A new age of airline services was unleashed in the United States when deregulation of the

aviation business was implemented in 1978. It was possible for airlines to rethink and
restructure their management structure so that they could compete and profit the most. It was
the airline South-West Airlines that pioneered a new service model by delivering less
amenities at lower costs to its customers. South-West Airlines established the foundations for
what is now known as the low-cost airline by becoming a successful competitor in the US air
transportation sector. Often referred to as "The Low-Cost Model," the so-called South-West
model has served as an example of low-cost operations. Following the liberalisation of the
airline industry in Europe in 1993, a number of new airlines were established using the
South-West Airlines concept. It was EasyJet and Ryanair that pioneered low-cost service, and
both companies have had considerable success. Until recently, Ryanair and EasyJet were
Europe's top two low-cost carriers. However, low-cost carriers are popping up all throughout
the EU. There have been low-cost airlines in business for a few years now, but only lately
have they received greater notice and have grown even more swiftly. In order to save money,
these low-cost airlines utilise secondary/local/regional airports situated in more remote places
rather than the major national airport. It's a fascinating notion to learn about since it's so
different from traditional airline methods. There are environmental consequences to the new
model of delivering low-cost flights with little frills and a well-oiled network. Imagine the
impact on tourism and local economy that the rise of low-cost airlines and specialised airports
will have. However, this is a novel idea, and there is much more to learn about it. Despite the
wealth of information available on low-cost airlines, much of it focuses on the business
model that underpins the notion as well as its financial advantages and disadvantages. Fewer
people realise or record the effects on transportation networks connecting cities, as well as
the changes in passenger travel habits. Low-cost airlines may have an impact on people's
transportation choices and migration patterns. Cities and regions benefit greatly from the
availability of these low-cost and conveniently accessible services. Smaller airports that are
situated outside of the city's centre may have a significant impact on both the airline and the
local community, not only because of lower taxes and fees. Aside from that, many of these
airports are still named after the capital or major city that they serve. An intriguing study
subject is the connection between the airport and the surrounding town and the city. What are
the true ramifications of low-cost services on a regional and local scale? How are cities and
governments responding to this in their planning? The development of low-cost services or, if
not, the development of low-cost services influenced planning. We want to find out whether
and how city branding has evolved as a result of changes in travel behaviour and tourism, as
well as changes in the networks that connect cities. We also want to examine if changes in
travel behaviour and tourism have impacted the way cities promote themselves. In this thesis,
it will be demonstrated that this final question is intimately intertwined in the low-cost
notion, yet it has never been explored.

Background
As a consequence of so many airlines, destinations, and flights crisscrossing the European
continent, new phenomena might be seen. According to previous research, these low-cost
airline services have created new jobs and altered the European Union's labour market in
seven tourist sectors (EU). For example, according to the European Low Fares Airline
Association (ELFAA) and other researchers, low-cost airlines have helped the European
economy by creating jobs, stabilising tourism markets, and establishing new tourist
destinations, as noted in a 2007 report titled "Social Benefits of Low-Cost Airlines in
Europe". Low-cost airlines have strengthened EU cohesion (especially the connection of
inaccessible regions and new member states in Europe) and boosted the quality of life for
European inhabitants; better and more affordable options for work, tourism, and
transportation have been established. Similar findings are found in a work by Button and
Vega (2008), although the impact of low-cost airlines on migration patterns is also
underlined. They claim that low-cost services have led to an increase in long-distance
commuting and more short-term migration. Because of this, it is possible to return to one's
native country more often and at a lower cost. Ryanair's ties to Poland have resulted in a
massive surge in Polish-British migration and 'friends and family visits,' for example (Button
& Vega, 2008). In their research of Hannover Airport, Pantazis and Liefner (2006) also found
a shift in commuting habits (Germany). They reveal that low-cost airlines attract more
customers from greater distances and larger cities than normal airliners do.. In addition, they
claim that low-cost airlines are luring more and more corporate travellers. The low cost and
low-cost airlines are driving where people are shopping today, argues Abbey National's
Hannah Chance in BBC News (BBC News, 2001). There are new opportunities for the real
estate industry when low-cost airlines open up new routes to areas that aren't as well-known
and so provide less-expensive properties. An essay on the influence of real estate at minor
airports serviced by low-cost airlines was published in 'The Independent.' As stated in the
article, the opening of additional routes by low-cost airlines "also fuels property demand
tremendously" (The Independent, 2007). Property values near airports serviced by low-cost
airlines are over 40% more than those of houses at a comparable distance from airports
exclusively serving scheduled flights, according to recent study mentioned in the piece (The
Independent, 2007). There are several impacts and side effects associated with an airport
acquiring low-cost services, all of which have an influence on the area and are tied to
planning difficulties in an indirect way. An rise in visitor numbers, for example, might
necessitate the development of new modes of transportation and tourist attractions. The rise
in real estate values may also have an impact on future planning. More low-cost connections
may be an useful asset to the community since they open up new potential for international
connections and new marketing incentives for tourism and municipal development. These
consequences are at the heart of the thesis's purpose and will be examined in depth in Chapter
5's case studies. The airports of Glasgow-Prestwick, Stockholm-Skavsta, and Düsseldorf-
Weeze were chosen as case studies for this study. All three airports rely almost entirely on
low-cost carriers for the majority of their operations; as a result, they are all struggling to stay
afloat. As a result, there may be a stronger correlation between low-cost airlines' influence
and the region's effects. At each airport in addition to that, the biggest and most prominent
low-cost airline in Europe has stationed a portion of its aircraft fleet. Thus, the airport's route
network may expand further, allowing for more in-depth research. There are a few things to
keep in mind while looking at these three examples: Glasgow City is 45 kilometres distant,
Stockholm is 90, and Düsseldorf is 60 kilometres away from the city centre. Since it is a
significant hub for low-cost flights in the UK, and notably in Scotland, Glasgow-Prestwick
has been a focus of this thesis.

Purpose

As we saw in the last chapter, there are a slew of issues with low-cost airlines that need more
discussion. Low-cost airlines and their impact on transportation planning are the topic of this
thesis, as stated before. According to the overarching purpose of the thesis, the following
should be considered: Determine whether or whether low-cost airline services have had an
impact on the challenges of transportation planning. In earlier research, it has been shown
that low-cost airlines do have an impact on planning concerns. However, the issue remains as
to how much and in what ways these consequences are really observable in the profession of
urban planning.

Research Questions
The focus of this thesis is on low-cost airlines, as well as regional and urban planning. To
begin with, the goal is to have a better understanding of the low-cost idea and how it works. -
It's important to know what the low-cost model is and how low-cost airlines operate.
Secondly, the goal is to examine the impact of these services on city-planning processes. It is
necessary to first study regional growth and identify what occurred on a broader scale in
order to explain the "low-cost impact" at local levels, as the case studies propose. When it
comes to Europe, the growth of low-cost services on that continent is being examined, and
the answers to the following four issues will be sought: For example, how might low-cost
services connect cities and regions? Why do these airlines have such a negative influence on
European city networks? What is the effect of the low-cost concept on travel networks? As
part of the case studies, we'll look at the following questions to evaluate whether low-cost
services may have an impact on planning difficulties. Looking at how low-cost serviced
airports have changed the area and planning views: Do airports have a positive impact on
their local communities? How are cities and regions reacted to the opening of a low-cost
airport in their area? Do low-cost services alter the way people see the planning process? Are
there any examples of low-cost services spurring urban development?

Given that low-cost flights, like all other airlines, operate in accordance with a network that
connects various locations, an important component of understanding how low-cost services
have changed regional planning is how they have altered linkages and city networks. - How
did the airport come into existence? Is it possible to go to other parts of Europe? What is the
difference between the two airport cities in the region's network? - What new (and improved)
links has the airport made to the city? ' Is it possible that the new low-cost lines will have an
impact on migratory demographics, given that they provide new and improved access to
places? Transportation and regional planning are directly tied to travel behaviour and
tourism. Accessibility and mobility have been greatly improved as a result of the impact of
low-cost airports on travel and tourism. - What are the effects of low-cost services on the
local and regional tourist markets? Is there a shift in people's travel habits as a result of low-
cost carriers? The travellers' origins and destinations are unknown. Low-cost airlines'
business model and marketing methods are a vital aspect of planning, thus my thesis goal is
to investigate how low-cost airlines affect city marketing as a part of city planning. How does
the city's marketing strategy include the airport? The airport's marketing strategy varies
widely depending on where you live and how far you go.
Literature Review
This chapter serves as an introduction to the low-cost notion, which is one of the goals of this
thesis. Business models based on the low-cost model are viewed as the driving force behind
low-cost airline organisations (LCAs). The approach, developed by South-West Airlines in
the United States, aims to reduce various expenses that are common to all airlines. High
aircraft utilisation, secondary airports, minimal cabin crew and one class seating, short "on
the ground" turnaround times and e-ticketing are just a few of the core features of the low-
cost model, Francis et al. (2006) write. Passengers must pay for food and beverages. Flexible
working terms and conditions for employees. And point-to-point services. An overview of
how these elements contribute to reduced costs is provided in the paper of the ELFAA et al
(2007). Table 2.1 shows that simplicity, efficiency, reduced costs, and less additional
expenditures are the main priorities.

Low-cost airlines often work with third parties to increase their profit margins, such as hotels,
car rental agencies, and the like. In addition, Ryanair's business approach is characterised by
a desire to lower prices at any cost and at any moment. With Ryanair's recent introduction of
a complete online check-in service, customers must now check in online before heading to
the airport to pick up their tickets. To save money, Ryanair is lowering the number of
workers it has to hire at the check-in counters. The online services, including fees for checked
luggage, credit card payments, priority boarding, online check-in, and more, also add
additional charges, such as a price for online check-in. Ryanair has chosen for a slew of
creative ways to raise revenue from its customers. It was proposed that passengers pay to use
the aircraft's onboard bathrooms, that passengers who are significantly overweight pay a
surcharge for their (physical) excess weight, that passengers check their own luggage, and
that passengers transport their checked luggage to the aircraft themselves. Another idea is to
charge a low fee for standing room only in the aircraft on short routes. The possibilities for
cutting corporate expenses and passenger rates are almost limitless. When it comes to the
low-cost approach, it's more than just reduced fares. Priority on airport slots and gates is a
major reason why many low-cost airlines opt to operate out of minor airports rather than
international hubs, where the flag carriers retain their "grand-father privileges." newcomers to
the low-cost airline scene in the dust (Barret, 2004). Dobruszkes (2006), in his article on
European low-cost airlines and their networks, argues that low-cost airlines are seeking for
gaps in the European airline network to serve and compete against the established full-service
airline routes. However, To ensure that they don't face any competition, low-cost airlines
prefer to concentrate on supplying regional towns that aren't served by full-service networks,
as well as towns linked by high-speed railways. As a consequence, low-cost airlines often
provide exclusive service on their routes; for example, 93% of all Ryanair's flights are
operated only by Ryanair and no other airline (Dobruszkes, 2006). Low-cost airlines are able
to negotiate lower airport fees because of this. As Dobruszkes (2006) stated, Europe has a
large number of underserved and willing to accept any airline in order to survive, which
means that low-cost airlines have a lot of options and can easily shift to other airports if their
proposal for service is denied at one airport that does not want to give large advantages to the
airline. According to Gillen and Lall (2004), one low-cost airline dominates these airports,
making them reliant on that airline and giving the airline significant bargaining power and
increasing the risk for the airport to deny any deals, as the airline can easily choose to operate
from other airports that remain. New low-cost developments require airports to compromise
in order to secure the services of low-cost airlines; they must hunt for new sources of
income.. As a result, many of the low-cost airports serve also have a small domestic airline or
charter planes operating from the airport. To make money at a low-cost airport, retail
facilities and parking fees must be used. Due to low-cost airline service's lack of profitability,
low-cost serviced airports rely heavily on these two sources of revenue (Mark Rodwell,
2009).

Both are concerned about pricing, but the latter is more concerned with the business strategy
that allows low prices to be achieved. A big difference is that "low-fares" might include
"normal airlines," like Air Berlin, that fly short-haul routes without a lot of frills on board and
offer tickets at a lower price. According to Van der Zwan (2006), the low-cost carrier
business model is based on a reduction in the complexity of expenses. Then there are the four
categories of low-cost airlines identified by Button and Vega (2008) in their research,
depending on how they were originally classified in the past. The low-cost original kind,
which they also refer to as "Southwest copy-cats," is what they call the "Southwest model's
closest competitor." From scratch or completely reworked by entrepreneurs, such as Ryanair,
this kind is known as a "new airline." This sort of low-cost charter is a subsidiary of a charter
airline that provides low-cost scheduled service.. With a single kind of fleet and high levels
of aircraft utilisation, they generally charge for meals, provide one-way rates, and accept
online reservations. Volare, for example, serves a number of European destinations that were
formerly serviced by the airline's major charter segment, but are now solely covered by
scheduled flights. Low-cost regional airlines, like FlyBe, are formed from regional airlines
that have embraced the low-cost business model, such the low-cost charter type. Full service
low-cost airlines, such as BMI (British Midland International) and JetBlue (JetBlue Airways),
constitute a fourth category of carrier. In Francis et al. (2006), the low-cost full-service type
is divided into three subtypes based on its pricing system: To compete in the low-cost market
and build a foothold, long-established major airlines have formed subsidiaries. Two types of
legacy airlines that are trying to reduce their operational costs: When they don't provide all
the bells and whistles they formerly did. Use hub and spoke patterns and big airports to keep
going. – If the government owns or subsides a company, it is able to compete on price since it
does not have to pay its long-term average expenses. In recent years, these divisions have
been growing throughout the whole low-cost airline spectrum. A low-cost airline is defined
as one that uses the low-cost model and falls into any of the aforementioned categories. I'm
not going to draw a difference between the various low-cost airlines, but I'm going to refer to
them as lowcost airlines in general. There is no need to include these low-cost airlines in our
study on city networks and planning since the emphasis will be on the airports serviced by
these low-cost carriers.

There is no doubt that networks are a part of this paper's scope. Airlines link people and
places in innovative ways. There has never been a better time to be a traveller, since cities are
becoming more interconnected than ever before. Airlines like Ryanair and EasyJet are
pioneering a whole new network in Europe and influencing how cities connect to one
another. The new services that low-cost airlines are providing have revolutionised how
people get about. Often, a network is described as a collection of nodes connected by a single
line. People, things, energy or information may be transported via networks as Ritsema and
van Eck (in van der Zwan, 2006) characterised it. The interconnectedness of cities is shown
by Taylor (2004) in his theory of city networks as a more sophisticated system.

`Cities have always been intertwined, whether or not via religious or educational institutions.
City networks are essential, even though they are not necessary for cities to exist. It is
impossible for cities to survive on their own, but rather rely on the connections and
interrelationships they have with other cities throughout the world: they are not formed in
isolation (Taylor, 2004). In the idea of city networks, networks are commonly characterised
in terms of diverse purposes, such as religious, political, educational, commercial,
transportation, and natural resource-based networks. ' In 2008, (Johansson), A city's
functioning and growth may be seen as part of a network formed by these connections
between cities. In this way, the city and its territory might be linked to other locations that
aren't necessary close by, whether they're on the same continent or even on the other side of
the planet. It is common for three types of players, each operating at a different level of the
city network, to form the networks by their activities and movements (Johansson, 2008). To
support the city network, Taylor (2004) suggests that a city's network forms are composed of
three components. A network's relationships are defined by its nodes, which in turn offer
nodal sites for agents to convene. At the subnode level, service providers are the key players
in the network's creation. If cities aren't forming inter-city interactions patterns, it's these city
network formation agents that connect cities in a myriad of partnerships that construct a
network, according to city networks theory. Multi-location businesses and courier services
are often used to connect cities, forming a kind of network infrastructure (Taylor, 2004)
Functional, hierarchical and global-local links are the three fundamental elements of world
cities, according to Friedmann (in Taylor, 2004). Cities serve as conduits for the movement
of people, capital, information, and goods across their surrounding area and into the global
economy. Changes in a city, according to Friedmann, rely on the city's integration into the
global economy and, therefore, on the roles it performs to connect a local economy with the
worldwide economy. The significance of a city's roles as a financial centre, corporate
headquarters, international institutions, business services, manufacturing, or transportation is
reflected in a complicated spatial hierarchy established by city features. Local economic
structure and evolution are intimately linked to an urban area's global importance. The airline
that serves as a conduit for the company's network and the low-cost carrier in particular are
inextricably linked. A city's features alter as its transportation options are influenced by the
airline. To put it another way, the airline is serving as a conduit for connecting the city and
the surrounding area to other destinations. The city serves as a hub, hosting an airport agency
that facilitates new connections and activities. Rather from being a static collection of links
and nodes, city networks are a dynamic web of connections and interactions among
individuals and organisations. It is not the locations or spaces themselves that matter in a
network society, says Castells (in Taylor, 2004), but rather the position of places within
flows, which gives rise to the network. Infrastructural support for social behaviours is the
initial component of the space of flows. A network predicated on communication and
information technologies like the global internet and international airline networks is
something he emphasises the significance of. First and foremost, the agents who connect
locations together (economic, cultural, and political) establish a space of social activities that
constitute society via the usage of this fundamental infrastructural network. The network's
goals and practises are supported by the network's geographical organisation and economic
leaders.

There is no need for cities to be physically adjacent to one another in order to be considered
nodes within city networks inside a network (Taylor, 2004). Operation centres are
strategically essential nodes and hubs in the networks that connect all the other locations
(Castells, in Taylor, 2004). Within a network's core, there are always multiple points where
the whole network may be connected. With airliners and airports, critical locations are linked
together not just to one point but in a complicated web of connections to multiple nodes.
They are referred to as "communication hubs" by Castells (in Taylor, 2004) because they are
put up to coordinate communication between areas in the network, such as international
airports. The placement of transport nodes and ports is the most significant consideration
(Johansson, 2008). The first step in determining the accessibility and suitability of a node for
transportation coordination is to do a localization. As a result, transportation nodes depend on
solid infrastructure and easy access to connect to the city's centre and periphery. National and
global accessibility is greatly facilitated by airports. To ensure the city's accessibility,
transport hubs are included into global and national city networks (Johansson, 2008).
National and regional markets may be served by nodes that are strongly linked centres
(without any large headquarters). They serve as the traditional entry points for today's global
economy (Taylor, 2004). In a location that functions as a node for people's journey, these
gateways indicate fresh places of entry. According to Hirth (in Button and Vega, 2008), these
gateways gain from these flows and are able to regulate them since they provide the area new
competitive advantages to grow, which in turn enables to influence travel behaviour.

Within the city network theory cities are connected through links and services provided by
firms. The city is depended on the amount of links and firms for its integration in the
network. This integration can be measured by looking at the connectivity of one city’s
network. The connectivity shows how well a node is linked to other nodes within its own
network. Connectivity can be represented by the number of firms (airlines), number of
connections of each node in the network (total routes), and a weight for the importance of the
connection (number of passengers). A connection means a link from one point to another in
some way, if each pair of points has a direct connection the network is called strongly
connected, otherwise if there only indirect connections between each pair of points there is a
weak connectivity. Connectivity should not be confused with accessibility, which is the
measure for how easily a destination can be reached; if a point is highly connected to other
points there are more options to reach the point so there exists a high accessibility.
Accessibility can be represented by the number of connections from the specific node
(routes) and a weight for the importance of the connection (costs or time).

In the light of aviation networks and city ranking, Sassen (2002) provides a study on the
dominance of world cities by Smith and Timberlake who use an analysis of airline passengers
from and to world city airports. Having examined the dominance of world cities and their
rank throughout the years 1980 to 1997, the result shows a rather hierarchical pattern
evolving through the years. The top cities (1st is London followed by Tokyo and Frankfurt)
have always been at a high dominance extending far above the rest of world cities. This
indicates a sharp definition of hierarchical dominance among all world cities. The middle tier
of world cities (like Amsterdam, Hong Kong, Singapore, Madrid, Milan) have shown to be at
a same dominance level over time; representing less hierarchy among each other, seeing as
these secondary cities seem to operate as specialized centers. The most hierarchical order can
be found in the bottom ranks, like Sydney, Mexico City, Montreal. Already Friedmann (in
Taylor, 2004) argued for a hierarchical world city network formed by the characteristics of a
city, he adds that the importance of a city’s functions reflect its characteristics. Three main
functions are defined by Friedmann: the city as a headquarters of international companies, or
the city as an influential financial centre, or the city operating as an articulator for its region
and country. Friedmann mostly used the economic powers of a city to represent its world
ranking as they distribute regional and national economies into global economies: reflecting
the city’s global role by means of the structure and changes in local economy. Nevertheless,
Smith and Timberlake (in Sassen, 2002) argue that the characteristics of a city are shaped by
all the exchanges which link it to other nodes in the network. One way of representing the
flows or exchanges that link cities is the air traffic between cities. Air traffic links are,
according to Keeling (in Sassen 2002), the best opportunity to present the role of
transportation in the world city network. First of all, he argues that air linkages are one of the
few modes which can connect urban cores by transportation, in particular over larger
distances and trans-Atlantic and –continental routes. Secondly, he states that airline routes,
airports and its related infrastructure are the most obvious example of a city being connected
in an international network. Moreover, despite the rapid development of technology and
interaction methods there is still a need for face-to-face contact creating high travel demands.
Furthermore, air travel is increasingly highly preferred as the mode of transport for high class
people, tourists, business man, and migrants as well as for transporting valuable and small
amounts of goods. Lastly, he adds that that the acquisition and availability of air links are of
important value for a city’s integration in the world economy network of globalization, as
also presented by Friedmann and Taylor (2004).

Previous studies have observed patterns in airline networks that relate to the way they
operate. In general, two network types can be found within transportation and airlines: ‘hub-
and-spoke’ and ‘point-to-point’ networks. The ‘hub-and-spoke’ structure lets an airline
concentrate on one base airport where it receives other feeder airlines giving it the possibility
to stretch out over a larger area to offer high connectivity. The ‘point-to-point’ network
makes the airline serve linear routes between two places, not having a real hub in the network
but providing a web of just one route links resulting in a low connectivity network. ‘Hub-and-
spoke’ networks show a spatially concentrated, radial scheme, whereas ‘point-to-point’
networks demonstrate a more linear/ crisscross, chaotic picture (Burghouwt et al., 2003). A
study carried out by Burghouwt et al. (2003) provided an insight in the network construction
of airlines in Europe. The national carrier networks can be characterized as large radial,
concentrated networks. It reflects the national carriers’ orientation towards their national
hubs. Moreover, these large networks are complex networks and have many dimensions to
absorb new developments. Most of the regional airlines concentrated their network in some
extent around one or two central hub airports. But also increasingly have been restructuring
their networks from linear into radial networks in order to serve as feeder airlines for national
carriers. According to Burghouwt et al. (2003) the low-cost carrier networks seem to be as
concentrated as the networks of national carriers: all the low-cost carriers operated out of
central airports. Yet, there has been a shift to linear networks as low-cost airlines began to
operate from mainland bases, additional to UK bases, and use secondary airports as a base.
The point-to-point configuration has become obvious for low-cost airlines these days, but
they show a more spread out network, operating from several bases and providing
interweaved links across Europe (van der Zwan, 2006)

Transportation has always been one, if not the one, area of development of a city. It is a basic
need for developments, growth, and sustainability. Providing transportation means providing
accessibility, providing connections, reasons for development, reasons for moving, etc. As
Banister (1995) shows, transportation investments are seen as major tools for structuring a
city and encouraging developments and economic investment. Clearly, transport hubs provide
incentives for new developments and high density compact changes enhancing land-use
patterns and accessibility. Railway stations provide good examples as there transportation is
usually highly concentrated and they obtain high volumes of people passing through.
Multiple projects have been carried out around railway stations making good use of this
concentration of people, transport, consumers, etc. The combination of different
transportation modes at one place is one of the most attractive places for investment. Airports
are particularly attractive for investment and have proved to be preferable locations for
science parks, distribution centres, international conference, hotel facilities, and of course
aviation related businesses.

Firms offer linkages and services that connect cities under the city network theory. The city's
integration into the network depends on the number of linkages and businesses. The
connection of a city's network may be used as a measure of this integration. The degree of
connectedness between a node and the other nodes in its own network is shown here. Number
of enterprises (airlines), total routes, and the value of a link may all be used to measure how
well-connected a network is (number of passengers). A network is said to be highly linked if
each pair of nodes has a direct link, alternatively it is said to be weakly connected if only
indirect links connect one node to the next. There should not be any confusion between the
terms "high connectivity" and "high accessibility," the latter of which is a measure of how
readily a place can be accessed." Connectivity from a certain node (routes) and the weight
assigned to that connection may be used to indicate accessibility (costs or time).

Taking into account aviation networks and city rankings, Smith and Timberlake's (2002)
research on the supremacy of global cities makes sense in light of Sassen (2002). According
to a study that analysed global city domination and rankings from 1980 to 1997, a clear
hierarchy emerged over time. The top three cities in the world, London (1st), Tokyo (2nd),
and Frankfurt (3rd), have long held sway over the rest of the globe. This reveals a clear
hierarchy of power in all major cities throughout the globe. There seems to be less hierarchy
among the world's middle-tier cities (such as the Netherlands' capital Amsterdam and the
Asian metropolises of Hong Kong, Singapore, Madrid, and Milan), since these secondary
cities appear to function as specialised hubs. The cities at the bottom of the food chain,
including Sydney, Mexico City, and Montreal, have the most rigid hierarchies. A city's
functions reflect its significance, which Friedmann has already proposed (in Taylor, 2004) as
the basis for a hierarchical global city network. Friedmann identifies three primary roles for a
city: a headquarters for worldwide corporations, an important financial centre, and a regional
and national articulator. Local and regional economies are utilised by Friedmann to illustrate
the worldwide significance of a city's involvement in the global economy. This is done by
looking at the structure and shifts in the local economy. Smith and Timberlake (in Sassen,
2002) propose that a city's features are determined by all the exchanges that connect it to
other nodes in the network. Air traffic between cities is one method to illustrate the flows or
exchanges that connect cities. Airports, according to Keeling in Sassen 2002, provide the
finest chance to demonstrate the importance of transit in the global city network. Air links are
one of the only means of transportation that can connect metropolitan centres across long
distances including trans-Atlantic and trans-continental routes, he claims. When it comes to
cities' foreign connections, the most apparent example is airline routes, airports, and
associated infrastructure, he argues. Face-to-face contact is still necessary despite the fast
advancement of technology and engagement techniques, resulting in significant travel costs.
It's no secret that air travel is becoming more popular as a form of transportation for high-
class individuals (such as businessmen, tourists, and migrants), tourists, and small quantities
of commodities. Finally, he says that, as Friedmann and Taylor have shown, the acquisition
and availability of air linkages are critical for a city's integration into the global economic
network (2004).

The way airlines operate has been linked to trends in previous research. 'hub-and-spoke' and
'point-to-point' networks are the most common forms of transportation and airline networks.
Aircraft may focus on one main airport, where other feeder airlines are received, and spread
out to cover a greater region with good connectivity thanks to this "hub-and-spoke"
arrangement. Due to the lack of a central node, but rather a web of single-route linkages, the
"point-to-point" network forces the airline to provide only linear routes between two points.
There is a clear distinction between 'hub and spoke' and 'point-to-point' networks in that the
former have a more linear/crisscross, chaotic pattern (Burghouwt et al., 2003). Burghouwt et
al. (2003) conducted a research that shed light on how European airlines build their networks.
Networks operated by national carriers are huge radial networks with dense nodes. It's a
reflection of the national carriers' focus on their home bases. Furthermore, these vast
networks are multi-dimensional and complex, allowing for the integration of new discoveries.
The majority of regional airlines have their entire network centred on one or two major hubs.
As feeder airlines for national carriers, they've also been gradually reshaping their networks
from linear to radial. A study by Burghouwt and colleagues (2003) found that all of the low-
cost airlines operated out of the same key airports as the national carriers. However, when
low-cost airlines started to fly from mainland bases, in addition to UK bases, and utilise
minor airports as a base, there has been a move to linear networks. Even while low-cost
airlines have become well-known for their direct flights, their network is more spread out,
with several bases and intertwined ties throughout Europe (van der Zwan, 2006)

A city's transportation infrastructure has always been a major factor in its growth and
development. Developing countries need it as a foundational element for progress, expansion,
and stability. Accessibility, connectivity, and motivations to move are only few of the
benefits of providing transportation. Investing in transportation is viewed as a key instrument
for city planning and growth, as shown by Banister (1995). There is no doubt that transport
hubs encourage new projects and high density compact changes in land use patterns and
access. Because of the enormous number of people passing through and the concentrated
nature of rail stations' transit, they serve as excellent case studies. There have been a slew of
developments near train stations that have taken advantage of the high concentration of
people, transportation, and other potential customers. One of the most appealing areas to
invest is a location that offers a variety of transit options under one roof. Science parks,
distribution centres, international conference centres, hotels, and, of course, aviation-related
enterprises have all found that airports provide excellent investment opportunities.

There is a multiplier impact associated with these infrastructure projects that generates both
direct and indirect spending and employment in the economy (Banister, 1995). Regional
employment and economic growth are boosted by new business possibilities and more
tourism as a result of improved transportation. According to Banister (1995), these incentives
encourage enterprises to relocate and allow for more effective distribution. The improvement
in transportation infrastructure is considered as a benefit to the region, which in turn makes it
more competitive and hence more efficient and productive.. As a result, the area's tourism
economy is bolstered as it draws more tourists for both pleasure and commercial purposes,
making the region more competitive. As a result of these catalytic effects, the region's long-
term rise in income and employment is anchored. For further information, please visit the
European Parliament website. Transportation and mobility are strongly linked to regional
economic and social difficulties, according to a 2007 report by the European Parliament.
Large transport infrastructure projects, according to Banister (1995), are stimulants for the
local economy, traffic, growth and employment at a regional scale. ELFAA and others (2004,
York Aviation) also said that for every one million passengers through the airport, 1000
additional jobs are produced. The enabling impact and greater access to markets, locations,
people, and money are thought to be linked to economic development via access to high
quality transportation infrastructure. An American research by Tam and Hansman (2002)
found a substantial link between air travel and economic growth in the region: as the
economy expanded, so did air travel. There was a rise in economic and population growth
due to greater air traffic usage (see option 1 in table 2.2) since more tourists might spend their
money in the area, as well as a prospective increase in the airport's economic and
employment impact. In addition, some individuals were drawn to relocate closer to an airport
or may have recognised the possibility of travelling to the region by plane. There are also side
effects to improved infrastructure, such as the fact that some regions with a large increase in
air traffic saw only a small increase in economy, which could be related to the growth of the
tourism industry, which does not generate that much highly paid jobs. As tourism markets are
operated at service levels, the input in the economy comes only from those expenditures and
is not stimulating major investments. And in many cases, visitors do not spend all of their
money in a single location, but instead split their expenditures among many locations. Due to
overcrowding at some airports, routes may be diverted elsewhere, although passengers still
make their way to the intended destination. This is also seen. Due to the rise in air travel, but
not the economy, in the neighbouring area, but not to the original region.

Aviation has had a long-term impact on the way people travel and the routes they choose. At
the national and regional level, air transportation is one of the most significant forms of
transportation. Unlike roads and public transportation, air travel focuses on longer distances
and connects regions and countries. This higher level of travel services offers certain
motivations and goals for travel, such as accessibility, pricing, availability, connection, and
so on and so forth; Migration is described in detail by Button and Vega (2008) in their
research. Given that migration is usually expensive and difficult, they suggest that air travel is
a key component in migration choices, especially because of the enormous distances involved
in most trips. Previously, migration necessitated lengthy stays in the new nation since
aeroplanes were costly and infrequent. Now, because to the advent of low-cost air travel, this
situation is no longer the case.

Expenses of transportation and living, as well as the social expenses of being apart from
loved ones, are considered by Button and Vega (2008) to be the most significant element in
labour mobility; People who have left their homelands seem to be taking advantage of the
reduced tickets, they say. Increasingly, low-cost airlines have played a significant part in the
expansion of air transportation, reducing travel distances and prices significantly. Cheaper
return airfares lower long-term societal costs as a result. As a result of the new low-cost
model, Button and Vega argue, migration grew, making it simpler for relatives and friends to
go to and from the labour market and vice versa. As a result, flying not only lowers the
overall cost of moving, but it also increases the desire to move. Button and Vega (2008) also
suggest that employees have taken advantage of low-cost services to migrate throughout the
European Union to participate in the labour market beyond their native country. In addition,
'knowledge' professionals with advanced degrees have increasingly relied on air travel to go
about. It is clear that low-cost air transportation has had a key impact in facilitating a more
diffused dynamic labour market by increasing long-distance commuters' use of air
transportation. But they are neither the only one or the most important. The point-to-point
routes of low-cost airlines, on the other hand, provide direct access to business markets,
spread tourism benefits, distribute labour markets, and make travel more convenient and
affordable for local residents, according to SQW Consulting (2008) in their report on
Glasgow-economic Prestwick's impacts. There are only a few areas in the world where a
large number of people travel by air because of the limited number of airports from which
flights may depart and arrive. This implies that the bulk of the population is concentrated in a
few areas, and each traveller heads out on his or her own. As a result, airline customers' travel
habits may be predicted up to the time they exit the airport. Until low-cost services are
available, transportation planning may concentrate on improving the accessibility of already
utilised major airports. Because of this, the predictability of air passenger travel patterns has
become less reliable and accessibility development has been distributed throughout a wider
geographic area. When it comes to air travel, low-cost services seem to have a significant
influence on the travel habits of its clients: they appear to draw in passengers from greater
distances and enlarge the airport's catchment area, which might extend up to 250 kilometres.
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