Chapter 11

FRACTURED FORMATION EVALUATION

In view of the influence of fractures on tool

responses, and of their contribution to the produc-
tivity of formations, it is appropriate to devote a
whole chapter to the study of fractured forma-
tions.

11 .l. INTRODUCTION -I
Undeformed Deformed by simple shear @
Fracture is a general term that indicates all
breaks or ruptures in a rock, whether accompanied
by a displacement or not. It corresponds to a
surface along which there is a loss of cohesion.
These ruptures are caused by tectonic forces
(tension, compression or torsion), or by changes of
temperature, by drying out, or by leaching in the
plane of stratification or schistosity.
Generally grouped in the category of fractures
are :
crack is a partial or incomplete fracture;
fissure is a surface of fracture or a crack
along which there is a distinct separation, often
filled with crystals;
- joint is “a surface of fracture without displa-
cement; the surface is usually plane and occurs
with parallel joints to form part of a joint set” Fig. 11-l. En &helm tension gashes produced by simple
(Glossary of Geology, 1980); shear. (a) : Theory. (b) : Phatograph of an actual case (from
Ramsay. 1967).
- gash is a small-scale tension fissure of several
centimetres to a few decimetres in length, and
several millimetres to a few centimetres in width. fractures which are of interest for production,
It may be gaped or, most often, filled with crystals. because they create substantial permeability, and
Several gashes are most frequently arranged in en a preferred flow path for the fluids. The latter are
dchelon (Fig. 11-1). They are produced by simple largely caused by tension or torsion, while closed
shear; fractures are generally associated with compres-
fault is “a fracture or a zone of fractures along sion.
which there has been displacement of the sides Fractures are usually perpendicular to the plane
relative to one another parallel to the fracture” of stratification, and are usually more or less
(Glossary of Geology, 1980). planar. Moreover, the occurrence of fractures is
Calling a joint or fault a fracture depends on the not random (Fig. 11-2). In a constrained formation,
scale of observation. the fractures appear as interconnected systems,
The fractures may be cemented (filled with each system consisting of a group of more or less
crystalline material) or open. Clearly it is the open parallel fractures. They result in the rock being

239
broken up into small volumes or parallelepipeds However, although the orientation may be statisti-
which can be broken off by the drill-bit or the cally significant, it must be remembered that there
rotating drill-pipe. can be considerable dispersion.
The average gap of a fracture, or fracture
aperture, is often less than 0.1 mm, and so the
porosity of fractures is generally negligible [less 11 .1.2. Importance of Fractwes
than 2%). Boyeldieu et al. (1982) have estimated
that, if the fracture system breaks the rock into In formations of low porosity and permeability,
cubes with 10 cm edges, a gap of 1 mm would be the production potential relies on an extensive
necessary to create a porosity of 3 %. system of open fractures. The productivity will vary
Fractures appear predominantly in brittle rocks, greatly according to the number. extent and
hence in consolidated formations. Very often they opening of the fractures and to the porosity and
disappear on entering formations which are more permeability of the matrix.
plastic (clays or halite), or friable (sands). As already mentioned, the porosity of fractures
is insignificant in all but a few exceptional cases
(highly compacted rocks), and makes no signifi-
11 .l .1 Fracture Orientation cant contribution to the reserves. However, the
presence of fractures may significantly enhance
It has frequently been observed that the frac- the drainage surface, and thereby the contribution
ture system, or network, in a given region tends to of the matrix porosity to the production. Open
have the same orientation as the fault system. fractures considerably increase the permeability

240
but may cut the potential output of a reservoir if
they are not taken into account during the secon-
dary recoven/ phase.
A subvertical fracture system may be fed by an
underlying reservoir. Finally, in the case of injec-
tion to maintain pressure, they act as preferred
paths for the injected fluids with the risk of
isolating formation blocks which are still hydro-
carbon-saturated, and of having early production
of injected fluids.

11.2. REVIEW OF GENERAL CONCEPTS

Fracture creation and propagation being de-

pendent on mechanical behaviour of rocks, it is
useful to review the general concepts involved I_

11.2.1. concepts of stress

Every element of a rock is subject to a series of

forces. These forces are of two types :
The first type corresponds to the forces that
are applied to the whole body of the rock. These
are called body forces, and are proportional to the
mass of the substances, e.g. gravity, centrifugal
forces, magnetic forces. They are measured in
force unit per unit volume (dimension : mLTe2) 2.
- The second type are known as surface forces.
They act on the surface of a body and, because of
this, are measured in force units per unit of
surface area (dimension : mLT-‘IL2 = mL-‘Te2).
“In a solid, the force per unit area, acting on any
surface within it”, is termed stress (Glossary of
Geology, 1980). Stress is equivalent to a pressure,
in which the SI unit is pas&. Taking into conside-
ration all the elements of a rock or bed (Fig. 11.3).
Fig. 11-3. surface forces acting on a body.
the surface forces acting on any imaginary surface
are represented by :
the weight of the above sediments, or the
geostatic pressure, S, and the reaction of the
material below;
the fluid pressure pP; if the fluid is in equili-
brium (no movement) the fluid pressure is equal to
the hydrostatic pressure;
the tectonic forces, T.
One must distinguish between the external
forces that act on a body, and the resulting
internal actions and reactions that constitute the
stress. If the forces acting on a body are equal on
all sides, the body is in equilibrium. The all-sided
pressure is called the confining pressure, C.
In many cases the forces acting on a body are
not equal in all sides. This will cause deformation.
If the external forces tend to pull a body apart, the
body is said to be under tension. If it is subjected
to external forces that tend to compress it, it is
said to be under compression. If two equal forces
act in opposite directions in the same plane, but
not along the same line. we have a couple, and the
body is said to be under distortion (Fig. 1 l-4).
Torsion is “the state of stress produced by two

241
force couples of opposite moment acting in diffe-
rent but parallel planes about a common axis” (Fig.
11.4d).
Let us take A as a point in a rock (Fig. 1l-5). and
X as a small plane surface, defined by the intersec-
tion o a plane P passing through A. A pressure.
?;‘= A+ /AZ will act on X. We can break theadown
into two components : (cr) normal to Z, called the
normal stress, and (r), parallel to Z, called shear
stress.
Generally, the pressure$ as well as o and t,
varv, in maanitude
- and dire&n depending on the
orientation of the surface on which they are
applied. The set of all the pressures exerted on
point A on all planes that pass through this point
is called the state of stress.
The state of stress at any point may be descri-
bed in terms of nine stress components of which
only six are independent if the body is in equili-
brium. The stresses on each face of a cube (Fig.
11-6) can be resolved into three parts, one normal
stress, and a shearing stress which itself can be
resolved into two components parallel to the
direction of two of the coordinates.
There is no direct way to measure the stresses
in a body, but they may be calculated if the
external forces are known.
But it is possible to calculate all the stresses at
any point of the body if the applied stresses at this
point on three mutually perpendicular planes are
known. It is also possible to demonstrate that at least or minimum principal stress, 03;
each point A, there exist three orthogonal planes, with cr, > 0~ > 03.
called principal planes of stress, for which r = 0, When the normal stresses are equal no shea-
and therefore the stress is perpendicular to them. ring stresses exist in the material. This state of
They constitute symmetry planes for the state of stress is known as hydrostatic stress. When they
stress. are different, shearing stresses appear. The geo-
The three normal vectors to these planes are metric representation of the state of stress at a
called the principal stress axes. On these three point is known as the stress ellipsoid (Fig. 11-7).
mutually perpendicular axes, the three principal One can demonstrate that six planes of maximum
stresses are ai follows (Fig. 11-7) : shearing stresses exist associated in pairs each
- greatest or maximum principal stress, 0,; pair countaining one of the principal axis, and
intermediate principal stress, CB; forming between them an angle of 900 (Fig. 11-8).

242
 1

the magnitude of shear stress ITI and normal stress

0 is :

The greatest shearing stress always occurs on the where G is the cohesive strength (sometimes
planes which contain o2 axis (z is maximum the expressed as c for cohesive);
stress difference, crl - oz being maximum), and w being the coefficient of internal friction of the
make an angle of 450 to the principal stresses o1 material which is related to the angle of internal
and 0~ irrespective of the signs or values of the friction $ by :
principal stresses (ruptures and slippages are
produced more or less along these planes, Figs. P = t!d
11-7 and 11-9). In fact, fractures form an angle 0
less than 450 and close to 300 with the principal 4 being related to I3 by the following equation :
axis. By reference to Coulomb’s work, this can be
related to the concept of internal friction which
suggests that, at failure, the relationship between
 t t
(b) (4

Fig. 11-11. Marble cylinder deformed in a laboratory by

compression. (a) : undeformed; (b) : 20% main. 270 am.
confining pressure; (c) : 20 % strain, 445 am. confining pres-
sure. 0, indicates the direction of maximum principal *tre**
(adapted from Press & Sever, 1978).

Fig. 11-12. (a) : Mohr stress envelope (adapted from Billings,

The relation between stress and rupture may be 1972). (b) : Different types of Mahr tiress envelopes in relation
determined graphically by the Mohr stress circle with the rock type : (A) : wet clay: (6) : dry sand; (C) : rock
(Fig. 1 l-10) which is a graphic representation of materials (adapted from Ramsay, 1967).
the state of stress. To determine the cohesive
strength and angle of internal friction, a series of
experiments with different values of the confining
pressure must be run on cylinders submitted to 11.2.2. Mechanical Behaviour of Rocks
compression tests (Fig. 11.11). and the results
reproduced as a Mohr stress circle (Fig. 11.12). Every stress field imposes a strain field, but the
The lines drawn tangent to the successive circles resulting deformation also depends on the nature
define the Mohrstress envelope. Their intersection and the mechanical behaviour of the deformed
with the vertical axis define the cohesive, or shear, medium.
strength of the rock r,, which corresponds to the There are three mechanical behaviours :
“inherent strength of a material when normal - Elastic behavicur :
stress across the prospective surface of failure is This is characterized by a possible return to the
zenf (Glossary of Geology, 1980). The slope of initial state. Deformation appears immediately
each of these tangents defines the angle of inter- after the force is applied and strain does not build
nal friction q5, for each state of stress. up. The deformation obeys Hooke’s law, which
Strain is the deformation caused by stress. This states that strain is proportional to stress. The
deformation may correspond to a change in vo- solid regains its dimensions and its shape when
lume which is called dilation or compression. It the stress is removed (Fig. 11-13). However, this
may also result in a change in shape : distortion. return to the initial shape is not necessarily imme-

244
 St”**
r.pl.r*

(T (I =E*

k!- PM.
e

Fig. 11-13. Linear elastic stressstrain law (adapted from

Ramsay, 1957).

Fig. 11-14~. Differential stress (a? 6%) versus strain diagrams

explaining the transition from brirde to dunile bahaviourwhen
the confining pressure increases (c,).

diate, and may indeed take some time. An elastic

solid stands up until a certain limiting stress, called
the elastic limit. If this is exceeded, the solid does
Fig. II-Ma. Stress-strain diagrams for different rock beha-
viours. A : elastic; S : elastic-planic; C : elastic-plastic with
not return to its original shape. When the stress
strength hardening; D : actual e&tic-plastic (from Billings. exceeds the elastic limit, the deformation is plas-
1972). tic. It means that the solid only partially returns to
its original shape. When the stress increases, at a
certain value the solid fractures. We reach the
rupture point. The relation existing between stress
and strain is expressed by a stress-strain diagram
(Fig. 11.14).
The resistance of a material to elastic deforma-
tion is defined as the srress-strain ratio. This ratio
is the Young’s modulus E :

E=O
E

with :
0 = stress
E = strain. E is equal to the ratio of the change
in length, Al, to the original length, I,,

Rigidity measures the resistance to change in

shape.

Fig. ll-Mb. Spectrum of behaviour illustrating the transition G=1

from perfectly brink (A) to perfectly ductile(E) behaviour. The
shape of the specimen is indicated along with the manner in Y
which it deforms under compression or extension, and the
shape of the stress-strain curve (adapted from Griggs & where G is the rigidity modulus, T the shear
Handin. 1960). stress, and y the shear strain.

245
Fig. 11.16. Rheologic model of ela*tic strain : elastic spring Fig. 11.18. In a vi*cous material its strain is a function of time
(from Ramsay, 1967). (a). and the rapidity of its strain is a function of its viscosity (b).

Fig. 11-19. The rate of shear strain y is measured by the

angular Shear variation “.

Table 11-l
-Bz2-
:;.:.;,.<
+:.:.y... Some values of viscosity in poises for different
fluids and rocks
(from Billings, 1972).
Fig. 11.17. Rhedogic model of plastic strain : a sliding (from
Ramsay. 1967).
Water at 100°C and one atmosphere 0.00264
Water at 3OT and one atmosphere 0.00801
Water at OT and one atmosphere 0.01792
G may also be expressed in another way : Corn syrup, room temperature and pressure 7 x 10’
Roofing tar. ready to apply 3x 10’
Lava, Mt. Vesuvius. 14OOT 2.66 x 102
G-E Lava, Mt. Vesuvius, llOO°C 2.83 x 104
2(1 + v) Rock salt. near surface 10”
Rocks in general 10” to 10’2
Mantle of earth 1023
where v is the Poisson’s ratio equal to the ratio
of transverse strain to axial strain in elastic defor-
mation by uniaxial stress.

Plastic behavioor :
As previously explained, deformation is perma-
where Ad is the change in diameter. nent only above a certain threshold. Before this
The bulk modulus or incompressibility K is given point is reached the substance behaves elastically
by : (Fig. 11-16). Plastic deformations result from pro-
cesses such as intergranular movements, disloca-
tion glide (intragranular movements), and recrys-
K=A!L tallization (including diffusion).
AVIV. The rheologic model is a mass moving with
friction. Movement will only take place above a
where Ah is the change in hydrostatic pressure, certain value of traction (Fig. 11-17).
and AV the change in volume compared to the
original volume V.. Viscous behaviour :
The rheologic model of an elastic body is a In viscous material deformation appears imme-
perfect spring without mass (Fig. 11.15). diately and the strain is unrecoverable (Fig. 11.18).

248
Fig. 11-20. Rhedogic model Of viscous behavio”‘ : a damper.

Viscosity, 11.is the property that has a substance

to offer internal resistance to flow. It is equal to
the ratio of the shearing stress, r, to the rate of
shear strain, y. per unit of time, or dy/dt. The rate
of shear strain, y. is measured by the change in
angle I+I per unit of time t (Fig. 11-19) :

The viscosity unit is called poise. Viscosity is

very high for rocks but decreases when tempera-
ture increases (Table 11-l). Viscosity is an impor-
tant property in geological processes. It determi-
nes, for example, the flow of magma or lava during
intrusive or volcanic activity, and the velocity of
displacement in plate tectonics.
The rheologic model for viscous behaviour is a
damper, a perforated piston moving without fric-
tion in a-fluid (Fig. 11.20).

11.2.3. Factors Controlling Rock Behaviour

In addition to their inherent properties (minera-

logy, texture), the mechanical behaviour of rocks is
controlled by several factors such as confining
pressure. temperature and time.
Fig. 11-22 Effect of temperature on deformation of marble
(from Griggs. 1939).
11.2.3.1. Confining pressure

The strength of a rock increases with the

confining pressure. Figure 11-21 illustrates the
effect of confining pressure on the breaking 11.2.3.2. Temperature
strength of several standard rocks. At low confi-
ning pressure, all the rocks deform only a few The elastic limit decreases when the tempera-
percent before fracturing. Under a high confining ture increases. Moreover, less stress is necessary
pressure. we observe a different behaviour for the to produce a given strain when the temperature
rocks. increases (Fig. 1 l-22).
When fractures appear at less than 3-51 plastic
deformation, the rocks are said to be britth?. When 11.2.3.3. Time
rocks are able to sustain. under a given set of
conditions, 5.10 96 plastic deformation before frac- Time plays a very important part in the beha-
turing. they are ductile. Ductility is “a measure of viour of the rocks. Rocks may exhibit elastic
the degree to which a rock exhibits ductile beha- behaviour if they are subjected to very short
viour under given conditions, commonly expressed duration stresses, becoming plastic if these stres-
by the strain at which fracture commences” (Glos- ses are applied over a long time. This effect is
sary of Geology, 1980). As a consequence, when observed in creep experiments, where a small load
the confining pressure increases a brittle rock applied for a sufficiently long time produces a
becomes ductile (i.e. limestone). strain that may continue and eventually cause
 Fig. 11-24. Change in shape without change in volume under
shear stress. (adapted from Lee, et a/., 1978).

Table 11-2
Compressive, tensile, and shearing strengths of
some rocks
(from Billings, 1942).
Fig. 11.23. - Ideal creep cwve. A : instantane-xs deformation.
8 : primary creep. C : secondaw creep. 0 : tertiary creep (from
9ioings. 1972). Sandstone ..........

Granite.. ..............
...................
rupture. The same stress in instantaneous tests Gabbro.. .............. 1 Wo to 1900 ...................
would not cause any measurable strain. Figure 8aSalt.. ...................................
11-23 illustrates an ideal creep curve. Fekite.. ...................................

11.2.4. The Actual Behaviour

of Rocks
11.2.5. Types of State of Stress
In nature, rocks have a complex behaviour of all
three types of response visco-elasto-plastic. One
These are three types of state of stress :
of these components may dominate according to
tension or traction : stretches the material and
physical conditions (temperature and pressure)
may increase its volume;
and the way the stress is applied.
compressional: leads to a decrease in the
At low temperature the elastic deformation of
volume of the material;
the crystal of quartz shows an almost perfect
pure shear stress: produces a change in
reversibility.
shape, but not in volume (Fig. 11-24).
Rocks which show a good reversibility and
admit the greatest elastic deformation are :
quartzite, plutonic rocks; 11.2.6. Rock Strength
- slates.
Such rocks are brittle. Rocks are more or less resistant to stresses. The
Some other rocks are more or less ductile, or strength of a rock corresponds to the stress at
show an elasticoplastic behaviour. Few rocks, such which the rock starts a permanent deformation.
as halite and undercompacted shales, may have a Rocks show different types of strength, be-
plastic to viscous behaviour. cause they respond differently to various stresses.
According to the previous factors, it is possible Hence. there is, for each rock, a compressive,
to determine the different kinds of strain following tensile and shear strength.
the depth : The compressive strength for a brittle rock is
an upper zone, where most of the rocks have sometimes 10 to 30 times more than its tensile
an elastic (brittle) behaviour; strength (Table 11-2).
an intermediate or middle zone. where the
rocks have an elasticoplastic to elasticoviscous
behaviour (ductile): 11.2.7. The Results of Stresses :
- a deep zone, where rocks will show a plastic Strains
behaviour. This zone is characterized by the ap-
pearance of schistosity, and then of foliation. It The reaction of rocks to stress falls into two
corresponds to anchimetamorphism and to meta- categories :
morphism. This type of rock has no interest in oil - continuous strains which are folds and flows.
exploration, since porosity and permeability disap- They will be studied in the chapter : Information on
pear. Tectonics;

248
 discontinuous strains which are fractures
(studied here after), faults (studied in the chapter :
Information on Tectonics), and pressure-solution
(stylolites) studied in the chapter : Information on
Diagenesis.

11.3. MECHANICAL PROPERTIES

EVALUATION FROM LOGS

Knowledge of the mechanical properties of a

rock is required in several domains.

11.3.1. Mechanical Behsviour of the Reservoirs -

Stress Computations

To know if reservoirs require tubing or gravel

packing, or if they can be produced in open-hole
conditions, or if they will collapse, it is necessav
to estimate the critical wellbore pressure P.. It can
be demonstrated that PC is expressed by the Fig. 11.25. Example of borehale damage due to breakout
effect along the borehole wall. On these images, obtained by
following relation using the Mohr-Coulomb failure
the Formation MicroScanner tool. compare the right figure to
criterion : the left one which shows a series of natural fractures in a
cemented sandstone (courtesy of Schlumberger).

1.50. - 0.5ci” - 0.5 a P, - 1.732~,

P. =

where ox and ciVare the minimum and maximum

horizontal stresses respectively. I+ is usually defi-
where a = 1 Cd&. C, and Cb being respect- ned in terms of the tectonic imbalance factor
vely the rock compressibility (at zero porosity) and oY/op Existence of tectonic imbalance can be
the bulk compressibility (with porosity), P, is the inferred from borehole deformation tests, or from
pore pressure. q is the initial shear strength (= b), break-out identification with the aid of multiple-
and v the Poisson’s ratio. ox is the minimum diameter caliper logs or, better, from Formation
horizontal stress. It can be obtained assuming a MicroScanner images (Fig. 11-25). Pore pressure is
horizontally constrained elastic model and is ex- obtained from measurements with the RFT tool in
pressed, following the Griffith and Mohr-Coulomb new wells, or from pressure build-up tests in
-failure criteria, by : producing wells. T., is the tensile strength. In
Terzaghi or ‘hard rock” options, a is assumed to
be equal to unity.
ox = & (PO, -UP,) + CCP, To compute the fracture re-opening pressure Pt,
( 1
the tensile strength is set equal to zero. So we
where Pob is the overburden pressure, assumed obtain :
to be equal to crz. In the simplified Terzaghi and
“hard rock” options a is assumed equal to unity. Pf, = 31sx- D” - Pp
Only elastic constrains determine oz = Pob. The
laws of elasticity associate to this vertical stress a These parameters are computed and displayed
minimum horizontal stress ox, and the tectonic in the MECHPRO program (Fig. 11-26).
stresses are estimated through the value of o,
which can vary between ox (in a non tectonic
11.3.3. Dynamic Elastic Properties
regime), and 0;.
Computation of some of the previous factors
11.3.2. Fracture-Pressure Computations require the knowledge of the dynamic elastic
properties. If a sonic waveform recording has been
The fracture initiation pressure P, is a function made using a Long Spacing Sonic tool (LSS) or
of several parameters. It is expressed by the the Array Sonic Service, Ato and A& can be
following relation : obtained from the waveform analysis. By combi-
ning these two data with the corrected bulk
Pb = 3ox - 0” - UP, + To density, it is possible to compute the dynamic

249
 MECHANICAL PROPERTIES
WELL B-10

.Yi

-4 r

COlllpUtCd Test
Initiation 1.oo psi/A 0.96 pa

Re-opening 0.95 pat 0.96 psi/A

139UOps.i 14050 psi

ClCISUR 0.80 psi/A 0.81 psi/A

11710 psi 1185Opsi

Fig. 11.29. Example of a display of the mechanical properties of rocks computed with the MECHPRO program (from Edwards.
1985).

250
 -
-
-

1 CiiOO

Yh%E

L Pa
1

CB

Fig. 11-27. Example of a display of the elastic properties and formation strength computed with the MECHPRO program (from
Edwards. 1985)

251
 Table 11-3 Table 11-4
Dynamic elastic parameters and how they can be Uniaxial compressional and tensile strengths for
computed from wireline log data. rocks.

Uniaxial Compressional and Tensile Strength+ fw Rocks

G c.
MPa 3, 70
Quart&z, Cheshire 461 28 16.5
Granite, Westerly 229 21 10.9
Diabase, Frederick 466 40 12.2
Sansdtone, Gos‘ord 50 3.6 13.9
Marble, Carrara 90 6.9 13.0

coulomb’s p and e for Rclcks

P
ML
Granite 0.64 0.31
sandstone 0.51 0.29
Marbre 0.75 1.1

11.4. EFFECTS OF FRACTURES

ON THE RESPONSES
OF THE LOGGING TOOLS
elastic parameters at each sampling level (Table
11-3). This is achieved by the MECHPRO program.
An example of the display of the results is given in With the exception of the Borehole Televiewer
Figure 11-27. and the Formation MicroScanner tools, which can,
in favourable circumstances, see fractures directly,
the responses of the logging tools are affected
11.3.4. Inherent Strength Computations
only indirectly by the presence of fractures. It is
only by these indirect effects that the fractures
The inherent rock strengths are computed by
can be detected.
the MECHPRO program. They are related to one With this in mind, we will now examine, tool-by
another by simple functions expressed below.
-tool, the effects of fractures on their responses,
Initial shear strength % and so get an idea of the capacity of each tool for
This parameter is derived by an empirical model detecting them.
based on Deere & Miller’s work (1969) and elabo-
rated by Coates & Denoo (1981). 11.4.1. Natural Gamma Radioactivity

z, = !=$[O.OOSV,,,, + 0.0046(1 - ‘/,I.,)] To the extent that the circulation of fluids may
have contributed to the precipitation of uranium in
Uniaxial compressive strength C, the fracture system, the standard gamma ray tool,
or the spectrometn/ of the natural gamma ray, will
show increased activity levels or increased ura-
nium content in front of fractured zones (Fig.
11.28).
q5 is the angle of friction in the Mohr-Coulomb Similarly, a comparison between two succes-
failure model. It is set at 300. sive gamma ray measurements. the first with a
non-radioactive mud, and the second over the
Tensile strength r.
same section after a radioactive tracer has been
The tensile strength is set at one-twelfth of C, circulated briefly in the mud, may show up fractu-
as the average value (Table 11-4). red zones. The tracers invade the permeable zones
In addition to these applications mechanical and cause the open fractures to exhibit increased
properties evaluation can be used for : radioactivity. A further measurement made some
_ mud weight control to avoid hydraulic fractu- time later, or after the start of production, should
ring and loss of circulation; show decreased radioactivity over the fractured
- drillability of the formation : adaptation of ZCl”C?S.
drilling parameters, choice of rock bit. of the NOTE: In cases of deep invasion, the start of
rotation speed, weight on the rock bit ... . production may cause a temporary increase in
_ dipmeter interpretation by enabling a choice activity by bringing the radioactive mud closer to
between the faulting or folding of rocks. the borehole wall.
/
GAMMA RAY
SPECTROMETRY
I

Fig. 11.29b. Natural Gamma Ray Spectrometry log over a

fractured section (from Schlumberger. Well Evaluation Confe-
rence. Egypt, 1984).

an increase in hole diameter due to crumbling

of the fractured zone during drilling resulting in
chunks of various sizes falling away.
These phenomena can best be seen by a four-
arm caliper tool. such as the BGT, or dipmeters
rather than the standard two-arm calipers (Fig.
11.30).
An increase on only one of the diameters is due
to the presence of fractures and follows their
orientation (Fig. 1 l-31). The orientation can be
obtained from the inclinometry measurement. The
direction of elongation is often that of a major
system of faults and fissures, as has been shown
by various researchers (Babcock, 1978 (Fig. 11-32);
Bell 8, Gough. 1979; Cox, 1983).

11.4.3. Thermometer Log

The temperature gradient in the mud is affected

by the presence of open fractures due to the
invasion of the fracture system by the drilling mud
which has the effect of cooling the formations.
This phenomenon must not be confused with gas
production which also causes a drop in tempera-
ture.
Fig. 11.%a. Fractured zones in this Ordovician formation of The circulation of mud disrupts the normal
Algeria identified by uranium peaks (from Schlumber9er. Well
Evaluation Conference. Algeria, 1979). distribution of heat which depends partly on the
difference in temperature between the mud and
the formations, and partly on the thermal conduc-
tivity of the rocks. The latter varies considerably as
11.42. Caliper each type of rock has its own thermal conductivity
(Table 11-5 and Fig. 11-33). For this reason, a
Fractured zones may appear on the caliper thermometer log recorded immediately after dril-
log(s) as : ling and measured on the run-in can be a good
a reduction in hole diameter in compacted indicator of the types of rock encountered.
zones which are in gauge, most probably due to a The mud at the bottom of the well is usually
deposit of mud cake, especially if lost-circulation cooler than the formations, while near the surface
material has been used (Fig. 11-29); it is hotter. When circulation has been stopped for

253
1 I
Fig. II-SO. Hole ovali~ation in fractured zones [from Babcock.
1978).

some time, the mud temperature tends to homo-

genize by thermal exchange, horizontally by
conduction, and sometimes vertically too, by
convection. Thus. temperature changes at all
depths are slow, and some time is required before Fig. 11-31. Three possible reasons for the barehale ovalisa-
the temperatures revert to their original values. tion. (A, : single steeply di,,,,ing fracture: (B) : closely spaced
Thus. the mud becomes heated in the deeper part steeply dipping fractures; (C) : intersecting fractures.
r

I I

Fig.11-32. [a) : Relationship between the hole avalisation and the direction of pnts on outcrops (Cretaceous to Devonian
sandstones in Canada); (b) : Remarkable consistency in direction of hole ovalisatian over a large region (from Babcock. 1978).

of the well. This means that the temperature

gradient of the mud intersects the geothermal
gradient at a certain depth (Fig. 11-34). Above this
point of intersection the mud is hotter than the
formations, while below it is cooler. Consequently,
mud invasion in the upper zone increases the
formation temperatures, while in the lower zones
they are decreased. Clearly, the interpretation of
temperature logs must take account of the posi-
tion of this point of intersection.
When a cool fluid such as the drilling mud
penetrates the formation it displaces the forma-
tion fluid. The time taken for the formation to
revert to its normal temperature will depend on the
duration of circulation and on the degree of inva-
sion (Fig. 11.35).
Zones which have been more deeply invaded
will thus appear as cooler zones on the tempera-
ture log. This will be particularly noticeable in
zones with open fractures where there has been a Fig. 11.33. Theoretical temperature profile as a function of
partial or total loss of circulation. lithology and depth.

255
11.4.4. Formation Density

In the case of the compensated formation

density tool, two measurements may be conside-
red : the density measurement itself, and the
density correction.
Being a pad-mounted device, the density tool
may face in different directions on two successive
runs over a fractured interval. One would then
expect a drop in density if on one of these runs the
pad was facing an open fracture. However, the
dense, compact formations in which fractures
usually occur will produce low count rates on the
detectors, and hence a high level of statistical
variations. The resulting poor repeatability bet-
ween successive runs, which is a feature of
high-density formations, whether they are fractu-
red or not, makes it impractical to look for a
variation in density as an indication of the pre-
sence of fractures across one axis of the hole.
The fact that the tool is unidirectional and not
free to rotate does not simplify matters. However,
it may be assumed that, if the hole is eccentric, the
long axis will have the same orientation as the
vertical fractures. as long as these are more or less
unidirectional.
 The readings of pad-mounted tools will be
affected by small depressions in the borehole wall
which are the result of small pieces of rock falling
away. The short-spacing detector is more influen-
ced by the mud filling these small cavities than is
the long-spacing detector.
In zones where the caliper indicates a smooth
borehole wall, the Ap curve will show a higher
correction than normal in the case of baryte muds
(Fig. 11-36). This is often accompanied by a very
low density reading, but may be localised. blurred
or even hidden by the time constant of the
measurement circuit.
- The caliper may indicate sudden changes of
hole diameter. When these changes are due to
scaling of the formation wall, they can be “seen”
by the short-spacing detector. However, the measurement is very sensitive to
baryte, and so can detect fractures which have
been invaded by baryte muds. When the pad of
11.4.5. Photoelectric Capture the tool passes a fractured zone, the photoelectric
Cross-Section capture cross-section will show very high values
(Fig. 11-37). This is due to the high atomic number
This measurement, which is made with the of barium compared to those of the elements
Schlumberger Litho-Density tool (LDT], is more or making up the majority of sedimentary rocks. This
less independent of porosity. Consequently it is of property can be useful for estimating the porosity
no use for detecting fractures in normal muds. of the fractures (see below).

257
11.46. Neutron-Hydrogen Index wave train, resulting in erratic increases in the
apparent travel time (so-called “cycle -skips”, Fig.
This measurement responds essentially to for- 11.38). This phenomenon is detected more easily
mation fluids, and so it is a measurement of total with the older, uncompensated tools. Newer tools
porosity. Since the porosity of fractures is usually are capable of detecting cycle-skip conditions and
small compared to that of the matrix (e. g. in chalk may automatically take steps necessary to avoid
or compacted clays), it is difficult to identify cycle skipping that may be due to presence of
fractures because the small variation in porosity is fracture.
masked by statistical variations. In any case, The shear wave velocity, on the other hand, is
because it is not a directional measurement, the more affected by fractures than that of the com-
CNL tool will give a more stable measurement. pressional wave. It is seen to decrease while the
This is especially true in dense. compact forma- compressional velocity remains constant. Thus, by
tions because of higher count rates and lower comparing A& with AL possible fractured zones
statistical variations. can be identified when A& increases while Att,
remains constant. These measurements can be
made with the Schlumberger Array Sonic Service.
11.4.7. Sonic Travel Time

In theory, the travel time of the compressional 11.4.8. Attenuation of Acoustic Waves
wave is unaffected by fractures which do not cross
the shortest time path. This is the case with In general, the amplitude of an acoustic wave is
subvertical fractures, or more correctly fractures decreased when it crc~sses a fracture. This is the
which are parallel to the tool axis, and these are result of a transfer of energy. The coefficient of
generally not detected by the sonic tool. transmission is a function of the apparent dip of
Whenever the fracture system is more complex, the fracture relative to the direction of propaga-
diffraction and reflection will attenuate the com- tion. Energy transmission across a fracture de-
pressional wave to such a degree that detection pends to a large extent on the efficiency of mode
may not occur until the second or third peak in the conversions at the fracture interface. For acoustic

258
 memorandum) this contrasting behaviour could
suggest a conversion from one mode to the other
(compressional to shear) for certain values of
inclination of the fractures. The attenuation de-
creases with increasing dip. It becomes very small
when the dip of the fracture is above 650 (250 to
the axis of the tool or borehole).
A technique for measuring the attenuation is
the acoustic Variable Density Log (VDL). It invol-
ves presenting the shape of the wave train in a
continuous manner. The values of amplitude are
represented by varying shades of grey.
In this measurement, zones with fractures at an
angle to the tool axis will be characterized by
distortion and interference due to reflection and
refraction at the fracture planes. This disrupts the
normally parallel appearance of the waves on the
VDL, and causes a reduction in the density of the
grey band. This is accompanied by blurring and
loss of vertical coherence in the wave train (Fig.
11-40).
In addition, the appearance of chevrons, asso-
ciated with a reduction of amolitude without any
change in At may indicate the existence of fractul
res at a high angle (Fig. 11-41).
The interpretation of these measurements is not
always straightforward, because other phenomena
can produce the same effects.

11.4.9. Stoneley Wave

The Stoneley wave, and especially its low fre-

quency component known as the Tube wave, is a
borehole fluid mode that propagates as a pressure
wave along the borehole.
The way fractures affect the Stoneley wave is
quite different compared to the way they affect
compressional and shear waves. Acoustic energy
is not lost through inefficient mode conversions.
but more as a result of moving the fluid in the
fracture system, resulting in a pressure drop in the
borehole. As a result, the direct Stoneley wave is
attenuated. and a reflected Stoneley is generated.
Three advantages of the Stoneley wave analysis
can be considered.
In fast formations, where we generally look
for fractures, Stoneley wave amplitude is much
higher than the other two arrivals (compressional
and shear Fig. 11-40). so it is more straightforward.
energy to cross a fracture, a propagating com- The Stoneley wave, being mainly influenced
pressional or shear wave must be converted to a by borehole fluid, does not react much to changes
fluid wave at the first fracture interface and then in lithology. Thus, a strong Stoneley reflection
converted back again at the second. Obviously, the most likely indicates an open fracture, not a bed
inclination of the fracture is crucial here. Figure boundary.
11.39, from Morris et. a/. (1963). is based on - The roughly constant Stoneley velocity eases
experimental results and shows that compressio- the signal processing task of measuring the reflec-
nal waves suffer little attenuation on crossing ted signal.
fractures which are parallel or perpendicular to the Stoneley wave attenuation may correspond to
tool axis. The attenuation is high when the angle is fractures if other possibilities such as caves,
between 350 and 800. Shear waves on the other change in rigidity, and crossing a bed boundary
hand, are strongly attenuated by fractures at low can be eliminated by analysing the other open-
angles. According to J. Gartner (in a personal hole logs.

259
, --. I

260
 r

11.4.10. Resistivities

The electrical system consisting of the forma-

tion, the borehole and the fracture network is
represented by the diagram in Figure 11-42. The
fractures are assumed to be subparallel to the
borehole axis and invaded by a conductive fluid.
Taking into account the current distribution for
each type of device, it will be observed that, in the
case of fractures which are subparallel to the
borehole axis : Fig. 11-43. Comparison between the reswn~es of the induc-
- the induction is unaffected by the fractures don and laferolog in a fractured zone (courtesy of Schlumber-
which only constitute a negligible part of the 9-I.
whole circuit since they are in series for the
Foucault currents;
the electrode tools will be strongly affected
because the fracture network presents paths of
lowered resistance which act as shunt resistances
to the current.
In the case of fractures which are subperpendi-
cular to the borehole axis :
- the induction will be strongly influenced
because now the fractures are in parallel rather
than in series, and their conductivity is very high
compared with that of the surrounding formations;
- for the other tools, these fractures continue to
offer paths of lowered resistance.
Thus, a comparison of resistivity values from
induction and electrode tools in zones containing
subparallel open fractures will show substantially
lower resistivities on the laterologs than on the
induction (Fig. 11-43). However, we must bear in
mind that the induction measurement is not re-
commended in resistive, compact formations
because of low signal level. The analysis will
therefore rely on the relative behaviour of the two
laterologs (deep and shallow) and of the microde-
vices.
When the fratures are subparallel to the bore- b
hole axis, the apparent drop in resistivity becomes Fig. 1144. Current distribution in the case of a fracture which
more pronounced with decreasing depth of inves- is subparallel to the borehole axis. a) : Clavier’s model; b) :
tigation although it remains constant within a &au’s model (courtesy of Schlumberger).

261
 In compact zones of low porosity which are not
fractured, and therefore with little invasion, the
two measurements will read about the same
resistivity (Fig. 11.45, top interval).
Because they are pad-mounted, the microdevi-
ces only respond to fractures in front of the pad.
But because the borehole wall tends to crumble
near the fractures, it becomes ovalised, and the
pad tends to ride the low side of the major axis.
Hence, the probability of following the fracture
network is increased. Clearly the presence of
fractures will strongly influence these devices
because of their small volume of investigation.
Moreover, this part of the fracture system will be
invaded by mud or mud filtrate, and so the resisti-
vities will be much lower (Fig. 11-45, bottom
interval). In addition, crumbling of the borehole
wall will create zones of current leakage. All this
enhances the difference in the resistivity readings
of the micro- and macrodevices.

11.4.11. Dipmeter

Several parameters must be analysed with this

tool :

11.4.11.1. Resistivity curves

As with all the pad-mounted microdevices, only

Fig. 114. Example showing the responses of the latemlogs
and the MSFL in a fractured zone.
fracture. Consequently the deeper-reading device
is less affected by the fracture than the shallow-
reading device. A ratio of 1.5 to 2 is commonly
observed between RLLo and RLLS. Moreover, if the
drilling mud is more conductive than the original
formation fluid (gas, oil or fresh water), the resisti-
vity of the LLS will be substantially less than that
of the LLD (Fig. 1 l-44).
If the mud is less conductive than the original
fluids in the fractures, the separation of LLS and
LLD is much less and may even be inverted.
the pads which are in front of the fractures will be
affected and show a drop in resistivity (Fig. 11.46).
If the hole is ovalised because of fractures, the
usual orientation of the tool will be with two of the
four arms across the major axis, the other two
being perpendicular. Thus in compact, fractured
formations. the two opposite pads which “see” the
fractures will show a drop in resistivity, while the
other pair, which does not see them, show a high
resistivity value with little or no curve activity (Fig.
11.47). assuming that a low EMEX value has been
used.
Superimposing the resistivity curves of two
adjacent (i.e. 900 apart) pads will reveal fractured
zones whenever there is a separation between the
two curves. A visual representation of the pre-
sence of fractures is obtained by shading between
the two pairs of adjacent curves (Fig. 11.48).
This technique is known as Fracture Identifica-
tion Log (FIL), and this presentation can be obtai-
ned at the wellsite using the CSU system.
Unfortunately, the FIL is often confused by
sedimentary features such as laminations, flasers
or pebbles, and the majority of the shaded areas
correspond to beds with an apparent dip rather
than to fractures.
This problem has bean eliminated with the
introduction by Schlumberger of a new program
known as DCA (Detection of Conductive Anoma-
lies). Conductive events which cannot be correla-
ted are searched for, and only these can be
interpreted as possible fractures. The events are

262
263
defined during GEODIP processing. The conduc-
tive anomaly is then reproduced only if the follo-
wing conditions are satisfied :
the conductivity exceeds a certain value;
- there is a sufficient difference between the
conductivity values;
the anomaly is detected on a minimum num-
ber of successive intervals.
The three thresholds can be set by the log
analyst and so adapted to local conditions. The
results are presented in the form of a log. The
azimuths of pads 1 and 2 are displayed against
depth in the leftrhand track (Fig. 11-49 & 11-50).
The shaded areas indicate a difference between
the nominal hole diameter and the readings of the
two calipers.
The azimuths of pads 1,2,3 and 4 are displayed
against depth in the right-hand track. The conduc-

264
 j
I

i
-c
55 - IIm

I F -
Fig. 11-X. Further DCA example with the SHDT tool
(Schlumberger. Well Evaluation Conference, Egypt, 1994).

tive anomalies are then indicated along the COT-

responding azimuth curve. The available fracture
indicators with this presentation include : Fig. 11-51. Example of a polar frequency plot which provides
the conductive anomalies revealed by the a means of orienting the fracture network (courtesy of
DCA program; Schlumberger).
borehole rugosity and the axis of ovalisation;
- changes in the speed of rotation of the tool.
A polar frequency plot of the conductive anoma-
lies is also provided (Fig. 11-51). It is used to
determine the direction of the fracture network or
networks. This direction is related to the axis of direction in the rotation usually indicates the
maximum constraint and to the general orientation presence of fractures. This phenomenon is the
of the faults in the region. result of the pad following a sort of subvertical or
When the hole is not very ovalised, the tool will oblique pathway created by crumbling of the
rotate because of the torque in the logging cable. fractured zone for a certain distance (Fig. 11-55).
The fractures are then seen successively by the The tool then resumes its normal rotation, usually
different pads (Fig. 11-52). after a brief period of more rapid rotation to
The SHDT tool gives even better detection of release the torsion which has built up in the cable.
fractures by comparing the measurements of two
buttons on the same pad (Fig. 11-53). In certain 11.4.11.3. Caliper
favourable cases, the dip of the fracture can even
be determined (Fig. 11-54). Since the dipmeter tool has two measurements
of diameter 900 apart, comparison between them
11.4.11.2. Azimuth Curve of Pad 1 will reveal any hole ovalisation, sudden variations
in diameter, or restrictions due to deposits of mud
As we have seen, the tool normally rotates as it cake or lost circulation material in the fractured
travels uphole. Any slowing, stopping or change of zones (Fig. 11-29).
 b
Fig. 11-W (a) : Examples of conductive anomalies which can
be detected by the SHDT fool. (b) : They can be correlated to
determine the dip and the azimuth of the fractures (courtesy
of Schlumberger).

266
11.4.11.4. Dips

In compact fractured formations, the fractured

zones can be identified from the CLUSTER pro-
gram for the HDT tool, or the MSD program for
the SHDT tool by examining the values of erratic
dips or dips of poor quality. Correlations which are
due to conductivity peaks have no reason to
produce dips which are consistent in either dip
angle or azimuth.
When the GEODIP program is used for the HDT
tool, or the LOCDIP program for the SHDT tool,
there is a noticeable absence of four-pad dips.
There may, however, be some dips which are
erratic in dip angle and azimuth which are due to
three-pad correlations. In certain favourable cases
(e. g. a single fracture), the conductive peaks can
be correlated to give the dip of the fracture (Fig.
11-54 & 11-56).

11.4.12. Formation MicroScanner Tool

When one of the 54 button electrodes (two pads

of 27 electrodes each) on these pads of this tool
passes an open fracture in the formation, the
current it emits will take the least resistive path.
This will be reflected on the corresponding

267
conductivity curve as a sharp increase, while the 11.4.13. Spontaneous Potential
images will represent fractures as one or several
dark irregular lines (Fig. 11-57). Negative “anomalies” are sometimes observed
One of the major advantages of this tool is the on the spontaneous potential in fractured zones.
continuous lateral coverage it provides across This is often explained by the development of an
twice a 7 cm wide strip, due to the large number electrofiltration potential when they have been
of electrodes with overlap of each raw over the drilled with a fresh mud (salinity of less than 5,000
surrounding raws. As Figure 11-58 illustrates indi- wm).
vidual fractures can be identified. If borehole
coverage is built up through several passes.
between which the pad rotation has changed, their
direction and average dip can also be obtained 11.4.14. Borehole T&viewer
(Fig. 11.59).
Healed cemented fractures can also be detec- This tool (Zemanek et al., 1989) provides an
ted, if the resistivity contrast with the surrounding acoustic image of the borehole wall (Fig. 11-61). It
rock is sufficient. These appear as white irregular is obtained by measuring part of the acoustic
lines on the images (Fig. 11-60). energy reflected from the borehole wall. The same
In most cases the Formation MicroScanner tool transducer acts as both transmitter and receiver.
enables distinction between natural fractures and The formation is more reflective when the rock
those induced during the drilling of the well (Fig. is smooth and compact. When it is rugose, fractu-
11.25). red or vuggy. the acoustic energy is more disper-

268
 PAD AZIMUTH

t
0.2m

+-0.2m-+

DEPTH CAUPERS

Pad
Direction
*

3
1
4-

Pad 3 Pad 4 Pad 4

Images Images TMCl?S

269

J breaks in rocks. These are the borehole televiewer
sed and these irregularities then appear as darke-
ned areas on the film.
This tool provides, then, not only a detection of
all the open fractures, but also their orientation
and dip. The only requirement is to minimize the
amount of material in suspension in the mud to
avoid having a speckled image due to dispersion
of the energy. Other adverse conditions to be
avoided are excessive mud-cake, excessive hole
ovalisation or gas-cut mud.
270
Fig. 11-62. Fractures can be detected by bofh tha amplitude
and the filtered transit time recorded by the borehole fele-
viewer (courtesy of Schlumberger).
11.5. DETECTION OF FRACTURES
FROM WELL LOGS
As we have just seen. only two logging tools are
capable of detecting fractures themselves, that is
(BHTV) and the Formation MicroScanner (FMS)
tools.
In the BHTV tool two parameters can be used
for fracture detection, the amplitude of the recei-
ved signal and its transit time. The amplitude of
the signal is reduced due to the dispersion of
energy at the edges of the fracture, while the
transit time will be increased (Fig. 1 l-62).
When several passes are made in the same well
with a Formation MicroScanner tool, taking care to
ensure that the tool has rotated (azimuth of pad 1
has changed), it is generally possible to detect
each fracture (Fig. 11.58). Thus their number,
distribution, form, orientation and average dip can
be determined. It is also possible to verify if they
are ordered or consist of several networks.
 Other logging tools are not capable of detecting
fractures themselves, but by the effect that the
fractures have on the log measurements. They
rarely allow the detection of individual fractures,
only indicating the presence of fractured zones.
But the variations in tool response caused by
fractures could also be caused by other pheno-
mena. The following procedure is recommended
to be sure of the origin of these variations :
it is necessary first of all to look for these
variations in intervals which are likely to be fractu-
red. These may be zones in which there has been
a loss of circulation or an inflow of fluids, or
consolidated formations such as chalks, iimesto-
11.5.1. crossplots
nes or compact dolomites, quartzites, anhydrites,
or metamorphic rocks. In general terms, it is zones Combinations of various log measurements in
of high resistivity which are of interest, and not the form of crossplots are also useful in detecting
porous, unconsolidated sands or plastic clays. A fractures.
preliminary pass with the LITHO and MECHPRO
programs. which have already been described, will 11.5.1.1. Formation Factor - PorosiQf
identify facies which are favourable to fracturing.
The next step is to note all possible occurren- If the porosity is plotted on a logarithmic scale
ces by identifying on each available log all the as a function of formation factor (FR = RJR,),
phenomena which could be attributed to fractures. fractured zones will appear as zones having the
The probability of fractures is in fact much lowest values of Fn for a given value of porosity in
greater than the phenomena observed on the logs a low-porosity zone (Fig. 11.65). This is due to the
may indicate. Thus, if several of the phenomena drop in resistivity associated with fractures.
already described are detected, it is reasonable to Similar plots can also be made by replacing Fn
conclude that fractures are present. by R, or RLLo (Fig. 11.66).
Schlumberger have recently made a new pro-
gram for the detection and evaluation of fractures 11.5.1.2. M - N Plot
commercially available under the name of DET-
This technique, introduced by Burke et al. (1969)
FRA‘. This program (Boyeldieu & Martin, 1964)
for the study of complex lithologies, combines the
groups all the known fracture indicators into five
responses of density, neutron and sonic tools. The
categories : electrical, acoustic, radioactive, elec-
two computed parameters, M and N, are indepen-
tromagnetic and multi-pad.
dent of porosity, at least if we can assume that all
Each log is analysed, and a fracture probability
three tools respond linearly to porosity (Fig. 11-67).
is estimated using certain criteria (threshold,
median and maximum probability (Fig. 11-63). The M = Ati - At x 0.1
probabilities are then combined using bayesian
Pb - Prnf
logic. Thus, two criteria with individual probabili-
ties PI and P, will have a combined probability N _ (Iti), - IH
which is given by :
Pb - Prnf
P = 1 - (1 - P,)(l - P,)
This rule is associative, and can be extended to In this case, each pure mineral is represented
an unlimited number of probabilities. The results by a single point, regardless of porosiVy, when M
are presented in the form of a log (Fig. 11-64).
However, other techniques are also available.

271
 ._. . _” ..~- ../G_”
L0G.F

%_ ._._....,_f..,I.tf....**..........~.*....,.~...~
_Li i_:c ?_LC l.1.J P_Y%
‘...:,-“,.l

.._. t....._.*.

1
Fig. 11-65. Example
/....

of crossplots of formation
G.SO

factor
i.0:

vs. porosih/ (sonic, or derived

!.S,
-i

from the neutron-density

CORIGANO)

combination) (from
SW” et a,.. 1978).

272
 LITHO-POROSITY PLOT
(FRESH MUD)

I J
3 .4 .5 6 .N. I .8 -9 1.0

Fig. 11-W. M v* N crossplot and its interpretation

(from Burke et a!., 19W).
EXAMPL
G*“’ uTHo40,0stn PLOT (1) :
,m~.........:.........:.......-.:.........:...
SONIC-DENSITY
CROSS-PLOT FOR MINERAL “A’
*;.........)

;:i:, in :
” ii:’
‘:........-i: , a.:: .___._~____.._..:._.._.._.:
.a z . .
! )i&fT~ .‘.-I
W’ ;

DENSITY pb gmlcc

NEUTRON- DENSITY
CROSS- PLOT FOR MINERAL ‘A’ a:........I.........:.........i.........:.........i
.a 54 A4,II.-‘O an 90
Fig. 11.69. Example of a M vs N cro~plot showing the
exktence of secondary porosity which can panly be related to

is plotted against N (Fig. 11-66). When there is

some secondary porosity (due to fractures, for
example), the sonic measurement is unaffected by
it. This is because the measurement is based on
the travel time of the fastest compressional wave,
which bypasses vugs and fractures, at least when
the fractures are subparallel to the borehole axis.
Consequently, At is reduced and M is increased.
Fig. 11-W. Determination of the M and N factors (from Burke The representative points are therefore displaced
e* al, 1969). towards the top of the diagram (Fig. 11-69).

273
 11.5.1.3. MID Hot

This technique, very similar to the preceding

one, was introduced by Clavier et al. (1976). and
combines the measurements of the same three
tools. An apparent matrix density (p,,), and an
apparent matrix travel time (At& are defined
from charts (Fig. 11-70). These two parameters are
then plotted against each other (Fig. 11-71). In this
case also, each pure mineral, or fixed mixture of
minerals, is represented by a unique point regar-
dless of porosity, so long as each tool responds in
the same way to the porosity.
Again, secondary porosity reduces At and so
(At,,,&. The points representing fractured or vuggy
zones are then displaced towards the left-hand
side of the plot (Fig. 1 l-72).

Fig. 11-71. Example of a MID-plot and its interpretation far

the determination of mineralogy (from Clavier era!., 1976).

-. . ..,. I .> . . .r ,” . ;; .,,-,;.

..mj ~ .‘f !? ?! :: _‘: (If : : ‘.“.’

f-

10 - 2.2 50 40
b CNL NE”TRON WEX (AWare,,+ Limestone Porosity~

Fig. 11-70. Ghan for the determination of : (a) : p+,. and (b) :
At,,+. (from Clavier et a\.. 1976).

Fig. 11-72. Example of a MID-pEot indicating the presence of

secondary porosity which can pardy be related to fractures
(courtesy of Schlumberger).

274
11.5.2. Tortuos~Ey Factor m Since the open fractures
This factor, also known as the cementation
factor, is defined by the following equation :
are more or less
rectilinear planes, one would expect the tortuosity
factor to be close to 1, at least when the porosity
is due to the fractures, and the current lines are
parallel to the plane of the fractures. In fact, even
if the fractures have not been healed, there will be
crystals in the fractures which are not evenly
distributed, and these will increase the tortuosity.
In addition, the fractures are not always planar or
indeed open, and they are frequently at an angle to
the borehole axis. Finally, there are often several
crisscrossing fracture systems. As a result, the
tortuosity factor, m, is always greater than 1, but
usually well below 2 or 2.3, the values observed in
compact formations, and more usually around 1.4.
If the m factor is plotted against depth, the
fractured zones will show the lowest values,
usually between 1.3 and 1.6 (Figs. 11-73).
 types of fractures : open or cemented;
11.5.3. Calculation of Secondary Porosity - orientation (dip and azimuth) of fractures;
vertical and lateral extent of fractures;
Given that the sonic measurement does not - fracture density: number of fractures and
“see” the porosity of fractures or vugs, a secon- total fracture length per unit volume;
dary porosity index can be defined by combining fracture porosity.
the porosity from the sonic tool with that deduced Well logs do not provide all of this information,
from the density-neutron combination : only the following being obtainable.

SPI=&w-I& 11.6.1. Depths of Fractured Zones

This is the simplest information to obtain from

On a plot of this index against depth, the the logs, especially from the Formation Micro-
fractured zones will show the highest values. The Scanner or the BHTV. So there is no need to
example of Figure 11-74 shows a good correlation elaborate.
between this index and a drop in temperature in a
zone where density, sonic, gamma ray and caliper
are constant. These two phenomena can be taken 11.62. Type of Fracture
to indicate the presence of fractures.
This is only true of fractures which are subparal- The Formation MicroScanner tool can usually
lel to the borehole axis. If the fractures are differentiate between open fractures, fractures
subperpendicular, the sound wave must cross induced by the drilling process. and healed cemen-
them, and the sonic then “sees” the fractures. ted fractures. For the other tools, only open fractu-
res will affect the log responses and be detected.
RECAP In any case, it is only open fractures which are of
We can conclude that fractured zones are interest for production. Hence every fracture
present if examination of the Formation Micro- which is detected as a conductive anomaly is by
Scanner and BHlV images indicate their presence. definition open. However, not every conductivity
In the absence of these measurements, the exis- oeak is a fracture.
tence of fractures can be concluded if several of
the following phenomena are observed simulta-
neously at about the same depth : 116.3. Orientation of Fractures
a change in temperature gradient;
- a change in hole diameter; There are two parameters to be determined :
a localised decrease in density, accompanied dip and azimuth. The borehole televiewer and the
by a variation in Ap while Pe, At and & remain Formation MicroScanner are the only tools which
steady, but not if there is a cave, or the mud allow us to determine both the orientation and the
contains bary-te; dip of fractures (Fig. 11-75 & 11.59). The dip
a very slight increase in porosity; cannot be determined with any certainty from the
secondan/ porosity; other logs, because even if a correlation is made
a reduction in the value of the m factor; between conductivity peaks, there is no guarantee
a change in the ratio LLD/LLS; that they all belong to the same fracture.
sudden drops in resistivity on the microdevi- If we now consider the size of an event detec-
-Se*; ted by a pad (Fig. ll-76), we can attempt to define
- high Pe values when the mud contains baryte; two possible dips and select the ones which show
conductivity peaks on the FIL; the most constant values. These data must also be
- DCA showing conductive anomalies; plotted as a function of pad azimuth.
a pause in tool rotation; The azimuth can be determined if fracturing is
- strong attenuation of acoustic waves; accompanied by hole ovalisation, or from a polar
a blurred zone on the VDL, or a lack of vertical frequency plot of conductive anomalies detected
coherence on the wave train; by the DCA program. Figure 11-32 shows the
radioactivity peaks or uranium peaks; consistency of results, and their correlation with
strong negative SP deflections. the predominant fracture or fault directions.
The two buttons on each pad of the SHDT
provide a means of determining the apparent dip
of the planes of the fractures picked up by each
11.6. EVALUATION OF FRACTURES
pad. The dip and azimuth of the fractures can then
be defined if we assume that the two anomalies
The evaluation of fractured zones requires the correspond to the same fracture, or at least to the
following information : same system of parallel fractures (Figs. 11-54 &
- depths of the fractured zones; 11.56).

276
 N E s w N

11.6.4. Fracture Density 11.6.5. Fracture Porosity from Photoelectric

Capture Cross-Section (LDT tool)

As previously illustrated (Fig. 11-58) individual

We have already seen that the photoelectric
fractures can be identified with the Formation capture cross-section is strongly influenced by
MicroScanner tool if a borehole coverage is built ban/te muds, and this feature can be used to
up through several passes, between which the pad evaluate fracture porosity.
orientation has changed. This allows the determi- The following equation introduces the electro-
nation of the number of fractures in a given nic density :
window, and of the length between fractures.
With the other tools this can be evaluated from Pe pe = B V, Pei p., (11-l)
the frequency at which the fracture indicators Or, for the case of fractured rocks invaded by
occur, notably on the dipmeter and on the FIL (Fig. baryte muds :
11-46) and DCA (Fig. 11-49) presentations, and
from the porosity of the fractures. This can be Pe pe = & Pet (p.)t + A, Pee. (P&8
evaluated by various means. + (1 - &. - 6,) Pe,. (p.),, (11-2)

277
 The first term is always very small and can be Note: The last equation only holds if the
ignored. The matrix porosity of compact fractured borehole wall is smooth, so that the pad fits
rocks is also low (usually less than 10 96) while Pe closely to the formation. Otherwise there may be
is also very small (0.358 for water, 0.48 for oil and a cave doe to crumbling of the borehole wall filled
0.807 for salt water). We can therefore write as a with baryte mud. It is necessary, therefore to
first approximation : examine the caliper and the density correction
before applying this formula. We must also bear in
Pe pS = & Peb (P& mind that, being a unidirectional tool, it will only
+ (1 - &P) Pe,, (p.),, (“-‘) analyse the part of the formation in front of the
pad, and so it will not necessarily measure the
The porosity AP is derived from the density- total fracture porosity. In any case, if the hole is
neutron combination, and includes both matrix ovalised due to the presence of fractures, the pad
porosity and fracture porosity. This gives : will usually ride the major axis of the hole, and so
face the fractures. The measurement will thus be
Pe pe - (1 - AP) Per”, (P&n* (11-4) representative of the fracture porosity since it is
&I=
Peea (P&a unlikely that there is another fracture network at
900 to the first when the hole is ovalised.
Now, we can show that :

Pee, (p.).. = 1070 (11-5) 11.6.6. Fracture Porosity from DLL

and further, as a first approximation, we can
take : Boyeldieu et a/. (1982) proposed the following
P. = pb et (P.),, = (P,,), equation for fracture porosity after studying the
effects of fractures on the deep and shallow
which gives : laterologs, and making certain assumptions :
Pe Pb - (1 - AP) Pern, (PC”,), (1 l-6)
C#
1070 (#A = 7 Rrn~(C LLS- Cm,) -c & (11-7)

278
 where I&, is the fracture porosity, I&.). is the
computed fracture porosity and CLLS and CLLDare
the conductivities in mhos of the LLS and LLD; m
is between 1.3 and 1.5.
The assumptions made by the authors are as
follows :
The fracture system is seen by both laterologs
as a system of resistivities in parallel with the
compact, non-fractured, formation (a perfectly
reasonable assumption).
There is no invasion of the non-fractured part
of the formation (the blocks contained within the
fracture system), but only of the fracture system.
This assumption is justified by the very high
permeability of the fracture system compared with
that of the rock itself, so that the overpressure of
the mud column will act preferentially on the
fracture network.
The invasion of the fracture system is not too
deep, but sufficient to ensure that the LLD reads
the virgin formation while the LLS reads the
flushed zone. The validity of this assumption will
depend on the type of mud and on the degree of
opening of the fractures. If the losses observed
during the drilling are low, it can be assumed that
the openings are small and that a mud-cake was
able to develop and limit the invasion. In this case
the assumption is valid. If the losses were conside-
rable, the invasion will be deep, and we can no
longer assume that the LLD reads the virgin zone.
The water saturation of the uninvaded frac-
ture system is almost zero. This is a reasonable
assumption given the permeability of the fractu-
res.
The filtrate saturation of the invaded fracture
system is 100 %. Again, due to the high permeabi-
lity of the fractures, we can assume that all the
hydrocarbons have been Rushed.
The authors then derived the following inequali-
ties :

(1 l-8)

and
However, as the authors themselves pointed
out, the best results are obtained when the mud
1 < 4&p + #y% (11-9) resistivity is about equal to that of the formation
RLLS w water, and when the formation contains hydrocar-
bons.
where &, is the matrix porosity, A. is the In water-bearing sequences. on the other hand,
fracture porosity, S,. is the water saturation of the two salinities (mud and formation water)
the non-fractured, uncontaminated formation. should be very different. In this case the authors
Subtracting equ. 11-9 from equ. 11-9 gives : proposed the following equation :

(Ad.= m cus- CUD (11-11)

1J cm-cc,
The above hypotheses assume that Sxm = 1 Figure 11-77 shows an example of results from
and S,. = 0. This then gives equ. 11-7 by substitu- an interpretation of very compact, fractured for-
ting conductivities for resistivities. mations.

279
 a

I
tool centred on fracture
1-1!-!*- I-..-_:_-
block reslstlvity = 10000 ohm.m
mud resistivity = 0.1 ohm.m
1000
1 10 100 1000

DISTANCE OF FRACTURE FROM AXIS in metros INVASION RADIUS in inches

5-j
Infinite invasion
- block reslstlvlty = 10000 ohm.m
mud resistivity = 0.1 ohm.m
I

0.005 ,/ I I
I 0.5 1 10 100 200
1 10 100 1000
FRACTURE APERTURE in microns FRACTURE APERTURE in microns

Fig. 1l-78. Relationship between the fracture aperture E in pm for (a) : for vertical fractures and the conductivity: (b) : for horizontal
fractures and the resistivity (from Sibbit & Fsivre, 1985).

. ._ -.” I_ ..^ .._“.._

11.6.7. Liihology Determination 11.6.9. Opening and Depth of Fractures

In compact, non-fractured formations, the

Sibbit & Faivre (1985) related the opening (in
mineralogy of the formation is easily determined pm) of vertical and horizontal fractures to the
from the various log measurements using cross-
conductivity measured by the Dual Laterolog (DLT)
plots or if necessary the Schlumberger LITHO or
tool and the difference between the deep (LLD)
GLOBAL programs described in Chapters 2 and 9. and shallow (LLS) resistivities. They also showed a
In fractured zones, the readings of the density tool
relation between their lateral extent (depth into
are frequently affected by caves or borehole the formation) and the same Dual Later&g
rugosity and are often unusable. It is then neces-
measurements. In the case of vertical fractures
sary to use the neutron-sonic-gamma ray combi- (parallel to the tool axis) the two measurement
nation, and sometimes Pe to obtain a satisfactory curves separate (LLD > LLS) and their difference
lithology determination. is proportional to the product of the fracture
opening, E, and the conductivity of the invading
11.6.8. Determination of Fracture Permeability fluid, C,. For horizontal fractures (perpendicular to
the tool axis) the two curves show a resistivity
In a recent publication, Mathieu et al. (1984) decrease over approximately 0.8 m (Fig. 11-78).
have estimated that fracture permeability can be Again the separation is proportional to the product
determined from an analysis of Stoneley wave of the fracture opening and the invading fluid
detected by a tool which records the complete conductivity. The Formation MicroScanner tool
acoustic wave train. The results they obtained in a enables to determine if the fractures are vertical or
solid crystalline formation seem encouraging. horizontal.

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283