risk of developing psychosis, such as
schizophrenia. Psychoticism also correlates with other hostility and tough-mindedness scales,
as well as traits such as non-acceptance of cultural norms, immaturity, and
anti-authoritarianism. Psychopaths score higher on psychoticism than normal individuals.
The idea that Eysenck described as his psychoticism scale is reinforced by this.
Extraversion
Extraverted individuals tend to be more friendly, inquisitive, highly impulsive,
and have a high social network. They are also socially active and like to be in
groups.
52
Norms
As a result of factors such as intercorrelations and other such aspects, the observed scores
distribution may differ when a different set of items is used. For 2312 male and 3262 female
subjects, scores are available. Raw scores are converted to STEN scores, followed by cents.
An STEN score of 7-10 indicates gradual increases in the factor's strength. A score of 5-6
indicates average strength. Gradual decrement of strength is indicated by scores 1-4
Validity
Psychotic patients and prisoners have the highest P scores. Individuals with personality
disorders, alcoholism, drug addiction, and sex issues are at an elevated risk. Despite their
higher than normal P scores, endogenous depressives score much lower than the other
groups. There is a marked introversion in psychiatric groups.
Psychological groups and criminals have higher N scores, especially neurotics and
personality disorders. An elevated lie score suggests that the P and N scores would
have been higher if they had not dissimulated.
L scores are not much affected by L scores of all groups, but N and P scores tend to
be.
Reliability
Subjects were retested with an interval of one month, long enough for them to forget their
original answers, but not long enough for them to develop any serious personality changes.
The results were quite favorable, with reliability generally in the 80-90 range.
An indicator of consistency reliabilities is the amount of coverage a given set of
questions has. Neither too low nor too high should be acceptable. There are no
significant differences in coefficients observed, while the most significant differences
53
are observed in P scale reliability below 80.
Demographic Details of my Participant:’
Name: S. S.
Age: 22
Gender: Male
54
Case History of my Participant:
Born and raised in Jeddah, Saudi Arabia. Visited his hometown of Hyderabad, India every
two years during school vacation and temporarily moved there for internship after completion
of ACCA studies.
His parents have good relations with him and he had a good childhood. After completing his
education, he decided to become an accountant. Over the years, he has had internships at 3
different firms as a junior sales associate, and now is joining a large accounting firm as an
accountant. No history of mental illness or medical problems can be found. A friend
introduced him to poetry and films. It is no surprise that he is quite active in the arts. Besides
that, he has a passion for cooking. The recipes he gets from social media or online elsewhere
are the ones he likes to try with family and friends. Since birth, he has been living in the same
house. Being a full-time employee is making it a little harder for him to manage time,
because he views it as more serious than doing an internship. But he still has enough time for
his friends and family. As an older brother who is responsible, he tries his best to provide his
younger brother with the many different things he considers important.
He takes a step back whenever he faces a setback and then looks at things in a bigger context.
If a stressful situation arises, he takes time to calm himself and reflect. It is not often that he
asks for help, as he attempts to be prepared for any setback that may occur. As opposed to
dwelling on the issue, he focuses on the solution.
In the social setting, the participant is comfortable. When he can be of help to others, he will
volunteer without a second thought. He avoids getting too close to an excessive number of
people and only keeps a small circle of close friends. As for future goals, he is determined.
For him, the key to coping effectively is to develop more resilience over time.
His school life has been average, he made a number of friends and he spent a lot of time with
them. Following completion of 10th grade, he joined ACCA. The participant has been
involved in a few casual relationships. Participant has always been friendly and outgoing, and
enjoys social situations with strangers.
Recently, the participant has been feeling on edge and annoyed and is not feeling like
himself.
been bothering him how quick he has been to it lately.
Present routine:
i. 8:00am – Awaken and have

breakfast
ii. 8:30am – Go to work
55
iii. 12:00pm – Lunch
iv. 6:30pm – Comes home
v. 9-11:30pm – Hang out with

friends
vi. 12am – Sleeps
Scoring and interpretation
The EPQ-R contains 90 items on a binary scale.
The following table shows the scores of the response selected:
DIMENSION MODE OF ITEMS S
RESPONSE C
NO NIL
NEUROTICISM
YES 3,7,12, 15, 19, 23, 27,
1
31, 34, 37, 38, 41, 47,
54, 58, 62, 66, 68, 72,
75, 77, 80, 84, 88
56
NO 2, 6, 9, 11, 18, 53, 57,
61, 71, 90
PSYCHOTICI 1
SM
YES 22, 26, 30, 33, 43, 46,
50, 65, 67, 74, 76, 79,
83, 87
NO 21,29, 42
EXTRAVERSI
ON YES 1, 5, 10, 14, 17, 25, 32,

1
36, 40, 45, 49, 52, 56,
60, 64, 70, 82, 86
NO 4, 8, 16, 24, 28, 39, 44,
48, 51, 59, 63, 69, 73,

LIE SCALE
81, 85
1
YES 13, 20, 35, 55, 78, 89
For the interpretation of the scores, the raw scores are converted into Sten scores. The
following table shows the conversion of raw scores into sten scores for both male and
female participants.
57
Raw Scores to Sten Scores (Females)
STEN Psychoticism Extraversion Neuroticism Lie Score
Score
-
1 1-2 1-2 -
-
2 3-5 3-4 1
-
3 6-7 5-7 2-3
4 1 8-10 8-10 4-5
5 2 11-12 11-12 6-7
6 3 13-15 13-15 8-9
7 4 16-17 16-17 10-11
8 5-6 18-19 18-20 12-13
9 7 20-21 21-23 14-16
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10 8-25 - - 17-21
Raw Scores to Sten Scores (Males)
STEN Score Psychoticism Extraversion Neuroticism Lie Score
-
1 1-4 - -
-
2 5-6 1-2 -
-
3 7-8 3-4 1-2
4 1-2 9-11 5-7 3-4
5 3 12-13 8-9 5-6
6 4-5 14-16 10-12 7-8
7 6-7 17-18 13-14 9-10
8 8 19-20 15-17 11-13
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9 9-10 21 18-19 14-15
10 11-25 - 20-23
Interpretation
Whenever a factor has a score of 5-6, it means it has an average strength, when it has a score
of 7-10, it indicates there is an increasing strength, and when it has a score of 1-4, it indicates
a decreasing strength.
Material Required:
➔ Manual of EPQ-R
➔ Pen
➔ Pencil
➔ Eraser
➔ Learned Optimism Scale Questionnaire
➔ Scoring Key
Arrangement of the material
The participant was brought to the lab and seated comfortably. A comfortable
temperature and good lighting characterized the room. Noise was kept to a minimum
in the room. Afterwards, the participant was provided with all the materials needed,
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including a response sheet, pencil, and eraser. The instructions were all given orally to
the participants.
Precautions
➔ There should be good lighting and no noise in the room.
➔ Rooms should have a comfortable temperature.
➔ The environment must be distraction-free.
➔ Stationery and response sheets should be provided.
➔ Before testing, the actual purpose of the test should not be disclosed.
➔ Prior exposure to the material is not allowed.
➔ Answers should be provided to all items.
Instructions to the subject
The participant was given the following instructions;
For each question, please mark (x) in the box below "Yes" or "No". It is impossible to
answer the trick questions or give the wrong answer. Do not spend too much time
thinking about the exact meaning of the question.
Conduction
A lab was used for the experiment. The subject was seated comfortably in the lab. In
the beginning, a rapport was built by asking general questions such as, "How was
your day?"?After that, he received the EPQ-R questionnaire and instructions orally.
Observations of nonverbal behavior were made during the subject's take-home test,
while the subject took the test.
The participant was asked to provide a retrospective report, and then he was thanked
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for his participation.
Observations
It was a casually dressed individual, well groomed, and the surroundings were hygienic.
Approaching the situation calmly and cooperatively, he displayed great poise. In spite of his
apprehension and slight shift in position, no unusual movements or psychomotor changes
were observed. His speech rate is normal. There was a moderate level of volume and tone in
his voice. During this time, he was oriented to time, place, people, and himself, and was in
euthymic mood
Discussion
Using the EPQ, three dimensions of personality namely neuroticism, psychoticism, and
extraversion were measured. There are 90 items in total with two response options: yes or no.
There are three domains that are included in the items: Extroversion, Psychoticism, and
Neuroticism. In addition to this a lie scale is also included. Participants provided verbal
consent, and the questionnaire was given to them. During the interview, we discussed the
case history and built a rapport. Following those instructions, a questionnaire was provided to
the participant. After the responses were noted, scores were calculated using the manual.
From the scoring and interpretation, it was found that the participant scored High in the
domain of Neuroticism with a raw score of 17 and sten score of 8.
The participant scored Average in the Extraversion with a raw score of 12 and Sten score of
5 respectively. The participant scored Low in the Psychoticism domain with a raw score of 1
and Sten score of 4 respectively.
The participant scored Low in the Lie scale with a raw score of 4 and Sten score of 4
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respectively.
Case history findings fully support EPQ-R findings and justify scores. Low scores on the lie
scale suggest the participant addressed the question honestly and genuinely without lying or
faking. Therefore, participants' scores and responses are more valid as a result. Considering
the participant's overall performance, he is doing great in other domains but faces problems
with neuroticism. In light of these factors, he appears to be stressed and he should be seen by
a mental health professional.
There are 90 items in the Eysenck's Personality Questionnaire - Revised Version, which are
divided into 3 domains and a fourth "lie scale".
The domains are:
Psychoticism:
Psychoticism can be defined as the behavior of being aggressive and hostile toward other
people. According to Eysenck, high levels of this characteristic are associated with psychosis,
such as schizophrenia. The psychoticism scale also has substantial associations with
characteristics such as nonacceptance of cultural norms, immaturity, and antiauthoritarianism.
For males, a raw score of 1 for psychoticism corresponds to a Sten score of 4 in the domain
of psychoticism. Psychoticism is likely to be weaker with this subject. People with low
psychoticism are more sensitive. The needs and feelings of other people are more apparent to
a person with a low psychoticism degree. Their emotional state is more balanced, and they
empathise and connect with others better than they do with themselves. It doesn't matter what
they appear like, they can only control their outbursts.
In spite of impulses and wants, they are able to delay fulfillment without feeling empty or
deprived. This can be seen in both the subject's case history and the key personality qualities
of always helping and taking charge.
63
Neuroticism:
Stress can manifest itself in a number of ways, such as anxiety or ease, mental and emotional
security, or stress reaction. On the male normal table, the individual received a score of 17 in
the domain of neuroticism, corresponding to an 8 on the Sten scale. A higher level of
neuroticism is implied here. Those with a high level of neuroticism tend to be more stressed
and worried than others. A tendency to get sucked into minor details is common among these
people who take things extremely seriously. As a result, they put a lot of effort into getting
even the smallest details right, and they might become angry or anxious if the plans fail.
Extraversion:
Those who are extraverts tend to seek satisfaction outside of themselves. An extrovert is
warm, positive, gregarious, and eager for fun and excitement. The participant scored an
average on this domain with a raw score of 12 and a sten score of 5, which is in accordance
with the case history, given that the participant has started working at a new place, and this
being his first job, it could go higher if he becomes well acquainted with those he works with.
Lie scale:
Lie scales are a type of "honesty indicator" that is included in certain psychological
inventories or measurements. This test aims to identify people who attempt to avoid giving
honest, open answers to the psychological scales. As reported in the male norm table, the
subject scored 4 on the lie scale, which corresponds to a Sten score of 4 on the lie scale.
Therefore, the majority of the scale's items were answered honestly, indicating the test is
genuine.
Recommendations:
64
Scores from the questionnaire indicate the subject is relatively high on neuroticism and
extraverted, with a low level of psychoticism. To reduce anxiety and stress, the subject should
practice meditation and deep breathing exercises daily. Also, whenever an individual takes on
an initiative or task, he should keep himself in mind.
Conclusion/Summary:
We used EPQ to measure three dimensions of personality, namely extroversion, neuroticism,

and psychoticism. The test consists of 90 items with Yes/No response options. Three domains
are used in these items, namely Extraversion, Psychoticism and Neuroticism. A lie scale is
included in addition to this.
From the scoring and interpretation, it was found that the participant scored High in the
domain of Neuroticism with a raw score of 17 and sten score of 8.
The participant scored Average in the Extraversion with a raw score of 12 and Sten score of
5 respectively. The participant scored Low in the Psychoticism domain with a raw score of 1
and Sten score of 4 respectively.
The participant scored Low in the Lie scale with a raw score of 4 and Sten score of 4
respectively.
References:
The role of violent cognition in the relationship between personality and the
involvement in violent films and computer games. (2006, July 1). ScienceDirect.
https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S019188690600092
SAPA Project | Eysenck Personality Questionnaire ®. (n.d.). EPQ.
https://www.sapaproject.org/blogs/EysenckPersonalityQuestionnaire.html
Personality assessment - Projective techniques. (n.d.). Encyclopedia Britannica.
https://www.britannica.com/science/personality-assessment/Projective-techniques
Fu, Y.-X., Hou, X., Jia, L., Qiu, T., Qin, Q., Meng, H.-Q., Huang, Y., Ma, X., Deng,
65
W., Luo, Q.-H., Wang, Y.-C., Hu, H., Du, L., Qiu, H.-A., Xie, P., & Li, T. (2013).
Study of family environmental factor on only children’s personality. Health, 05(03),
567–573. https://doi.org/10.4236/health.2013.53a075
Mondal, S. L. I. D. E. S. H. A. R. E. (2017, July 9). Personality. Slideshare.
https://www.slideshare.net/bhimsttc/personality77667961#:%7E:text=Definitions%20
%EF%82%97%20J.B.,reliable%20information.%E2%80%9D%20%
EF%82%97%20M.
Ortner, T. M. (2018). Behavioral and Performance Measures of Personality.
SpringerLink.https://link.springer.com/ Binger, S. L. I. D. E. S. H. A. R. E. (2014,
November 26).
HansEysenckTheoryOfPersonality.Slideshare.https://www.slideshare.net/tamibinger/h
ans-eysenck-theory-ofpersonality#:%7E:text=Hans%20J.,these%20behavior%2Dpatt
erns%20are%20organized.
Zaveri, S. (2016, November 5). Personality: Methods of Personality Assessment.
Psychology DiscussionDiscuss Anything About Psychology.
https://www.psychologydiscussion.net/notes/psychologynotes/personality-psychology
-notes/personality-methods-of-personalityassessment/2601#:%7E:text=1.,%2C%20ai
ms%2C%20needs%20and%20interests
Appendix:
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67
68
69
70
AIBAS
Title: Multidimensional Aptitude Battery II (MAB-II)
INDEX
Sr. Topic
No.
Introduction- 75
1
2 Relevant Researches- 79
3 Methodology- 84
Demographic details- 97
4 Scoring and interpretation- 90

Interpretation, procedure- 92
5 Observation and Discussion- 99

Recommendation and Conclusion- 101
6 References- 102
71
72
MULTIDIMENSIONAL APTITUDE BATTERY-II

(Indian Adaptation)
th
The following document is the second practical report for the 4 semester.

Clinical Psychology

73
MULTIDIMENSIONAL APTITUDE BATTERY-II (Indian Adaptation)
Purpose of the test
To measure the ‘Verbal Aptitude’ of an individual between the age 16-24 years using the
Multidimensional Aptitude Battery – II (Indian Adaptation).
Introduction
Definitions of Aptitude:
According to Traxler (1957), “Aptitude is defined as a condition, quality or a set of qualities
in an individual which is suggestive of the probable extent to which he will be able to acquire
under suitable training, some knowledge, skills or composite of knowledge, understanding
and skill, such as ability to contribute to art or music, mechanical ability, mathematical ability
or to read and speak a foreign language etc.”
According to Han and McClean (1995), “Aptitude is defined as the latent potentialities,
undeveloped capacities to acquire abilities and skills and to demonstrate achievements.”
According to Freeman (1995), “Aptitude is defined as a combination of characteristics which
connotes an individual’s capacity to acquire (with training) some specific knowledge, skill, or
set of organized responses, such as ability to speak a language, to become a musician, to do
mechanical work, teaching etc.”
An aptitude is a measure of a specific aspect of a person's ability or functioning in a restricted
range, unlike an ability or an interest. In part, aptitude is an innate or inborn aptitude for
74
attaining certain skills through training and knowledge. It also depends on the individual's
knowledge and the training he or she receives. Aptitude can either be physical or mental in
nature. Trying to say that an individual has verbal ability does not necessarily imply that they
have that ability in all facets, such as reasoning verbally, sentence forming abilities, musical
abilities, etc. Individuals with only a few aspects of verbal ability will most often be skilled at
those aspects, or they will exhibit aptitude in only a few aspects of verbal ability.
Types of Aptitude tests
An aptitude test analyzes what an individual is capable of doing or predicts what an
individual is capable of learning. The most commonly used aptitude tests are:
Abstract Reasoning Test
A candidate's ability to think laterally and from a new perspective is tested by tests that
measure abstract reasoning. These tests measure an individual's ability to create logical
connections between the available sets of information. A high level of abstract reasoning
is expounded to ability and helps solve novel issues. Since they will methodically use
ambiguous information, people with strong abstract reasoning skills can easily learn new
skills.
Spatial Reasoning test
The ability to comprehend and visualize two-dimensional and three-dimensional patterns and
shapes is known as spatial reasoning. People who are able to simply perceive the movement
and distribution of an object are identified by spatial reasoning tests.
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Verbal Ability test
This sort of power aptitude evaluates how well an individual will use words. One of the
most important aspects of good communication is great command of language. An
analysis of language and comprehension can be used to determine whether candidates are
job-ready and how well they can perform their job duties.
Logical and critical Reasoning test
These tests help evaluate the candidates on their logic inference regardless of the duty roles.
It’s regarding drawing sensible conclusions based on given information and statements.
Applying logic to a variety of business situations is crucial in our everyday lives. In the same
way, critical thinking involves validating presuppositions and assumptions through
comprehensive judgment and judgmental approaches.
Visual Reasoning check
Individuals’ visual reasoning skills are directly associated with their intelligence. It's
about creating a mental image of an object to reach a conclusion. Designing technology
also requires visual reasoning. Thus, a visual reasoning test is useful for evaluating
non-verbal skills.
Problem-Solving abilities test
The explicit test assesses how an individual effectively analyzes every detail of a scenario
and comes up with a viable solution. By measuring this, you can assess his/her aptitude for
coping with a tangle. There are four basic steps to problem-solving: define the problem,
generate available options, evaluate the options, and implement solutions.
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Importance of Aptitude Testing
The purpose of aptitude tests is to understand and recognize the learner's capabilities. It also
reveals their greatest strengths and weaknesses. Getting a sense of what career to choose
depends on your abilities and weaknesses gives you a sense of what you're capable of. Internet
and e-learning developments have made access to standardized aptitude testing easier. As
businesses look for new workers with unique skills, aptitude tests are increasingly used. As a
screening tool, they are used to identify top-notch applicants. The content of an aptitude test is
particularly important in an industry such as innovation. Candidates are evaluated on their
skills, knowledge, and abilities. Using aptitude tests is an effective way of determining the
likelihood of success for a candidate in the workplace. In some cases, it might be difficult for
an employer to evaluate the candidate's capabilities from an interview alone; therefore, an
aptitude test gives the employer more insight into their capabilities.
Scope of Aptitude Testing
For secondary school students, these exams are helpful in selecting science, arts, and
commerce classes.
● They are widely used to assist students in choosing their future career, such as
joining the Army, the Air Force, or the Military.
● Sometimes they are utilized in selecting candidates in colleges and technical
institutions for admission.
● Their use is highly helpful in predicting a person's future career and academic
success.
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History and development of MAB – II
Canadian psychologist Douglas Jackson created the Multidimensional Aptitude Battery II
(MAB-II) in the 1980s to measure cognitive ability. Based on preliminary findings of
reliability and validity from studies involving 500+ individuals between the ages of 15-20, it is
a reliable test of fundamental intellectual functioning. It was derived from a 1984 study by Dr
Jackson and Timothy Hill that the comprehension, similarity, alphabet, and spatial subscales
could accurately reflect the results of the entire assessment. Several items were changed in
1995 to improve the MAB's social component and its subscale validity. This test was created in
1995 and is currently the most recent version. It consists of 10 seven-minute sub-assessments
that are divided into Verbal and Performance domains. This subassessment includes
information, comprehension, arithmetic, similarities, and vocabulary. Among the batteries in
the Performance battery are Digit Symbol, Picture Completion, Spatial, Picture Arrangement,
and Object Assembly. With SigmaSoft MAB-II software, individuals or groups can be tested
on-site or off-site. In addition to the entire battery, the Short Form usually takes about 35
minutes.
Relevant research articles
Attitude vs Aptitude: Is Intelligence or Motivation More Important for Positive Higher
Educational Outcomes? (Côté et al., 2000)
An exploration of the relationship between student input and environmental throughput
variables in predicting academic achievement and human capital skills acquisition took
place at a Canadian university. Self-management skills, self-assessment skills, and
technical skills were measured in the study. Grades were also used to measure academic
78
achievement along with these aspects. The research question of this study explored
whether intelligence or motivation is more important for positive educational outcomes.
The results indicate that IQ does not contribute to positive educational outcomes, but
rather is a liability. As opposed to intelligence, motivation was the best predictor of
positive educational outcomes. Furthermore, it was found that students with high
intelligence experience less positive outcomes and experiences. In contrast to those with
high intelligence, participants with average intelligence found the best fit.
How the Aptitude of Workers Affects Construction Labour Productivity
An objective of this study was to establish a link between employee aptitude and
performance in construction jobs. In other words, to determine if aptitudes and
productivity are similar. An aptitude test battery was used to assess the workers' aptitude.
Using direct observation as they worked at construction sites, the productivity of these
workers was measured. A correlation between aptitude and observed productivity was
determined by statistical methods. Results showed that physical aptitude of workers had
a greater influence on performance than mental aptitude. Additionally, workers reported
a negative impact of spatial, clerical, and numerical perception on their performance. To
increase labour productivity, it is necessary to hire workers with high aptitude.
Reaction time correlations with intelligence test scores obtained under either timed or
untimed conditions
The study was designed to establish a correlation between intelligence test scores and
reaction time in adolescents. Students in two random groups were given the
Multidimensional Aptitude Battery (MAB) on either a timed or untimed basis. Next,
79
each student took eight reaction time tests. Statistical analyses predicted IQ scores in
both groups more or less by combining RTs. Zero-order correlations between every
Reaction Time test and the IQ scores were also approximately equal for timed and
untimed Verbal and Full-Scale scores but with Performance scores, correlations were
higher in the timed condition. The relative difficulty of the RT tests influenced
correlations with IQ scores more strongly in the untimed condition. Timed and untimed
intelligence tests require different skills from subjects, but the pace at which they can
process information is important no matter what conditions they are in.
Types of psychological measures
Test
Testing refers most often to an objective method of measuring ability or quality that has
right and wrong answers. Testing psychological abilities can indicate on what level a
person performs in a given field, their ability to remember things and perform spatial
recognition, or even their introversion. Psychological tests rely on scientific principles.
There are pencil-and-paper tests as well as computer-based tests. Playing puzzles,
drawing, figuring out logic problems, and playing memory games are some of the
activities involved. The use of projective techniques, also known as unconscious
techniques, is part of some tests. Besides using psychological interpretations, these
methods rely on more complex algorithms than the non-projective ones mentioned
above. You can use the Rorschach test to learn more about someone's temperament and
emotional state by performing the ink-blot test. Observing how someone interacts and
behaves can be part of a psychological test as well. Using the test results, inferences
about the potential and abilities of an individual can be made.
80
Test battery
A series of tests performed as a group in order to obtain an overall assessment of a given
factor or phenomenon. To assess multiple aspects of a particular disease, a researcher
may administer a battery of health surveys to a group of individuals diagnosed with it. In
independent or combined tests, different areas (or both) may be measured and scored
separately (depending on the purpose). A test battery consists of a series of tests
administered to assess different facets of a child’s or adult’s functioning (e.g.,
psychological functioning). A test battery is utilized by a professional (e.g., a
psychologist) to assist in decision making, such as making a diagnosis, about an
individual and determining whether there is a need for services and supports for that
person. Developed by Francis Galton in 1884, the first test battery measured an
individual's motor and sensory abilities. As soon as the tests were completed, a report
was written to summarize their results. As time progressed, test batteries evolved.
Scales
A scale is a standard form of question-based series of queries which must be performed
according to strict guidelines. It is used to measure a person's behavior or personality.
There are many types of measurement systems, such as those for personality,
intelligence, attitudes, or beliefs. In the same manner as these psychophysical methods
have grown out of that tradition, psychological (psychometric) scaling methods have
developed. Even though they are designed to locate stimuli on a linear (straight-line)
scale, there are no quantitative physical values (such as loudness or weight) associated
with them. The linear scale may specify how an individual feels about a social
institution, his assessment of a work of art, his level of personality, or his preference for
food. The purpose of psychological scales is thus to allow people to rate their own
81
characteristics and those of others based on attributes such as leadership potential or
initiative. A psychological scale can also be used to measure objects and specific types of
characteristics, including identifying where different foods fall on a group's preference
scale, or determining the relative importance of various job characteristics as perceived
by those who hold them. People report scales and dimensions on which they perceive
objects based on the degrees of similarity between objects. In his theoretical-statistical
contributions, Thurston provided a number of theoretical-statistical contributions that are
widely used to construct psychometric scales. Comparative judgment is a scaling
technique based on people's choices between members of any pair of stimuli.
Psychometric scales are derived by applying statistical methods to provide numerical
estimates of the perceived distances between members of each pair of stimuli. Tests can
be conducted to determine whether or not these computed scale values are consistent
with the observed comparative judgments. Another of Thurstone’s psychometric scaling
techniques (equal-appearing intervals) has been widely This is used to measure attitudes.
Judges sort statements and categorize them according to their perceived order of
importance; the average (median) category assignments are used to calculate the scale
values. After using such a scale, subsequent users are scored based on the average scale
value of the statements they subscribe to. An alternative method developed by Louis
Guttman relies on intensive analysis of scale items and produces comparable results
without the need for a prior group of judges. It is quite common to use the type of scale
developed by Rensis Likert, in which perhaps five choices ranging from strongly in
favour to strongly opposed are provided for each statement. The alternatives are then
scored from one to five. Successive intervals, on the other hand, do not rely on judges'
perception of interval size being accurate. Graphical rating scales typically present an
arbitrary continuum with pre-assigned guideposts (e.g., superior, average, and inferior).
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Inventory
An inventory is a list of something's contents. A checklist, questionnaire, or personality
test may be considered an inventory in psychology if it includes some notion of
measurement. As a general rule, when a subject takes what is often called a test, it is
required of them to complete it to the best of their abilities; when completing an
inventory, it is expected that they represent their typical reactions. Also, subjects control
the appraisal process when responding to an inventory, but not when taking a test.
Questionnaire
Surveys can be questionnaires or inventories. They are comprised of easy-to-answer
questions. They involve specific subjects and are asked so that information may be
collected. An inventory consists of a list of selected characters or skills. A questionnaire
is a form of written self-reporting in which participants are given a set number of
questions to answer. You may administer them in person, by post, online, over the
telephone, or simultaneously to several individuals.
Methodology
Questionnaire description:
a. The Multidimensional Aptitude Battery II (Indian Adaptation) is designed for the
assessment of intellectual abilities in adults and adolescents ages 16 and older. In the same
way as other measures of intelligence, it can be used for various purposes in various contexts.
For instance, one could pursue a career counseling career in education, in business or
industry, or in mental health or health clinics. An adequate assessment requires language
skills for reading and understanding written directions, as well as comprehension of spoken
directions. It is not recommended for use in determining level of intellectual functioning in
83
cases of suspected mental retardation, nor for individuals whose psychotic processes could
interfere with understanding or complying with instruction. However, based on the author's
experience, most psychotic patients are capable of purposefully completing the MAB-II.
b. Domains in the questionnaire
MAB-II (Indian Adaptation) is composed of verbal and non-verbal scales. There are five
subtests in each of the verbal and non-verbal sections. The verbal and non-verbal subtests are
as follows:
● Verbal
1. Information
Knowledge of diverse topics is measured by the Information score. An individual's
ability to collect information is influenced by their level of curiosity,
extensiveness of reading, and motivation to learn new things. Journalists,
professors, teachers, librarians, and researchers are some examples.
2. Comprehension
Comprehending social situations entails identifying the behaviors that are
more desirable in society, and evaluating the reasons behind the laws and
societal customs followed. As well as general verbal skills, it demands social
acculturation and social intelligence, as well as a knowledge of conventional
moral and ethical standards. Psychology, social work, teaching, lawyers,
police officers, and human resources are some examples of such jobs.
3. Arithmetic
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It examines reasoning abilities and problem-solving abilities through the
solution of numerical problems. Accountants, engineers, astronauts, pilots,
computer programmers, scientists, and electronics technicians are all examples
of these occupations.
4. Similarities
To discern similarity, an individual must understand, rank, and critique
similarities and differences between two objects, as well as identify the most
appropriate analogy between the two. This type of work involves flexibility,
adjustment to novelty, appreciation for and comprehension of object
properties, and the ability to think abstractly. Comparatively to certain other
verbal tests, Similarities involve more than just retrieving knowledge from
long-term memory; it is also a measure of how effectively one can utilize this
knowledge. Detectives, lawyers, writers, engineers, social scientists, and
artists are among such occupations.
5. Vocabulary
In its narrowest sense, vocabulary refers to the number of words or verbal
concepts learned and stored. The use of the term indicates a person's capacity
to store, organize, and retrieve this many pieces of information meaningfully,
but more broadly, it indicates an individual's openness to new ideas and
concepts. Writers, English teachers, and journalists fall under this category.
Furthermore, high vocabulary is often found among persons who have
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achieved distinction in their occupations, including business executives,
particularly those whose occupations require university and graduate degrees.
● Non-verbal / Performance
I. Digit Symbol
Learning Digit Symbol requires mastery of a new coding system and its
application to a context involving visual-motor activity. It involves
adaptation to a novel set of demands, as do other Performance subtests, but
not as much as most Verbal Scale tasks. A new set of skills, such as visual
acuity, figural memory, motor skills, processing speed, motivation, and
persistence, is also necessary for the task. Besides age, impaired
visual-motor function is also a significant factor. Air traffic controllers,
dentists, surgeons, draftspeople, designers, and electronic technicians are
some examples.
II. Picture Completion
A basic knowledge of a variety of common items and simplified sketching
rules is needed to identify important parts of a picture that are missing. In
addition, there are the perceptual skills required for meaningful
interpretation of percepts, as well as the analytical skills required to
distinguish important, critical details from unessential omissions, the ability
to avoid the competition of irrelevant details in arriving at a solution, and
the verbal ability to identify quickly the first letter of the name of the
missing detail. There is a wide variety of occupations that require analytical
86
figural skills, such as laboratory technician, air traffic controller, and
marketing specialist.
III. Spatial
A critical component of the Spatial subtest is the ability to visualize abstract objects in
different positions in two-dimensional space, and the ability to distinguish critical differences
between alternatives. Usually, it requires reasoning in the figural-spatial domain as well as
visual and imaginal processes, which are evoked quickly and automatically by high scorers
since the task is timed. When we are overly cautious, we slow down our performance due to
the level of checking we perform. In MAB-II (Indian Adaptation) norms, the role of age is
also incorporated as an important factor. These jobs include architect, graphic designer,
mechanical engineer, heavy equipment transport worker, machine operator, and mechanic.
IV. Picture Arrangement
In Picture Arrangement, the respondent must identify a meaningful
sequence from a random sequence, and the meaningful sequence usually
has a humorous interpretation. Thus, it requires an ability to process a
number of drawings, to abstract their intent and meaning, then to integrate
these separate perceptions into a meaningful temporal pattern, then to
locate the letters that correspond to the correct sequence, and to follow
these steps as quickly as possible. Perception and social intelligence are
both required to evaluate alternative outcomes, permitting insight into
others' behavior. Numerous occupations require an understanding of others'
motives and intentions, such as salespersons, advertising specialists, and
marketing representatives.
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V. Object Assembly
The respondent is required to identify a meaningful object from a
left-to-right sequence of disarranged segments. This requires
perceptual analytical skills to imagine how the separate parts
can be reassembled, or, alternatively, identifying elements of
familiar objects in the disassembled pieces and forming
judgments about their integration into a whole. To imagine the
form of the figure when the parts are rearranged, visualization
skills are also required since the parts are printed rather than
manipulable. Mechanics, civil engineers, architects, and
builders are fields in which high scores are often observed.
Reliability and validity
Based on separately timed test administrations, test-retest reliability values were 0.95 for
Verbal, 0.96 for Performance, and 0.97 for Full-scale scores. There is a 0.91 correlation
between the MAB-II Full-Scale and an IQ measure in wide use.
Norms
In each age group sample, the means and standard deviations were used to calculate the
Verbal, Performance, and Full-Scale scores. The IQ scores, standard scores, and percentile
tables were calculated using the means and standard deviations obtained for each age group.
Individuals 16 years of age and older are eligible to take MAB-II.
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Scoring and interpretation
Fill out the box for raw score by counting how many correct answers there are. Repeat for
each subtest. On the record form, record each raw score in the "Raw Score" box. To convert
subtest raw scores into scaled scores, refer to 'Table A-1: Scaled Score Conversion Chart'. To
interpret subtest scaled scores, add all scores of the subtests together.
Interpretation
As appropriate, choose an interpretation based on the age of the subject. Find the total score
in the table's column 'sum of scaled scores' by adding all the subtest scores. Calculate the IQ
corresponding with that score.
For interpreting the IQ level of the subject, the Wechsler’s IQ range is to be followed:
IQ Score Classification
130 and above Very Superior
120-129 Superior
110-119 High Average
89
90-109 Average
80-89 Low Average
70-79 Borderline
69 and below Extremely Low
Retrieved from: ‘Wechsler, David. Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale-Third edition
Psychological Corporation, 1997’
Materials required
In order to administer the entire MAB-II (Indian Adaptation), two test booklets and corresponding
answer sheets are needed, as well as one MAB-II (Indian Adaptation) Record Form for hand
scoring. There are two of them titled "Multidimensional Aptitude Battery-II Verbal" and
"Multidimensional Aptitude Battery-II Performance". Furthermore, each respondent needs a
sharpened pencil and a stopwatch. You should have spare pencils on hand as well. To calculate
during the Arithmetic section of the Verbal battery, each respondent should have a blank sheet of
paper available to them. MAB-II (Indian Adaptation) only needs the following materials to
administer the verbal subtests:
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➔ The ‘Verbal’ Test Booklet
➔ The corresponding answer sheet ‘Multidimensional Aptitude Battery-II Verbal’
➔ A record form for hand scoring
➔ Stopwatch
➔ Pencil
➔ Blank paper for rough calculations for the subject
Procedure
Arrangement of materials
Prior to the subject entering the lab, the material was assembled. An in-depth case history
was taken after establishing rapport. Subjects were informed of the directions and
provided with necessary materials for completing the test.
Precautions and Conduction
➔ Rapport must be established with the subject.
➔ A detailed case history must be recorded
➔ The test must not be exposed to the subject before giving instructions
➔ External variables such as light ventilation noise etc should be controlled
➔ All items should be answered by the subject
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Instructions for the subject
General instructions for the ‘Verbal’ subtests
Several different tasks are included in this booklet. Instructions are provided for each
task. The instructions will tell you what you need to do. You can ask questions if
anything is unclear. The examiner will then give you the go-ahead to begin. Turn the
page and begin working. It is unlikely that you will be able to complete each test in
the seven minutes allotted. You should work quickly and answer as many questions as
you can. When the examiner says 'stop', you should stop working. Set your pencil
down when the examiner says 'stop'. Start each test only when the examiner signals.
Do not work on the test beyond the time limit. Don't go back and attempt the previous
tests at any time. Fill out a separate answer sheet for each question you answered.
Write your answers on a separate sheet. Please follow the instructions below to ensure
that your answers are scored correctly:
I. Complete the answer sheet with your name and the requested
information.
II. Be sure you are marking the right section of the answer sheet, and that
it matches the section of the test on which you are working. Each test is
numbered and named in the upper corner.
III. Be sure that the question number you are answering on the answer
sheet matches the number on the question.
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IV. To answer, circle one of the five letters, A, B, C, D, or E, that are the
same as your choice, and blacken it with a pencil.
V. Be careful not to mark the answer sheet too many times.
VI. Erase completely your old answer if you wish to amend it.
VII. Scores will be determined by the number of questions correctly
answered within each section. Questions answered incorrectly or left
out will be counted as wrong answers. Flip to the next page once the
examiner signals.
Verbal ‘subtests’ instructions:
I. Information
There are five possible answers to each of the following 40 questions. Select the
correct answer and darken the appropriate letter on the separate answer sheet. Do not
begin until the examiner signals you to begin. You have seven minutes to complete
the task. Be sure to complete the work until the examiner calls the time. If it is not the
time for the test, stop working until the time is called.
II. Comprehension
A given situation asks for your response as to what should or should not be
done. Choose the answer best suited to the question or that which is most
generally applicable. Start only when the examiner signals. There are seven
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minutes available. You have until the time is up to stop working. The next
section of the test cannot be started.
III. Arithmetic
During this section, you will be required to answer Arithmetic Problems for
each question. Each question has five choices. Choose the correct answer.
Create a rough sheet for your calculations. Don't start until the examiner gives
the signal. You have seven minutes. Keep working until the time is up. Do not
proceed to the next part of the test.
IV. Similarities
The following is a list of words paired together. Then, decide in which way
they are similar and mark the answer that best describes that similarity. This
must be done in a timely manner so you can mark your answer. Please turn the
page and begin. Fill out the answer sheet. The time limit is seven minutes. You
should continue to work until the test ends, focusing only on this section.
V. Vocabulary
Test your vocabulary with this test. Choose the alternative that comes closest
to the meaning of the word. The signal must be given before you begin. Your
time for this test will be seven minutes. Keep working until you are called on.
Keep working until you are called on.
Answer sheet instructions
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Please use only a pencil. Do not use ink or ballpoint pens. Be sure to completely
blacken every circle. The answer grid in your test booklet is numbered in the same
way as the questions. Complete each test as quickly as possible. Please choose the
most accurate answer for each question and mark it in black ink on your answer sheet.
Do not blacken A unless you believe that it is accurate. Make sure the circles you
choose are completely blackened, and erase all mistakes and stray marks.
5. Scoring:
SUBTEST RAW SCORE CONVERTED SCALED SCORE
Information 23 58
Comprehension 16 47
Arithmetic 15 60
Similarities 26 59
Vocabulary 36 66
TOTAL SCALED SCORE 290
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INTERPRETATION OF SCORES
Sum of scaled scores IQ IQ level
290 113 [Ar2] High Average
Name: S. S.
Age: 22
Gender: Male
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Case History of my Participant
Born and raised in Jeddah, Saudi Arabia. Every two years during the school vacation, he
visited Hyderabad, India, and after finishing his ACCA studies, he moved there temporarily
for an internship.
He has good relations with his parents and a good childhood. His education is in accounting.
Over the years, he worked as an intern sales associate at three different firms, and has now
joined a well-established firm as an accountant. Neither medical nor mental issues affect his
life. A close friend influenced him to be interested in movies and poetry. His enthusiasm for
cultural events is well known. Additionally, he loves to cook. After seeing them on social
media or online elsewhere, she likes to experiment with new dishes for her family and
friends. He has never lived anywhere else. After getting his first job, he's finding that
managing his time is a little more challenging than working on internships before. Despite
this, he spends enough time with family and friends. It is his responsibility as a responsible
older brother to impart to his younger brother the many valuable lessons he finds important.
The participant always takes a step back when he encounters a setback in order to see the
bigger picture. In stressful situations, he takes his time and space to think things through.
While not frequently asking for help, he is always ready to deal with any setbacks that may
occur. Rather than dwelling on problems, he focuses on finding a solution.
When the matter of aptitude was broached, he mentioned how he has intensive knowledge of
cars. He spent his early teenage years learning about cars and how to repair the easy parts of
the car and how to identify different kinds of problems a car may run into. He started with
sedans and moved to SUV’s before buying a muscle car and repairing various parts of it. He
is an excellent driver.
S.S is a teenage boy who found an interest in cars and cars’ mechanics. He likes to work on
them with his father and has learned many things from him. S.S, grew up watching his father
repairing and maintaining cars at their home garage every day after work, but he never
thought that he would be working with him one day as well.
In this section, I will explain the car restoration process that S.S has taken on. He has also
spent his time driving and repairing cars for fun because he likes cars.
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How S.S found an interest in driving and repairing cars for fun: At a young age, S.S found an
interest in cars. He believes that “cars are the most beautiful things ever created by man”
which is why he has a passion for fixing them.
He discovered his love for cars at the age of 12 when he was watching his father work on
one. His mother was not very supportive of this decision, but he managed to convince her
with his hard work and determination. S.S has now been working as an accountant and on
the weekends, he spends time at his friends workshop and feels that his future looks
promising because he can see how much people appreciate.
In social settings, the participant is confident. It is no problem for him to devote his time and
effort to helping others. His close circle is small and he does not like to be too involved with
many people. He hopes for a bright future and is pursuing his goals. Over time, he believes he
will improve himself and develop more resilience to handle life's challenges.
He’s had an average school life; made many friends and hung out with them often. Joined
ACCA upon completion of 10th grade and did well there. The participant has been in a few
casual relationships. The participant has always been extroverted and friendly and does enjoy
being a part of social situations with strangers.
He has felt irritable and on edge lately and hasn't been feeling like himself.
been bothering him how quick he has been to it lately.[Ar5]
Discussion
According to the WAIS III IQ test, the subject has an overall verbal IQ of 113, which is
considered above average. A scaled score of 58 is assigned to his information domain, 47 to his
comprehension domain, 60 to his arithmetic domain, 59 to his similarity domain, and 66 to his
vocabulary domain. (In increasing order) Similarities, arithmetic, and vocabulary scored highest.
This subject's vocabulary skills are pretty good based on the case history. His vocabulary is
comprehensive and effective. Despite being open to learning new information and concepts, he
demonstrates the capacity for storing, categorizing, and retrieving so much information. The
verbal domain of his thinking is of a higher level of subtlety and depth, and he has more
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conceptual and classification skills. In the English language, He is very fluent. Solving numerical
problems and demonstrating reasoning and problem-solving skills are easy for the subject. His
problem-solving skills are exceptional. In the case history, the subject stated he enjoyed finding
problems in a car and solving them and could apply arithmetic to everyday tasks. SS is capable of
abstract thinking as well as visualising. According to the subject, he is quite good at
understanding and comparing likeness and differences, as well as discovering relationships
between concepts, properties of an object, and so on. He can retrieve information from long-term
memory and knows how to apply his knowledge effectively in both his personal and professional
life. SS performed well in the domains of information and comprehension. He reads the
newspaper every day to stay current on what is going on in the country and around the world. He
is interested in general knowledge, particularly in sports and defence. In addition, he has a good
grasp of social situations and customs. He understands why society expects ethics and morals to
be ingrained and followed. In the verbal subset, the subject has an average IQ that is high.
Summary
A high score was achieved for the subject in the vocabulary (66), arithmetic (60), and similarity
(59) areas. The subject can make recommendations and try out new jobs in these domains in order
to broaden his horizons and broaden his professional horizons. The vocabulary of business
executives is especially important for those whose occupations require university and graduate
degrees. Jobs in arithmetic include accountants, engineers, astronauts, pilots, computer
programmers, scientists, and electronics technicians, while jobs in similarity include detectives,
lawyers, writers, social scientists, engineers, and artists. The subject can also try out various jobs
from this list to learn more about his abilities..
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Conclusion
Two sections are included in this Multidimensional Aptitude Battery-II test: verbal and
performance. Each of the verbal domains has five subdomains. There are a variety of contexts in
which this test can be used, such as in business, career counselling, clinics, mental health
facilities, and clinical research, among others. Intelligence is assessed globally.
Recommendations
Overall, 113 was the subject's IQ in the verbal subset. In terms of information and comprehension,
his score was low. It may be useful to participate in regular quizzes on current events and general
knowledge to widen one's knowledge base. It would also be beneficial for the subject to read
some books on GK and other topics that interest him. In order to improve his long-term memory,
he needs to practice and understand what he learns.
Extending the comprehension domain can be accomplished by developing social intelligence and
social knowledge. It helps to be curious and converse with people from different backgrounds. In
addition to assisting the subject in better understanding why something works the way it does,
cultural differences can also aid in respecting and understanding them. A dimension to cultivate is
empathy. Listening to the needs of others will also help to improve understanding.
To gain a comprehensive understanding of his IQ and personality, the subject can also take a
personality test.
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conscientiousness and cognitive ability related to one another? A re-examination of
the intelligence compensation hypothesis
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● Ali, D. (2021, August 13). What are the Different Types of Aptitude Tests?
https://blog.mettl.com/types-of-aptitude-test/
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https://psychologydictionary.org/inventory/ (accessed September 30, 2021).
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● Setiawati, F. A. (2020). Aptitude Test’s Predictive Ability for Academic
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y-psychology-notes/aptitude-meaning-and-measurement-psychology/2670
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AIBAS
Title: Raven’s Standard Progressive Matrices
INDEX
Sr. Topic
No.
Introduction - 108
1. Relevant Researches- 119
Application of RSPM- 121
2. Methodology- 122
3. Demographic Details- 124
4. Procedure- 126
5. Observations, Interpretation of Scores- 127
6. Retrospective Report, Conclusion, Recommendation- 128
104
7. References- 130
8. Appendix- 132
105
RAVEN’S STANDARD PROGRESSIVE

MATRICES
shfaque Mapker Saad, A70240719041, Roll Number 21, Section A, B.Sc.

Clinical Psychology
106
RAVEN’S STANDARD PROGRESSIVE MATRICES
Purpose of the test
To measure human intelligence and abstract reasoning using the ‘Raven’s Standard
Progressive Matrices’.
Introduction
Definition and meaning of Intelligence:
“The ability to derive information, learn from experience, adapt to the environment,
understand, and correctly utilize thought and reason”. (American Psychological
Association)
There is no single, unitary intelligence, but rather several functions of intelligence.
The term denotes the combination of abilities required for survival and advancement
within a particular culture.” (A. Anastasi, 1992)
Psychologist Robert Sternberg defined intelligence as “the mental abilities necessary
for adaptation to, as well as shaping and selection of, any environmental context”
(1997,).
In addition to higher level abilities (such as abstract reasoning, mental representation,
problem solving, and decision making) intelligence has been defined in many ways,
including the ability to learn, emotional knowledge, creativity, and adaptability to
meet the demands of the environment.
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History of Intelligence
In ancient China, ability testing may have been practiced as early as 2200 BC. At that time,
anyone interested in working in public office was required to pass a series of tests designed to
select the most qualified candidates in fields such as law, agriculture, military affairs, finance,
and geography. Testing was time-consuming and often took several days to complete. To
identify the top 7% of candidates, preliminary exams were administered, and then they
advanced to district evaluations. Between 1% and 10% of those who passed the final tests
traveled to Peking to become Mandarin bureaucrats. In 1906, this exam was discontinued.
Galton
In the nineteenth century, after the Industrial Revolution and capitalism began to take
off, people began to take an interest in human potential. Specifically, it was the scientist
Galton (half-cousin to Charles Darwin) who became known as the doyen of measuring
individual differences as he developed methods for assessing many people's abilities. To test
mental capacity, Galton used sensory motor activities such as reaction times. Thus, Galton
estimated that individuals with faster reaction times were more intelligent.
Charles Spearman
Our understanding of intelligence today is largely due to the work of Spearman. In succession
of ability tests, he noted there was a lot of overlap in the skills required to pass them. The
study of general intelligence, which Spearman introduced in 1904, became a key
psychological concept in the history of education and psychology with the concept 'g'
becoming a key, albeit controversial, psychological construct. Galton used sensory motor
activities like reaction times to develop a method of testing mental capacity. Those with a
faster regeneration rate had better mental performance
Alfred Binet
French psychologist Alfred Binet, along with Théodore Simon, picked up where Galtonian
science left off. Binet's approach to understand intelligence and intelligence testing, on the
other hand, was fundamentally different from that of Galton and Cattell, in that he believed
that individual differences in intelligence went far beyond measuring sensory acuity and
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response times. Among the most important cognitive functions to measure, according to
Binet, are memory, attention, and imagination. The intelligence scale developed by Binet and
Simon in 1905 was primarily aimed at identifying pupils in the Parisian education system
who didn't benefit from traditional types of instruction. It was suggested that intelligence was
not fixed or determined by a single factor, but that good education might modify it. In the
Binet and Simon's test, children were asked to complete 30 tests, arranged in ascending order
of difficulty, to assess their intellectual development. These tests range from vocabulary to
physical performance. Binet and Simon's IQ tests were not designed to compare children, but
rather to determine which children would benefit from a special education program. The
Binet–Simon scale was amended in 1908 to incorporate the concept of mental level, which
was essentially arranging the exam by the age level at which it was normally passed. If eighty
to ninety percent of the kids aged five passed a particular question, they were considered
five-year-olds. So, for example, a nine- year-old child operating at a five-year-old age would
be classified as being ‘retarded’ by four years and thus a possible candidate for education.
The American adoption of IQ
Much of the later practices of intelligence testing in the United States have been influenced
by the concept of 'mental age. In 1912, German psychologist William Stern, who was
dissatisfied with the concept of mental age, proposed dividing mental age by actual age to get
the ‘mental quotient,' which American psychologist Lewis Terman later multiplied by 100 to
make it more understandable and thus called it the 'intelligence quotient' or 'IQ.' The creation
of the idea of IQ (as a psychometric test of 'intelligence') is a major historical development
that has affected the discussion over intellectual functioning and its associated applications.
The First World War acted as an impetus for the creation and widespread usage of IQ tests.
The Alpha and Beta examinations were used to identify recruits with poor IQ as well as those
who would be suitable for specific jobs or officer training. The Alpha test was administered
to recruits who could read and write, whereas the Beta test was administered to illiterate
recruits or those who could not speak English. Little was known about the psychometric
qualities of the initial IQ tests, as with the majority of them. Carl Brigham, who employed
army Alpha exams, investigated racial differences among recruits in 1923. According to him,
African Americans, Mediterranean people, and Alpine people were "intellectually inferior."
The idea of IQ has endured over time, despite its decreased popularity over last 40 years.
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Although IQ has waxed and waned, it has emerged in a variety of forms and has been
integrated with many theoretically and empirically supported psychological notions. There is
a lot of support for this idea in educational and mainstream psychology, and it has countless
applications in education, industry, and health, to name a few.
Theories of Intelligence
Spearman’s theories
The four-factor model of intelligence was proposed by Charles Spearman. Standard

intelligence, or the "G" thing, was first proposed by him. In order to strengthen this principle,
he focused on the contributors' cognitive and intellectual flair. In each trial, the results of the
same contributors were similar. A person who performed well on the primary flair test also
performed well on other flair assessments, and those who performed poorly on one test
performed well on different tests, implying that there is something that places all highbrow
competencies and cognitive abilities in an exceptional place - the capability of the individual.
He tested the cognitive assessments using the item evaluation approach, a process in which
several interrelated factors are reduced to the fewest number of elements and came to the
conclusion that the elements associated with intelligence may be assessed and expressed
quantitatively.
It has been found that numerous intellectual developments aren't independent from one
another, and that there is a standard thing in all of a person's cognitive abilities, which he
called the "g" thing.
He argued that intelligence is composed of elements, specifically the "g" thing (standard
capacity) and the "s" thing (special capacity), with the "g" thing being concerned with any
standard intellectual capacity mission of a man or woman and the "s" thing is primarily
accountable for human beings' specific intellectual abilities. However, despite the fact that the
principle is called elements, there are more than elements because each object has a unique
sub-element based on the number of specific talents examined in each exam. There are
one-of-a-kind "kinds of elements," i.e., a common object and specific elements. An
individual's specific talents may include drawing interference, coding capabilities,
mathematics abilities, and so on. Spearman considered that every person is born with a
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unique level of the "G" thing, and the more the "G" thing, the more likely it is that a person
will achieve numerous aspects of life. Human beings accumulate the "S" thing through
experience and their environment. The "s" thing is unique to a specific pastime, unlike the
"g", which is shared with every kind of cognitive or highbrow activity.
Thurstone theories
In his work, Thurstone identified seven different elements of mental capacity, which
he called primary mental abilities (P.M.A). Thurstone rejected Spearman's overall insight, or
the g-factor, arguing that Thurstone's seven mental capacities fit information acquisition
better than that of Spearman. Spearman claims that the g-factor is a general factor common to
all a person's scholastic abilities. Thurston said that human academic abilities are matched,
and he developed his seven-part theory of knowledge, which emphasizes the seven key
mental abilities. Each individual possesses different levels of these seven elements, that their
levels are independent of one another, and that they can be tested individually. Individual
scores in various mental capacities should be taken into account rather than just an
individual's IQ. There are seven critical factors of mental ability: the numerical factor relates
to a person's ability to perform quick and correct mathematical calculations. He states that it
may be measured by looking at the person's accuracy and speed when faced with different
number juggling questions. He explains that each person has different levels of these seven
elements, that they are independent of one another, and that each of these skills may be tested
individually. He proposed focusing on individual scores in various mental capacities rather
than solely on the individual's IQ. The seven critical mental ability factors are as follows:
➔ Numerical Factor
➔ Verbal Factor
➔ Spatial Factor
➔ Memory
➔ Verbal Fluency/Word Fluency Factor
➔ Inductive Reasoning Factor
➔ Perpetual Speed Factor
➔ Deductive Reasoning Factor
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Gardner Theory
According to Gardner, intelligence is the ability to create records that will be activated during
a cultural setting to address challenges or create goods that may serve a cultural purpose
(Gardner, 2000). While he developed a set of eight inclusion requirements, he also evaluated
each candidate's IQ, which was largely based on quite a few scientific areas. His proposal
contradicted the widely held belief that there is also a single intelligence, commonly referred
to as "g" for modern intelligence, which focuses primarily on psychological skills.
As an extension to Gardner's idea of intelligence, he proposed eight extraordinary

intelligences. Linguistic, Logical/Mathematical, Spatial, Bodily-Kinesthetic, Musical, Social,
Intrapersonal, and Naturalist were the eight outstanding types of intellect. Gardner stated that
linguistics and logic-mathematics are the two modalities that are most widely respected in
academia and society. In addition to these exclusive "candidate" intelligences, Gardner also
acknowledges that there are non-secular, existential, and ethical intelligences, but doesn't
consider them to be appropriate for inclusion. The 8 varieties of intelligence are:
▪ Linguistic Intelligence
It consists of the ability to understand spoken and written language, the ability to analyze
languages, and the practical ability to use language to accomplish desired goals. Some people
with linguistic intelligence, such as Shakespeare and Oprah Winfrey, have the ability to
analyze records and create products related to oral communication, such as speeches, novels,
and memos.
▪ Logical-Mathematical Intelligence
Logic-mathematical intelligence is the ability to look at problems rationally, perform

mathematical operations, and investigate problems scientifically. Such people include
physicists and entrepreneurs, can create equations and proofs, perform computations, and
solve specific problems.
▪ Spatial Intelligence
Spatial intelligence includes the ability to understand and handle large areas (such as those
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used by navigators and pilots) as well as smaller ones, such as those important to sculptors,
surgeons, chess players, photographers, or architects. A person with spatial intelligence, like
Frank Wright and Amelia Earhart, is able to grasp and handle large-scale and fine-grained
spatial imagery.
▪ Bodily-Kinesthetic Intelligence
Physical kinesthetic intelligence also includes the ability to use one's whole body or parts of
the body (such as the mouth or the hand) to treat problems or fashion products. Through
mind-body union, people with bodily-kinesthetic intelligence, such as Micheal Jordan and
Simone Biles, can make products, perform skills, or treat medical issues with their very own
bodies.
▪ Musical Intelligence
The ability to perform, compose, and appreciate musical designs is known as musical
intelligence. Musical intelligence is the ability to grasp and make music of pitch, rhythm,
timbre, and tone, as evident in Beethoven and Ed Sheeran.
▪ Social Intelligence
To be socially intelligent, one must be capable of interpreting the intentions, motivations, and
wishes of diverse men and thereby be able to work effectively with others. Those with social
intelligence, like Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi and Teresa, are able to comprehend and
understand exclusive human beings' moods, desires, and motivations
o Triarchic theory
In Sternberg's view, a complete explanation of intelligence requires the interaction of these

three sub theories. It is the componential sub theory that specifies the potential set of mental
processes that underlie behavior (i.e., how behavior is derived), whereas the contextual sub
theory defines intelligence in terms of what behavior is intelligent and where it is intelligent.
In the experiential sub theory, the amount of experience the individual has in a task/situation
is considered in relation to how they perform in that task/situation. As part of the Triarchic
Theory of Intelligence, intelligence is defined as the ability to achieve success in life based on
one's own personal standards, as well as one's own sociocultural context. The ability to
achieve success depends on the ability to capitalise on one's strengths and to correct or
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compensate for one's weaknesses. A balance of analytical, creative, and practical abilities is
required for success in order to adapt to, shape, and select environments. According to the
triarchic theory, intelligence has three aspects: analytical, creative, and practical.
▪ Analytical intelligence
When the components of intelligence are applied to analyze, evaluate, judge, or compare and
contrast, analytical intelligence is engaged. Almost always, it deals with relatively familiar
kinds of problems, where the judgments to be made are of an abstract nature.
▪ Creative intelligence
This involves creating different kinds of products in the fields of art, writing, advertising, and
science. This involves imaginative power and the ability to create something “new”.
▪ Practical intelligence
Practical intelligence involves applying one's abilities to the kinds of problems that confront
one on a daily basis, such as those faced on the job or at home. This construct has been
defined as what one needs to know, which is often not even verbalized, in order to work
effectively in an environment that one hasn't been explicitly taught how to work in -- and that
is not even verbalized.
Types of Intelligence
Emotional Intelligence
Emotional Intelligence was conceptualized by Michael Beldoch and later popularized

by Daniel Goleman. It is divided into a few key competencies that, in turn, have subheadings
like self-awareness which includes self-confidence, emotional awareness, self-assessment,
self-regulation which includes self-control, conscientiousness, trustworthiness, adaptability &
innovativeness; self- motivation which includes drive, commitment, initiative & optimism;
social awareness which includes empathy, political awareness, service orientation, developing
others, leveraging diversity; and social skills which include influence, communication,
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conflict management, leadership, change management and cooperation.
Social Intelligence
Edward Thorndike developed the theory, which has been reinvented by psychologists like
Howard Gardner and Daniel Goleman. Gardner suggested there are multiple intelligences, of
which he mentioned two important ones, intrapersonal intelligence and interpersonal
intelligence. Gardner defines interpersonal intelligence as sensitivity to others' moods,
temperaments, and motivations as well as the ability to cooperate as a member of a group.
Gardner equated it with Goleman's Emotional Intelligence. In later developments, Goleman
wrote the famous book called “Social Intelligence”: The New Science of Social Relationships
(2006), in which Goleman separated two of the emotional-intelligence competencies; social
awareness and relationship management into a distinguished concept known as social
intelligence thus giving a new name ‘Emotional and Social Intelligence (ESI)’ to all the
competencies he had earlier filled under one concentric term ‘EI’. To this day, this ESI has
been the key differentiator between opening performers and average performers. Therefore,
social intelligence is a superset of emotional intelligence. There are many different types of
social intelligence. In other words, Social Intelligence is a continuation of Emotional
Intelligence, so it is more tangible and more applicable.
Intelligence Testing
Tests of intelligence measure a person's ability to predict future behavior and life prospects
and can be used to identify interventions with a variety of diagnostic instruments (intelligence
tests). IQ and intelligence have become interchangeable terms in popular terminology, with
IQ sometimes referring to the result of a test and sometimes referring to the intelligence that
is implied to be responsible for the test score. Among the most commonly used intelligence
tests are Wechsler scales & Stanford-Binet intelligence tests. In 1916, a psychologist at
Stanford University, Lewis Terman, introduced the Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale, an
American adaptation of the original French Binet- Simon intelligence test. Children 2 years
of age and older can take the individually administered test, which is designed primarily for
children. Arithmetic, vocabulary, and memory skills are measured by a number of problems.
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Test scores are based on the intelligence quotient (IQ) which was developed by William Stern
and adapted by Lewis Terman in the Stanford-Binet Scale. A person's IQ is calculated using
the statistical range of people who are likely to have a specific IQ. There is an approximately
common distribution of intelligence test scores, with the majority of the sample scoring near
the centre and scores dropping relatively quickly in frequency outward and away from the
curve's center.
Stanford-Binet Scale
This is a standardized test of cognitive abilities and IQ for individuals aged 2 to 89 years.
Currently, it consists of five verbal and nonverbal subtests with a mean of 100, a standard
deviation of 15, as well as reasoning, knowledge, visual and spatial processing, and working
memory scores. Lewis Terman brought the Stanford - Binet test to the United States in 1916
as a modification and extension of the original Binet - Simon test developed by Alfred Binet
and French physician Théodore Simon (1873–1961) in 1905 to evaluate the intellectual
ability of French children. The current Stanford–Binet Intelligence Scale (SB5) is the fourth
revision of the test which was developed by an American psychologist Gale H. Roid and was
published in 2003.
Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS)
WAIS is a test of intelligence developed for individuals between 16 and 90 years old. As a
modification and replacement, it was published in 1955 and revised in 1981 for the
Wechsler-Bellevue Intelligence Scale (WBIS, 1939). Two distinct verbal and performance
scores, as well as an overall IQ score, were obtained from this test. The third edition
(WAIS–III, 1997) included seven verbal subtests (Information, Similarities, Comprehension,
Arithmetic, Digit Span, Vocabulary, Letter– Number Sequencing) and seven performance
subtests (Digit Symbol, Picture Arrangement, Object Assembly, Picture Completion, Block
Design, Matrix Reasoning, Symbol Search). Depending on how the subtests were
administered, the test produced an index score for Perceptual Organization, Processing
Speed, Verbal Comprehension and Working Memory; an overall IQ with a mean of 100 and
standard deviation of 15; or both. In the current version, WAIS–IV (2008), most of the
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subtests are still there, but some have been modified and three new ones have been added
(Visual Puzzles, Figure Weights, and Cancellation). It provides a Full-Scale IQ and index
scores on the same four domains of cognitive ability (verbal comprehension, perceptual
organization, processing speed, and working memory).
Wechsler Intelligence Scale for children (WISC)
The intelligence test developed initially and standardized for children of ages 6 to 16 yrs. and
11 months. It currently includes 10 core subtests (Similarities, Picture Concepts, Matrix
Reasoning, Digit Span, Letter–Number Sequencing, Vocabulary, Comprehension, Block
Design, Coding, Symbol Search) and five supplemental subtests known as Reasoning,
Information, Picture Completion, Cancellation and Arithmetic) that measure processing
speed, and working memory capabilities, comprehension, reasoning, producing index scores
for each and a Full-Scale IQ with mean as 100 and standard deviation 15. The most recent
version of the test was published in 2003 and is known as the WISC–IV.
Intelligence Quotient
The intelligence quotient, or IQ, is a measurement of one’s reasoning and problem-solving

abilities. It essentially indicates how well one performed on a particular test when compared
to other people of the same age. While IQ tests vary, the average IQ score for many is 100,
with 68 percent of values falling between 85 and 115. The term "IQ" is derived from the
German term "Intelligent-Quotient," which was coined by psychologist William Stern. The
Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale and the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale are two popular
standardized examinations (WAIS). The fifth edition of the Stanford- Binet Intelligence Scale
is now available. It is a cognitive ability and intelligence test that is used to diagnose
developmental or cognitive deficiencies in young children. The test measures five subjective
factors and consists of both verbal and nonverbal subtests. The five factors being tested are:
➔ Knowledge
➔ Quantitative reasoning
➔ Visual-spatial processing
➔ Working memory
➔ Fluid reasoning
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Factors affecting IQ and Intelligence
Our genes do influence intelligence and IQ. According to different studies, genetic influence
varies from 30 to 80 percent, but it is generally accepted that genetic influence increases with
age, at least from childhood to early adulthood. According to research studies, 60-80% of the
variability of IQ in adult individuals can be explained by genes.
We may be genetically predisposed to a certain brain volume, structure, and pathways, a

certain level of intelligence set by our biology, but how much we accomplish isn't determined
solely by biology. Intelligence is also affected by the type of life we lead. In order to better
understand how nature and nurture interact, researchers often study twins who were separated
at birth. According to their theory, identical twins separated at birth should still have equal
IQs if intelligence is purely biological. However, that isn't always the case. Genetic effects
cause bright children to seek out more stimulating environments that further increase IQ.
Programs aimed at raising IQ are more likely to yield long-term IQ gains if they encourage
youngsters to seek out cognitively challenging situations. Training in the use of working
memory has been proven in recent research to improve IQ. However, it is unclear how long
gains will last once training has ceased.
Relevant Researches
RESEARCH 1
Sex differences on three factors identified in Raven’s Standard Progressive Matrices by

Richard Lynn, Juri Allik, and Paul Irwing. (2004)
The research aims to address the disputed issue of whether the PMS is a pure measure of
reasoning ability and g or of whether it contains an item measuring some kind of
visualization or spatial factor in addition to reasoning. The test was administered to a sample
of 2735 adolescents of 12- to 18-year-olds in Estonia. Since male and female students attend
mixed secondary schools in Estonia, there is less to no difference in the socioeconomic status
between the families. The data was collected in 2001. The testing was untimed.
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The 60-item test was analysed using the M plus program introduced by (Muthén & Muthén,
in the year 1998. It was used for exploratory factor analysis of categorized data. The results
of the three factors were as follows:
1. Number of factors – this was depicted using the ‘scree plot of eigenvalues’ of the
principal component analysis. The parallel analysis specified the presence of 7 factors, which
appeared to be overinclusive.
2. Exploratory factor analysis – the case per item ratio of the study elevated over 45,
which is usually greater than sufficient for the stability of factors. Initially, the data for one,
two, three and four factor solutions was analysed using a mixture of maximum likelihood and
slanted least squares exploratory factor analysis for categorical data as applied in Mplus.
These solutions provided the basis for successive confirmatory factor analysis.
3. Confirmatory factor analysis – all models were independently tested using the
LISREL 8.30 to verify the factor solution found in the exploratory factor analysis. It was
done to test the invariance technique of the solutions and to offer a more rigorous test for the
number of factors. Responses to some items were too twisted to provide a precise estimate for
the asymptotic covariance environment.
The exploratory and confirmatory factor analysis projected the set of the items on three
factors, which were later acknowledged as the gestalt extension found by Van der Ven and
Ellis.
RESEARCH 2
The shortened Raven Standard Progressive Matrices: Item Response Theory – Based
Psychometric Analyses and Normative Data. By Wim Van der Elst, Carolijin Ouwehand,
Peter van Rijn, Nikki Lee, Martin Van Boxtel and Jelle Jolles
The aim of the study was to assess the psychometric properties of a shortened version of the
Raven’s Standard Progressive Matrices (SPM) under an item response theory framework.
The Shortened Raven’s Standard Progressive Matrices was administered to 453 cognitively
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healthy adults of the ages between 24 and 83 years. The IQ score estimations that were
obtained under the one- and two- parameter logistic models were quite similar, but the
two-parameter logistic based test version had a higher precision of measurement. The results
showed that the older age group females were related with a lower Raven SPM test score. A
user-friendly computer was used to facilitate the scoring and norming of the shortened Raven
SPM under the different frameworks.
1. Psychometric Properties of the Shortened SPM – Eight out of thirty-six of the items
did not fit in the 1PL model (p values of the Bock χ2 values <.01).
2. The effects of age and sex on the shortened Raven SPM scores – The final regression
models showed that older age and being female were associated with lower θs.1PL and
θs.2PL scores. The quadratic age effect was not noteworthy, which means that the age-related
decrease in the capability measures remained constant over the whole age range that was
considered.
3. Regression – Based Normative Data for the Shortened Raven SPM – Normative
adaptations of the shortened Raven SPM aptitude scores into age- and sex- corrected IQ
scores are obtained by means of the four-step procedure. The four- step normative procedure
offers accurate norms but lacks user-friendliness since the user of the norms has to actively
make the essential computations.
Application and significance of SPM
Matrices have been used and applied in educational settings for a long time. Scores are
mostly unaffected by linguistic and ethnic background and can be used to predict academic
success in both children and adults. In clinical settings, the measures' reliability and lack of
bias make them excellent tools for neuropsychological screening, working with the elderly,
and many other clinical populations whose unique demands make more typical cognitive
testing impracticable. Matrices have been frequently used in a range of research inquiries for
many years. Their solid theoretical base, large number of citations, and use across a wide
range of language, ethnic, and cultural groups make them appropriate instruments for
investigations requiring cognitive capacity evaluations in a variety of organisational,
educational, and clinical settings. As part of a battery of diagnostic tests, the Standard
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Progressive Matrices are typically used in conjunction with the Mill Hill Vocabulary Scales.
The SPM is one of three exams (Raven's Progressive Matrices) for people of various ages
and/or abilities, each of which consists solely of nonverbal reasoning problems. The SPM is
recognised as a general population "mean" level test.Their solid theoretical base, large
number of citations, and use across a wide range of language, ethnic, and cultural groups
make them appropriate instruments for investigations requiring cognitive capacity
evaluations in a variety of organisational, educational, and clinical settings. As part of a
battery of diagnostic tests, the Standard Progressive Matrices are typically used in
conjunction with the Mill Hill Vocabulary Scales. The SPM is one of three exams (Raven's
Progressive Matrices) for people of various ages and/or abilities, each of which consists
solely of nonverbal reasoning problems. The SPM is recognised as a general population
"mean" level test. From 1942 to the present, all applicants to the British military were
subjected to a twenty-minute version of the SPM, and future officers were subjected to a
specifically tailored version as part of British War Office Selection Boards. The routine
delivery of what became known as quality Progressive Matrices to all or any applicants
(conscripts) to various military services all across the world (including the Soviet Union)
persisted at least until the twenty-first century.
Methodology
Questionnaire description:
About the Standard Progressive Matrices
The test consists of 60 problems divided into 5 sets of 12 each. In each set, the first problem
is as nearly as possible self-evident. The problem which follows becomes progressively more
difficult. SPM was designed to cover the widest possible range of mental ability and to be
equally useful with persons of all ages, whatever their education, nationality, or physical
condition. The test can be administered in a group or individually within the age range of
8-65 years. The test is also designed to provide a reliable estimate of a person’s capacity to
think clearly when allowed to work steadily at his or her own speed from the beginning to the
end without interruption. It is usually untimed, but participants take 15-45 minutes usually
and results in a raw score which is then converted into a percentile rank.
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Reliability
Since SPM is a homogenous evaluation, a split measure of reliability should show a high
correlation. Internal accuracy results from the majority of studies show a correlation of at
least 0.90 with a modal value of 91. The technique used in test-retest reliability reports varies
greatly and the time periods between experiments vary from one week to three years.
Validity
The concurrent and predictive validity of traditional progressive matrices varies with age,
probability, sex and homogeneity of the study, measurements process and so on. For English
speaking students and puberty, accurate correlations of SPM with Binet Weschler’s scales
ranges from +0.54 to +0.86. When it comes to predictive validity, English as well as
non-interpersonal and intrapersonal abilities are significant. Naturalistic capacity was applied
to the 8th intelligence in 1997. Predictive validity of English and non-English speaking
children and teenagers usually ranges up to +0.70.
Norms
The test norms range from 18 to 65 years of age (for adults).
Scoring
The answer key given in the manual can be used to check the answers. Correct
answers will be scored 1 and incorrect answers will be scored 0.
Put the total of each set in the appropriate place on the scoring sheet. Add these
subtotals to get the SPM's single score. From the manual, refer to the table of Expected
scores. Now, refer to the Expected score table and find the row with your single SPM score.
The Expected scores on Set A, Set B, Set C, Set D, and Set E are then obtained by referring
to the single score of SPM of 50.
Write these Expected scores under your obtained scores for each set. This process will
give the discrepancies on each set. Discrepancy score is the difference between the score a
person obtains on each set and that normally expected for his/her total score. It is shown as 0,
-1, +2, -2, +1.
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Nevertheless, if the person's score on one of the sets is off by more than 2, the total
score cannot be taken at face value as an accurate reflection of his overall intellectual
capacity. Once we get a single score and the discrepancies, we can refer to the norms table to
get the percentile rank. For this, we have to refer to age wise norms. If the participant’s age is
19 years, then we can refer to the closest age given in the table, for instance, 20, and look for
the percentile rank corresponding to the participant's single score. To interpret this, we again
need to refer to the description of the percentile ranks, and grades given below the percentile
table.
The score sheet must include the time. While the SPM is not time-limited, how much time the
individual has taken to complete it gives us insight into his/her abilities.
Name: Sameena Sheikh
Age: 19
Gender: Female
Occupation: Student
Ordinal Position: 2nd born
Father’s Occupation: Business Owner
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The participant, S.S, is a 19-year-old female who stays in the city of Jeddah, Saudi Arabia.
Her family consists of her elder brother, little sister, and parents. She has gotten into B.Com.
The participant was not accompanied by any informant. When she was asked about the issues
and problems she was facing, she said that she has started over-thinking and over-analysing
things. She’s been feeling this way since she got into university.. The participant has had an
operation to have her wisdom tooth removed. The participant was born in the city of
Dammam, Saudi Arabia. The pregnancy was full-term and the delivery was a normal one.
During the appropriate developmental milestones, she was able to walk and talk. In
childhood, the participant was a cheerful and jolly girl. She enjoyed socializing and making
friends. When she was a child, her family included her parents, grandpa, and older brother.
The participant's grandfather was a very strict man, and this created a tense atmosphere in the
family. The family had a good financial situation, and money was never a problem. This
participant was good at academics and enjoyed studying. In line with her family's religion,
the participant strongly believes in God. Alcohol, tobacco, cigarettes, and other substances
have never been used by her.
She had a tough time with academics in the early years of her education but after the fourth
grade it started getting easier for her and she found more interest to pursue her studies. She
was always in the top 3 ranks in her class when it came to sports. She wasn’t very interested
in athletics. She did really well in both her board exams (10th and 12th grade) and it wasn’t
difficult for her to get the course and a seat in the university she wanted to go to. One issue
she claims to face is being unaware of how to properly estimate the worth of her work. She
took an internship over the summer which paid almost nothing, but yet she took it seriously
despite feeling “used”. She has a hard time trying to say no to anyone.
She doesn’t socialize with many people apart from her acquaintances unless absolutely
necessary.
When asked about her strengths she said that she was able to work better alone than with a
group and that the group would slow her down. When asked further she said that she’d do
work more swiftly and efficiently if she had a deadline or else she’d be delaying her work.
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Materials required
Laptop, pencil, eraser, manual, softcopy of the questionnaire.
Procedure
Arrangement of materials
The material was arranged before the participant was called into the laboratory (the room that
was meant to portray the lab). An in-depth case history was taken after establishing rapport.
After explaining the instructions, the materials needed for the test were provided to the
participant.
Precautions
➔ Rapport must be established with the participant.

➔ A detailed case history must be recorded
➔ The test must not be exposed to the participant before giving instructions
➔ External variables such as light ventilation noise etc should be controlled
➔ All items should be answered by the participant
Instructions for the participant
There is a pattern with a part missing on every page of the booklet. Select the correct part
from the options below the pattern. As soon as you have decided which option is correct, you
must write the option number next to the item number on the answer sheet. The questions
start out easy and become harder as you go along. You should attempt each question. Make a
guess if you are uncertain about an answer, but do not leave any items unanswered. On the
answer sheet, make sure you record the answers in the right column. If you can, finish as
soon as possible.
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Scoring
The subject obtained the following scores in the 5 sets of the test:
Set A Set B Set C Set D Set E
Obtained 10 12 9 9 8
Score
Expected 12 11 9 10 5
Score
Discrepancy -2 1 0 -1 3
TIME TAKEN: 15 minutes 20 seconds
Observations
The participant was not willing to be very clear with the case history in the start, she appeared
to be worried about oversharing. But after some additional rapport building and asking more
questions, she opened up and shared more about herself and her academics. She was dressed
casually and was shy but cooperative. He answered most questions and acknowledged the
ones that she didn’t wish to answer. She took the test in a calm and calculated manner and
followed instructions that were given.
Interpretation of scores
The participant, S.S, obtained a score of 10 in set A, which has an expected score of 12. This
shows a discrepancy of ‘-2’. In set B, the participant obtained a score of 12. The expected
score in set B is 11, so the discrepancy is ‘1’. In set C, the participant obtained a score of 9.
The expected score in this set is 9, which shows a discrepancy of ‘0’. In set D, the participant
obtained a score of 9. The expected score in this set is 10, which shows a discrepancy of ‘- 1’.
In set E, the participant obtained a score of 8. The expected score in this set is 5, which shows
a discrepancy of ‘3’. The discrepancy in set E shows a deviation of more than 2, which means
that the participant’s score in this set cannot be expected at its face value as a consistent
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estimate of the participant’s general capacity for intellectual activity. The participant has
obtained a total score of 47 (10+12+9+9+8) in the SPM. This corresponds to the 90th
percentile score. 90th percentile corresponds to ‘II+ grade’ which means ‘Definitely above
the average intellectual capacity’.
Retrospective report
"I thought the test was something really big. I have never been a part of tests like this and it
was a fun change to my day. Even though some of the questions required a lot of thought, I
gave it a try. Some of the questions left me curious about the answers. Overall, it was a
pleasant experience to be a participant in the test. I try to learn anything I can about myself
and be better than I am at any given point of time."
- S.S.
Conclusion
The Raven’s Standard Progressive Matrices (or Raven’s SPM) is a non-verbal intelligence
test used to assess the test taker’s observational skills, problem-solving and overall ability to
learn. The test consists of 5 sets with 12 items each. The participant obtained a score of 47 in
the test, which means a 90th percentile rank. The participant has an intellect of ‘II+ grade’
which means above average intellectual capacity.
Recommendation
The participant mentioned mostly having socialised with people in her immediate
acquaintance, like her own class and her neighbors. She mentioned how it was now that she
was fearful of talking to others, just that she wasn’t as comfortable.
Despite the fact that most studies examining the benefits of social support have focused on
the elderly (Steptoe, Dockray, and Wardle, 2009), having a strong social network is crucial to
psychological and physical health regardless of age. In a study of incoming college freshmen,
social support reduced depression both in those with healthy self-esteem and those with poor
self-image (Cohen, Sherrod, & Clark, 1986).
127
Oscar Ybarra and his colleagues at the University of Michigan explored the possibility that
social interaction improves mental functioning. In a series of related studies, they tested the
participants' level of cognitive functioning, comparing it to the frequency of participants'
social interactions.
They found that people who engaged in social interaction displayed higher levels of cognitive
performance than the control group. Social interaction aided intellectual performance.
In her case, socializing would without a doubt be a good way for her to further improve her
intellect and its various facets. After hearing her history, it is clear that she has been studying
well and efficiently, but the kind of skills in problem solving and observation that would
come from socializing would be helpful.
128
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Appendix
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Mental Status Examination
Appearance: Casually dressed, normally groomed, and hygiene was taken care of
Attitude: Calm, Co-operative, sometimes fidgety.
Behaviour: Fidgety (psychomotor agitation)
Speech: Normal volume, rate, and tone.
Affect: Tensed, and anxious.
Mood: Anxious, nervous.
Thought process: Logical.
Thought content: No present/active suicidal or homicidal ideation.
Perception: No hallucinations or delusions.
Orientation: Orientation to self, time, place, and person intact.
Memory: Short-term and long-term intact.
Insight: Intellectual and emotional insight present\.
Judgement: Good
132
AIBAS
Title: Social Intelligence Scale (SIS-CG)
INDEX
Sr. Topic
No.
Introduction - 137
1 Factors Affecting Social Intelligence- 146
Relevant Studies- 149
2 Application and significance of Social Intelligence- 152
3 Methodology- 153
4 Procedure- 156
Demographic Details- 157
5 Observation- 161
Scores- 161
6 Interpretations, Retrospective Report,Discussion- 162
133
7 Recommendation- 163
8 References- 165
Apendix- 166
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Social Intelligence Scale (SIS-CG)

Clinical Psychology
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Social Intelligence Scale (SIS-CG)

by Dr. N. K. Chadda and Ms. Usha Ganesan
Purpose of the test
To assess the social intelligence of the participant using the Social Intelligence Scale by Dr.
N. K. Chadda and Ms. Usha Ganesan
Introduction
Edward Thorndike developed the theory, which has been reinvented by psychologists
like Howard Gardner and Daniel Goleman. Gardner suggested there are multiple
intelligences, of which he mentioned two important ones, intrapersonal intelligence and
interpersonal intelligence. Gardner defines interpersonal intelligence as sensitivity to others'
moods, temperaments, and motivations as well as the ability to cooperate as a member of a
group. Gardner equated it with Goleman's Emotional Intelligence. In later developments,
Goleman wrote the famous book called “Social Intelligence”: The New Science of Social
Relationships (2006), in which Goleman separated two of the emotional-intelligence
competencies; social awareness and relationship management into a distinguished concept
known as social intelligence thus giving a new name ‘Emotional and Social Intelligence
(ESI)’ to all the competencies he had earlier filed under one concentric term ‘EI’. To this day,
this ESI has been the key differentiator between opening performers and average performers.
Therefore, social intelligence is a superset of emotional intelligence. There are many different
types of social intelligence. In other words, Social Intelligence is a continuation of Emotional
Intelligence, so it is more tangible and more applicable.
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Definition and meaning of Social Intelligence:
According to the original definition of Edward Thorndike, it is "the ability to

understand and manage men and women, boys and girls, to act wisely in human
relations"
“The ability to interact successfully with other people'' ( Ford & Tisak, 1983),
Social intelligence can be described as an individual's proficiency at social skills and
behaviours.
Colloquial terms for social intelligence include 'street smarts' and 'common sense.'
According to Sean Foleno, Social intelligence is a person’s competence to
comprehend his or her environment optimally and react appropriately for socially
successful conduct. Social intelligence is the ability to understand people and
effectively relate to them. It is often contrasted with abstract intelligence and concrete
intelligence. Social intelligence can be described as an individual's proficiency at
social skills and behaviours. Colloquial terms for social intelligence include 'street
smarts' and 'common sense.' This type of intelligence is different from the type
measured by IQ tests. Social intelligence is mostly influenced by environmental
factors and is developed from past experiences with other people in the environment.
Note:
Verbal and communication skills are very important for having high social
intelligence. Being able to effectively communicate with a wide range of people in various
settings is an indicator of proficient social intelligence. Behaving appropriately in social
settings is also an important quality which includes knowledge of social norms and rules.
Being a good listener is another integral component of social intelligence. Social intelligence
is correlated with emotional intelligence in that it is important to be able to read others'
emotions and feel empathy for other people. Social intelligence is a developed and learned
skill that can be improved by an individual taking action and working on their social skills
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Theories of intelligence
Thorndike’s intelligence theory
Also known as Multi factor theory of intelligence which was proposed by EL

Thorndike. According to Thorndike, intelligence is not a single factor like general
intelligence, rather it is a combination of multiple factors. These factors include:
(a) Abstract intelligence
(b) Concrete (technical) intelligence,
(c) Social intelligence
,etc.
Thorndike states, each factor is an independent element and hence it is not possible to
combine all these elements.
Guilford’s structure of intellect theory
According to Guilford's Structure of Intellect (SI) theory (1955), an individual's performance

on intelligence tests can be traced back to the underlying mental abilities or factors of
intelligence. SI theory comprises up to 180 different intellectual abilities organized along
three dimensions: operations, content, and products. The Structure of Intellect Theory
advanced by Guilford was applied by Mary N. Meeker for educational purposes.
Operations dimension
SI (Social Intelligence) includes six operations or general intellectual processes:
Cognition - The ability to understand, comprehend, discover, and become aware of

information
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Memory recording - The ability to encode information
Memory retention - The ability to recall information
Divergent production - The ability to generate multiple solutions to a problem; creativity
Convergent production - The ability to deduce a single solution to a problem; rule-following

or problem-solving
Evaluation - The ability to judge whether or not information is accurate, consistent, or valid
Content dimension
SI includes four broad areas of information to which the human intellect applies the six
operations:
Figural - Concrete, real world information, tangible objects, things in the environment
- It includes:
A. Visual: information perceived through sight
B. Auditory: information perceived through hearing,
C. Kinaesthetic: information perceived through one's own physical

actions
Symbolic - Information interpreted as symbols or signs which represent something

else, like Arabic numerals, letters of an alphabet, or musical or scientific notations
Semantic - Concerned with verbal meaning and ideas - Generally considered to be

abstract in nature.
Behavioural - Information perceived as acts of people (This dimension was not fully
researched in Guilford's project. It remains theoretical and is generally not included in
the final model that he proposed for describing human intelligence.)
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Product dimension
As the name suggests, this dimension contains results of applying particular operations to
specific contents. The SI model includes six products in increasing complexity:
Units - Single items of knowledge
Classes - Sets of units sharing common attributes
Relations - Units linked as opposites or in associations, sequences, or analogies
Systems - Multiple relations interrelated to comprise structures or networks
Transformations - Changes, perspectives, conversions, or mutations to knowledge
Implications - Predictions, inferences, consequences, or anticipations of knowledge
Therefore, according to Guilford there are 5 x 6 x 6 = 180 intellectual abilities or factors (his
research only confirmed about three behavioural abilities, so it is generally not included in
the model). Each ability stands for a particular operation in a particular content area and
results in a specific product, such as Comprehension of Figural Units or Evaluation of
Semantic Implications. Guilford's original model was composed of 120 components (when
the behavioural component is included) because he had not separated Figural Content into
separate Auditory and Visual contents, nor had he separated Memory into Memory Recording
and Memory Retention. When he separated Figural into Auditory and Visual contents, his
model increased to 5 x 5 x 6 = 150 categories. When Guilford separated the memory
functions, his model finally increased to 180 factors.
Karl Albrecht (space model)
According to Karl Albrecht, “I think of the six primary dimensions of intelligence –

Abstract, Social, Practical, Emotional, Aesthetic and Kinaesthetic – as analogous to
the six faces of a cube. Each presents a distinct facet, or face, of one’s total
competence. We can think of them as separate for purposes of discussion and analysis,
but actually they are intimately interwoven.” The Social Intelligence Profile (SIP)
analyses SI through three different and compatible “lenses.” Each lens shows you a
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picture of your social interaction from a particular point of view. Two of these lenses,
or dimensions, involve evaluations or judgments you yourself make about your
effectiveness in dealing with others. The third is your self-description of your
interaction style, which is your preferred pattern of behaviour for a large number of
situations. Your interaction style is not subject to judgment or evaluation – it is merely
your acquired preference.
I. Social Skills – the “S.P.A.C.E.” formula: Part I of the SIP presents you with a
list of various behaviours, divided into five basic skill categories –
1) Situational Awareness
2) Presence
3) Authenticity
4) Clarity
5) Empathy.
Situational Awareness (or social awareness) is your ability to observe and understand the
context of a situation you may find yourself in, and to understand the ways in which the
situation dominates or shapes the behaviour of the people in it.
Presence, also known simplistically as “bearing,” is the impression, or total message you
send to others with your behaviour. People tend to make inferences about your character,
your competence and your sense of yourself based on the behaviours they observe as part of
your total presence dimension.
Authenticity is the extent to which others perceive you as acting from honest, ethical motives,
and the extent to which they sense that your behaviour is congruent with your personal values
– i.e. “playing straight.”
Clarity is the ability to express ideas clearly, effectively and with impact. It involves a range
of “communicating” skills such as listening, feedback, paraphrasing, semantic flexibility,
skilful use of language, skill in using metaphors and figures of speech, and the ability to
explain things clearly and concisely.
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Empathy is the skill of building connections with people – the capacity to get people to meet
you on a personal level of respect and willingness to cooperate. Empathy, in this case, goes
beyond the conventional definition of having a feeling toward another person; here, it means
creating a mutual feeling between yourself and another person.
The person taking the S.I.S. for self-assessment answers a series of self-rating
questions dealing with various behaviours classified as either toxic or nourishing. He
or she adds up the scores for each S.P.A.C.E. category and plots the five scores as dots
on the five axes of a radar chart.
II. Self-Insight: Part II of the SIP presents a series of adjective pairs,

representing contrasting descriptions others might give of the person who is
answering the questions. Contrasts like “Cold – Warm,” “Inarticulate –
Articulate” and “Long-winded – Concise” challenge the user to reflect
carefully on how others might see him or her, to try to guess accurately how
they might use these various contrasting adjectives. The user circles a number
on a five-point scale between the two opposing adjectives, to show the score
he or she thinks others would give. The highest- and lowest-rated adjectives
provide a starting point for thinking about how one is influencing others.
III. Interaction Style: Part III of the SIP invites the user to read a series of
scenarios, or situations in which he or she might encounter others. Each
scenario provides four options for behaving, corresponding to four primary
interaction styles one might use as his or her preferred “home base.” The
underlying model of social interaction styles involves two primary
dimensions: social energy and results focus. Social energy is the impulse to
engage other people, to interact with them, to influence them and be
influenced by them. Results focus is the preference for getting things done
either through people or by one’s own effort. The two extremes of these two
variables – high and low social energy and task focus vs. people focus –
provide four basic combinations which we can think of behavioural
preferences across a range of situations. Each pattern has a shorthand name
that suggests its primary orientation. Some people mix these four patterns
almost equally, while others may tend to prefer one pattern as the favourite.
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Again, the purpose of the social styles dimension is insight rather than
judgment or self-criticism.
Goleman model of emotional and social intelligence-
Science journalist Daniel Goleman was the one to put the psychological theory
of ESI on the map for the general public. He wrote three bestsellers on the topic to
date and emphasized the importance of ESI to a functional life.
He also defined four main components involved in the functioning of emotional and
social intelligence, a few years after Mayer and Salovey put forth their research:
Self-regulation. This consists of an ability to think prior to acting, and also to suspend
emotional judgement on occurrences. In addition to this, it involves having control
over mood swings and impulses, and thus not allowing them to disrupt one’s quality
of life. Its trademarks include openness to change, integrity, reliability, and an ease in
accepting ambiguity.
Self-awareness. A person that is self-aware understands what drives their behaviour,

as well as the effects that it has on others. The most common trademarks are
self-deprecating humour, realistic assessments of one’s conduit, and a healthy dose of
self-confidence. It is the ability to not take yourself too seriously, while at the same
time understating your value.
Relationship skills. When you possess strong social skills, you effortlessly form
relationships with your peers, as well as manage them correctly. The trademarks of
this characteristic consist of team leadership capacities, managerial aptitudes, and
persuasiveness.
Social awareness. Possessing empathic traits does not necessarily involve feeling
compassion for others, but rather understanding their emotional makeup and treating
them according to subsequent reactions. Trademarks consist of customer service
skills, the ability to recruit talent, and sensitivity to sociocultural factors such as
gender, ethnicity, or sexual orientation.
Goleman also emphasized the value of internal motivation.
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Professionals that are internally motivated excel at their job for reasons that go
beyond status, money, and other material benefits.
They find joy in their actions and have an immense thirst for knowledge that
surpasses the satisfaction that comes from external rewards. Their trademarked
qualities involve optimism, as well as a desire to achieve greater things each day.
Goleman also posits that the higher someone rises within an organisation, the greater
their social skills are required to be. Therefore, senior directors and managers are
required to be competent in social intelligence.
Social Intelligence tests
The George Washington Social Intelligence Test:
This non-projective social intelligence test was designed to measure certain factors of
judgment, information and memory related to dealing with people and carrying on social
relationships. The test consisted of three versions. The revised form (second edition, 1949)
contained five parts: judgement in social situations, memory for names and faces, behavioural
observation, sense of humour, and recognition of the mental state of the speaker. The revised
form featured new photographs, and a new scoring format. The short edition only contained
four parts: judgement in social situations, behavioural observation, recognition of the mental
state of the speaker, and sense of humour. The special edition contained even fewer portions,
only judgement in social situations, and behavioural observation.
The test-retest reliability for Form I was recorded at .89, parallel form of Form I and II was
.83, and corrected split-half reliability was determined to be .88. Corrected split-half
reliability for the Revised edition, the short edition, and SP edition ranged from .72 to .86.
The Tromso Social Intelligence Scale
It was developed by Silvera et al. (2001) in order to reveal social intelligence level, the
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Tromso Social Intelligence Scale (TSIS) is a self-report instrument including 21 items. The
TSIS measures intelligence on the base of three different subscales-
Social Information Processing (SIP): This subscale measures the ability of understanding
verbal or nonverbal messages regarding human relations, empathizing and reading hidden
messages as well as explicit messages.
Social Skills (SS): This subscale measures the basic communication skills such as active
listening, acting boldly, establishing, maintaining, and breaking up a relationship.
Social Awareness (SA): This subscale measures the ability of active behaviour in accordance
with the situation, place, and time.
Each of the subscales comprises 7 items. A 7-point Likert-type scale form was prepared for
the items included in the scale. The minimum and maximum scores in the items are 1 and 7
respectively. By Silvera et al. (2001), cronbach alpha internal consistency coefficients for
social information processing, social skills and social awareness were found to be .81, .86 and
.79 respectively.
Factors affecting social intelligence
Traits
Social Boldness
The social boldness trait measures the level of how bold individuals are in the workplace and
the extent to which they are hesitant or outgoing in situations. The two values are:
Hesitant
Individuals who feel less comfortable in social situations. In the workplace, these are
individuals who prefer to keep to themselves.
Outgoing
Individuals who tend to be more outgoing and are very well suited to team projects. These
co-workers are the ones who will provide energy and drive communication during
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collaboration.
Warmth
According to recent theory and research in social cognition, interpersonal warmth refers to a
constellation of traits related to perceived favorability of the other person's intentions toward
us, including friendliness, helpfulness, and trustworthiness.
Self-reliance
The idea that one can rely on his or her own judgment, choices, and be free from these
societal influences is to be self-reliant. As such, according to Transcendentalism and
Emerson, it’s better to trust yourself. In some cases, if not most or all cases, to trust yourself
over and above what others believe.
Openness to change
Openness, also often referred to as openness/intellect or open to experience, is one of the Big
Five factors of personality. The Big Five theory suggests that personality is composed of five
major dimensions. Each dimension represents a continuum, so you can be high, low, or
somewhere in the middle with regards to each trait.
Trust
It is a central part of all human relationships, including romantic partnerships, family life,
business operations, politics, and medical practices. If you don’t trust your doctor or
psychotherapist, for example, it is much harder to benefit from their professional advice.
Self- Disclosure
The act of revealing personal or private information about one’s self to other people. In
relationships research, self-disclosure has been shown to foster feelings of closeness and
intimacy. In psychotherapy, the revelation and expression by the client of personal, innermost
feelings, fantasies, experiences, and aspirations is believed by many to be a requisite for
therapeutic change and personal growth. Additionally, pertinent revelation by the therapist of
his or her personal details to the client can—if used with discretion—be a valuable tool to
increase rapport and earn the trust of the client.
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Needs
Social nature
Social psychology is the scientific study of how people's thoughts, feelings, beliefs, intentions
and goals are constructed within a social context by the actual or imagined interactions with
others. It therefore looks at human behavior as influenced by other people and the social
context in which this occurs. Social psychologists typically explain human behavior as a
result of the relationship between mental state and social situation, studying the conditions
under which thoughts, feelings, and behaviour occur and how these variables influence social
interactions.
Work Direction
Work is one arena in which human beings constitute their identities and participate in
collective-cultural enterprises. But research on factors affecting the meaning of work and its
outcomes focuses mostly on individual-level variables related to workers’ experience.
Fellowship
A Psychology Fellowship is a unique academic opportunity for graduate students and

postdoctoral trainees to develop their clinical skills in order to provide better behavioral
health services. Outside the APA, there are many fellowship opportunities for psychologists.
For example, the Veteran Affairs (VA) provides a variety of fellowship opportunities for
psychologists who are interested in helping veterans with their mental health problems. They
offer approximately 400 post-doctoral fellowships in almost 79 VA medical centers across the
country. These unique programs are supported through cooperation from the Office of
Academic Affiliations (OAA) and the VA Psychology Training Council (VAPTC).
Cognitive
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Logical thinking
It is the process in which one uses reasoning consistently to conclude. Problems or situations
that involve logical thinking call for structure, for relationships between facts, and for chains
of reasoning that “make sense.” Logical thinking skills give learners the ability to understand
what they have read or been shown, and also to build upon that knowledge without
incremental guidance. Logical thinking teaches students that knowledge is fluid and builds
upon itself.
Relevant Studies
A Study of Social Intelligence & Academic Achievement of College Students of District

Srinagar, J&K, India, 2015.
The study revealed that science students have been found to be confident, tactful and have
good memory than social science students, whereas social science students have been
found to be more patient, cooperative, sensitive, recognized social environment, and
have good sense of humour than science college students. On the composite score it has
been found that the two groups differ significantly. It indicates that social science college
students have higher social intelligence than science college students. It has also been
found that on academic achievement, two groups- Science and Social Science College
students differ significantly. The study further revealed that Science college students have
better academic achievement than Social Science College Students.
A Correlational Study of Social Intelligence and Well-Being by Neha Sharma (Student, M.Sc.
Psychology CBLU, Bhiwani, NET Qualified, India)
It inspects the correlation between Social Intelligence and Well-Being of teenagers.

Social Intelligence is the individual's capacity to comprehend and oversee other individuals
and to take part in versatile social connections. Well-Being suggests feeling of satisfaction,
bliss, fulfilment with life experience and one's job in the realm of work regarding 'physical',
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'mental', 'social', 'enthusiastic' and 'otherworldly' viewpoints. By utilizing Random Sampling
Technique, 60 teenagers have been taken from Bhiwani city Of Haryana State. The Tromso
Social Intelligence scale and General Well-Being scale have been utilized to gather the data.
The outcome uncovers that estimation of relationship between Social Intelligence And
Well-Being is .771. The correlation is noteworthy at 0.01 level of significance. So there is a
noteworthy positive correlation between Social Intelligence and Well-Being.
Relationship between social intelligence and happiness in Payame Noor University students
The purpose of this research was to study the relationship between social intelligence
and happiness among male and female university students. 226 students (96 male and 130
female) were selected randomly. Social Intelligence Questionnaire (SIQ) and Oxford
Happiness Inventory (OHI) were used to carry out the study. Data analysed by Pearson
correlation coefficient, T test, and ANOVA. The results of the study showed that there is a
positive significant relationship between social intelligence and happiness; ANOVA results
showed that F value is significant. Thus, it is essential to use post hoc tests. Post hoc test
results showed that the technical engineering group is higher than the basic sciences group in
social intelligence.
Social intelligence of tribal and non-tribal volleyball players
The purpose of the study was to find out the Social Intelligence of Tribal andNon-tribal
Volleyball Players. The sample for the present study consisted of 100 Volleyball Players of
16-25 years. They were taken from the Surguja District of Chhattisgarh state during the
summer training camp in which 50 were tribal and 50 were non-tribal. Hindi version of
Social Intelligence Scale (SIS-CG) developed by N. K. Chandra and Usha Ganeshan was
administered to access Social Intelligence. It measures social intelligence through 66 items in
eight areas -
I. Patience
II. Cooperativeness
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III. Confidence level
IV. Sensitivity
V. Recognition of social environment
VI Tactfulness
VII. Sense of humor
VIII. Memory
It has been found that the tribal volleyball players show slight differences from non-tribal
Volleyball players but that the difference between the scores of Tribal and Nontribal players
is not significant in any level of significance. This is concluded that Volleyball players
showed above average scores. This is a good sign but there is also a scope to develop social
Intelligence on a higher and excellent level.
Role of social intelligence in students educational development
The aim of this research was to consider and study the Role of Social Intelligence In
Students Educational Development. Education is a powerful instrument for change in society.
When such a responsibility is imposed on the educational institutions, they have to play a
positive role for bringing a progressive change in the society. A student enjoys a pivotal
position in the educational system that gets influenced and prepares him for the future life. In
schools and colleges the best records are made by students who have other qualities in
addition to intelligence, like persistence and willingness to go along with established routines.
From child classification to higher level students, in all situations where people live and work
together, intelligence and academic achievement are constantly under scrutiny and being
evaluated. The present study is a humble attempt to assess the role social intelligence for the
student’s development. Psychologists developed interest in understanding, promoting and
utilizing the individual differences for the development and prosperity of the society. The
study will be the guideline for the teachers, educationists and practitioners, researchers as
well as curriculum planners, in order to imbibe coherence and integrity in personality and
develop social intelligence among the students so that the students will be able to acquire
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basic understanding regarding themselves i.e., where they stand in various dimensions of
social intelligence, so that they can tackle the day to day situations more efficiently and
tactfully.
Application of the Social Intelligence Scale
These skills are directly related to the management of people. Applied with a set of standards,
rules, and policies, they will substantially reduce your management difficulties. You are
certainly aware of how difficult it is to change the destructive and disruptive people in your
life and work environment. Now you will see that there is an affective and effective way to
manage such people with results favorable to you. Through the use of the Application Skills
Set, you can increase the chances of making your point and influence others to listen and act
more responsibly. Remember, more skillful management means less stress for you. Following
are the desirable application behaviors sought :
➔ Knows the rules/regulations/policies and applies them fairly

➔ Knows the difference between a request and a demand and when to use each
➔ Investigates all requests to ensure that decisions are based on facts
➔ Negotiates effectively
➔ Introduces needed change even in the face of opposition
Significance of Social Intelligence:
Social intelligence helps individuals build relationships and is important to numerous

aspects of a person’s life. It allows an individual to form friendships and alliances. And, it
assists a person against being taken advantage of. People with social intelligence can “read”
other people’s faces and know what motivates them. Social intelligence builds over time and
as a person ages. In this sense, it is similar to the character strength of perspective. On a
group level, social intelligence is what allows us to function as humans. We are social beings
and rely on each other’s cooperation. By understanding ourselves and other people, we can
find ways to collaborate for mutual benefit. Strong leaders often possess social intelligence in
abundance. In order to motivate people, leaders must form relationships and inspire others to
want to do what needs to be done. It can be learned, developed and used as an effective life
skill for managing personal life, interpersonal relationships and achieving success in all walks
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of life.
Methodology
Description of the test
Ms Usha Ganesan and Dr. N. K. Chadha developed the test in 2013. Interest in social
intelligence has been on the rise. Social intelligence has shown to be important in
various professions today, particularly when emphasis is placed on interpersonal
relationships in diverse work environments. For a long time, people have recognized
the difficulty of understanding their behavior in face-to-face contact, of empathy or
personal perception, of social sensitivity, and of influencing or managing their
behavior, but little systematic study has been done on the fundamentals of those
aspects of human behavior. E.L. Thorndike (1920) had pointed out that there is an
aspect of personality that can be called “social intelligence, which is distinct from
concrete and abstract intelligences.
A panel of 25 experts in the field of behavioral sciences initially selected the dimensions that
measure social intelligence. A scientific approach was followed when selecting the
dimensions of social intelligence for the scale. Consequently, sixteen relevant and meaningful
dimensions of social intelligence were identified and defined. After these were presented to
25 experts, 13 of them were unanimously accepted. Afterwards, 10 experts were asked to rate
each on a 5-point scale ranging from very relevant to irrelevant. They were also asked to rank
the dimensions from most relevant to least relevant. Then, 8 dimensions were selected and
retained for final inclusion in the scale. There are 66 items on this scale divided into 5 parts
and 8 dimensions:
1. Patience- Calm endurance under stressful situations.

2. Cooperativeness- Ability to interact with others in a pleasant way to be able to view
matters from all angles
3. Confidence Level- Firm trust in oneself and one's chances.
4. Sensitivity- To be acutely aware of and responsive to human behavior.
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5. Recognition of Social Environment – Ability to perceive the nature and atmosphere of
the existing situation.
6. Tactfulness- Delicate perception of the right thing to say or do.
7. Sense of Humor- Capacity to feel and cause amusement
8. Memory- Ability to remember all relevant issues; names and faces of people.
Reliability
In order to determine the test-retest reliability the scale was administered on a sample of (75
male & 75 female) and it was again administered to the same sample population. Coefficients
for various dimensions of this scale are :
➔ Patience - 0.94
➔ Cooperativeness - 0.91
➔ Confidence - 0.90
➔ Sensitivity - 0.92
➔ Recognition and social environment - 0.95
➔ Tactfulness - 0.84
➔ Sense of humour - 0.92
➔ Memory - 0.97
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Validity
The technique of validity used to validate this scale were
1. Empirical Validity – the present scale and the social intelligence test by Moss and
Hunt were administered and scored on 50 individuals. The total score of the present
scale is highly and significantly correlated with the Social Intelligence Test of Moss
and Hunt. Henceforth the present scale has a validity coefficient of 0.70.
2. Cross Validation – The data of 50 samples were taken. The data obtained on the first
sample and second sample was correlated to test the validity of the scale. The persons
coefficients obtained are as follows:
➔ Patience - 0.82
➔ Cooperativeness - 0.91
➔ Confidence - 0.86
➔ Sensitivity - 0.75
➔ Recognition and social environment - 0.91
➔ Tactfulness - 0.75
➔ Sense of humour - 0.95
➔ Memory - 0.94
Norms
The Social Intelligence Scale was standardized on a sample population of 300 (150 males and
150 females). The sample consisted of adult students at university level in various faculties.
The minimum age was 18 years. z-Score Norms have been presented in table 13.
Scoring and Interpretation
Scoring has to be done manually by counting total score obtained in all dimensions. Once you
get the raw score, z-Score (Table -13), Grade (Table-14) and level of social Intelligence
(Table-14) can be obtained from the manual using that raw score.
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Materials Required
1. Social Intelligence Scale Manual

2. Reusable Booklet of (SIS-CG)
3. Answer sheet of (SIS-CG)
4. Laptop
5. Pencil
6. Eraser
Precautions
A rapport must be established. Case histories should be recorded in detail. It is important to

avoid exposing the participant to the test before giving instructions. Participants should
answer all questions. Ensure that the instructions have been understood by the participants.
Instructions
“In this booklet there are some statements regarding the way in which we behave, feel
and act. We want your first response. Please try to give your best possible answer honestly
and sincerely. Read and understand each statement properly and then put your mark on any
cell against the given statement on the answer sheet by making the tick mark. Please do not
omit any statement. Your answers will be kept strictly confidential. We need your full
cooperation”
PART- I
“Please read the following statements carefully and among the three responses given for each
of them, pick up the one which seems to you to be the most likely way in which you would
respond. You are to choose only one response from a, b, and c and tick mark on the
appropriate cell on the answer sheet”
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PART- II
“From each of the following quotations, select the word that most accurately describes the
mental state of the person making the statement. Tick mark the correct answer on the answer
sheet”
PART-III
“In this part, there are some statements regarding the way you behave and act. Each statement
has a forced choice response of either ‘yes’ or ‘no’. Try and decide whether ‘yes’ or ‘no’
presents your usual way of behaving and acting. If Yes, tick mark the cell below ‘yes’ and if
no, then tick mark cell below ‘No’”
PART-IV
“Below is a list of incomplete jobs. Against them, there are three choices with which to
complete the joke. You are to select and tick mark the choice you consider to be the most
humorous”
PART-V
Write down. the name of the eminent persons on the answer sheet.
Name: Abreez Musadik
Age: 21
Gender: Male
Educational background: Computer Engineer
Occupation: Programmer
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Family structure: Nuclear Family
Mother’s Occupation: Educational counsellor
Mother’s Educational Status: B.Sc.
Father’s Occupation: Business Owner
Geographic location: Jeddah, Saudi Arabia (born and raised) / Mangalore, India
(Engineering studies) / Kerala, India (Native Place)
The participant, A.M, is a 21-year-old male who stays in the city of Jeddah, Saudi Arabia.
His family consists of her two younger brothers, and parents. He completed his engineering a
month ago. The participant was not accompanied by any informant. When he was asked
about the issues and problems he was facing, he said that he has been having a tough time
adjusting to life after getting back to Jeddah, Saudi Arabia from Mangalore, India. He has
tried quitting smoking and it is making him irritable. The participant was born in the city of
Jeddah, Saudi Arabia. The pregnancy was full-term and the delivery was a normal one.
During the appropriate developmental milestones, she was able to walk and talk. In
childhood, the participant was a playful boy. He enjoyed socializing and making friends. He
was reluctant to go for engineering but after pressure from teachers and relatives, he went
into engineering. He was unsure about clearing his degree, but he did end up passing in all
subjects. The participant finds himself stressed as even though he has finished his degree, he
needs to learn more for his job as a programmer.
He lived in the university hostel where he made friends in the first two years of his university
education and then ended up spending his time with them throughout the course and didn’t
make as many friends in the later years of his degree.
He returned to Jeddah a month ago to visit his family. He spends time with his family and
two of his friends that he has left in Jeddah. He completed his high school in Jeddah, Saudi
Arabia, and for future studies all his friends have moved to different countries and therefore
spends his time with the two high school friends who are in the city.
He recently started a job at the company in Jeddah, and he is in his training period. He is able
157
to socialise well with everyone, but he does report feeling left behind as he has to learn things
he didn’t hear of during his study.
The Participant is an engineer, but he is worried about a career path. He does a private ritual
of word association and goes through a variety of life situations. In one power is one of many
words that come to mind. In another, it's also one of many words that come to mind. In both
cases, it's not A.M’s favorite word to associate with himself mostly these days. The social
aspect of A.M's personality has always been important. Due to all the hours he spent on the
computer during his engineering course, he did not go to many parties or get-togethers in his
final year.
Following the completion of his engineering, he realizes he needs to get out more often.
Attending parties with new people in their late twenties and early thirties, he makes new
friends. Besides making friends at work, he also meets people at the barber shop near his
workplace.
In his final year of his university life, he decided to finish his engineering and explore the
world. He started by talking to people and he found out that people are much more interesting
than machines.
A.M is a software engineer and he has completed his engineering. On completion, we
decided to do an in-depth history taking of his social life after having broken free from
addiction. Here's what we found:
- He was happy with the change in lifestyle
- His social media activities reduced by 50%
- He spends more time on coding
I found that A.M was satisfied with the change in lifestyle and reduced workload. His social
media activities were reduced by 50% because of increased coding time for work
In the end, he concluded that engineering is still an esteemed profession and he will pursue it
with all his might because there are other good paths for him to take should he change his
mind.
“I spend most of my days at work, fixing bugs and improving on the code. I often do wish
that there were bug fixes for life too. I also have some free time during the weekends to keep
learning new technologies and programming languages. My ultimate goal is to become a
programmer in a top-notch company.” he said.
In social sitations he mentioned having a radar of what’s too much and what is fine. He said
he’s been around far too many people from different contexts that he has an idea of how to
behave in the best fasion for any crowd that he might hang out with. He just mwntions having
158
a hard time remembering names of people he meets at parties.
He has been struggling with addiction and has tried curing himself to an extent by switching
to a healthy lifestyle and spending more time with his family.
The journey to self-improvement has been arduous, but he is determined to change his
lifestyle for good.
“I have smoked cigarettes since I was 15 years old. It was something that I enjoyed doing and
was addicted to. I would smoke at least two packets daily and it had started taking a toll on
my health as well as my wallet. The reason why I started smoking in the first place was
because there were cigarettes everywhere around me! Even the movies I watched had
characters smoking around me! So it didn't take much for me to get addicted.
A.M is now an ex-smoker and the founder of Clean, a new app for people with addictions.
(He’s working on it as of now, it isn’t a completed project yet)
A.M grew up in a home where his father was always on the go and on his mother's hectic
schedule. He used tobacco to keep himself occupied and one day, he found out that it wasn't
just an addiction but also a dependency. He became hooked on it and started smoking more
than 20 cigarettes daily. As time went on, he became less social towards his final year of
engineering.
A.M then had the idea to create the Clean app which provides people with addiction with
personalized motivational messages, exercises, video tutorials etc., which help them get their
lives back on track.
A.M shared his experience of how he was addicted to tobacco for over 5 years and how he
finally managed to get free from it.
He also shared his life story and the negative aspects of his addiction such as feeling bad
about himself and how it led him towards a downward spiral. He then went on to share his
experience of getting off tobacco and the positive changes that came with that. He believes
that everyone should be given a chance to live a healthier lifestyle without any pressure and
this realization led him towards setting up ++++, which is an organization aiming at
providing mental health solutions for people struggling with addiction.
159
Observations
The participant was open and honest during the case history taking. He didn’t try to hide the
fact that he's trying to quit smoking and feels irritable sometimes. He says him joining a gym
helped him feel better. He was calm and cooperative. During rapport building he made a few
puns and jokes, it seemed he had a good sense of humour. He was excited during the test, and
even after the test to learn his scores. He wished the examiner (me) all the best for this report.
He mentioned how he’d only seen psychological tests in movies, mostly thriller ones where
they ask all sorts of questions and the examiner has a scary grin on his face. He mentioned
how under informed most people out of the psychology field are about psychology and how it
isn’t only for “paagal log” as it is colloquially said.
Scores:
The participant scored as so in the following domains:
Patience- 23/24
Cooperativeness- 28/33
Confidence Level- 18/24
Sensitivity- 19/27
Recognition of Social Environment – 1/3
Tactfulness- 6/7
Sense of Humor- 7/8
Memory- 7/12
160
Interpretation of scores
The participant, A.M, obtained a score of 23 out of a maximum possible 24 in table 2, which
is the domain of Patience. In table 3, the participant obtained a score of 28 out of a maximum
possible score of 33, it is the domain of Cooperativeness . In table 4, the participant obtained
a score of 18 out of a maximum possible score of 24, it is the domain of Confidence. In table
5, the participant obtained a score of 19 out of a maximum possible score of 27, it is the
domain of Sensitivity. In table 6, the participant obtained a score of 1 out of a maximum
possible score of 3, it is the domain of Recognition of social environment .In table 7, the
participant obtained a score of 7 out of a maximum possible score of 8, it is the domain of
Tactfulness .In table 8, the participant obtained a score of 7 out of a maximum possible score
of 8, it is the domain of Sense of Humour. In table 10, the participant obtained a score of 7
out of a maximum possible score of 12, it is the domain of Memory.
This brings the participants raw score to a total of 109
According to the z-score conversion chart, that is a z- score of +1.30
A z-score of +1.30 is a Grade B on the chart
Grade B is indicative of a “High” level of social intelligence
Retrospective report
"I found this to be a fun change of pace from having to work in a very very technical field. I
have always been fascinated with psychology and this test has helped me get first hand
experience with something psychology related. ."
- A.M.
161
Discussion
The participant did well in most domains. He obtained a score of 23 out of a maximum
possible 24 in table 2, which is the domain of Patience. In table 3, the participant obtained a
score of 28 out of a maximum possible score of 33, it is the domain of Cooperativeness . In
table 4, the participant obtained a score of 18 out of a maximum possible score of 24, it is the
domain of Confidence. In table 5, the participant obtained a score of 19 out of a maximum
possible score of 27, it is the domain of Sensitivity. In table 6, the participant obtained a score
of 1 out of a maximum possible score of 3, it is the domain of Recognition of social
environment .In table 7, the participant obtained a score of 7 out of a maximum possible
score of 8, it is the domain of Tactfulness .In table 8, the participant obtained a score of 7 out
of a maximum possible score of 8, it is the domain of Sense of Humour. In table 10, the
participant obtained a score of 7 out of a maximum possible score of 12, it is the domain of
Memory.
We notice from the scores that he appears to have a high level of patience, but the scores drop
a little in cooperativeness. It might relate to how he mentioned having a little difficulty
adjusting to life back in Jeddah. He isn’t comparatively high on the “Confidence” domain
either. It could be attributed to how he wasn’t sure of passing engineering or how he chose to
go for engineering in the first place under pressure.
His sensitivity isn’t very high either. He does appear to be tactful from his scores, which is in
line with his case history and behaviour. He also did well on sense of humour, it was noted
during the rapport building hat his sense of humor is evident.
Recommendation
The participant mentioned mostly having socialised with people in his immediate department
at work. He has been feeling like things are in the fast lane now and he’s being left behind.
Working on his confidence would certainly help. And socialising a little outside of his
department would help. He also mentioned how he only spends time with family and his two
old high school friends in Jeddah, meeting new people would help him build on the domains
that need help.
162
Despite the fact that most studies examining the benefits of social support have focused on
the elderly (Steptoe, Dockray, and Wardle, 2009), having a strong social network is crucial to
psychological and physical health regardless of age. In a study of incoming college freshmen,
social support reduced depression both in those with healthy self-esteem and those with poor
self-image (Cohen, Sherrod, & Clark, 1986).
Oscar Ybarra and his colleagues at the University of Michigan explored the possibility that
social interaction improves mental functioning. In a series of related studies, they tested the
participants' level of cognitive functioning, comparing it to the frequency of participants'
social interactions.
They found that people who engaged in social interaction displayed higher levels of cognitive
performance than the control group. Social interaction aided intellectual performance.
In her case, socializing would without a doubt be a good way for her to further improve her
intellect and its various facets. After hearing her history, it is clear that she has been studying
well and efficiently, but the kind of skills in problem solving and observation that would
come from socializing would be helpful.
163
References
Admin. (2018, October 9). George Washington University Social Intelligence test.
Psychology Resource Centre. Retrieved October 31, 2021, from
https://psycentre.apps01.yorku.ca/wp/george-washington-university-social-intelligence-test-r
evised-form-2nd-edition-gwsit/.
Cultivating Social Intelligence: 3 ways to understand others. PositivePsychology.com. (2021,

August 18). Retrieved October 31, 2021, from
https://positivepsychology.com/social-intelligence/.
Encyclopedia.com. (2021, October 31)." International encyclopedia of the social sciences. .

encyclopedia.com. 25 Oct. 2021. Encyclopedia.com. Retrieved October 31, 2021, from
https://www.encyclopedia.com/social-sciences/applied-and-social-sciences-magazines/intelli
gence-social.
J. P. Guilford - Wikipedia. En.m.wikipedia.org. (2021). Retrieved 31 October 2021, from

https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/J._P._Guilford.
Khilstrom, J. F., & Cantor, N. (n.d.). Social Intelligence. Retrieved October 31, 2021, from
https://www.ocf.berkeley.edu/~jfkihlstrom/social_intelligence.htm.
Main Theories of Emotional and Social Intelligence. Businessballs.com. (2021). Retrieved 31

October 2021, from
https://www.businessballs.com/self-awareness/main-theories-of-emotional-and-social-intellig
ence-esi/.
Multifactor Theory of Intelligence - Thorndike. Detsndt.ac.in. (2021). Retrieved 31 October

2021, from http://www.detsndt.ac.in/nmeict-files/nmeict-los/edupsycho-2/ep3/3.2.1/.
SI Profile: Theory – Karl Albrecht International. Karlalbrecht.com. (2021). Retrieved 31

October 2021, from https://karlalbrecht.com/wordpress/social-intelligence-theory/.
ShieldSquare Captcha. Iopscience.iop.org. (2021). Retrieved 31 October 2021, from
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https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1088/1742-6596/953/1/012004.
Thorndike, E. L. (1920). Intelligence and its use. Harper’s Magazine, 140, 227-235. Walker,
R. E., & Foley, J. M. (1973). Social intelligence: Its history and measurement. Psychological
Reports, 33, 451-495.
Appendix
165
166
167
168
Mental Status Examination
169
Appearance: Casually dressed, normally groomed, and hygiene was taken care of.
Attitude: Calm, Co-operative
Behaviour: Fidgety (psychomotor agitation)
Speech: Normal volume, rate, and tone.
Affect: Tensed, and anxious.
Mood: Happy, excited
Thought process: Logical.
Thought content: No present/active suicidal or homicidal ideation.
Perception: No hallucinations or delusions.
Orientation: Orientation to self, time, place, and person intact.
Memory: Short-term and long-term intact.
Insight: Intellectual and emotional insight present\.
Judgement: Intact
170

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Submitted for the partial fulfillment of the

THIRD YEAR BACHELOR OF SCIENCE- CLINICAL PSYCHOLOGY

Roll no.: 19021 Year: 2021-2022

Sr.no Title of Test Page Remark Teacher’s

1 Learned Optimism Scale (PCD 6

Questionnaire- Revised (EPQ- R)

Battery-II (MAB II)

4 Raven’s Standard Progressive 107

Ashfaque Mapker Saad

B.Sc. Clinical Psychology

Amity University, Mumbai

Ashfaque Mapker Saad

B.Sc. Clinical Psychology

Roll Number 19021

Amity University, Mumbai

Title: Learned Optimism Scale

Practical No.: 1 Class: B.Sc. Clinical Psychology, Section-A

Roll No.: 19021 Teacher’s Sign: ___________

3 Reliability, Validity, Scoring- 16

5. Observation and Discussion- 22

Learned Optimism Scale

Ashfaque Mapker Saad

Submitted to: Arbaz Miyaji

Purpose of the test:

Theoretical Framework of Learned Optimism: The concept of ‘Learned Optimism’ was

● Adversity: The situation that calls for a response.

● Belief: How one interprets the event.

● Consequence: The way an individual behaves, responds, or feels.

● Disputation: The effort one expends to argue or dispute the belief.

● Energization: The outcome that emerges from trying to challenge

A few benefits of learning to be optimistic include:

Better health outcomes

The Annals of Behavioural Medicine published a meta-analysis which showed

Better mental health

Lower stress levels

Improved coping mechanism

More job offers and promotions

Make for better sportspeople

Personalization: It is common for optimists to blame external circumstances or

Research 1: Happiness, Locus of Control and Learned Optimism Among University

Among its objectives are:

Student questionnaires assessed Locus of Control, Learned Optimism, and Happiness.

Research 2: Positive Forces of Life and Psychological Well-being among Corporate

1) Investigating levels of optimism and life satisfaction among corporate employees

Mean (M): 88.35

Standard Deviation: 10.68

Normal Range: 78-99

High: 100 (and above)

Low: 77 (and below)

Serial Number Choice Score

Serial Number Score obtained Level of learned optimism

1. 77 (or below) Low

3. 100 (or above) High

Marital Status: Unmarried

Educational background: Association of Certified Chartered Accountants

Family structure: Joint Family

Ordinal Position: 1st born

Mother’s Occupation: Housewife

Mother’s Educational Status: (not disclosed)

Father’s Occupation: Businessman / Construction line of work

Father’s educational qualification: (undisclosed)

Geographic location: Jeddah, Saudi Arabia