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Figura 1.1 Etapele procesului de modelare
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Exemplul 1.1
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Figura 1.2 Tabela de date

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Exemplul 1.4 (b)
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Exemplul 1.5
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Sã considerãm entitatea departament, folositã pentru memorarea informaþiilor referitoare

la angajaþii ºi departamentele unei firme:
DEPARTAMENT
# cod departament
# IDangajat
* data_naúterii
* adresa
Cheia primarã a entitãþii DEPARTAMENT este o combinaþie între atributele cod

departament ºi Idangajat. Observaþi cã atributele data_naºterii ºi adresa sunt dependente
doar de o parte a cheii primare (IDangajat) ºi nu de întreaga cheie primarã.
#%
Rezolvarea acestei probleme se realizeazã prin introducerea unei entitãþi noi, entitatea
ANGAJAT, legatã de entitatea DEPARTAMENT printr-o relaþie one-to-many.
ANGAJAT DEPARTAMENT
# IDangajat # cod departament

* data_naúterii lucrează compus * denumire
* adresa
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Figura 2.3 Tabelã de date
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6KTZX[XKRGÝOGJOTLOM[XGG\KS
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Exemplul 2.1 (a)
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RGZUGZKSGZKXOORKJOTVRGT[RJKÍT\ÂÝÂSÁTZ)UTYOJKXÂSXKRGÝOORKGYUIOGZKIKRUXJU[Â
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TOIO[T[RJOTIÁSV[XORKIGXKJKYIXO[XKRGÝOGT[VUZLOGRKYKJXKVZINKOKVXOSGXÂ
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Exemplul 2.1 (a) se va rescrie aºa cum se observã în exemplul 2.1 (b). Am preferat
reprezentarea tabelelor corespunzãtoare celor douã entitãþi, pentru a identifica mai bine
cheia primarã ºi cheia strãina (în cadrul diagramei entitate-relaþie cheia strãinã nu apare
explicit, ea fiind dedusã din relaþie) .
ELEV NOTA
cnp idnota
nume cnp
prenume nota
vârsta materie
clasa data
Exemplul 2.1 (b)
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ZXKH[OKYÂLOKJOLKXOZJKT[SKRKIKRUXRGRZKZGHKRKJOTHG`GJKJGZKOT[VUGZK
IUOTIOJKI[[TI[\ÁTZINKOKGRROSHGP[R[O972!
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GIKRGOT[SKJGXÍTZGHKRKJOLKXOZK!
u ZOVEJKEJGZKXKVXKÒTZÂJUSKTO[RJK\GRUXOGYUIOGZ[T[OIÁSV!YVKIOLOIGXKG
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TK^KSVR[RKYZKIXKGZÂZGHKRG+2+<VKIGXKGS[ZORO`GZUJKGR[TM[RGIKYZ[OIGVOZUR
Exemplul 2.2
:OV[XORKJKJGZKJOYVUTOHORKJOLKXÂJKRG[TYOYZKSJKMKYZO[TKRGGRZ[RGYZLKRÍTIÁZ
KYZKJOLOIORJKYIXOYUIUSGTJÂ)8+':+:'(2+[TO\KXYGR\GRGHORÂ'IKYZR[IX[KYZK
\GRGHORVKTZX[TKT[SÂXGZKIUSKTÒ972
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4;3(+8ÍT3OIXUYULZ'IIKYYO5XGIRKXKYVKIZO\/4:ÍT3_9723OIXUYULZ9729KX\KX
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OXJKIGXGIZKXKI[JOSKTYO[TKGÍTZXKO<'8).'8OXJKIGXGIZKXKI[JOSKTYO[TK
\GXOGHORÂYG[*':+JGZÂIGRKTJGXOYZOIÂJKT[SOXORKZOV[XORUXLOOTJGIKRKGO
+^KSVR[RVXKI[SOK^KSVRKRKIGXK\UX[XSGG[LUYZZKYZGZKLURUYOTJ9-(*3_972
3UJOLOIGXKGYZX[IZ[XOO[TKOZGHKRKVUGZKLOXKGRO`GZÂVXOTK^KI[ZGXKGIUSKTÒO'2:+8
:'(2+IGXKGXKYOTZG^G
%(
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)USGTJG '2:+8 :'(2+ VKXSOZK XKGRO`GXKG [T[O T[SÂX SGXK JK SUJOLOIÂXO GRK
YZX[IZ[XOOZGHKRKOJOTZXKIGXKRKGSOTZOSVKIKRKSGOOSVUXZGTZK
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ADD camp_nou tip_de_date [optiuni]
u SUJOLOIGXKGVXUVXOKZÂÝORUX[T[OIÁSVKÔYZKTZ
MODIFY camp tip_de_date [optiuni]
u ZKXMKXKG[TKOIURUGTKJOTZGHKRÂKROSOTGXKG[T[OIÁSV
DROP câmp
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Exemplul 2.3
)USGTJG'2:+8:'(2+JOTK^KSVR[RJKSGOY[YGXKIGKLKIZOTYKXGXKG[T[OIÁSV
TU[ÍTZGHKRG+2+<IÁSV[RYK^SUJOLOIGXKGIÁSV[XORUXT[SKOVXKT[SKSÂXOXKG
JOSKTYO[TOOGRUIGZKOTOÝOGROKROSOTGXKGIÁSV[R[OJGZGETGYZKXOO5XJOTKGÍTIGXKY[TZ
YIXOYKGIÝO[TORKKLKIZ[GZKJK'2:+8:'(2+KYZKGXHOZXGXÂ
CVUV_f^ZcVR eRSV]V]`c
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XKJKT[SOZK8KJKT[SOXKG[TKOZGHKRKYKXKGRO`KG`ÂVXOTOTZKXSKJO[RIUSKTÒO8+4'3+
:'(2+IGXKGXKYOTZG^G[XSÂZUGXK
6UZLOXKJKT[SOZKSGOS[RZKZGHKRKÍTGIKKGOIUSGTJÂ8+4'3+:'(2+XKJKT[SOXORK
XKGRO`ÁTJ[YKÍTUXJOTKGÍTIGXKGVGX4[SKRK[TKOZGHKRKVUGZKLOVXKLO^GZJKT[SKRK
HG`KOJKJGZKJOTIGXKLGIKVGXZK
Nume_BD.Nume_tabela
+^KSVR[ROTJOIÂUSUJGROZGZKJKGOTZKXYINOSHGT[SKRKGJU[ÂZGHKRKOGXK^KSVR[R
XKGRO`KG`ÂS[ZGXKG[TKOZGHKRKJOTZXUHG`ÂJKJGZKÍTGRZG
Exemplul 2.4
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Exemplul 2.5
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ÍTHG`GJKJGZK2OIK[E
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4`^V_kZaV_ecfRTefR]ZkRcVRUReV]`cUZ_eRSV]V
5VKXGÝOORKJKGIZ[GRO`GXKGJGZKRUXJOTZXUZGHKRÂL[XTO`GZKJKROSHGP[R972Y[TZ
u OTYKXGXKG[TKOÍTXKMOYZXÂXOTUO/49+8:!
u ZKXMKXKGÍTXKMOYZXÂXORUX*+2+:+!
u SUJOLOIGXKG\GRUXORUXIÁSV[XORUX;6*':+
" :_decfTèZf_VR :?D6CE

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u IÁSVEIÁSVEIÁSVE4KYZKROYZGIÁSV[XORUXVKTZX[IGXKOTZXUJ[IKS
\GRUXO!
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IÁSVEIÁSVE4
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u \GRUXORKGJÂ[MGZKZXKH[OKYÂGOHÂGIKRGOZOVI[GXZOIURKRKIUXKYV[T`ÂZUGXK!
u JOSKTYO[TORKJGZKRUXOTZXUJ[YKZXKH[OKYÂLOKSGOSOIOJKIÁZJOSKTYO[TKGSGÔSÂ
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u ZUGZKIÁSV[XORKUHROMGZUXOOIGXKT[VUZG\KG\GRUGXKG4;22ZXKH[OKYÂVXOSKGYIÂ
UHROMGZUXO[U\GRUGXK
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Exemplul 2.6 (a)

%*
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\GRUGXKVKTZX[LOKIGXKJOTZXKGIKYZKGTGIKYZIG`KYZKOT[ZORYÂSGOVXKIO`ÂSROYZG
IÁSV[XORUXIGXK\UXLOGLKIZGZKJKOTYKXGXK+^KSVR[RVUGZKLOXKYIXOYGYZLKR
Exemplul 2.6 (b)

5XOIKKXUGXKÍTIGJX[RYOTZG^KOOTYZX[IÝO[TOO/49+8:VXKI[SOUXOIKTKVUZXO\OXKJK
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K^KI[ZÂXOOIUSKTÒOOGLOGXKG[T[OSKYGPJKKXUGXK
+^KSVR[ROR[YZXKG`ÂJU[ÂKXUXOVUYOHORK
Exemplul 2.7 (a)

+XUGXKGJOTK^KSVR[RJKSGOY[YGLUYZMKTKXGZÂJKÍTIKXIGXKGJKGOTYKXGUÍTXKMOYZXGXK
IGXKGXK\GRUGXKGIÁSV[R[OITVKMGRÂI[\GRUGXKGGIKR[OGOIÁSVJOTZXUÍTXKMOYZXGXK
KÔYZKTZÂ8KGSOTZOSIÂGXZOIUR[RITVKYZKINKOKVXOSGXÂGZGHKRKO+2+<JKIO\GRUXORK
J[VROIGZVKTZX[GIKYZIÁSVY[TZOTZKXÒYK
Exemplul 2.7 (b)
+XUGXKGJOTK^KSVR[RHGLUYZMKTKXGZÂJKLUXSGZ[RMXKOZGR\GRUXOOJKZOVJGZÂ
IGXKYKJUXKZKOTYKXGZÂÍTIÁSV[RJGZGETGZKXOO
# :_decfTèZf_VR 56=6E6

5VKXGÝOGJKZKXMKXKGÍTXKMOYZXÂXORUXJOTZXUZGHKRÂYKXKGRO`KG`ÂVXOTOTZKXSKJO[R
IUSKTÒO*+2+:+IGXKGXK[XSÂZUGXKGYOTZG^ÂSOTOSGRÂ
[TJK
u T[SKEZGHKRGXKVXKÒTZÂJKT[SOXKGZGHKRKOÍTIGXKYK\GXKGRO`GUVKXGÝOGJK
ZKXMKXK!
&!
u K^V2KYZKUK^VXKYOKRUMOIÂÍTIGXKOTZKX\OT\GRUXORK[TUXIÁSV[XOGRKZGHKRKO!
ZUGZKÍTXKMOYZXÂXORKVKTZX[IGXKK^V2GXK\GRUGXKGGJK\ÂXGZ\UXLOZKXYK
*GIÂYKUSOZKIRG[`G=.+8+GZ[TIOYK\UXZKXMKZUGZKÍTXKMOYZXÂXORKJOTZGHKRG
YVKIOLOIGZÂ
Exemplul 2.8
)USGTJG*+2+:+JOTK^KSVR[RJKZKXSOTÂZKXMKXKGZ[Z[XUXÍTXKMOYZXÂXORUXJOT
ZGHKRG+2+<VKTZX[IGXKIÁSV[RT[SKGXK\GRUGXKGq+SOTKYI[r
6KTZX[GZKXMKOTLUXSGÝOORKXKLKXOZUGXKRGKRK\OOIGXKG[\ÁXYZGÍTZXKOGTOYG[
G[SGOS[RZJKGTOVXUIKJÂSGYZLKR
Exemplul 2.9
ZKXMKXKGVXOSORUXKRK\OJOTIRGYGGG(IUTYOJKXGÝOÍTUXJOTKGRLGHKZOIÂVUGZK
LOXKGRO`GZÂÍT3_972VXOT[ZORO`GXKGIRG[`KRUX58*+8(?O2/3/:GGI[SGXGZÂ
K^KSVR[R
Exemplul 2.10
)RG[`G58*+8(?VKXSOZKYZGHOROXKG[T[OIXOZKXO[JKYUXZGXKGJGZKRUXJOTZGHKRÂÍT
L[TIÝOKJK\GRUXORK[T[OGYG[SGOS[RZUXIÁSV[XOÍTXKMOYZXÂXORKLOOTJZKXYKÍTUXJOTKG
YVKIOLOIGZÂJKGIKYZKG)RG[`G2/3/:VKXSOZKYZGHOROXKGT[SÂX[R[OJKÍTXKMOYZXÂXOIK\UX
LOZKXYK'IKYZKIRG[`K\UXLOVXK`KTZGZKVKRGXMÍTRKIÝOORKJKJOIGZKOTYZX[IÝO[TOO9+2+):
$ :_decfTèZf_VR FA52E6

3UJOLOIGXKG \GRUXORUX GT[SOZUX IÁSV[XO JOTZXU ÍTXKMOYZXGXK YK XKGRO`KG`Â VXOT
OTZKXSKJO[ROTYZX[IÝO[TOO;6*':+IGXKGXKYOTZG^G
[TJK
u T[SKEZGHKRGXKVXKÒTZÂJKT[SOXKGZGHKRKOÍTIGXKYK\GXKGRO`GUVKXGÝOGJK
ZKXMKXK!
u IÁSVEgIÁSVE4Y[TZIÁSV[XOGRKZGHKRKOYVKIOLOIGZK!
u \GRE\GRE4Y[TZ\GRUXORKIUXKYV[T`ÂZUGXKIÁSV[XORUXIÁSVEgIÁSVE4!
u K^V2KYZKUK^VXKYOKRUMOIÂÍTIGXKOTZKX\OT\GRUXORK[TUXIÁSV[XOGRKZGHKRKO!
ZUGZKÍTXKMOYZXÂXORKVKTZX[IGXKK^V2GXK\GRUGXKGGJK\ÂXGZ\UXLOSUJOLOIGZK
&"
+LKIZ[RK^KI[ZÂXOOIUSKTÒOKYZKGIKRGJKGSUJOLOIG\GRUXORKIÁSV[XORUXYVKIOLOIGZK
\GRUGXKGR[OIÁSVEJK\OTK\GREg\GRUGXKGR[OIÁSVE4JK\OTK\GRE4VKTZX[ZUGZK
ÍTXKMOYZXÂXORKJOTZGHKRÂIGXKYGZOYLGIK^VXKYOGRUMOIÂK^V2*GIÂUSOZKSIRG[`G=.+8+
GZ[TIOYK\UXSUJOLOIGZUGZKÍTXKMOYZXÂXORKJOTZGHKRÂ
+^KSVR[ROR[YZXKG`ÂSUJ[RÍTIGXKV[ZKSSUJOLOIG\GRUXORKIÍSV[R[OIRGYGVKTZX[
LOKIGXKKRK\ÍTYIXOYÍTIRGYGGG(
Exemplul 2.1
2.11
1
T3_972VUZLO[ZORO`GZKJKGYKSKTKGIRG[`KRK58*+8(?O2/3/:VKTZX[GXKGRO`G
GIZ[GRO`ÂXOIUSVRK^K
=64È:2' =Z^SR[f]DB=:::
:_eVc`XÍcZdZâ]V
*[VÂI[SGÝO\Â`[ZÍTRKIÝOORKVXKIKJKTZKGIZ[GRO`GXKGJGZKRUXYKXKGRO`KG`ÂVXOT
OTZKXSKJO[RGZXKOOTYZX[IÝO[TO972/49+8:*+2+:+;6*':+GIKYZKGLÂIÁTJVGXZK
JOTIGZKMUXOGOTYZX[IÝO[TORUXVKTZX[SGTOV[RGXKGJGZKRUX23*
2OSHGP[R972V[TKRGJOYVUÒÝOG[ZORO`GZUX[R[OUYOTM[XÂOTYZX[IÝO[TKVKTZX[GXKGRO`G
OTZKXUMGXKGJGZKRUX OTYZX[IÝO[TKG9+2+):
5VKXGÝOGJKOTZKXUMGXKG[TKOHG`KJKJGZKVXKY[V[TKIUSV[TKXKG[T[OYKZJK
XK`[RZGZKYKZJKÍTXKMOYZXÂXOVXOTIUSHOTGXKGJGZKRUXVXU\KTOZKJOTSGOS[RZKZGHKRKO
XKGRO`GXKGJKVXKR[IXÂXOGY[VXGGIKYZUXGYUXZGXKMX[VGXKJ[VÂJO\KXYKIXOZKXOOYKRKIZGXK
KZI
TGOTZKJKG\KJKGRGR[IX[OTYZX[IÝO[TKG9+2+):\USVXK`KTZGYZX[IZ[XGHG`KOJK
JGZK2OIK[*(IGXKTK\GLURUYOVKTZX[K^KSVROLOIGXKGOTZKXUMÂXORUXVKVGXI[XY[RGIKYZ[O
IGVOZUR(G`GJKJGZK2OIK[*(IUTÝOTKZXKOKTZOZÂÝOVKTZX[MKYZOUTGXKGYOZ[GÝOKOIURGXK
GKRK\ORUX
'ZXOH[Z[RZOVGRKTZOZÂÝOO3':+8//\GG\KG\GRUGXKGJGIÂSGZKXOGKYZKUJOYIOVROTÂ
UHROMGZUXOKXKYVKIZO\JGIÂJOYIOVROTGKYZKUVÝOUTGRÂ
)XKGXKGYZX[IZ[XOOZGHKRKRUXIUXKYV[T`ÂZUGXKIKRUXZXKOKTZOZÂÝOYKVUGZKXKGRO`GVXOT
OTZKXSKJO[RIUSKTÒRUX)8+':+:'(2+JKSGOPUY
&#
Exemplul 2.12
6XKY[V[TKSIÂZGHKRKRKIUTÝOT[XSÂZUGXKRKÍTXKMOYZXÂXO
ERSV]R>2E6C::+ :GHKR[R
ERSV]R6=6G:+ :GHKR[R
ERSV]R?@E6 :GHKR[R
&$
":_eVc`XÍcZdZâ]VRdfacRf_VZdZ_XfcVeRSV]V
)KGSGOYOSVRÂLUXSÂGOTYZX[IÝO[TOO9+2+):GXKYOTZG^G[XSÂZUGXK
[TJK
u ROYZGEIGSV[XOKYZKUY[IIKYO[TKJKIÁSV[XOYKVGXGZKVXOT\OXM[RÂGRKZGHKRKO
T[SKEZGHKRGIGXK\UXGVÂXKGÍTIGJX[RYKZ[R[OJKXK`[RZGZK!JGIÂJUXOSYÂ
OTZXUJ[IKS ÍT YKZ[R I[ XK`[RZGZK ZUGZK IÁSV[XORK JOT ZGHKRÂ GZ[TIO ROYZG
IÁSV[XORUX\GLOÍTRUI[OZÂVXOTIGXGIZKX[RGYZKXOYI!
u T[SKEZGHKRGYVKIOLOIÂZGHKRGLURUYOZÂRGIÂ[ZGXKGJGZKRUX!
'LOGXKGZ[Z[XUXÍTXKMOYZXÂXORUXJOTZGHKRGKRK\OYKXKGRO`KG`ÂVXOTIUSGTJG
Exemplul 2.13
8K`[RZGZ[R\GLOIKRJOTZGHKR[RGJOIÂ\UXLOGLOGZKZUGZKÍTXKMOYZXÂXORKJOTZGHKRG
+2+</ÍTUXJOTKGÍTIGXKGIKYZKGY[TZSKSUXGZKÍTUXJOTKGOTYKXÂXOORUX
*GIÂJUXOSYÂGLOÂSJUGXIÁSV[XORKT[SKOVXKT[SKGZ[TIO\USYVKIOLOIGT[SKRK
IÁSV[XORUXYKVGXGZKVXOT\OXM[RÂ
Exemplul 2.14
8K`[RZGZ[RK^KI[ZÂXOOIUSKTÒOJOTK^KSVR[RÍTYOYZKS[RJKMKYZO[TK3_972
KYZKOR[YZXGZÍTLKXKGYZXG[XSÂZUGXK
6KTZX[GGLOGJUGXÍTXKMOYZXÂXORKIGXKG[\GRUXOJOYZOTIZKVKTZX[[TGT[SOZIÁSV
\US[ZORO`GIRG[`G*/9:/4):ÍTGOTZKGIÁSV[R[OJUXOZ/TZKXUMGXKG[XSÂZUGXKJKZKXSOTÂ
TUZKRKJOYZOTIZKUHÝOT[ZKJKKRK\OOROIK[R[O
Exemplul 2.15
&%
8K`[RZGZ[ROTZKXUMÂXOOKYZK
,URUYOXKGIRG[`KO*/9:/4):VKTZX[[TIÁSVGRZGHKRKOJKZKXSOTÂOTZXUJ[IKXKGÍT
YKZ[RJKXK`[RZGZKJUGXGVXOSKOÍTXKMOYZXÂXOJOTZXKIKRKIGXKG[\GRUGXKGIÁSV[R[OOJKTZOIÂ
XKYZ[RLOOTJOMTUXGZK
/TYZX[IÝO[TKG9+2+):VKXSOZKOTZXUJ[IKXKGÍTYKZ[RJKXK`[RZGZKGROTZKXUMÂXOOG
[TUXIÁSV[XOIGXKT[GVGXÍTZGHKRÂ\GRUGXKGRUXLOOTJIGRI[RGZÂÍTL[TIÝOKJK\GRUXORK
[TUXIÁSV[XOJOTZGHKRÂ/TZKXUMGXKG[XSÂZUGXKGLOKG`ÂT[SKRKZ[Z[XUXKRK\ORUXJOT
ZGHKRG+2+<JGXYKZ[RJKXK`[RZGZK\GG\KGUYOTM[XÂIURUGTÂJKT[SOZÂ4[SK+RK\OGX
\GRUGXKGGIKYZKOGKYZKIUSV[YÂJOT\GRUXORKT[SKR[OOVXKT[SKR[OLOKIÂX[OKRK\
Exemplul 2.16
'S[ZORO`GZL[TIÝOGIUTIGZOXOXOX4IGXKÍTZUGXIKOX[RJKIGXGIZKXKUHÝOT[Z
VXOTIUTIGZKTGXKGOX[XORUXJGZKIGGXM[SKTZK)RG[`G'9VKXSOZKXKJKT[SOXKG[TKO
IURUGTKJOTIGJX[RYKZ[R[OJKXK`[RZGZKVKTZX[IÁSV[XORKIGRI[RGZKYG[GZ[TIOIÁTJT[SKRK
[T[OIÁSVT[KYZKVXKGY[MKYZO\
# D`ceRcVRdVef]fZUVcVkf]eReV4]RfkR@C56C3J
9KZ[RJKXK`[RZGZKL[XTO`GZJKOTYZX[IÝO[TKG9+2+):VUGZKLOÍTVXKGRGHORYUXZGZO
GVUOGLOGZ5XJOTKGÍTXKMOYZXÂXORUXJOTZGHKRÂT[KYZKGLKIZGZÂJKUVKXGÝOGJKYUXZGXK
9UXZGXKGYKZ[R[OJKXK`[RZGZKYKXKGRO`KG`ÂVXOTLURUYOXKGIRG[`KO58*+8(?VKTZX[
G YVKIOLOIG ROYZG IÁSV[XORUX ÍT L[TIÝOK JK IGXK YK XKGRO`KG`Â UXJUTGXKG IXOZKXOO JK
UXJUTGXK)RG[`G58*+8(?GXKYOTZG^G
&&
[TJK
u IGSVEgIGSVE4XKVXKÒTZÂIXOZKXOORKJKUXJUTGXKÍTXKMOYZXÂXORKY[TZYUXZGZK
ÍTL[TIÝOKJK\GRUGXKGR[OIGSVEOGXRG\GRUXOKMGRKVKTZX[GIKYZGYK\UXR[G
ÍTIUTYOJKXGXK\GRUXORKR[OIGSVEGSJ!
u IRG[`G'9)OSVROIOZÂJKZKXSOTÂYUXZGXKGGYIKTJKTZÂIXKYIÂZUGXK!
u IRG[`G*+9)JKZKXSOTÂYUXZGXKGJKYIKTJKTZÂJKYIXKYIÂZUGXK
'LOGXKGÍTXKMOYZXÂXORUXJOTZGHKRG+2+<UXJUTGZKÍTL[TIÝOKJKIÁSV[XORKT[SKO
VXKT[SKOT\KXYGRLGHKZOIYKXKGRO`KG`ÂVXOTIUSGTJG
Exemplul 2.17
,KXKGYZXG[XSÂZUGXKVXKÒTZÂXK`[RZGZ[ROTZKXUMÂXOOJOTK^KSVR[R
=64È:2( =Z^SR[f]DB=:G
:_eVc`XÍcZT`â]ViV
/TYZX[IÝO[TKG 9+2+): VKXSOZK ZXOKXKG ÍTXKMOYZXÂXORUX IK \UX IUSV[TK YKZ[R JK

XK`[RZGZKVKHG`G[TKOK^VXKYOOI[\GRUGXKRUMOIÂ\UXLOIUTYOJKXGZKJUGXGIKRKÍTXKMOYZXÂXO
VKTZX[IGXKK^VKXKYOGRUMOIÂGXK\GRUGXKGGJK\ÂXGZ8KGRO`GXKGGIKYZ[OR[IX[KYZK
VUYOHORÂVXOT[ZORO`GXKGIRG[`KO=.+8+IGXKGXK[XSÂZUGXKGYOTZG^Â
+^VXKYOGRUMOIÂK^V2ZKYZKG`ÂJKUHOIKOGT[SOZKIUTJOÝOOOSV[YK[T[OGYG[SGO
S[RZUXIÁSV[XOJOTZGHKRKRKHG`KOJKJGZK+^VXKYOGRUMOIÂVUGZKIUTÝOTKUSGXK\GXOKZGZK
JKUVKXGZUXOOL[TIÝOO
+^KSVR[RGLOKG`ÂKRK\OOIRGYKOGG)UXJUTGÝOGRLGHKZOI
Exemplul 2.18
&'
9KZ[RJKXK`[RZGZKUHÝOT[ZVXOTK^KI[ZGXKGIUSKTÒOJOTK^KSVR[RKYZK
@aVcRe`cZ DB=
6XK`KTZÂSÍTIUTZOT[GXKVKYI[XZIKRKSGO[ZORO`GZKIGZKMUXOOJKUVKXGZUXO972
[XSÁTJYÂK^KSVROLOIÂS[ZORO`GXKGGIKYZUXG
u 5VKXGZUXOGXOZSKZOIO!ÍTROSHGP[R972UVKXGZUXOOGXOZSKZOIOY[TZIKO[ZORO`GÝOÍT
SGPUXOZGZKGROSHGPKRUXJKVXUMXGSGXKOGT[SK GJ[TGXKYIÂJKXKVXUJ[Y
ÍSVÂXÝOXKXKYZ[RÍSVÂXÝOXOOÍTZXKMO
u 5VKXGZUXOXKRGÝOUTGRO!GIKZOGY[TZ SGOSOI"SGOSGXK$SGOSOIYG[KMGR
"#SGOSGXKYG[KMGR$#JOLKXOZ"$YG[#KMGR#
u 5VKXGZUXORUMOIO!ÍT972YKJKLOTKYI[XSÂZUXOOUVKXGZUXORUMOIO /'4*9';
58TKMGÝOK45:
u 'RÝOUVKXGZUXO /4O(+:=++4
+^KSVR[RGLOKG`ÂKRK\OOJOTIRGYKRKGG'OGG(UXJUTGÝOGRLGHKZOI
Exemplul 2.19
5HYKX\GÝOIÂK^VXKYOGRUMOIÂGIRG[`KO=.+8+T[IUTÝOTKVGXGTZK`KVKTZX[GYVKIOLOIG
UXJOTKGK\GR[ÂXOOUVKXGZUXORUXUVKXGZUXOOXKRGÝOUTGROG[VXOUXOZGZKSGOSGXKJKIÁZUVKXGZUXOO
RUMOIO
'IKRGOKLKIZÍRV[ZKSUHÝOTKVXOTLURUYOXKGUVKXGZUX[R[O/4IGXKYZGHORKZKJGIÂ
\GRUGXKG[TKOK^VXKYOOGVGXÝOTK[TKOS[RÝOSO3[RÝOSKGKYZKYVKIOLOIGZÂVXOTKT[SKXGXKG
KRKSKTZKRUX9OTZG^GUVKXGZUX[R[O/4KYZK
[TJK
u +^VXKYZKUK^VXKYOKT[SKXOIÂYG[OXJKIGXGIZKXK!
u \GRE\GREg\GRE4Y[TZ\GRUXOJKGIKRGOZOVI[ZOV[RK^VXKYOKO+^VX
+^KSVR[RVUGZKLOXKYIXOY[ZORO`ÁTJUVKXGZUX[R/4GYZLKR
Exemplul 2.20
&(
'LOGXKGZ[Z[XUXTUZKRUXÍTZXKOYKVUGZKXKGRO`GÍTJU[ÂSUJ[XOGGI[SYK
VUGZKUHYKX\GÍTK^KSVR[R
Exemplul 2.21 (a)
YG[
Exemplul 2.21 (b)
5VKXGZUXOO/4O(+:=++4VKXSOZYIXOKXKGIUSVGIZÂOROÒHORÂG[TUXK^VXKYOOSGO
IUSVRK^KJGXVXUMXGSGZUX[RVUGZKGRKMKUVKXGZUXOOVKIGXKÍOIUTYOJKXÂVUZXO\OÝO
:_eVc`XÍcZØ_TRcVdf_eZâ]ZTReV^RZ^f]eVeRSV]V
9ÂVXKY[V[TKSIÂJUXOSYÂJKZKXSOTÂSZUGZKTUZKRKUHÝOT[ZKJKKRK\OOROIK[R[ORG
JOYOVROTGSGZKSGZOIÂ9KZ[RJKXK`[RZGZK\GIUTÝOTKZUGZKÍTXKMOYZXÂXORKJOTZGHKRG45:+
IUXKYV[T`ÂZUGXKJOYIOVROTKOGRKYKGJOIÂGIKRKÍTXKMOYZXÂXOVKTZX[IGXK\GRUGXKGINKOO
YZXÂOTKOJSGZKXOKJOTZGHKRG45:+KYZKKMGRÂI[\GRUGXKGINKOOVXOSGXKGZGHKRKO3':+8//
OJSGZKXOK
/TZKXUMGXKGIUXKV[T`ÂZUGXKKYZK
Exemplul 2.22
8KSGXIGÝOSUJOLOIÂXORKGVÂX[ZKLGÝÂJKOTZKXUMÂXORKIGXKOSVROIG[UYOTM[XÂZGHKRÂ
u IRG[`G,853\GIUTÝOTKROYZGZGHKRKRUXOSVROIGZKYKVGXGZKVXOT\OXM[RÂ!
u IRG[`G=.+8+\GZKYZGKMGROZGZKG\GRUXORUXIÁSV[XORUXJKRKMÂZ[XÂJOTZXKZGHKRK
&)
:GHKR[R
9Â\KJKSIGXKKYZKXK`[RZGZ[ROTZKXUMÂXOOJOTK^KSVR[RJGIÂUSOZKSIRG[`G
=.+8+OOTZXUJ[IKSÍTYKZ[RJKXK`[RZGZKZUGZKIÁSV[XORKIKRUXJU[ÂZGHKRKOSVROIGZK
ZGHKR[R
:GHKR[RIUTÝOTKJUGXUVGXZKJOTIKRKJKÍTXKMOYZXÂXOIKIUSV[TYKZ[RJK
XK`[RZGZK+^VROIGÝOGIUTYZÂÍTLGVZ[RIÂTKKÔYZÁTJTOIOUIUTJOÝOKJKLORZXGXKVKTZX[
ÍTXKMOYZXÂXOYKZ[RJKXK`[RZGZK\GLOUHÝOT[ZVXOTIUSV[TKXKGLOKIÂXKOÍTXKMOYZXÂXOJOT
ZGHKRG45:+I[LOKIGXKÍTXKMOYZXGXKJOTZGHKRG3':+8//^#ÍTXKMOYZXÂXO
'Z[TIOIÁTJKÔYZÂIÁSV[XOI[GIKRGOT[SKÍTZGHKRKJOLKXOZKZXKH[OKYÂVXKLO^ÂS
T[SKRKGIKYZUXGI[T[SKRKZGHKRKOJOTIGXKLGIKVGXZK
WHERE note.idmaterie=materii.idmaterie AND

materii.denumire=’matematica’
*KZKXSOTGXKGTUZKRUXUHÝOT[ZKJKKRK\[R)UYZGINK/UTTKIKYOZÂ[ZORO`GXKGZ[Z[XUXIKRUX
ZXKOZGHKRK
Exemplul 2.23
4UZKRKKRK\[R[O)UYZGINK/UTIGXKKYZKOJKTZOLOIGZVXOTKRK\OJKRK\#VUZLOOJKTZOLOIGZK
ÍTZGHKRG45:+VKROTOORKI[GIKKGO\GRUGXKGIÁSV[R[OTUZKOJKRK\JKGIKKGKYZK
TKIKYGXÂIUTJOÝOGTUZKOJKRK\#KRK\OJKRK\6KTZX[OJKTZOLOIGXKGSGZKXOKORGIGXKGLUYZ
UHÝOT[ZÂ LOKIGXK TUZÂ KYZK TKIKYGX YÂ GJÂ[MÂS IUTJOÝOG TUZKOJSGZKXOK#
&*
SGZKXOOOJSGZKXOK)ÁSV[XORKT[SKVXKT[SKTUZGOJGZGEUHZT[G[LUYZVXKLO^GZK
VXOTT[SKRKZGHKRKOJOTIGXKLGIVGXZKJKUGXKIKT[KÔYZÂVKXOIUR[R\XK[TKOIUTL[ÒO
FeZ]ZkRcVRf_`cWf_TèZZeèR]ZkRe`RcV
2OSHGP[R 972 VKXSOZK XKGRO`GXKG JK IGRI[RK YZGZOYZOIK GY[VXG JGZKRUX JOTZXU
HG`ÂJKJGZKVXOTLURUYOXKG[TUXL[TIÝOOVXKJKLOTOZKÍTIGJX[RIUSKTÒRUX9+2+):
*OTZXK GIKYZKG GSOTZOS L[TIÝOORK
u )5;4:vXKZ[XTKG`ÂT[SÂX[RROTOORUXIGXKYGZOYLGIK^VXKYOGRUMOIÂGIRG[`KO
=.+8+!
u 9;3 v JKZKXSOTÂ Y[SG \GRUXORUX [T[O IÁSV VKTZX[ LOKIGXK ROTOK JOT YKZ[R
JK XK`[RZGZK Y[SG \GRUXORUX JK VK U IURUGTÂ!
u '<- v JKZKXSOTÂ SKJOG GXOZSKZOIÂ G \GRUXORUX JOTZXU IURUGTÂ!
u 3'> v JKZKXSOTÂ \GRUGXKG SGÔSÂ G \GRUXORUX [TKO IURUGTK!
u 3/4 v JKZKXSOTÂ \GRUGXKG SOTOSÂ G \GRUXORUX [TKO IURUGTK!
'XM[SKTZ[R L[TIÝOORUX 9;3 '<- 3/4 O 3'> \G LO U K^VXKYOK T[SKXOIÂ IK
IUTÝOTK [T IÁSV YG[ U IUSHOTGÝOK JK IÁSV[XO ;XSÂZUGXKRK K^KSVRK [ZORO`KG`Â
GIKYZK L[TIÝOO VKTZX[ G JKZKXSOTG JO\KXYK OTLUXSGÝOO YZGZOYZOIK
Exemplul 2.24
'!
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Primele aplicaþii software ce permiteau navigarea în spaþiul WWW – navigator

Web sau browser – nu puteau afiºa decât informaþie textualã. Existã ºi astãzi
…
þi cã navigatoare „text-only”, un bun exemplu fiind aplicaþia lynx, care poate fi
ªtia
utilizatã în sistemul de operare Linux.
Primul navigator ce permitea afiºarea elementelor grafice a fost NCSA Mosaic, urmat la
scurtã vreme de celebrul Netscape Navigator. Odatã cu mãrirea exponenþialã a numãrului de
servere din spaþiul WWW ºi cu orientarea software-ului cãtre aplicaþiile cu interfaþã graficã,
au fost dezvoltate numeroase navigatoare. În momentul de faþã, cele mai utilizate navigatoare
sunt: Internet Explorer, Mozilla FireFox ºi Opera.
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Figura 1.1 Structura unui document hipertext
Preocupãrile în privinþa sistemelor informaþionale neliniare sunt mai vechi,

prima referinþã fiind fãcutã de profesorul Vannebar Bush de la Universitatea
… MIT într-un articol publicat în anul 1945, cu titlul „As We May Think” (cum ar
þi cã
ªtia trebui sã gândim). Articolul descrie o maºinã – MEMEX (MEMory EXtended) –
destinatã ajutãrii procesului de memorare pe baza asocierilor dintre conþinut ºi formã.
MEMEX se dorea, aºa cum spune însuºi autorul, un dispozitiv “ce poate stoca toate
cãrþile, înregistrãrile ºi comunicaþiile ºi care este mecanizat în aºa fel încât consultarea
informaþiilor se face flexibil ºi rapid”.
MEMEX nu a putut fi construitã datoritã limitãrilor tehnologice ale momentului, dar
idei novatoare asemãnãtoare apar ºi în proiectul Augment, prezentat de Douglas Engelbart
la Fall Joint Computer Conference 1968: mouse, interfaþã graficã bazatã pe ferestre,
procesare de text si hipertext.
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Limbajul HTML este un subset al limbajului SGML-Standard Generalized

Markup Language. Limbajul SGML reprezintã un standard internaþional pentru
… definirea unor metode de reprezentare a textelor în format electronic,
þi cã
ª tia independente de sistemul de calcul. Conceptele preluate de SGML au apãrut încã de
la sfârºitul anilor ’60, dar standardul a fost publicat abia în 1980, ca o primã prezentare, iar
textul final a fost aprobat ºi publicat în anul 1986.
Limbajul HTML a ajuns la versiunea 4, standardul fiind publicat în anul 1997, iar în
1999 este publicatã versiunea revizuitã sub denumirea de HTML 4.01.
Ultimele tendinþe în dezvoltarea limbajului HTML sunt cele de rescriere a acestuia în
termenii limbajului XML – Extensible Markup Language – un limbaj derivat tot din
standardul SGML. Astfel a apãrut standardul XHTML 1.0, în ianuarie 2000, XHTML 1.1 în
august 2002, astãzi fiind în lucru standardul XHTML 2.0.
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D document Web, chiar dacã acesta nu conþine toate etichetele amintite mai sus,
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2
E cu specificaþiile HTML.
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Figura 1.2
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Dimensiunea unui element HTML, specificatã prin atributul Width, poate fi datã fie
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2 lãþimea cât jumãtate din lãþimea ferestrei navigatorului.
E
Specificarea dimensiunii elementelor relativ la dimensiunea ferestrei navigatorului
permite redimensionarea elementelor din document atunci când utilizatorul
redimensioneazã fereastra aplicaþiei.
Pentru a asigura afiºarea corectã a documentului, indiferent de rezoluþia monitorului
utilizatorului, se recomandã, dacã este posibil, sã utilizãm dimensiunile relative pentru
elementele HTML.
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Figura 1.3
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În reþeaua Internet, o resursã (fiºier, calculator gazdã etc.) poate fi adresatã

în mod unic prin utilizarea unui mecanism numit URL – Uniform Resource Locator – care
permite identificarea în mod unic a oricãrei resurse.
Din punct de vedere practic, un fiºier HTML poate fi localizat cu ajutorul unei adrese
de forma:
http://adresa_server/dir1/dir2/.../dirN/nume_fisier
unde:
– adresa_server reprezintã adresa calculatorului gazdã care memoreazã fiºierul
– dir1, dir2, …, dirN: calea cãtre fiºier, începând cu directorul rãdãcinã;
Adresa URL de mai sus este o adresã absolutã.
2UIGRO`GXKGLOOKX[R[OÝOTZÂVUGZKLOLÂI[ZÂVXOTYVKIOLOIGXKG
)ÂOOGHYUR[ZK
)ÂOOXKRGZO\K
*GIÂYK[ZORO`KG`ÂIGRKGGHYUR[ZÂYK\GYIXOKIGRKGIUSVRKZÂJKRGJOXKIZUX[RJKVK
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I[[TYRGYNst[XSGZJKY[IIKYO[TKGJOXKIZUGXKRUXVÁTÂRGJUI[SKTZ[RXKLKXOZ
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IÂOOYKLGIKÍTLUXSGZ;TO^JOXKIZUGXKRKLOOTJYKVGXGZKVXOTYRGYNOTJOLKXKTZJKYOYZKS[R
JKUVKXGXKVKIGXKR[IXGÝO
Este recomandatã utilizarea legãturilor relative ori de câte ori este posibil, pentru ca
D documentele sã fie portabile. Mutarea unui document pe alt calculator sau pe alt disc al
7 aceluiaºi calculator nu trebuie sã afecteze legãturile stabilite între fiºierele componente.
2 Dacã generaþi documentele Web cu ajutorul unui editor specializat, verificaþi dacã
E
URL-urile sunt specificate prin cãi relative, altfel legãturile nu vor funcþiona la
mutarea documentelor de pe calculatorul local pe calculatorul gazdã.
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:8vKZOINKZÂIUTZGOTKXIGXKJKROSOZKG`ÂUROTOKGZGHKR[R[O!
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:*vJKROSOZKG`ÂIKR[RKRKJKJGZKGRKZGHKR[R[O
,OM[XGVXKÒTZÂ[TK^KSVR[JKZGHKRYOSVR[IGXKT[GXKTOIOUUVÝO[TKJKLUXSGZGXK
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ZGHKRY[TZLUXSGZGZKJOLKXOZLGÝÂJKXKYZ[RIKR[RKRUXZK^Z[RLOOTJÍTMXUGZOIKTZXGZÍT
IGJX[RIKR[RKO
Figura 1.4
Exemplu de tabel simplu
:GHKR[RJOTLOM[XGGLUYZUHÝOT[ZI[[XSÂZUX[RIUJ.:32
)*
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:'(2+XKGRO`KG`ÂLUXSGZGXKG[T[OZGHKR
u (58*+8 #tTXEVO^KROt v YZGHORKZK MXUYOSKG INKTGX[R[O ZGHKR[R[O <GRUGXKG
OSVROIOZÂKYZKOJKZKXSOTÂGLOGXKG[T[OZGHKRLÂXÂROTOGZ[XÂ!
u (UXJKX)5258#tI[RUGXKtvJKLOTKZKI[RUGXKGINKTGX[R[O!
u =/*:.#t\GRUGXKtvYVKIOLOIÂRÂÝOSKGZGHKR[R[OÍTVO^KROYG[IGVXUIKTZJOT
RÂÝOSKGLKXKYZXKOTG\OMGZUX[R[O!
u .+/-.:#t\GRUGXKtvYVKIOLOIÂÍTÂRÝOSKGZGHKR[R[OÍTVO^KROYG[IGVXUIKTZJOT
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u 'ROMT#tRKLZbIKTZKXbXOMNZtvJKZKXSOTÂSUJ[RJKGROTOKXKGZGHKR[R[OÍTLKXKGYZXG
TG\OMGZUX[R[O!
u )KRRYVGIOTM#tTXVO^KROtvYZGHORKZKJOYZGTÝGJOTZXKJU[ÂIKR[RK\KIOTKGRKZGHKR[R[O!
u )KRR6GJJOTM#tTXEVO^KROt'LOGXKGJGZKRUXJOTZXUIKR[RÂYKLGIKÍTIKVÁTJJKRGU
GT[SOZÂJOYZGTÝÂLGÝÂJKINKTGX[RIKR[RKOLUXSÁTJUÙTÂJKVXUZKIÝOKÍTP[X[R
IKR[RKO*OSKTYO[TKGÙTKOJKVXUZKIÝOKKYZKGIKKGOVKTZX[ZUGZKIKRKVGZX[
SGXMOTOYZÁTMGY[YJXKGVZGOPUY*OSKTYO[TKGOSVROIOZÂKYZK
9ÂXKR[ÂSK^KSVR[RVXKIKJKTZGJÂ[MÁTJ[XSÂZUGXKRKLUXSGZÂXO
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JOTZXKJU[ÂIKR[RKGJOGIKTZKSUJ[RJKGROTOKXKGZGHKR[R[OÍTLKXKGYZXGTG\OMGZUX[R[OO
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)KR[RKRKZGHKR[R[OLOKIÂLGIVGXZKJOTIGV[RJKZGHKRYG[Y[TZIKR[RKUHOT[OZKVUZ
IUTÝOTKUXOIKSGXIGPGIIKVZGZJK.:32OTIR[YO\RKMÂZ[XOYG[GRZKZGHKRK
Figura 1.5
Exemplu de tabel
formatat
'ROTOKXKGJGZKRUXÍTIKR[RKRKZGHKR[R[OYKVUGZKXKGRO`GGZÁZUXOÙTZGRIÁZO\KXZOIGR
[ZORO`ÁTJGZXOH[ZKRK'2/-4XKYVKIZO\<'2/-4
u '2/-4vJKLOTKZKGROTOKXKGUXOÙTZGRÂOVUGZKR[G\GRUXORK
v 2+,:vJGZKRKY[TZGROTOGZKRGYZÁTMG\GRUGXKOSVROIOZÂ!
v 8/-.:vJGZKRKY[TZGROTOGZKRGJXKGVZG!
v )+4:+8vJGZKRKY[TZIKTZXGZK!
u <'2/-4vJKLOTKZKGROTOKXKG\KXZOIGRÂOVUGZKG\KG\GRUXORK
v :56vJGZKRKY[TZGROTOGZKRGSGXMOTKGJKY[YGIKR[RKO!
v (5::53vJGZKRKY[TZGROTOGZKRGHG`GIKR[RKO!
v 3/**2+vJGZKRKY[TZIKTZXGZK\KXZOIGRRGSOPRUI[RIKR[RKO
*!
'ZXOH[ZKRKJKGROTOKXKVUZLOVRGYGZKÍTKZOINKZKRKIKJKROSOZKG`ÂROTOORKOÍTSGXIGPKRK
IKJKLOTKYIIKR[RKRK*GIÂVRGYÂSGZXOH[Z[R'2/-4#tRKLZtÍTZGM[R:'(2+ZK^Z[RIGXK
[XSKG`Â ZGHKR[R[O sI[XMKt VK RÁTMÂ GIKYZG ZGHKR[R KYZK GROTOGZ ÍT YZÁTMG LKXKYZXKO
TG\OMGZUX[R[OOGXÍTJXKGVZGYGYKGLOKG`ÂZK^Z[R
,URUYOXKGGZXOH[Z[R[O'2/-4#tXOMNZtVRGYKG`ÂZGHKR[RÍTSGXMOTKGJXKGVZÂOGXZK^Z[R
sI[XMKtÍTVGXZKGYZÁTMÂGZGHKR[R[O
8KR[ÂSK^KSVR[RJKSGOY[Y[ZORO`ÁTJJO\KXYKZOV[XOJKGROTOKXK\KXZOIGRÂOUXOÙTZGRÂ
VKTZX[IUTÝOT[Z[RIKR[RKRUX
Figura 1.6
Tipuri de aliniere
Figura 1.7
Utilizarea culorilor de
fundal pentru celulele
unui tabel
)[RUGXKGLUTJ[R[OLOKIÂXKOIKR[RKGZGHKR[R[OVUGZKLOSUJOLOIGZÂVXOT[ZORO`GXKGGZXOH[Z[R[O
(-IURUX#sI[RUGXKt,OM[XGGXGZÂ[TK^KSVR[JKZGHKRLUXSGZGZVXOT[ZORO`GXKG
I[RUXORUXJKLUTJVKTZX[IKR[RK
)[RUGXKGLUTJ[R[OVKTZX[IKR[RKRKZGHKR[R[OYKVUGZKYVKIOLOIGOTJO\OJ[GRVKTZX[LOKIGXK
IKR[RÂÍTVGXZKYG[VKTZX[IKR[RKRKJKVKUÍTZXKGMÂROTOKGZGHKR[R[OGGI[SYKUHYKX\Â
ÍTK^KSVR[RJKSGOY[Y*GIÂJUXOSYÂYZGHOROSGIKKGOI[RUGXKJKLUTJVKTZX[ÍTZXKM
ZGHKR[RGZXOH[Z[R(M)URUXYK\GYIXOKÍTKZOINKZG:'(2+
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u )5296'4#sTtvVKXSOZK[TKOIKR[RKYÂYKK^ZOTJÂVKTIURUGTK!
u 85=96'4#sTtvVKXSOZK[TKOIKR[RKYÂYKK^ZOTJÂVKTROTOO!
*"
)KRKJU[ÂGZXOH[ZKVUZLOVRGYGZKÍTKZOINKZKRKLURUYOZKVKTZX[YVKIOLOIGXKGIKR[RKRUX
JKJGZKYG[IKR[RKRUXIGVJKZGHKR)KR[RKRKYKVUZK^ZOTJKÍTZUZJKG[TGÍTPUYOYG[YVXK
JXKGVZG+^KSVR[R[XSÂZUXGXGZÂI[SYKIUTYZX[OKYIZGHKRKI[IKR[RKK^ZOTYK
9[XYG.:32LURUYOZÂÍTK^KSVR[KYZK
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Figura 1.8
Tabel cu celule extinse
5HYKX\GÝOÍTY[XYG.:32IUXKYV[T`ÂZUGXKLOM[XOOIÂVXOSGROTOKIUTÝOTKJKLOTOÝOG
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**
Figura 1.14 Cadre verticale
1. Dacã un document hipermedia este structurat folosind cadre, atunci se va

renunþa la marcajele ce definesc corpul documentului <BODY> </BODY>;
2. Nu este obligatoriu sã se utilizeze “*”, asa cum apare în exemplu, corectã fiind ºi forma
COLS=”30%,70%” . Construcþia “*” indicã navigatorului cã dimensiunea cadrului
corespunzãtor este egalã cu 100% minus suma dimensiunilor celorlalte cadre.
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YZGHOROZÂK^VROIÂZKXSKT[RIGYIGJÂVXK`KTZÍTJKT[SOXK
TGIKYZSUSKTZG[LUYZGVXUHGZKJU[ÂYZGTJGXJKVXO\OTJLUORKJKYZOR[XOOGT[SK
CSS)GYIGJOTM9Z_RK9NKKZYvRK\KR VKXSOZKYVKIOLOIGXKG[TUXJKLOTOÝOOJK
LUXSGZVKTZX[LUTZ[XOI[RUXOL[TJGR[XOGROTOKXKGKRKSKTZKRUXÍTJUI[SKTZ
CSS2)GYIGJOTM9Z_RK9NKKZYvRK\KR K^ZOTJK)99I[LGIOROZÂÝOJKSUZKTOXK
GLUORUXJKYZOR[XOVUÒÝOUTGXKGGHYUR[ZÂOXKRGZO\ÂGKRKSKTZKRUXJUI[SKTZ[R[O
OTZKMXGXKGSGOS[RZUXZOV[XOJKSKJOOKZI
Este greºit sã se creadã cã utilizarea foilor de stiluri în cascadã aduce numai beneficii,
D fãrã sã aibã ºi dezavantaje. Cel mai mare inconvenient este faptul cã definiþiile de stil
7 nu sunt interpretate identic de navigatoarele utilizate în acest moment. Existã, de
2
E asemenea, definiþii de stil care nu sunt recunoscute de toate navigatoarele actuale sau
de cãtre versiunile vechi ale acestora.
Este de preferat sã utilizãm doar acele definiþii care au suport în toate navigatoarele
actuale, iar în cazul în care o anumitã formatare este indispensabilã vom avea grijã ca
elementul sã aparã în mod decent ºi în browser-ele care nu recunosc formatãrile folosite.
>ÙV]f]UVW`c^ReRcVR]f_fZV]V^V_eDZ_eRiRf_VZUVWZ_ZèZZ4DD
+RKSKTZKRKIGXKVUZLOOTZXUJ[YKÍTZXUVGMOTÂ=KHY[TZGLOGZKJKTG\OMGZUXY[H
LUXSG[TKOÙTKJXKVZ[TMNO[RGXKIGYKZÂJKGLOGXKIUTÝOT[Z[RKLKIZO\LOOTJÍTIUTP[XGZ
JKSGOS[RZKÙTKUVÝOUTGRK SGXMOTOSGXMOTGXKGHUXJ[XOHUXJKXGXKGOÙTKJK
VXUZKIÝOKVGJJOTMGXKG
+ÔYZKTÝGGIKYZUXÙTKVXKI[SOIGXGIZKXOYZOIORKRUXVUZLOIUTZXURGZKI[GP[ZUX[R
JKLOTOÝOORUXJKYZOR,OM[XGGXGZÂSUJ[RÍTIGXKY[TZJOYV[YKGIKYZKÙTK
;TKRKSKTZ.:32VUGZKLO
u 6]V^V_e]R_ZgV]UVS]`TvGLOGXKG[T[OGYZLKRJKKRKSKTZVXKY[V[TKJKYINOJKXKG
[TTUOIGYKZKJKGLOGXKIGXKYKK^ZOTJKJKUHOIKOVKSGOS[RZKROTOOOIGXKKYZK
GROTOGZÂÍTXGVUXZI[IKRKRGRZKKRKSKTZKHRUI\KIOTK*KK^KSVR[KRKSKTZ[RVGXGMXGL
""!
VXOT[ZORO`GXKGKZOINKZKO"6$KYZK[TKRKSKTZHRUI+RKSKTZKRKHRUIVUZIUTÝOTKGRZK
KRKSKTZKHRUIYG[KRKSKTZKOTROTKVUÒÝOUTGXKGGIKYZUXGXKGRO`ÁTJ[YKXKRGZO\RG
IGYKZGIGXKRKIUTÝOTK
u 6]V^V_eZ_]Z_VvKRKSKTZIGXKUI[VÂJKUHOIKOUÙTÂXKYZXÁTYÂJKS[RZKUXOÍT
IGJX[R[TKOROTOOJKZK^ZJOTJUI[SKTZOT[VUYKJÂIGXGIZKXOYZOIORKKRKSKTZKRUX
HRUI*KK^KSVR[KZOINKZKRK"($";$"9;($OTZXUJ[IKRKSKTZKOTROTKÍTIGJX[R
[T[OJUI[SKTZ=KH+RKSKTZKRKOTROTKY[TZGLOGZKZUZVXOT[ZORO`GXKG[TKOIGYKZK
JKGLOGXKJUGXIÂGIKGYZGKYZKVUÒÝOUTGZÂÍTXGVUXZI[KRKSKTZKRK\KIOTKJKVK
ROTOGVKIGXKYKGLRÂ
OTYKXGZ
Figura 2.1 Modelul de afiºare al unui element
9OTZG^GMKTKXGRÂG[TKOJKLOTOÝOOJKYZORKYZK
[TJK
u ROYZÂEYKRKIZUXO ROYZGKRKSKTZKRUXSGXIGPKRUX.:32GRKIÂXUXVXUVXOKZÂÝOY[TZ
JKLOTOZK!
u VXUVXOKZGZKgVXUVXOKZGZK4 GZXOH[ZKRKKRKSKTZ[R[OKRKSKTZKRUXIGXK\UXLO
SUJOLOIGZK!
u ROYZÂE\GRUXO \GRUXOVUYOHORKGRZKXTGZO\KGRK[T[OGZXOH[ZYKVGXGZKVXOT\OXM[RÂ
*GIÂ\GRUGXKGKYZKIUSV[YÂJOTSGOS[RZKI[\OTZKGZ[TIO\GLOJKROSOZGZÂVXOT
MNOROSKRK*GIÂUVXUVXOKZGZKVUGZKG\KGSGOS[RZK\GRUXOIGXKUIGXGIZKXO`KG`Â
GZ[TIOGIKYZKGT[YKSGOYKVGXÂVXOT\OXM[RÂIOVXOTZX[TYOTM[XYVGÝO[
"""
Exemplul 2.1.
*[VÂI[SUHYKX\GÝOÍTK^KSVR[RJKSGOY[YYG[JKLOTOZSGOÍTZÁOVXUVXOKZÂÝORKJK
YZORIUS[TKIKRUXJU[ÂKZOINKZK.O.OGT[SK
u ZOV[R LUTZ[R[O [ZORO`GZ LUTZLGSOR_ IGXK KYZK YVKIOLOIGZ VXOTZXU ROYZÂ I[ ZXKO
GRZKXTGZO\K4G\OMGZUX[R\G[ZORO`GVXOS[RLUTZJOTROYZÂIGXKKYZKJOYVUTOHORVK
IGRI[RGZUX[R\OÒZGZUX[R[O!
u I[RUGXKGZK^Z[R[OIURUX
;XSÂZUGXKRKJU[ÂJKLOTOÝOOJKYZORJOTK^KSVR[YZGHORKYIGZXOH[ZKRKIKJOLKXKTÝOG`Â
IKRKJU[ÂTO\KRKJKZOZR[ SÂXOSKGLUTZ[R[OLUTZYO`KOSUJ[RJKGROTOKXKXKRGZO\RG
LKXKGYZXGTG\OMGZUX[R[OZK^ZGROMT
Nu este obligatoriu sã indentãm definiþiile de stil aºa cum se observã în
exemplul anterior ºi în sintaxa generalã a unei definiþii CSS, dar este de preferat ca
definiþiile sã fie scrise ordonat ºi indentate astfel încât sã fi citite cu uºurinþã.
În cazul în care folosim o definiþie de stil inline, nu vom putea utiliza stilul de
indentare propus mai sus.
*KLOTOÝOORKY[TZGI[SYIXOYKJGXI[SRKV[ZKSGZGG[T[OJUI[SKTZ=KHVGXZOI[RGX%
9ÂIUTYOJKXÂS[XSÂZUX[RJUI[SKTZ.:32
Exemplul 2.2
TROVYGUXOIÂXKOJKLOTOÝOOJKYZORJUI[SKTZ[RKYZKGLOGZJKIÂZXKTG\OMGZUXGGI[S
GXGZÂLOM[XG
""#
Figura 2.2 Document fãrã definþii de stil
*[VÂGZGGXKGJKLOTOÝOORUXJKYZORJKLOTOZKGTZKXOUXJUI[SKTZ[R\GLOGLOGZIGÍTLOM[XG

+ÔYZÂZXKOSUJGROZÂÝOJKGGZGGJKLOTOÝOOJKYZORKRKSKTZKRUX[T[OJUI[SKTZ=KH
JKLOTOÝOOJKYZOROTROTK JKLOTOÝOORKJKYZORY[TZGZGGZKLOKIÂX[OKRKSKTZ.:32ÍT
VGXZKVXOT[ZORO`GXKGGZXOH[Z[R[O9:?2+#sJKLOTOÝOK)99t!KYZKGLKIZGZT[SGO
KRKSKTZ[RXKYVKIZO\!
JKLOTOÝOOJKYZORÍTMRUHGZKÍTJUI[SKTZ[R.:32 JKLOTOÝOORKJKYZORY[TZOTIR[YKÍT
IGJX[RJUI[SKTZ[R[O[ZORO`ÁTJSGXIGP[R9:?2+*KLOTOÝOGKYZK\GRGHORÂÍTZUGZÂ
VUXÝO[TKGJKJUI[SKTZIK[XSKG`ÂKZOINKZKO9:?2+!
JKLOTOÝOOJKYZORK^ZKXTK JKLOTOÝOORK)99Y[TZYIXOYKÍTZX[TLOOKXYKVGXGZG\ÁTJ
K^ZKTYOGIYYLOOKX[RLOOTJGYUIOGZ[T[OGYG[SGOS[RZUXJUI[SKTZK.:32LURUYOTJ
KZOINKZG2/41*KLOTOÝOORKK^ZKXTKY[TZ\GRGHORKVKTZX[ÍTZXKMJUI[SKTZ[RGYUIOGZ
Figura 2.3 Documentul dupã ataºarea definiþiilor CSS

<USXKR[GK^KSVR[RGTZKXOUXVKTZX[LOKIGXKSUJGROZGZKJKGVROIGXKGJKLOTOÝOORUXJKYZOR
5VWZ_ZèZZUVdeZ]Z_]Z_V
5JKLOTOÝOK)99OTROTKGLKIZKG`ÂJUGXVXUVXOKZÂÝORK[T[OYOTM[XKRKSKTZ.:32O
VUGZKLOYIXOYÂLURUYOTJGZXOH[Z[R9:?2+GYZLKR
""$
Exemplul 2.3
*KLOTOÝOGOTROTKJKSGOY[YT[GXKKLKIZGY[VXGIKRUXRGRZKZOZR[XOJKTO\KRJOTIGJX[R
JUI[SKTZ[R[OSUJOLOIGXKGVXUVXOKZÂÝORUXGIKYZUXGZXKH[OTJXKGRO`GZÂK^VROIOZVXOTJKLOTOÝOO
JKYZORGZGGZKLOKIÂX[OZOZR[ÍTVGXZK
8KYIXOKSK^KSVR[RGZGÁTJSGXIGPKRUX.:32JKLOTOÝOOJKYZOROTROTK
Exemplul 2.4
5VWZ_ZèZZUVdeZ]Ø_X]`SReV
*KLOTOÝOORKJKYZORVUZLOYIXOYKÍTIGJX[R[T[OJUI[SKTZ.:32VXOT[ZORO`GXKGSGXIGP[R[O
9:?2+3GXIGP[R9:?2+VUGZKLOVRGYGZUXO[TJKÍTIGJX[RJUI[SKTZ[R[OJKLOTOÝOORKLOOTJ
\GRGHORKVÁTÂRGYLÂXOZ[RJUI[SKTZ[R[O*KUHOIKOJKLOTOÝOORKJKYZORYKOTYKXKG`ÂÍT
GTZKZ[RJUI[SKTZ[R[OOY[TZGVROIGZKÍTZXKM[R[OJUI[SKTZ
8KYIXOKSK^KSVR[RGJÂ[MÁTJÍTGTZKZ[XSÂZUGXKRKJKLOTOÝOOJKYZOR
Exemplul 2.5
""%
*KLOTOÝOORK)99G[LUYZYIXOYKÍTZX[TSGXIGPIUSKTZGXO["ww$VKTZX[GLO
OMTUXGZKJKTG\OMGZUGXKRKIGXKT[VUZOTZKXVXKZGLUORKJKYZOR[XO
5VWZ_ZèZZUVdeZ]VieVc_V
*KLOTOÝOORK)99K^ZKXTKY[TZYIXOYKÍTZX[TLOOKXZK^ZI[K^ZKTYOGIYYLURUYOTJYOTZG^G
MKTKXGRÂG[TKOJKLOTOÝOOJKYZORGGI[SGXGZÂK^KSVR[RGVUOGYUIOKSGIKYZLOOKX
Z[Z[XUX JUI[SKTZKRUX .:32 VK IGXK JUXOS YÂ RK LUXSGZÂS IUTLUXS YZOR[R[O JKLOTOZ
'YUIOKXKGYKXKGRO`KG`ÂVXOT[ZORO`GXKGSGXIGP[R[O2/41GYZLKR
[TJK
u 8KR#tYZ_RKYNKKZtOTJOIÂZOV[RKRKSKTZ[R[OIGXKYKGYUIOG`ÂÍTIG`[RTUYZX[
LGVZ[R IÂ GYUIOKS JUI[SKTZ[R[O I[XKTZ U LUGOK JK YZOR[XO 6XKIO`GXKG KYZK
TKIKYGXÂJKUGXKIKKÔYZÂOGRZKKRKSKTZKIGXKVUZLORKMGZKRG[TJUI[SKTZ
u :_VKYVKIOLOIÂZOV[RLUOOJKYZOR\GRUGXKGZK^ZIYYYKSTOLOIÁTJIÂYKGYUIOG`Â
ULUGOKJKYZOR)995GRZÂ\GRUGXKVUYOHORÂKYZKZK^ZPGYYJGIÂLOOKX[RGYUIOGZ
KYZKULUGOKJKYZORGIIKYOHORÂVXOT0G\G9IXOVZ
u .XKLKYZKGZXOH[Z[R[ZORO`GZVKTZX[VXKIO`GXKG;82[R[OLOOKX[R[O)99
u :OZRKVKXSOZKOTYKXGXKG[T[OZK^ZK^VROIGZO\VKTZX[GYUIOKXK
+ZOINKZG2/41YKVRGYKG`ÂÍTOTZKXOUX[RGTZKZ[R[OJUI[SKTZ[R[OOGXKZOINKZKRK.:32
JOTIUXV[RJUI[SKTZ[R[O\UXLOOTZKXVXKZGZKJKTG\OMGZUXÍTIUTLUXSOZGZKI[JKLOTOÝOORK
IUTÝOT[ZKJKLOOKX[R)99GYUIOGZ
;ZORO`GXKGLUORUXJKYZOR[XOK^ZKXTKVKXSOZKLUXSGZGXKGJUI[SKTZKRUXIUSVRK^KINOGX
G[T[OÍTZXKMYOZK=KHSUJOLOIÂXORK[RZKXOUGXKGRKJKLOTOÝOORUXXKGRO`ÁTJ[YKÍTZX[TYOTM[X
RUIGJOIÂÍTLOOKX[R)99GYUIOGZ
4`^SZ_RcVR^ÙR]ZeÍèZ]`cUVRa]ZTRcVRdeZ]fcZ]`c
*KYOMTKXOO=KHIUSHOTÂIKRKZXKOSUJGROZÂÝOJKGVROIGXKGYZOR[XORUXVKTZX[GXKGRO`G
ULUXSGZGXKLRKÔHORÂVKTZX[JUI[SKTZKRK=KHJKGIKKGKYZKOSVUXZGTZYÂI[TUGZKS
UXJOTKGÍTIGXKGVROIÂTG\OMGZUX[RJKLOTOÝOORKJKYZOROSUJ[RÍTIGXKY[TZXKÙR\GZK
IUTLROIZKRKÍTZXKJKLOTOÝOO
u *GIÂJUI[SKTZ[RGXKGYUIOGZÂULUGOKJKYZORK^ZKXTÂGZ[TIOTG\OMGZUX[R\GGVROIG
VKTZX[ÍTIKV[ZLUXSGZÂXORKI[VXOTYKÍTGIKGYZG
u *GIÂKÔYZÂOJKLOTOÝOOJKYZORÍTMRUHGZKÍTJUI[SKTZGZ[TIOGIKYZKGG[VXOUXOZGZK
LGÝÂJKJKLOTOÝOORKK^ZKXTK
u +RKSKTZKRK.:32IKIUTÝOTJKLOTOÝOOJKYZOROTROTK\UXLOGLOGZKIUTLUXSGIKYZUX
JKLOTOÝOOINOGXJGIÂVXUVXOKZÂÝORKGIKYZUXGY[TZJKLOTOZKMRUHGRYG[ÍTZXULUGOKJK
YZOR[XOK^ZKXTÂ
'IKGYZÂSUJGROZGZKJKXKÙR\GXKGIUTLROIZKRUXK^VROIÂO[ZORO`GXKGZKXSKT[R[OJK
sIGYIGJÂtÍTJKT[SOXKGLUORUXJKYZORJKUGXKIKYZOR[XORKY[TZGVROIGZKIUTYKI[ZO\ÍT
IGYIGJÂJKRGJKLOTOÝOORKMKTKXGRKIÂZXKIKRKOTROTK
;TSUJJKR[IX[KLOIOKTZVXKY[V[TK[XSÂZUX[RsSO^GPtÍTZXKIKRKZXKOZKNTOIOJK
GVROIGXKGYZOR[XORUX
u *KLOTOXKGIGXGIZKXOYZOIORUXMKTKXGRKGRKKZOINKZKRUXÍTZXULUGOKJKR[IX[K^ZKXTÂVK
IGXKUGYUIOKSZ[Z[XUXJUI[SKTZKRUXJOTIGJX[RYOZK[R[O*KK^KSVR[V[ZKSJKLOTO
""&
VXUVXOKZÂÝORKJKHG`ÂGRKZOZR[XORUXVGXGMXGLKRUXROYZKRUXZGHKRKRUXOLUXS[RGXKRUX
LUTZ[XOI[RUXOGROTOKXKKZI
u ,UXSGZÂXORKYVKIOLOIKLOKIÂX[OJUI[SKTZ\UXLOXKGRO`GZKVXOTJKLOTOÝOOJKYZORÍTMRUHGZK
JKUGXKIKÍTSUJYOM[XT[ZUGZKVGMOTORKYOZK[R[O\UXGXÂZGRGLKRJKK^KSVR[
VGMOTGVXOTIOVGRÂ\GG\KGLUXSGZÂXOJOLKXOZKJKVGMOTORKY[HUXJUTGZK
u 6KTZX[LOKIGXKKRKSKTZIGXKZXKH[OKGLOGZJOLKXOZLGÝÂJKSUJ[RJKGLOGXKYZGHOROZVXOT
JKLOTOÝOORKK^ZKXTKYG[MRUHGRKYK\GJKLOTO[TYZOROTROTK*KK^KSVR[YÂVXKY[V[TKS
IÂGSYZGHOROZÍTJKLOTOÝOORKK^ZKXTKIGNOVKXRKMÂZ[XORKYÂGOHÂI[RUGXKGGRHGYZX[JKYINOY
+YZKVUYOHORIG[TKRKYKIÝO[TOGRKYOZK[R[OYÂGOHÂGIKKGOI[RUGXKJKL[TJGRI[
NOVKXRKMÂZ[XORKIKKGIKRKGXLGIKOSVUYOHORYG[LUGXZKMXK[JKUHYKX\GZTGIKYZ
IG`VKTZX[NOVKXRKMÂZ[XORKGLRGZKÍTGIKYZKYKIÝO[TO\USJKLOTO[TYZOROTROTK
5VWZ_ZcVR T]RdV]`c 4`^SZ_RcVR deZ]fcZ]`c

'VROIGXKG[T[OYZORVUGZKLOXKGRO`GZÂOVXOTMX[VGXKGSGOS[RZUXJKLOTOÝOOJKYZORÍT
IGJX[R[TKOIRGYK9OTZG^GMKTKXGRÂG[TKOJKLOTOÝOOJKIRGYÂKYZK
/GZÂ[TK^KSVR[JK[ZORO`GXKGIRGYKRUX
Exemplul 2.6
TK^KSVR[RGSJKLOTOZVXUVXOKZÂÝORKMKTKXGRKGRKZOZR[XORUXJKTO\KROGXGVUOGS
JKLOTOZJU[ÂIRGYKI[T[SKRK.IKTZX[O.JXKGVZGIGXKYZGHORKYISUJ[RJKGROTOKXK
ÍTLKXKGYZXGTG\OMGZUX[R[O
/TYKXGXKGÍTIGJX[R[T[OJUI[SKTZGKZOINKZKO.LÂXÂGZXOH[ZKJKZKXSOTÂGLOGXKG
IUTLUXSJKLOTOÝOORUX)99MKTKXGRKYIXOYKVKTZX[GIKYZTO\KRJKZOZR[
*GIÂJUXOSOTYKXGXKG[T[OZOZR[IKTZXGZ\GZXKH[OYÂ[ZORO`ÂSIRGYG.IKTZX[GYZLKR
)RGYKRKIKTZX[OJXKGVZGT[VUZLO[ZORO`GZKJKIÁZÍSVXK[TÂI[KZOINKZG.VKTZX[IÂ
G[ LUYZ JKLOTOZK YVKIOGR VKTZX[ GIKGYZG T YINOSH IRGYG XUY[ VUGZK LO [ZORO`GZÂ ÍT
IUTP[TIÝOKI[UXOIKKZOINKZÂ.:32IKVUYKJÂVXUVXOKZÂÝORKJKLOTOZK
""'
6KRÁTMÂVUYOHOROZGZKGJKLOTOXOOIRGYKRUXLUORKJKYZOR[XOÍTIGYIGJÂULKXÂOLGIOROZGZKG
JKGJKLOTOYZOR[XOsIUTJOÝOUTGZKt*KK^KSVR[JGIÂGSJUXOIGÍTOTZKXOUX[RVGXGMXGLKRUX
ZK^Z[RSGXIGZI[KZOINKZG/ZK^ZGLOGZI[ROZKXKOZGROIKYÂLOKJKI[RUGXKXUOK\USYIXOK
[XSÂZUGXKGJKLOTOÝOKJKYZOR
Exemplul 2.7
'VROIÁTJ GIKGYZÂ JKLOTOÝOK TG\OMGZUX[R \G GLOG I[ LUTZ JK I[RUGXK XUOK ZUGZK
YKI\KTÝKRKJKZK^ZSGXIGZKI["/$IGXKYKGLRÂÍTOTZKXOUX[RVGXGMXGLKRUXÍTXKYZ[RIG`[XORUX
ZK^Z[R LOOTJ GLOGZ IUTLUXS VXUVXOKZÂÝORUX I[XKTZK GYUIOGZK KZOINKZKO / T GIKYZ IG`
YKRKIZUX[R[ZORO`GZ6/YKT[SKZKYKRKIZUXIUTZK^Z[GRJKUGXKIKGVROIGXKGJKLOTOÝOKO
JKVOTJKJKIUTZK^Z[RÍTIGXKY[TZLURUYOZKKZOINKZKRKJOTIGJX[RYKRKIZUX[R[O
F_ZeÍèZUV^ÍdfcÍ¤ZeZafcZ
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IGXGIZKXKOGIUTYZGTZKRUXT[SKXOIKÍTZXKMOOXKGRK)UTYZGTZKRKÍTZXKMOVUZLO[ZORO`GZK
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,UORKJKYZOR[ZORO`KG`ÂUSGXK\GXOKZGZKJK[TOZÂÝOJKSÂY[XÂIGXKVUZLO
u XKRGZO\K JOSKTYO[TORK[T[OKRKSKTZY[TZYVKIOLOIGZKXKRGZO\RGGRZKKRKSKTZK!
u GHYUR[ZK JOSKTYO[TORK[T[OKRKSKTZT[Y[TZJKVKTJKTZKJKGRZKKRKSKTZKGRK
JUI[SKTZ[R[O
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u V^vYVKIOLOIÂSÂXOSKGÍTVO^KROJOSKTYO[TKGKRKSKTZ[R[OLOOTJJKVKTJKTZÂJK
XKÙR[ÝOGI[XKTZÂGSUTOZUX[R[O\OÒZGZUX[R[O!
u KSvYK[ZORO`KG`ÂÍTIGJX[RVXUVXOKZÂÝOOLUTZYO`KGZK^Z[R[OOXKVXKÒTZÂRÂÝOSKG
ROZKXKOs3tXKRGZO\ÂRGJOSKTYO[TKGIUXV[R[OJKROZKXÂ[ZORO`GZROZKXG3GLUYZGRKGYÂ
IGKZGRUTVKTZX[IÂKYZKROZKXGIKUI[VÂIKRSGOS[RZYVGÝO[INOGXJGIÂSÂXOSKG
KOJOLKXÂJKRG[TLUTZRGGRZ[R!
u K^vXKVXKÒTZÂÍTÂRÝOSKGROZKXKOs^tXKRGZO\ÂRGLUTZ[R[ZORO`GZ
*OTZXK[TOZÂÝORKJKSÂY[XÂGHYUR[ZKGSOTZOS
u ISvIKTZOSKZXO!
u SSvSOROSKZXO!
u OTvOTINÝUROOTIO!
u VZvV[TIZZOVUMXGLOIG\ÁTJIGJOSKTYO[TKGGVGXZKJOTZX[TOTIN!KYZKU[TOZGZK
JKSÂY[XÂ[ZORO`GZÂVKTZX[JOSKTYO[TKGLUTZ[XORUXJKIÂZXKKJOZUGXKRKJKZK^Z
+ÔYZÂ[TKRKVXUVXOKZÂÝOGIÂXUX\GRUGXKYKVUGZKK^VXOSGVXUIKTZ[GR^[TJK^
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""(
=64È:2#
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VKTZX[ZOZR[XO;TK^KSVR[JKLUTZJOTGIKGYZÂLGSOROKKYZKLUTZ[R=KYZKXT
u SUTUZ_VKIUTÝOTKLUTZ[XOSUTUYVGÝOGZKVXKI[SGIKRKGJOTMGSG)U[XOKX)U[XOKX
)U[XOKX4K]'IKYZKLUTZ[XOY[TZ[ZORO`GZKÍTMKTKXGRVKTZX[YKIÝO[TORKJKZK^Z
XKVXK`KTZÁTJIUJY[XYÂK^KSVRKJKJGZKJKOTZXGXKOKOXKVKTZX[[TVXUMXGS
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Exemplul 2.8.
"")
*GIÂSGOTG\OÒZGZUX[R[OT[VUYKJÂLUTZ[R:OSKY4K]8USGTTG\OMGZUX[R\GÍTIKXIG
YÂGLOK`KZK^Z[RVGXGMXGLKRUXI[LUTZ[R-GXGSUTJOJGIÂTOIOGIKYZGT[KYZKJOYVUTOHOR
\G[ZORO`GLUTZ[ROSVROIOZJOTLGSOROGJKLUTZ[XOYKXOL
5 GRZÂ VXUVXOKZGZK G LUTZ[XORUX KYZK YZOR[R JK GLOGXK YVKIOLOIGZ VXOT VXUVXOKZGZKG
LUTZYZ_RKI[\GRUXORKVUYOHORK TUXSGROZGROIOUHROW[K;ZORO`GXKG\GRUXOOOZGROIVXKY[V[TK
GLOGXKGZK^Z[R[OI[YZOR[RJKROZKXÂOZGROIGRLUTZ[R[OLURUYOZÍTZOSVIKYZOR[RUHROW[KJKZKXSOTÂ
ÍTIROTGXKGsSGT[GRÂtGROZKXKRUX
*OSKTYO[TKGIUXV[R[OJKROZKXÂVXUVXOKZGZKGLUTZYO`KYKVUGZKK^VXOSGÍTV[TIZK
ZOVUMXGLOIKVZVO^KROVÎKTZOSKZXOISSOROSKZXOSSYG[VXOTZX[TVXUIKTZJOT
SÂXOSKGOSVROIOZÂGLUTZ[R[O6UZLOLURUYOZKOIUTYZGTZKIGYSGRRKXORGXMKX
;RZOSGIGXGIZKXOYZOIÂG[T[OLUTZKYZKIUTYOYZKTÝGGIKYZ[OGLUTZ]KOMNZYG[MXUYOSKG
fROTOKOt[ZORO`GZKVKTZX[YIXOKXKGROZKXKRUX<GRUGXKGGIKYZKOVXUVXOKZÂÝOKYZK[TT[SÂX
TGZ[XGRÍTZXKOJGXVUZLOLURUYOZKO\GRUXOXKRGZO\KRGMXUYOSKGOSVROIOZÂVXOT
[ZORO`GXKGIUTYZGTZKRUX K^ZXGROMNZJKSOROMNZROMNZSKJO[SK^ZXGHURJJKSOHURJO
HURJ
/GZÂ[TK^KSVR[IK[ZORO`KG`ÂZUGZKIGXGIZKXOYZOIORKLUTZ[XORUXJOYI[ZGZKVÁTÂGI[S
Exemplul 2.9
AcàcZVeÍèZ4DDR]VeVief]fZ
*OTZXKVXUVXOKZÂÝORKYVKIOLOIKZK^Z[R[OIKGSGO[ZORO`GZÂKYZKLÂXÂÍTJUOGRÂVXUVXOKZGZKG
ZK^ZGROMTIGXKVKXSOZKGROTOKXKGZK^Z[R[OVXOTYVKIOLOIGXKG[TKOGJOTZXKIUTYZGTZKRK
VXKJKLOTOZK RKLZXOMNZIKTZKXP[YZOL_
/TJKTZGXKGZK^Z[R[OKYZKYZGHOROZÂVXOTVXUVXOKZGZKGZK^ZOTJKTZIGXKGIIKVZÂ\GRUXO
ÍTZXKMOO\GRUXOVXUIKTZ[GRKOK^VXOSÂJOYZGTÝÂLGÝÂJKSGXMOTKGYZÁTMÂGLKXKYZXKOJK
GLOGXKJK[TJKÍTIKVKGLOGXKGZK^Z[R[O
6XUVXOKZGZKGZK^ZJKIUXGZOUTYKZKG`ÂZOV[RJKY[HROTOKXKY[VXGROTOKXK[ZORO`GZRGGLOGXKG
ZK^Z[R[OOVUGZKG\KG\GRUXORK
TUTKvZK^Z[RKYZKGLOGZTUXSGRLÂXÂY[HROTOKXK!
[TJKXROTKvZK^Z[RKYZKY[HROTOGZ!
U\KXROTKvZK^Z[RKYZKY[VXGROTOGZ!
ROTKZNXU[MNvZK^Z[RKYZKfZÂOGZtI[UROTOKIKZXKIKVXOTSOPRUI[RXÁTJ[R[O
*OYZGTÝGJOTZXKJU[ÂROTOOIUTYKI[ZO\KYKK^VXOSÂVXOTVXUVXOKZGZKGROTKNKOMNZ
+ÔYZÂOGRZKVXUVXOKZÂÝOGRKZK^Z[R[OI[SGXLOSUJ[RJKYVGÝOKXKGROZKXKRUXÍTIGJX[R
XÁTJ[R[ORKZZKXYVGIOTMYG[JOYZGTÝGJOTZXKJU[ÂI[\OTZKIUTYKI[ZO\K]UXJYVGIOTM
JGXGIKYZKGT[Y[TZY[VUXZGZKJKZUGZKTG\OMGZUGXKRKGIZ[GRK
,URUYOTJJKLOTOÝOORKJKYZORJOTK^KSVR[RGVROIGZKJUI[SKTZ[R[O.:32JOTK^KS
VR[RYKUHÝOTKKLKIZ[RJOTLOM[XG
""*
Exemplul 2.10.
Figura 2.4
AcàcZVeÍèZR]VSìV]`cUcVaef_XYZfcZ]`cUVRWZ¤RcVRV]V^V_eV]`c9E>=
*[VÂI[SGS\Â`[ZÍTRKIÝOGGTZKXOUGXÂKRKSKTZKRK.:32Y[TZGLOGZKÍTOTZKXOUX[R[TKO
ÙTKJXKVZ[TMNO[RGXKÍTIUTP[XGZKJKSGXMOTOÙTKJKVXUZKIÝOKOINKTGXK*OSKTYO[TORK
GIKYZUXÙTKVUZLOYZGHOROZKVXOT[ZORO`GXKG[XSÂZUGXKRUXVXUVXOKZÂÝO)99[TOZÂÝORKJKSÂY[XÂ
LOOTJIKRKJOYI[ZGZKGTZKXOUXOTVÎSYG[SS
u 6XUVXOKZÂÝOVKTZX[SGXMOTOSGXMOTGXKG SGXMOTRKLZSGXMOTZUVSGXMOTXOMNZ
SGXMOTHUZZUS
u 6XUVXOKZÂÝOVKTZX[ÙTGJKVXUZKIÝOKVGJJOTMGXKG VGJJOTMRKLZVGJJOTMZUV
VGJJOTMXOMNZVGJJOTMHUZZUS
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TIG`[RINKTGX[R[OIKÍTIUTPUGXÂ[TKRKSKTZ.:32YKVUZYZGHOROYZOR[ROMXUYOSKG
ROTOKO[ZORO`GZKVXOTVXUVXOKZÂÝORKHUXJKXYZ_RKOHUXJKX]OJZN6KTZX[HUXJKX]OJZNYK
VUZ[ZORO`G\GRUXOVUÒZO\KYG[IUTYZGTZKRKVXKJKLOTOZK ZNOTSKJO[SZNOIQOGXVKTZX[
YZGHOROXKGYZOR[R[OJKROTOKROTOKV[TIZGZÂROTOKIUTZOT[ÂKZIYKLURUYKYIIUTYZGTZKRK
JUZZKJJGYNKJYUROJJU[HRKMXUU\KYG[XOJMK
TSUJOSVROIOZJOSKTYO[TORKÙTKOJXKVZ[TMNO[RGXKGYUIOGZK[T[OKRKSKTZY[TZ
YZGHOROZKÍTL[TIÝOKJKJOSKTYO[TKGKRKSKTZ[R[OXKYVKIZO\JGXYKVUZSUJOLOIGYVKIOLOIÁTJ
\GRUXOT[SKXOIKYG[VXUIKTZ[GRKVKTZX[RÂÝOSK]OJZNOÍTÂRÝOSKNKOMNZ3UJOLOIGXKG
GIKYZUX SÂXOSO JKZKXSOTÂ YIGRGXKG KRKSKTZ[R[O JK RG JOSKTYO[TORK OSVROIOZK RG
JOSKTYO[TORKYZGHOROZKK^VROIOZVXU\UIÁTJ[TKUXOJKLUXSGXKGYG
"#!
,URUYOTJJKLOTOÝOORKJKYZORJOTK^KSVR[RGVROIGZKJUI[SKTZ[R[O.:32JOTK^KSVR[R
UHÝOTKSKLKIZ[RJOTLOM[XG
Exemplul 2.11
2.11
Figura 2.5
+^KSVR[RGXGZÂIÂJKLOTOÝOORKJKYZORVUZLOIUSHOTGZKXK`[RZÁTJUYIXOKXKIUSVGIZÂ
OIUTIOYÂGYZLKR
Exemplul 2.12
"#"
6KJKGRZÂVGXZKVXUVXOKZÂÝORKYZ_RK]OJZNOIURUXVUZLOYKZGZKYKVGXGZVKTZX[LOKIGXK
HUXJ[XÂÍTVGXZKGGI[SGXGZÂK^KSVR[R
Exemplul 2.13
4f]`cZ ¤Z Wf_UR]fcZ

,UORKJKYZOR[XOJG[JKYOMTKX[R[OVUYOHOROZGZKGJKG[ZORO`GI[RUXOVKTZX[ZK^Z[ROL[TJGR[R
KRKSKTZKRUXLUXSGZGZK*KGYKSKTKGÍTL[TJGR[R[T[OKRKSKTZYKVUGZKGLOGUOSGMOTK
6XUVXOKZÂÝORKLURUYOZKVKTZX[YZGHROXKGI[RUXORUXVKTZX[ZK^ZOL[TJGRY[TZIURUXO
XKYVKIZO\HGIQMXU[TJIURUXGIKYZKGV[ZÍTJLO[ZORO`GZKVKTZX[UXOIKKRKSKTZ.:32IK
VUYKJÂGIKYZKIGXGIZKXOYZOIOJKI[RUGXK
*KK^KSVR[[ZORO`GXKGVXUVXOKZÂÝOOHGIQMXU[TJIURUX HR[KVKTZX[KRKSKTZ[R(5*?\G
JKZKXSOTGGLOGXKGIUTÝOT[Z[R[OJUI[SKTZ[R[OVKLUTJJKI[RUGXKGRHGYZXÂÍTZOSVIK
[ZORO`GXKGGIKRKOGOJKLOTOÝOOÍSVXK[TÂI[KRKSKTZ[R.\GGLOGZUGZKZOZR[XORKJKTO\KR
VKLUTJGRHGYZX[
;ZORO`GXKGI[RUXOOVKTZX[ZK^ZGLUYZK^KSVROLOIGZÂÍTYKIÝO[TORKVXKIKJKTZK
/TYKXGXKG[TKOOSGMOTOVKL[TJGR[R[T[OKRKSKTZVXKY[V[TK
u YVKIOLOIGXKG;82[R[OLOOKX[R[OK^ZKXTIKIUTÝOTKOSGMOTKG
background-image: URL(adresa);
u YZGHOROXKGSUJ[R[OÍTIGXKOSGMOTKGYK\GXKVKZGVKL[TJGR[RKRKSKTZ[R[OVXUVXOKZGZK
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XKVKZGXKVKG^G5>XKVKGZ_XKVKZGXKVKG^G5?XKVKGZXKVKZGXKVKGSHKRK
G^KXKYVKIZO\TUXKVKGZOSGMOTKGT[KYZKGLOGZÂÍTSUJXKVKZGZ!
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GZZGINSKTZRG\GRUGXKGLO^KJOSGMOTKGJKL[TJGRKYZKLO^ÂYG[YIXURROSGMOTKG
JKL[TJGRYKJKX[RKG`ÂÍSVXK[TÂI[JUI[SKTZ[R!
u VXKIO`GXKGVUÒÝOKOVK\KXZOIGRÂOUXOÙTZGRÂGOSGMOTOOÍTIGJX[RÙTKOJKGLOGXK
background-position: poz_verticala poz_orizontala;
[TJKVUÈ\KXZOIGRGOVUÈUXOÙTZGRGVUZLOYVKIOLOIGZKVXOTT[SKXKÍTZXKMOVXOT
\GRUXOVXUIKTZ[GRKYG[VXOTIUTYZGTZK)UTYZGTZKRKVUZLOZUVYG[HUZZUSVKTZX[
VUÒÝOG\KXZOIGRÂORKLZYG[XOMNZVKTZX[VUÒÝOGUXOÙTZGRÂ
8KR[ÂSUHOT[OZ[RTUYZX[JUI[SKTZJOTLOM[XGG\ÁTJGZGGZKJKLOTOÝOORKJKYZOR
JOTK^KSVR[R
"##
Exemplul 2.14
+LKIZ[RUHÝOT[ZKYZK
Figura 2.6
AdVfU`T]RdV 7`c^ReRcVR YZaVc]VXÍefcZ]`c

6YK[JUIRGYKRKY[TZIRGYKGYUIOGZK[TKOKZOINKZK.:32VGXZOI[RGXKOT[Y[TZXKLKXOZK
K^VROIOZÍTJUI[SKTZ[R.:32TG\OMGZUX[RLOOTJIKRIGXKRK[ZORO`KG`ÂJGIÂGT[SOZKIUTJOÝOO
Y[TZÍTJKVROTOZKYG[JGIÂGXKRUI[TGT[SOZK\KTOSKTZ
*KK^KSVR[SGXIGP[R[O'ÍOY[TZGYUIOGZKSGOS[RZKVYK[JUIRGYKI[SGXLOIRGYG
\OYOZKJ,UXSGZÂXORKYZGHOROZKVKTZX[GIKGYZÂVYK[JUIRGYÂY[TZ[ZORO`GZKJKTG\OMGZUXGZ[TIO
IÁTJGLOKG`Â[TJUI[SKTZIKIUTÝOTKUNOVKXRKMÂZ[XÂJKPG\OÒZGZÂ*GIÂNOVKXRKMÂZ[XG
T[KYZK\OÒZGZÂTG\OMGZUX[RLURUYKZKJKLOTOÝOORKI[XKTZKGYUIOGZKSGXIGP[R[O'
*KLOTOXKGVXUVXOKZÂÝORUX[TKOVYK[JUIRGYKYKXKGRO`KG`ÂVXOTYVKIOLOIGXKG[T[OYKRKIZUX
GRJKLOTOÝOKOJKLUXSG
"#$
3GXIGP[R[O'ÍOY[TZGYUIOGZK[XSÂZUGXKRKVYK[JUIRGYK
u ROTQvVYK[JUIRGYÂGYUIOGZÂNOVKXRKMÂZ[XORUXTK\OÒZGZK!
u \OYOZKJvVYK[JUIRGYÂGYUIOGZÂNOVKXRKMÂZ[XORUX\OÒZGZK!
u GIZO\KvVYK[JUIRGYÂGYUIOGZÂNOVKXRKMÂZ[XORUXGIZO\K!
u NU\KXvVYK[JUIRGYÂGYUIOGZÂK\KTOSKTZ[R[OJKZXG\KXYGXKGNOVKXRKMÂZ[XOOJK
IÂZXKI[XYUX[RSU[YK[R[O
;ZORO`GXKGVYK[JUIRGYKRUXVKTZX[KZOINKZG'VKXSOZKXKGRO`GXKG[UGXÂG[TUXSKTO[XO
JKUYKHOZKIGGYVKIZOIUSVUXZGSKTZ
/GZÂ[TK^KSVR[JKJKLOTOXKGVXUVXOKZÂÝORUXVYK[JUIRGYKRUXGYUIOGZKNOVKXRKMÂZ[XORUX
Exemplul 2.15
;ZORO`GXKGJKLOTOÝOORUXJOTK^KSVR[RGXKIGKLKIZGLOGXKGNOVKXRKMÂZ[XORUXTK\OÒZGZK
LURUYOTJ[TLUTZJKJOSKTYO[TKVZJKI[RUGXKXUOK2GGVGXOÝOGK\KTOSKTZ[R[OJKZXKIKXK
GI[XYUX[R[OSU[YK[R[OVKJKGY[VXGRKMÂZ[XOOYKGIZO\KG`ÂJKLOTOÝOORKIUXKYV[T`ÂZUGXK
IRGYKO' NU\KXIKKGIKJKZKXSOTÂGLOGXKGZK^Z[R[ONOVKXRKMÂZ[XOOI[I[RUGXKGXU[ÍTINOY
G\ÁTJ[TLUTZI[SGOSGXKJKIÁZIKROTOÝOGROLOOTJY[HROTOGZOY[VXGROTOGZ/KOXKG
I[XYUX[R[OJOTÙTGJKGLOGXKGNOVKXRKMÂZ[XOOJKZKXSOTÂXK\KTOXKGRGYKZÂXORKOTOÝOGRK
2KMÂZ[XORK\OÒZGZKYK\UXGLOGI[LUTZÍTMXUGZGRHGYZX[LÂXÂKRKSKTZ[RJKIUXGZO\YVKIOLOI
ROTQ[XORUXY[HROTOKXKG
Eliminarea proprietãþii de subliniere a unei hiperlegãturi poate duce la confuzii,

D vizitatorul fiind uneori în imposibilitatea de a distinge textul de activare al
7 hiperlegãturii de textul obiºnuit.
2 Este recomandat ca eliminarea sublinierii link-urilor sã fie compensatã de alte
E
formatãri (modificarea consistenþei, mãrimii ºi culorii fontului, de exemplu).
;T GRZ K^KSVR[ JK VYK[JUIRGYK ÍR IUTYZOZ[OK IRGYKRK LOXYZROTK O LOXYZRKZZKX IGXK
GYUIOG`ÂLUXSGZÂXOYVKIOLOIKVXOS[R[OXÁTJXKYVKIZO\VXOSKOROZKXKJOTZX[TVGXGMXGL
YG[JOTZXUJO\OÒ[TK+^KSVR[ROTJKTZKG`ÂVXOSGROTOKGUXOIÂX[OVGXGMXGLI[IS
OYZGHORKZKVKTZX[VXOSGROZKXÂLUXSGZÂXOJOLKXOZKJKIKRKGVROIGZKZK^Z[R[OUHOT[OZ
Exemplul 2.16.
"#%
FeZ]ZkRcVRVeZTYVeV]`c5:G¤ZDA2?
TIGVOZUR[RGSVXK`KTZGZKZOINKZKRK*/<O96'4ÍTYKIÝO[TKGJKJOIGZÂVGXGMXGLKRUX
GXÂZÁTJIÂOTZXUJ[IKXKGRUXÍTYZGTJGXJ[R.:32GG\[ZIGXGÝO[TKO[ZORO`GXKGGIKYZUXG
ÍTIUSHOTGÝOKI[JKLOTOÝOORK)99
3GXIGP[R*/<YKIUSVUXZÂYOSORGXKZOINKZKO6SGXIÁTJ[TÍTZXKMHRUIJKIUTÝOT[Z
JGXT[MKTKXKG`ÂROTOOGRHKÍTZXKVGXGMXGLK
+ZOINKZG96'4JKLOTKZKUJO\OÒ[TKOTROTKGJOIÂSGXINKG`ÂUVUXÝO[TKGJUI[SKTZ[R[O
JKJOSKTYO[TKSOIÂJKRGIÁZK\GI[\OTZKRGIÁZK\GROTOOIGXKT[GXKVXUVXOKZÂÝORK[TKO
YKIÝO[TOHRUIJKK^KSVR[T[YKVUGZKYZGHOROGROTOKXKGZK^Z[R[O
+ZOINKZKRK*/<O96'4Y[TZ[ZORO`GZKÍTYVKIOGRVKTZX[GGZGGVXUVXOKZÂÝOJKYZOR
GIKRUXVUXÝO[TOJOTJUI[SKTZIGXKT[VUZLOLUXSGZGZKÍTMKTKXGRVXOT[ZORO`GXKG[TUX
KZOINKZK.:32YG[VXOTJKLOTOÝOOJKYZORGZGGZKKZOINKZKRUX.:32
*KK^KSVR[JGIÂOTZKTÝOUTÂSYÂGLOÂSIÁZK\GI[\OTZKJOTZX[TVGXGMXGLI[[TLUTZ
G\ÁTJVXUVXOKZÂÝOJOLKXOZKJKXKYZ[RZK^Z[R[O\USSGXIGYKIÝO[TKGXKYVKIZO\ÂVXOTKZOINKZG
96'4OÍO\USGZGGJKLOTOÝOOJKYZORTK^KSVRKRKOY[TZVXK`KTZGZKIKRKJU[Â
VUYOHOROZÂÝOJKGXKGRO`GGIKYZR[IX[ VXOTJKLOTOÝOOOTROTKXKYVKIZO\VXOTJKLOTOXKG[TKOIRGYK
Exemplul 2.17
Exemplul 2.18
+ZOINKZG*/<YK[ZORO`KG`ÂÍTZXUSGTOKXÂGYKSÂTÂZUGXKVKTZX[YKIÝO[TOJOTJUI[SKTZ
IGXKYKLUXSGZKG`ÂIGKRKSKTZKRGTO\KRJKHRUI
"#&
=64È:2$
A`kZèZ`_RcVRV]V^V_eV]`cDecRefcZ
9VKIOLOIGÝOORK)99G[LUYZXKGRO`GZKVKTZX[GIUSVRKZG)99I[UYKXOKJKVXUVXOKZÂÝO
[ZORKVXOTZXKGIKYZKGGLRÁTJ[YKVXUVXOKZÂÝORKVXO\OTJVUÒÝOUTGXKGKRKSKTZKRUXÍTIGJX[R
JUI[SKTZ[R[O=KH
6KTZX[YZGHOROXKGVUÒÝOKO[T[OKRKSKTZYK[ZORO`KG`Â[TYOYZKSJKIUUXJUTGZKG\ÁTJ
UXOMOTKGÍTIURÝ[RJOTYZÁTMGY[YGLKXKYZXKOJKGLOGXKGTG\OMGZUX[R[O'IKGYZÂGRKMKXK
YKHG`KG`ÂVKLGVZ[RIÂJGZKLOOTJS[RZOVRKRKXKÙR[ÝOOVUYOHORKVKTZX[JOYVUÒZO\KRKJK
GLOGXKOGLGVZ[R[OIÂLKXKGYZXGTG\OMGZUX[R[OVUGZKLOXKJOSKTYOUTGZÂKYZKOSVUYOHOR
JKYZGHOROZIGXKY[TZIUUXJUTGZKRKIURÝ[R[OJOTJXKGVZGPUYGLKXKYZXKO
+ÔYZÂJU[ÂSUJGROZÂÝOJKVUÒÝOUTGXKG[T[OKRKSKTZ
VUÒÝOUTGXKGHYUR[ZÂ VUÒÝOG[T[OKRKSKTZKYZKOTJKVKTJKTZÂJKVUÒÝOUTGXKG
GRZUXKRKSKTZKOYKK^VXOSÂVXOTIUUXJUTGZKRKIURÝ[R[OJOTYZÁTMGY[YGHU^KOJK
GLOGXKIUXKYV[T`ÂZUGXKXKRGZO\KRGUXOMOTKGYOYZKS[R[OJKIUUXJUTGZK!
VUÒÝOUTGXK XKRGZO\Â VUÒÝOG [T[O KRKSKTZ KYZK YZGHOROZÂ ÍT L[TIÝOK JK VU`ÝOG
KRKSKTZKRUXIGXKRVXKIKJ*KK^KSVR[JGIÂVRGYÂS[TVGXGMXGLJ[VÂ[TZOZR[
GIKYZG\GLOVUÒÝOUTGZI[UROTOKSGOPUYÍTVGMOTÂXKRGZO\RGZOZR[RJKJKGY[VXGYG
)UUXJUTGZKRKKRKSKTZ[R[OY[TZXKRGZO\KRGIUUXJUTGZKRKKRKSKTZ[R[OVXKIKJKTZ
3UJ[RJKVUÒÝOUTGXKG[T[OKRKSKTZYKYZGHORKZKVXOTGRKMKXKG\GRUXOOGHYUR[ZK
XKYVKIZO\ XKRGZO\K VKTZX[ VXUVXOKZGZKG )99 VUYOZOUT 9VKIOLOIGXKG IUUXJUTGZKRUX YK
XKGRO`KG`ÂVXOTVXUVXOKZÂÝORKZUVORKLZ<GRUXORKGIKYZUXGVUZLOT[SKXKÍTZXKMOYG[\GRUXO
VXUIKTZ[GRKXKRGZO\KRGJOSKTYO[TORKÙTKOJKGLOGXK9KVUZ[ZORO`GZUGZK[TOZÂÝORKJK
SÂY[XÂVKTZX[R[TMOSO ISSSOTV^
A`kZèZ`_RcVR RSd`]feÍ
<USJKLOTOJU[ÂKRKSKTZKRGTO\KRJKHRUIVXOTOTZKXSKJO[RKZOINKZKO*/<ORK\US
GZGGJU[ÂIRGYKJKJKLOTOÝOO)99I[T[SKRKKRKSKTZXKYVKIZO\KRKSKTZ6XOS[R
KRKSKTZ\GG\KGIURÝ[RJOTYZÁTMGY[YJKIUUXJUTGZKGJOIÂRKLZ VÔ
ZUV VÔGXGRJUORKG\GLOVUÒÝOUTGZÍTV[TIZ[RJKIUUXJUTGZK
TIGJX[RJUI[SKTZ[R[O=KHKRKSKTZKRK\UXLOVRGYGZKÍTVUÒÝOORKGHYUR[ZKYVKIOLOIGZK
OTJOLKXKTZJKRUI[RÍTIGXKGIKYZKGGVGXÍTIGJX[RY[XYKO.:32
+^KSVR[RVXKÒTZÂJUI[SKTZ[R.:32IKIUTÝOTKIKRKJU[ÂHRUI[XOOJKLOTOÝOORK
)99GZGGZK5HYKX\GÝOSUJ[RÍTIGXKKYZKYVKIOLOIGZZOV[RJKVUÒÝOUTGXKOIUUXJUTGZKRK
GHYUR[ZKVKTZX[LOKIGXKKRKSKTZ
3UJ[RJKGLOGXKGRJUI[SKTZ[R[OYKVUGZK\KJKGÍTLOM[XG
Figura 2.7
"#'
Exemplul 2.19
A`kZèZ`_RcVR cV]ReZgÍ
6KTZX[K^KSVROLOIGXKGVUÒÝOUTÂXOOXKRGZO\K\USOTYKXGÍTZX[TJUI[SKTZ.:32JU[Â
ZOZR[XOJKTO\KRVXOS[RTKG\ÁTJTOIOULUXSGZGXKOGXGRJUORKGLOOTJVUÒÝOUTGZI[V^
YVXKYZÁTMGLGÝÂJKVUÒÝOGYGTUXSGRÂXKRGZO\ÂRGVXOS[RZOZR[
Exemplul 2.20
+LKIZ[RVUGZKLOUHYKX\GZÍTLOM[XG
Figura 2.8
"#(
;TKLKIZ\O`[GROTZKXKYGTZIGXK[ZORO`KG`ÂZKNTOIGVUÒÝOUTÂXOOXKRGZO\KKYZKGLOGXKG
[T[OZK^ZI[[TKLKIZJKf[SHXÂt;ZORO`ÂSJU[ÂZOZR[XOJKTO\KRI[GIKRGOZK^ZJGX
G\ÁTJLUXSGZÂXOJOLKXOZK\KÒK^KSVR[ROLOM[XG
Exemplul 2.21
Figura 2.9
AcàcZVeReVR `gVcW]`h
6XUVXOKZGZKGU\KXLRU]YZGHORKZKI[SYKXKGRO`KG`ÂGLOGXKGKRKSKTZKRUXGRIÂXUXIUTÝOT[Z
JKVÂKZKJOSKTYO[TORKJXKVZ[TMNO[R[OJKGLOGXK<GRUXORKGIKYZKOVXUVXOKZÂÝOVUZLO
u \OYOHRK v OMTUXÂ JOSKTYO[TORK YZGHOROZK VXOT VXUVXOKZÂÝORK ]OJZN O NKOMNZ O
XKJOSKTYOUTKG`ÂHU^GJKGLOGXKGYZLKRÍTIÁZÍTZXKMIUTÝOT[Z[RKRKSKTZ[R[OYÂLOK\OÒHOR!
u NOJJKTvYKOMTUXÂVÂXÝORKJOTIUTÝOT[ZIGXKJKVÂKYIJOSKTYO[TORKYZGHOROZK!
u YIXURRvYKGLOKG`ÂHGXKJKJKX[RGXKUXOÙTZGRÂO\KXZOIGRÂIUTÝOT[Z[RKRKSKTZ[R[O
V[ZÁTJLOJKX[RGZÍTIGJX[RHU^KOJKGLOGXK(GXKRKJKJKX[RGXKGVGXINOGXO
GZ[TIOIÁTJIUTÝOT[Z[RVUGZKLOGLOGZÍTÙTGYZGHOROZÂ!
u G[ZUvYKGLOKG`ÂHGXKJKJKX[RGXKJUGXGZ[TIOIÁTJKYZKIG`[R
*UI[SKTZ[R.:32JOTK^KSVR[R[XSÂZUXKYZKGLOGZÍTLOM[XG
Exemplul 2.22
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Figura 2.10
DfacRaf_VcVRV]V^V_eV]`cDecRefcZ
6XUVXOKZGZKG)99ÒTJK^VKXSOZKY[VXGV[TKXKGSGOS[RZUXKRKSKTZKOYZGHOROXKGUXJOTOO
ÍTIGXKGIKYZKGY[TZGLOGZKTSUJOSVROIOZKRKSKTZKRKIGXKYKY[VXGV[TY[TZGLOGZKÍT
UXJOTKGÍTIGXKGVGXÍTJUI[SKTZ3UJOLOIGXKGUXJOTOOÍTIGXKKRKSKTZKRKY[VXGV[YKY[TZ
sYZO\[OZKtYKXKGRO`KG`ÂVXOTYVKIOLOIGXKG[TKO\GRUXOTKT[RKVKTZX[VXUVXOKZGZKGÒTJK^
<GRUGXKGOSVROIOZÂGVXUVXOKZÂÝOOKYZKOYKSTOLOIÂVRGYGXKGKRKSKTZ[R[OÍTsVRGT[R
LKXKYZXKOJKGLOGXKt+RKSKTZKRKIGXKG[U\GRUGXKSGOSGXKVKTZX[ÒTJK^Y[TZVRGYGZK
JKGY[VXGKRKSKTZKRUXI[\GRUGXKÒTJK^SGOSOIÂGJOIÂY[TZGLOGZKsSGOGVXUGVKJK
VXO\OZUXt
+^KSVR[RGXGZÂSUJ[RÍTIGXKY[TZVRGYGZKZXKOKRKSKTZKVXOTLURUYOXKGVXUVXOKZÂÝOO
ÒTJK^
"#*
Exemplul 2.23
TSUJOSVROIOZKRKSKTZKRKGXLOLUYZGLOGZKÍTUXJOTKGKRKSKTZKRKSKTZKRKSKTZ
JGXVXOTYKZGXKGJOLKXOZÂGVXUVXOKZÂÝOOÒTJK^GSGJ[YÍTVRGT[RGVXUVOGZKRKSKTZ[RÍT
VRGT[RIKRSGOJKVÂXZGZKRKSKTZ[ROGXKRKSKTZ[RYKGLRÂVK[TYZXGZOTZKXSKJOGX
,OM[XGOR[YZXKG`ÂKLKIZ[RUHÝOT[Z
Figura 2.11
2.11
Definirea ºi manipularea straturilor se poate realiza ºi prin utilizarea etichetei LAYER,

D introdusã de firma Netscape, dar aceasta nu este o etichetã cuprinsã în standardul
7 HTML 4.0 ºi nu este implementatã de toate navigatoarele.
2
E Este recomandabil ca straturile sã fie definite ºi formatate prin utilizarea etichetelor
DIV ºi SPAN împreunã cu proprietãþile furnizate de foile de stiluri în cascadã.
=64È:2%
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IGYIGJÂYIUV[RLOOTJSGOJKMXGHÂGIKRGJKGLGSOROGXO`GIOZOZUX[RI[VXUVXOKZÂÝORKJK
HG`ÂGRKKRKSKTZKRUX[T[OJUI[SKTZ=KH
T GIKGYZÂ RKIÝOK TK VXUV[TKS YÂ [ZORO`ÂS VXUVXOKZÂÝORK )99 YZ[JOGZK ÍT RKIÝOORK
GTZKXOUGXKÍTXKGRO`GXKG[T[OGHRUTZKSVRGZKVKTZX[JKYOMT[RVGMOTOOJKYZGXZG[T[O
YOZK=KHGGI[SKYZKOR[YZXGZJKLOM[XG
"$!
Figura 2.12
GHRUT[RGLUYZIUTYZX[OZ[ZORO`ÁTJVUÒÝOUTGXKGGHYUR[ZÂGKRKSKTZKRUXJKJKYOMTIK
IUSV[TVGMOTG'IKYZKKRKSKTZKY[TZ
u k`_RSR__Vcf]fZKYZKLUXSGZÂJOTZXKOKRKSKTZKY[VXGV[YK ÍTVRGT[RJKVÂXZGZYK
GLRÂUJO\OÒ[TKJKI[RUGXKXU[ÍTINOYIGL[TJGRVKTZX[KRKSKTZKRKZK^ZVRGYGZK
JKGY[VXG*KLOTOÝOORKJKYZORGYUIOGZKIKRUXZXKOKRKSKTZKY[TZ
Exemplul 2.24 (a)
"$"
u ^V_Zf]acZ_TZaR]GLUYZJKLOTOZIGUJO\OÒ[TKGJUI[SKTZ[R[OIKIUTÝOTKVGZX[
NOVKXRKMÂZ[XOOKYZKVRGYGZÂJKGY[VXGHGTTKX[R[O*KLOTOÝOORKJKYZORGZGGZKY[TZ
IUSV[YKJOTJKLOTOÝOORKGZGGZKJO\OÒ[TOOVXUVXO[ÒYKIRGYGSKTO[RGIGXKYK
GJG[MÂLUXSGZÂXORKYVKIOLOIKVKTZX[NOVKXRKMÂZ[XOIRGYKRK'OZKSO' NU\KXOZKS
*KUGXKIKJKLOTOÝOORKJKYZORY[TZGYUIOGZKSGXIGP[R[O'OVYK[JUIRGYKO'NU\KX
T[SGONOVKXRKMÂZ[XORKGYUIOGZKIRGYKOOZKS\UXLOGLOGZKIUTLUXSJKLOTOÝOORUXJKYZOR
Exemplul 2.24 (b)

:XKIKXKGI[XYUX[R[OSU[YK[R[OVKJKGY[VXG[TKONOVKXRKMÂZ[XO\GJKZKXSOTGSÂXOXKG
IUXV[R[OJKROZKXÂOGIUTYOYZKTÝKOLUTZ[R[OVXKI[SOSUJOLOIGXKGI[RUXOOL[TJGR[R[O
u k`_RUVTÍfeRcVKYZKUJO\OÒ[TKIKIUTÝOTKLUXS[RGX[RJKIÂ[ZGXKOKYZKVRGYGZÂ
Y[HJO\OÒ[TKGGYUIOGZÂHGTTKX[R[O*KLOTOÝOORKVKTZX[SGXIGP[R/46;:Y[TZ\GRGHORK
T[SGOJGIÂKRKSKTZKRK.:32OTYKXGZKI[GP[ZUX[RYÂ[YKGLRÂÍTOTZKXOUX[R[TKOJO\OÒ[TO
Exemplul 2.24 (c)
u k`_V]VaV_ecfRWZ¤RcVRT`_èZ_fef]fZG[LUYZJKLOTOZKIGJO\OÒ[TOIÂXUXGROYK
GYUIOG`ÂIRGYKRKYZGTMGVKTZX[ÙTGJKGLOGXKVXOTIOVGRÂXKYVKIZO\JXKGVZG
VKTZX[ÙTGJKGLOGXKYKI[TJGXÂ
"$#
'LUYZ[ZORO`GZÂVXUVXOKZGZKGU\KXLRU]I[\GRUGXKGG[ZUVKTZX[GYZGHOROSUJ[RÍTIGXK
YKXKGRO`KG`ÂGLOGXKGIUTÝOT[Z[R[OJGIÂJOSKTYO[TORKHU^KRUXJKGLOGXKY[TZOTY[LOIOKTZK
6UÒÝOUTGXKG[ZORO`GZÂKYZKGHYUR[ZÂ
TK^KSVR[RJY[TZVXK`KTZGZKJKZGROGZJKLOTOÝOORKJKYZORGYUIOGZKIKRUXJU[ÂÙTK
Exemplul 2.24 (d)
u k`_R Z_W`c^RèZZ]`c UV T`_eRTe ¤Z TàjcZXYe KYZK VRGYGZÂ ÍT VGXZKG JK PUY G
JUI[SKTZ[R[OOGXKLUXSGZÂXOGYKSÂTÂZUGXKIKRUXJOTIRGYGHGTTKX
;ZORO`ÁTJJKLOTOÝOORK)99JKSGOY[YIUTÝOT[Z[RJUI[SKTZ[R[O.:32IGXKGMKTKXGZ
GHRUT[RKYZK
Exemplul 2.24 (e)

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G <GRUXOT[SKXOIK\GRUXOVXUIKTZ[GRKYG[IUTYZGTZKVXKJKLOTOZKYKVGXGZKVXOT
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KRKSKTZOTROTKÍTIGJX[R[T[OJUI[SKTZ=KH%
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G =KYZKXT*G_ZUT,GTZGY_
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G 'LOGXKGZK^Z[R[OI[ROZKXKÍTMXUGZKHURJ
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. . . {
font-family: Arial;
font-size : 12. . .;
. . . : oblique;
}
9IXOKÝOUJKLOTOÝOKJKYZORIGXKYÂVKXSOZÂNOVKXRKMÂZ[XORUXGLRGZKÍTIKR[RKRKJKJGZK
GRK[T[OZGHKROTJOLKXKTZJKYZGXKGGIKYZUXGYÂLOKGLOGZKI[ZK^ZJKI[RUGXK
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. . . A {
color : . . .;
text-. . . : overline;
}
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VUÒÝOUTGZÂVXOTIUUXJUTGZKGHYUR[ZKRGJKVO^KROVK\KXZOIGRÂLGÝÂJKUXOMOTK
ORGP[SÂZGZKGLKXKYZXKOTG\OMGZUX[R[OVKUXOÙTZGRÂ*O\OÒ[TKG\GLOJKLUXSÂ
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<Style Type=”text/css”>
.pãtrat {
. . . : absolute;
top: 100px;
left: . . .;
background-color: orange;
. . .: 10cm;
. . .: 10cm;
}
</Style>
<DIV . . .=”pãtrat”>0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5</DIV>
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Capitolul
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Ce învãþãm?
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Figura 3.1 Dialogul navigator-server Web bazat pe modelul client-server
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Figura 3.2 Interacþiunea browser-server Web – Interpretor
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Cele mai multe dintre limbajele de programare pentru server sunt

interpretate de componenta scripting engine instrucþiune cu instrucþiune, motiv pentru
care am preferat ca denumire cuvântul interpretor.
Totuºi, se pot utiliza ºi limbaje unde script-urile trebuie compilate în prealabil, aºa
cum se întâmplã în limbajele de programare de nivel înalt uzuale, caz în care denumirea de
interpretor este improprie.
De exemplu, la începuturile programãrii Web, programatorii foloseau script-uri scrise
în limbajul C, care erau compilate ºi executate apoi prin intermediul serverului Web.
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La fel ca multe alte proiecte software importante, PHP s-a nãscut sub forma
unui mic utilitar care trebuia sã rezolve o problemã particularã. În 1995,
… Rasmus Lerdorf ºi-a publicat CV-ul în pagina sa Web. Pentru ca sã poatã
þi cã
ªtia urmãri cine i-a vizitat pagina, Rasmus a introdus în paginã un marcaj special ºi a scris
în Perl un script CGI care sã colecteze informaþii despre vizitatori.
Lerdorf ºi-a denumit utilitarul PHP tools (Personal Home Page).
Ulterior, Lerdorf a conceput o interfaþã între clienþii Web ºi o bazã de date recurgând la
aceeaºi idee: etichete HTML proprii interpretate de un script CGI scris în limbajul C.
Aplicaþia a fost denumita Form Interpreters (FI).
Lerdorf a reunit codul PHP cu FI ºi l-a fãcut public sub numele PHP/FI (acesta purtând
ºi numele de PHP 2.0). Primii paºi fiind fãcuþi, a urmat contribuþia comunitaþii programatorilor,
care au dus la dezvoltarea PHP/FI în regim open source, pãstrând denumirea PHP.
Limbajul PHP a ajuns astãzi la versiunea 5.0.
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O greºealã frecvent întâlnitã este aceea de a deschide din browser sursa

fiºierului ºi de a încerca modificarea acesteia. Încercarea nu are sorþi de izbândã pentru cã
browser-ul afiºeazã efectul execuþiei unui script ºi nu sursa acestuia!
Altã greºealã se comite atunci când, în intenþia de a rula un script, se executã dublu-click
pe fiºierul ce conþine script-ul. Ceea ce se afiºeazã este chiar sursa script-ului respectiv,
deoarece browser-ul încarcã fiºierul fãrã a emite cererea cãtre serverul Web local.
Denumirile date script-urilor trebuie sã fie cât mai sugestive, sã descrie fãrã echivoc
acþiunea pe care o realizeazã. Se recomandã folosirea literelor mici, a cifrelor ºi a
caracterului “_” (underscore) pentru denumirile fiºierelor. Dacã lucraþi în Windows nu se
fac diferenþe între majuscule ºi minuscule, dar în momentul în care veþi plasa script-ul pe
un server Linux/Unix veþi avea numai neplãceri (în mediile Unix se face diferenþã între
majuscule ºi minuscule, deci un script cu numele MyScript.php nu va putea fi încãrcat în
browser dacã se specificã un URL de forma http://adresa_server/myscript.php).
5VaR_RcVRVc`cZ]`c
9IXOVZ[XORKVKIGXKRK\KÝOXKGRO`G\UXMKTKXGIKRV[ÝOTRGÍTIKV[ZKXUXO2OSHGP[R
6.6LOOTJ[TROSHGPOTZKXVXKZGZHXU]YKX[R\GGLOGÍTZUZJKG[TGVXOSGKXUGXKJKZKIZGZÂ
JKOTZKXVXKZUX[R6.6OK\KTZ[GR[TGYG[SGOS[RZKG\KXZO`ÂXO
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TIKXIGXKGJKGK^KI[ZGGIKYZYIXOVZMKTKXKG`ÂKXUGXKG
Parse error: parse error, unexpected ‘=’ in

C:\Apache2\htdocs\eroare.php on line 2
IGXKYKJGZUXKG`ÂUSOZKXOOIGXGIZKX[R[O
JOTT[SKRK\GXOGHORKOÍT6.6ZUGZK\GXOGHORKRK
Y[TZVXKLO^GZKJKYKST[R
)UXKIZGXKGGIKYZKOKXUXOOXKRGTYGXKGYIXOVZ
[R[O\GJKZKXSOTGGLOGXKG[XSÂZUGXKOKXUXOJOTIGJX[RYIXOVZ[R[OUSOZKXKGIGXGIZKX[R[O
V[TIZO\OXM[RÂJKRGYLÁXOZ[RIKRKOJKGJU[GOTYZX[IÝO[TO
Parse error: parse error, unexpected T_VARIABLE, expecting ‘,’ or

‘;’ in C:\Apache2\htdocs\eroare.php on line 4
"&"
2A=:42È::
3UJOLOIGXKGSKJO[R[OLOÒIJKZXGTYSOZKXKGJGZKRUXÍTZXUXKÝKGJKIGRI[RGZUGXK:)6
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9_YZKS/TZKXIUTTKIZOUTYZGTJGXJO`GZJK/TZKXTGZOUTGR9ZGTJGXJ5XMGTOYGZOUT/95'IKYZ
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De ce învãþãm?
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Într-un script se pot insera oricâte secvenþe de cod PHP, acestea putând fi
întrerupte în orice moment ºi continuate în secvenþa ce urmeazã. Este posibil ca o
instrucþiune sã înceapã la finalul unei secvenþe ºi sã se încheie în secvenþa urmãtoare. Mai
multe amãnunte vor fi prezentate în lecþia dedicatã instrucþiunilor PHP.
9IXOVZ[XORK6.6VUZLOJUI[SKTZGZKVXOT[ZORO`GXKGGJU[ÂZOV[XOJKIUSKTZGXOOG\ÁTJ
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u )USKTZGXO[ÍTZOTYVKSGOS[RZKROTOOOJKROSOZGZJKIGXGIZKXKRKO
Instrucþiunile PHP sunt expresii care se terminã obligatoriu prin caracterul

punct ºi virgulã. Într-o expresie PHP se pot utiliza oricâte spaþii pe post de separator al
elementelor componente.
EZafcZUVUReVdZâ]VT`_deR_eVgRcZRSZ]V
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V[ZKXTOIZOVO`GZJKUGXKIKVKXSOZKJKLOTOXKGO[ZORO`GXKG[TKOVGRKZKRGXMOJKZOV[XOJK
JGZKÍTZOSVIKROSHGP[R))YKMÂYKZK[TJK\GsRGSOPRUItJOTGIKYZV[TIZJK\KJKXK
9VXKJKUYKHOXKJKSGPUXOZGZKGROSHGPKRUXJK[`MKTKXGRÍTROSHGP[R6.6YGVXKLKXGZ
LURUYOXKG[T[OYOYZKSLRKÔHORÍTVXO\OTÝGZOV[XORUXJKJGZKVXUMXGSGZUX[RTKG\ÁTJVXKG
S[RZKMXOPORKMGZKJKZOV[R\GXOGHORKRUXOK^VXKYOORUX[ZORO`GZK:XKOIGXGIZKXOYZOIOY[TZ
KYKTÝOGRKJOTGIKYZV[TIZJK\KJKXK
u \GXOGHORKRKT[ZXKH[OKJKIRGXGZKJUSKTO[RJK\OGÝÂGR[TKO\GXOGHORKÍTIKVÁTJ
UJGZÂI[VXOSGGZXOH[OXKKLKIZ[GZÂGY[VXGGIKYZKOG!
u ROSHGP[R6.6XKGRO`KG`ÂIUT\KXYOOG[ZUSGZKGZ[TIOIÁTJK^VXKYOORKIUTÝOTUHOKIZK
JKZOV[XOJOLKXOZK!
u ZOV[R[TKO\GXOGHORKT[KYZKLO^VKZUGZÂJ[XGZGJK\OGÝÂGGIKYZKOGIOYKVUGZK
SUJOLOIGGZ[TIOIÍTJ\GXOGHORKOOYKGZXOH[OKU\GRUGXKJKGRZZOV
2OSHGP[R6.6[ZORO`KG`ÂUVZZOV[XOJKJGZKIGXKVUZLOIRGYOLOIGZKÍTZXKOIGZKMUXOO
" EZafcZdZâ]V+
v EZaf]Ø_ecVXZ_eKYZKXKVXK`KTZGZJKUHOIKOVKJKHOÝOOVUGZKXKÝOTK
T[SKXKÍTZXKMOJOTJUSKTO[RvGYKSKTOZOV[R[O
"&'
RUTMJOT)UXOGZOV[R[ORUTMOTZJOT6GYIGR4[SKXKRKÍTZXKMOVUZLOYIXOYKÍT
HG`KRKOGGI[SGXGZÂOK^KSVR[R
Exemplul 4.1
v EZaf]cVR]U`fS]VIUTÝOTK\GRUXOT[SKXOIKXKVXK`KTZGZKÍT\OXM[RÂSUHORÂVK
JKHOÝOI[\GRUGXKGSGÔSÂÔG\ÁTJUVXKIOÒKJKSGÔSIOLXK
`KIOSGRK'IKYZZOVIUXKYV[TJKZOV[R[OJU[HRKJOTROSHGP[R)+^KSVR[R
VXKÒTZÂJOLKXOZKRKSUJ[XOÍTIGXKVUZLOYIXOYKIUTYZGTZKRKXKGRK
Exemplul 4.2
v EZaf]]`XZTS``]VR_XKVXKÒTZÂS[RÝOSKGI[JU[ÂKRKSKTZK ZX[KOLGRYK
2OSHGP[R6.6[ZORO`KG`ÂIUTYZGTZKRKZX[KOLGRYKVKTZX[GYOSHURO`G\GRUXORK
JKGJK\ÂXGJK\ÂXGZXKYVKIZO\LGRY)UT\KTÝOGVXO\OTJ\GRUXORKRUMOIKKYZKIKG
JOT)) UXOIKK^VXKYOKIGXKGXK\GRUGXKTKT[RÂYKIUTYOJKXÂGJK\ÂXGZÂO
UXOIKK^VXKYOKI[\GRUGXKG`KXUYG[4;22YKIUTYOJKXÂLGRYÂ
v EZaf]?F==KYZKS[RÝOSKGI[[TYOTM[XKRKSKTZXKVXK`KTZGZVXOTIUTYZGTZG
4;22'IKGYZÂIUTYZGTZÂYKSTOLOIÂUTUT\GRUGXKYG[U\GRUGXKTKJKLOTOZÂIG
ZOV
# EZafcZdecfTefcReV
v EZaf]eRS]`fRccRjGXKIGKRKSKTZKZGHRU[XO[TOJOSKTYOUTGRKOHOJOSKTYOUTGRK
v EZaf]¤ZcUVTRcRTeVcVGXKIGKRKSKTZKZUGZKY[IIKYO[TORKJK`KXUYG[SGO
S[RZK IGXGIZKXK 6KTZX[ JKROSOZGXKG [T[O OX JK IGXGIZKXK YK VUZ [ZORO`G
MNOROSKRKRKYG[GVUYZXUL[XORKJOLKXKTÝGJOTZXKIKRKJU[Â[XSÁTJYÂLOKJOYI[ZGZÂ
VKVGXI[XY[RGIKYZ[OIGVOZUR
Exemplul 4.3
v EZaf]`SZVTe`S[VTe5HOKIZKRKXKVXKÒTZÂOTYZGTÝKGRK[TUXIRGYKVXKJKLOTOZK
YG[JKLOTOZKJK[ZORO`GZUX6XK`KTZGXKGVXUMXGSÂXOOUXOKTZGZKUHOKIZÍT6.6T[
"&(
KYZK[T[RJOTZXKYIUV[XORKSGT[GR[R[OJKLGÝÂJKIOT[\USR[IXGI[KRKSKTZKRK
GIKYZ[OZOVJKJGZK
$ EZaf]cVdfcdÍ<GXOGHORKRKJKGIKYZZOVY[TZLURUYOZKVKTZX[XKGRO`GXKGIUTKÔ[TORUX
JOTZXKYIXOVZ[R6.6O[TKRKXKY[XYKK^ZKXTKI[SGXLOHG`KRKJKJGZKYG[LOOKXKRK
TIKRKIK[XSKG`Â\USOTYOYZGGY[VXGZOV[XORUXJKJGZKYOSVRKZOV[XORKYZX[IZ[XGZK
OZOV[RXKY[XYÂLOOTJVXK`KTZGZKJKZGROGZÍTIGVOZURKRK[XSÂZUGXK
5VWZ_ZcVR¤ZfeZ]ZkRcVRgRcZRSZ]V]`cØ_A9A
/JKTZOLOIGZUXOOGYUIOGÝO\GXOGHORKRUX6.6Y[TZOX[XOJKIGXGIZKXKIUTYZX[OZKIUTLUXS
[XSÂZUGXKOXKM[RO
u VXOS[RIGXGIZKXKYZKIGXGIZKX[R
!
u GRJUORKGIGXGIZKXKYZKUHROMGZUXO[ROZKXÂYG[[TJKXYIUXK!
u [XSKG`Â[TT[SÂXGXHOZXGXVUYOHOR`KXUJKIGXGIZKXKROZKXÂYG[IOLXÂ
+^KSVRKJKOJKTZOLOIGZUXOGYUIOGÝO\GXOGHORKRUXV[ZKÝO\KJKGÍTK^KSVR[R
Exemplul 4.4
Limbajul PHP utilizeazã variabile predefinite pentru a permite preluarea

unor valori ale unor variabile de sistem ºi utilizeazã identificatori de forma
$_NumeVariabila. De exemplu, variabila $_GET permite preluarea datelor trimise unui
script pentru prelucrare.
Este de preferat sã nu utilizaþi nume de variabile cu prefixul $_, pentru a evita
conflictele cu variabilele de sistem.
Limbajul PHP, asemeni limbajului C/C++, este un limbaj case-sensitive, adicã
majusculele ºi minusculele sunt tratate diferit. Astfel, identificatorii $suma, $Suma, $SuMa
ºi $SUMA desemneazã variabile diferite, spre deosebire de limbaje precum Pascal, unde
acestea ar fi fost considerate identice.
TROSHGP[R6.6U\GXOGHORÂYKIUTYOJKXÂJKLOTOZÂÍTSUSKTZ[RÍTIGXKLGIKUHOKIZ[R
[TKOGZXOH[OXOZOV[RGYUIOGZ\GXOGHORKOLOOTJZOV[RK^VXKYOKOJOTVGXZKGJXKGVZÂGGZXOH[OXOO
9Â[XSÂXOSK^KSVR[R[XSÂZUX
Exemplul 4.5
<GXOGHORG
G\GG\KGOTOÝOGRZOV[RÍTZXKMOGX\GXOGHORG
H\GLOJKZOVXKGR*[VÂGLOGXKG
\GRUXORUX IKRUX JU[Â \GXOGHORK \GXOGHORKO
G O YK GZXOH[OK IUTYZGTZG OX JK IGXGIZKXK
sIGRI[RGZUXtGYZLKRIÂOZOV[R\GXOGHORKO
GYKYINOSHÂ
"&)
5`^V_Zf]UVgZkZSZ]ZeReVR]gRcZRSZ]V]`c
*USKTO[RJK\OÒHOROZGZKGR[TKO\GXOGHORKXKVXKÒTZÂVUXÝO[TKGJOTIGJX[R[TKOGVROIGÝOO
ÍTIGXK\GXOGHORGXKYVKIZO\ÂKYZKIUTYOJKXGZÂJKLOTOZÂOVUGZKLO[ZORO`GZÂTROSHGP[R
6.6JUSKTO[RJK\OÒHOROZGZKGR[TKO\GXOGHORKÍTIKVKÍTSUSKTZ[RJKLOTOXOOKORGVXOSG
GZXOH[OXKKLKIZ[GZÂGY[VXG\GXOGHORKOOYKÍTINKOKÍTSUSKTZ[RZKXSOTÂXOOK^KI[ZÂXOO
YIXOVZ[R[O
'IKGYZÂXKM[RÂKYZK\GRGHORÂOTJOLKXKTZJGIÂYKI\KTÝG6.6KYZKÍTZXKX[VZÂJKYKI\KTÝK
.:32
;ZORO`GXKG[TKO\GXOGHORKTKJKLOTOZKLURUYOXKG[TKO\GXOGHORKÍTGOTZKJKGOYKLOGZXOH[OZ
U\GRUGXKT[MKTKXKG`ÂKXUGXKRGK^KI[ÝOKÍTYINOSHVXUMXGSGZUX[RVUGZK\KXOLOIG
JGIÂU\GXOGHORÂKYZKYG[T[JKLOTOZÂVXOTOTZKXSKJO[RL[TIÝOKOOYYKZ
,[TIÝOGOYYKZVXOSKZKIGVGXGSKZX[U\GXOGHORÂOXKZ[XTKG`ÂZX[KJGIÂGIKGYZG
KYZKJKLOTOZÂOLGRYKÍTIGÌUTZXGX
*USKTO[R JK \OÒHOROZGZK GR [TKO \GXOGHORK YK VUGZK ÍTINKOG ÍT SUSKTZ[R ÍT IGXK
VXUMXGSGZUX[RGVKRKG`ÂL[TIÝOG[TYKZG\ÁTJIGVGXGSKZX[\GXOGHORGXKYVKIZO\Â*[VÂ
[ZORO`GXKGL[TIÝOKO[TYKZ\GXOGHORGT[\GSGOLOIUTYOJKXGZÂJKLOTOZÂOGXGVKRGXKGL[TIÝOKO
OYYKZ\GXKZ[XTG\GRUGXKGLGRYK\KÒK^KSVR[R
Exemplul 4.6. (utilizarea funcþiilor isset ºi unset)
+LKIZ[RK^KI[ZÂXOOYIXOVZ[R[OJOTK^KSVR[RJKSGOY[YKYZKOR[YZXGZÍTLKXKGYZXG[XSÂZUGXK
4UZGÝOIÂÍTIKXIGXKGJK[ZORO`GXKG\GXOGHORKO
GÍTLOTGR[RYKI\KTÝKOT[MKTKXKG`Â
KXUGXKRGK^KI[ÝOKÍTZOSVIKÍTROSHGP[R)YG[6GYIGR[ZORO`GXKG[TKO\GXOGHORKTKJKLOTOZK
MKTKXKG`ÂKXUGXKÍTIÂJOTKZGVGJK\KXOLOIGXKGYOTZG^KO
TYKIÝO[TKGJKJOIGZÂL[TIÝOORUXJKLOTOZKJK[ZORO`GZUX\USXKR[GJOYI[ÝOGJKYVXK
JUSKTO[RJK\OÒHOROZGZKGR[TKO\GXOGHORK
"&*
5VWZ_ZcVR T`_deR_eV]`c dZ^S`]ZTV
2OSHGP[R6.6VKXSOZKJKLOTOXKGIUTYZGTZKRUXYOSHUROIKVXOT[ZORO`GXKGL[TIÝOKOJKLOTK
IGXKGXKYOTZG^G
,[TIÝOGJKLOTKJKLOTKZKU\GXOGHORÂI[T[SKRKOUV_eZWZTRe`cG\ÁTJ\GRUGXKG\R]`RcV
/JKTZOLOIGZUX[RT[ZXKH[OKVXKIKJGZJKIGXGIZKX[RJURGXOVUGZKLOIUSV[YJOTROZKXKIOLXK
OIGXGIZKX[R[TJKXYIUXK6XOS[RIGXGIZKXZXKH[OKYÂLOKUROZKXÂYG[[TJKXYIUXK
'RZXKORKGVGXGSKZX[KYZKUVÝOUTGROGXKU\GRUGXKRUMOIÂ JGIÂ\GRUGXKGKYZKZX[K
GZ[TIOYKIUTYOJKXÂIÂT[SKRKIUTYZGTZKOKYZKIGYKYKTYOZO\KGIKGYZGLOOTJO\GRUGXKG
OSVROIOZÂGZ[TIOIÁTJGRZXKORKGVGXGSKZX[ROVYKZK
)KOSGOS[RÝOJOTZXKVXUMXGSGZUXOO6.6YIXO[T[SKRKIUTYZGTZKRUXI[SGP[YI[RK
VKTZX[GLO[UXJKOJKTZOLOIGZÍTIGJX[RYIXOVZ[R[O
+^KSVRKJKIUTYZGTZKYOSHUROIKV[ZKÝO\KJKGÍTK^KSVR[R
Exemplul 4.7
2WZ¤RcVRUReV]`c
'LOGXKGJGZKRUXÍTLKXKGYZXGTG\OMGZUX[R[OYKVUGZKXKGRO`GVXOTOTZKXSKJO[RGJU[Â
IUTYZX[IÝOOI[KLKIZKYOSROGXK KINUOVXOTZ
9OTZG^GMKTKXGRÂVKTZX[KINUVUGZKLOJKLOTOZÂGYZLKR
[TJK K^VXEgK^VXETY[TZK^VXKYOOJKZOVOXJKIGXGIZKXK
>ÙUVViVTfeRcV 9KGLOKG`ÂVKXÁTJJKRGYZÁTMGRGJXKGVZG\GRUXORKK^VXKYOORUX
K^VXEgK^VXET
+^KSVR[RVXKÒTZÂVGZX[SUJGROZÂÝOIUXKIZKJKGGLOGÍTLKXKGYZXGTG\OMGZUX[R[O
SKYGP[Rf6.6KYZKSOT[TGZt
Exemplul 4.8 (utilizarea construcþiei echo)
:UGZKIKRKVGZX[LUXSKJKGLOGXKJOTK^KSVR[RVXKIKJKTZYKIUTLUXSKG`ÂJKLOTOÝOKO
JKYOTZG^ÂGIUTYZX[IÝOKOKINU'ZXKOGLUXSÂ[ZORO`KG`ÂUVKXGZUX[RJKIUTIGZKTGXKG
JU[ÂOX[XOJKIGXGIZKXKUVKXGZUX[RV[TIZ
"'!
TZXKKINUOVXOTZKÔYZÂJU[ÂJOLKXKTÝK
u VXOTZGIIKVZÂ[TYOTM[XGXM[SKTZJKIOVKXSOZKGLOGXKG[TKOYOTM[XKK^VXKYOOJK
ZOVOXJKIGXGIZKXK!
u VXOTZXKZ[XTKG`Â\GRUGXKGZX[KJGIÂGLOGXKGYGXKGRO`GZI[Y[IIKYOLGRYKÍT
IGÌUTZXGX
ªirurile de caractere afiºate de echo ºi print pot conþine orice etichetã

HTML, ele apãrând în fereastra navigatorului în conformitate cu etichetele utilizate. De
exemplu, secvenþa echo “<B>PHP</B> este <I>minunat</I> !”;
va afiºa în fereastra naviagtorului
PHP este minunat !
Acest comportament permite afiºarea rezultatelor executãrii unui script formatat cu
etichete HTML.
)NOGXJGIÂKÔYZÂSGOS[RZKSUJGROZÂÝOJKIUSHOTGXKGVGXGSKZXORUXR[OKINUIKG
SGO[ZORO`GZÂLUXSÂKYZK
echo expresie_sir;
5HYKX\GÝOIÂGSK\OZGZZKXSKT[RJKL[TIÝOKYG[IUSGTJÂVXKLKXÁTJZKXSKT[RJK
IUTYZX[IÝOK;ZORO`GXKGVGXGTZK`KRUXGVXUVOKIUTYZX[IÝOGKINUJKYOTZG^G[TKOL[TIÝOOÍT
ZOSVIK[ZORO`GXKGLÂXÂVGXGTZK`KGSOTZKZKSGOS[RZJKUIUSGTJÂYZGZ[Z[RYÂ[LOOTJ
OTIKXZJOTGIKYZV[TIZJK\KJKXK
9Â\KJKSGI[SLURUYOTJ[TKJKK^KSVR[RIGXKY[TZSUJGROZÂÝORKJKGLOGXKG
\GRUXORUX\GXOGHORKRUX
Exemplul 4.9. (afiºarea valorii variabilelor)

5HYKX\GÝOUVKXGÝOGJKGLOGXKJOTLOTGR[RK^KSVR[R[O+\GR[GXKGK^VXKYOKOf
TX
TX#
Y[SGtYKXKGRO`KG`ÂVXOTÍTRUI[OXKG\GXOGHORKRUXJOTOX[RJKIGXGIZKXKI[\GRUGXKG
GIKYZUXG5\GXOGTZÂKINO\GRKTZÂJKOSGOV[ÝOTROÒHORÂKYZK[XSÂZUGXKG
OX[XORKJKIGXGIZKXKVUZLOJKROSOZGZKVXOTMNOROSKRKYG[GVUYZXUL[XOGGI[SVXKIO`GS
ÍTZXUYKIÝO[TKGTZKXOUGXÂ:KYZGÝOKLKIZ[RK^KI[ÝOKOYIXOVZ[R[OJOTK^KSVR[RÍTIGXK
MNOROSKRKRKG[LUYZÍTRUI[OZKI[GVUYZXUL[XORKVKTZX[JKROSOZGXKGOX[R[OGLOGZJKIUSGTJG
KINU5HYKX\GÝOIÂÍTGIKYZIG`\GXOGHORKRKJOTOTZKXOUX[ROX[R[OT[SGOY[TZY[HYZOZ[OZK
RGGLOGXKI[\GRUXORKRUXXK`[RZGZ[RLOOTJOX[R8K`[RZGZ[RKYZK
TX
TX#
Y[SGt
2GLKRIGÍTROSHGP[R))YKVUZ[ZORO`GIGXGIZKXKKYIGVKIGXGIZKXKJKK\OZGXK
VKTZX[GÍTRUI[OGIKRKIGXGIZKXKIKT[VUZLOGLOGZKÍTSUJTUXSGR;TVXOSK^KSVR[JK
IGXGIZKXTKVKXSOYÍTOTZKXOUX[R[T[OOXKYZKIGXGIZKX[RMNOROSKRKJKUGXKIKKYZK[ZORO`GZ
"'"
VKTZX[JKROSOZGXKGOX[R[O
)GXGIZKXKRKKYIGVKG[YOTZG^GBIGXGIZKXIKRKSGOOSVUXZGTZKLOOTJ[XSÂZUGXKRK
u BTvIGXGIZKX[RJKYGRZRGROTOKTU[Â!
u BZvIGXGIZKX[RZGH!
u BBvIGXGIZKX[RHGIQYRGYN!
u BtvIGXGIZKX[RMNOROSKRK
)GXGIZKXKRKKYIGVKT[G[KLKIZGY[VXGJUI[SKTZ[R[OGLOGZÍTLKXKGYZXGTG\OMGZUX[R[O
IOGY[VXGY[XYKOGIKYZ[OGGGI[SGXGZÂK^KSVR[R
Exemplul 4.10
9KI\KTÝGBtVKXSOZKOTYKXGXKGMNOROSKRKRUXÍTOTZKXOUX[R[T[OOXJKIGXGIZKXKJKROSOZGZ
VXOTMNOROSKRKLOOTJJKUYKHOZJK[ZORGZ[TIOIÁTJY[TZGLOGZKKZOINKZK.:32IKIUTÝOT
GZXOH[ZKYÂTKGSOTZOSIÂ\GRUGXKG[T[OGZXOH[Z.:32YKXKIUSGTJÂGLOJKROSOZGZÂVXOT
MNOROSKRKSGOGRKYGZ[TIOIÁTJ\GRUGXKGKYZKIUSV[YÂJOTSGOS[RZKI[\OTZK
=64È:2#
@aVcRe`cZ¤ZViacVdZZ
,GVZ[RIÂ6.6KYZK[TROSHGP)ROQKROSHGPGYKSÂTÂZUXIGYOTZG^ÂOYZORJKVXUMXGSGXK
OKYKRGO\KGRÂOÍTIKKGIKVXO\KZKUVKXGZUXOOJKLOTOÝOÍTIGJX[RROSHGP[R[O5VKXGZUXOO
JOT6.6Y[TZMX[VGÝOÍT[XSÂZUGXKRKIGZKMUXOO
u UVKXGZUXOGXOZSKZOIO!
u UVKXGZUXOJKGZXOH[OXK!
u UVKXGZUXOJKOTIXKSKTZGXKJKIXKSKTZGXK!
u UVKXGZUXOXKRGÝOUTGRO!
u UVKXGZUXORUMOIO!
u UVKXGZUXOVKHOÝO!
u UVKXGZUXOVKOX[XOJKIGXGIZKXK!
u GRÝOUVKXGZUXOIGXKT[VUZLOOTIR[OÍTIGZKMUXOORKJKSGOY[Y
TIKRKIK[XSKG`Â\USVXK`KTZGUVKXGZUXOOJOTLOKIGXKIGZKMUXOKK^KSVROLOIÁTJ
SUJ[RRUXJK[ZORO`GXK
"'#
@aVcRe`cZ RcZe^VeZTZ
:UÝOUVKXGZUXOOGXOZSKZOIOY[TZUVKXGZUXOHOTGXO3UJ[RJK[ZORO`GXKGRGIKYZUXGYK
VUGZK\KJKGÍTK^KSVR[R
Exemplul 4.11
4.11
@aVcRe`cZUVRecZSfZcV
TROSHGP[R6.6UVKXGÝOGJKGZXOH[OXKKYZKXKGRO`GZÂVXOTOTZKXSKJO[R[T[OUVKXGZUX#
9OTZG^G[ZORO`GZÂVKTZX[GZXOH[OXKKYZK
[TJK
\GXKYZK[TOJKTZOLOIGZUXJK\GXOGHORÂ
>ÙUVVgR]fRcV+
u YKK\GR[KG`ÂK^VXKYOGJOTJXKGVZGGZXOH[OXOO!
u XK`[RZGZ[RUHÝOT[ZRGVGY[RGTZKXOUXYKYZUINKG`ÂÍTÙTGJKSKSUXOKGRUIGZÂ
\GXOGHORKOJOTVGXZKGYZÁTMÂGGZXOH[OXOO!
u \GRUGXKGXK`[RZGZÂÍT[XSGGZXOH[OXOOKYZK\GRUGXKGK^VXKYOKOJOTVGXZKGJXKGVZÂ
/SVRKSKTZGXKGGZXOH[OXOOIGUVKXGZUXYVXKJKUYKHOXKJKROSHGPKVXKI[S6GYIGR
[TJKGZXOH[OXKGKYZKOTYZX[IÝO[TKVKXSOZK[ZORO`GXKGGZXOH[OXOOÍTIGJX[RGRZUXK^VXKYOO
GGI[SYKVUGZKUHYKX\GÍTK^KSVR[R
Exemplul 4.12
"'$
9IXOVZ[RJOTK^KSVR[R\GGLOGJKZXKOUXO\GRUGXKGJKUGXKIKK^VXKYOGJOT
ROTOGYK\GK\GR[GJKRGJXKGVZGRGYZÁTMGGYZLKR
u YKK\GR[KG`ÂGZXOH[OXKG
^#IGXKSKSUXKG`ÂÍT\GXOGHORG
^\GRUGXKGOGX
\GRUGXKGGVROIÂXOOUVKXGZUX[R[OJKGZXOH[OXKKYZK!
u \GXOGHORKO
_OYK\GGZXOH[O\GRUGXKGK^VXKYOKOK\GR[GZKRGVGY[RVXKIKJKTZJKIO
_#!
u \GXOGHORKO
ÒYK\GGZXOH[O\GRUGXKGK^VXKYOKOK\GR[GZKRGVGY[RVXKIKJKTZJKIO
`#
5GYZLKRJKGZXOH[OXKVUGXZÂT[SKRKJKRecZSfZcV^f]eZa]ÍJKUGXKIKVKXSOZKGZXOH[OXKG
\GRUXOO[TKOK^VXKYOOSGOS[RZUX\GXOGHORK
TROSHGP[R6.6UVKXGZUX[RJKGZXOH[OXKYKVUGZKIUSHOTGI[[TGRZUVKXGZUXHOTGX
UVKXGZUXOOXK`[RZGÝOLOOTJIUTYOJKXGÝOUVKXGZUXOJKGZXOH[OXKIUSV[YÂ
9OTZG^GUVKXGZUXORUXJKGZXOH[OXKIUSV[YÂKYZK
[TJKàUVKXGZUX[R[ZORO`GZVKTZX[IUSHOTGXKVUGZKLOUXOIKUVKXGZUXGXOZSKZOIRUMOI
YG[VKHOÝO
5VKXGZUXOOJKGZXOH[OXKIUSV[YÂY[TZJKUHOIKO[ZORO`GÝOVKTZX[GYIXOKÍTZXULUXSÂ
IUSVGIZÂUGZXOH[OXKJKLUXSG
TK^KSVR[RV[ZKÝOUHYKX\GRGR[IX[IÁÝO\GUVKXGZUXOJKGZXOH[OXKIUSV[YÂ
Exemplul 4.13
@aVcRe`cZ UV Z_TcV^V_eRcV UVTcV^V_eRcV

5VKXGZUXOOJKOTIXKSKTZGXKJKIXKSKTZGXKXKYVKIZO\vvY[TZYVKIOLOIOROSHGP[R[O
))OVKXSOZSÂXOXKGXKYVKIZO\SOIUXGXKG\GRUXOO[TKO\GXOGHORKI[U[TOZGZKT
L[TIÝOKJKSUSKTZ[RÍTIGXKYKLGIKSUJOLOIGXKG\GRUXOO\GXOGHORKOG\KSUVKXGZUXOJK
u VXKOTIXKSKTZGXK!
u VXKJKIXKSKTZGXK!
u VUYZOTIXKSKTZGXK!
u VUYZJKIXKSKTZGXK
"'%
;ZORO`GXKGUVKXGZUXORUXJKOTIXKSKTZGXKJKIXKSKTZGXKKYZKK^KSVROLOIGZÂÍTYIXOVZ[R
JKSGOPUY
Exemplul 4.14
'ZXOH[OXKG
`#
^
_vvYKK\GR[KG`ÂGYZLKR
u YKOTIXKSKTZKG`Â\GRUGXKG\GXOGHORKO
Î[U[TOZGZKJKIO
^JK\OTK!
u YKLGIKYIÂJKXKG
^
_IGXK\GG\KGXK`[RZGZ[R!
u YKGZXOH[OK\GXOGHORKO
`\GRUGXKG!
u YKJKIXKSKTZKG`Â\GRUGXKG\GXOGHORKO
_
9KI\KTÝGJOTK^KSVR[RJKSGOY[YVUGZKLOXKYIXOYÂÍTSUJKINO\GRKTZGYZLKR
Exemplul 4.15.
@aVcRe`cZ cV]RèZ`_R]Z
5VKXGZUXOO XKRGÝOUTGRO Y[TZ ÍT SGXKG RUX SGPUXOZGZK I[TUYI[ÝO JOT ROSHGP[R JK
VXUMXGSGXKYZ[JOGZÍTIRGYKRKGTZKXOUGXK
5HYKX\GÝOKÔYZKTÝGGJUOUVKXGZUXOVKTZX[G\KXOLOIGJGIÂJU[ÂK^VXKYOOY[TZJOLKXOZK
#O"$VXOS[RLOOTJsSUZKTOZtJOTROSHGP[R)OGXGRJUORKGJOTROSHGP[R6GYIGR5VKXGZUX[R
###XKZ[XTKG`ÂZX[KJGIÂJU[ÂK^VXKYOOY[TZOJKTZOIKIG\GRUGXKOJKGIKRGOZOVOGX
UVKXGZUX[R##JKZKXSOTÂJGIÂJU[ÂK^VXKYOOY[TZJOLKXOZKIG\GRUGXKOZOV
"'&
@aVcRe`cZ ]`XZTZ
6KTZX[UVKXGÝOORKRUMOIK[`[GRKIUTP[TIÝOKJOYP[TIÝOKOTKMGÝOKRUMOIÂROSHGP[R
6.6JKLOTKZKIÁZKJUOUVKXGZUXO*[HRGXKGUVKXGZUXORUXRUMOIOVKXSOZKVXUMXGSGZUX[R[O
YÂ[ZORO`K`K\GXOGTZGIGXKOKYZKLGSOROGXÂJOTGRZKROSHGPK
6KVGXI[XY[RGIKYZ[OSGT[GRÍTZUGZKK^KSVRKRKVXK`KTZGZK\US[ZORO`GUVKXGZUXOO
RUMOIObbOÛX
;ZORO`GXKGUVKXGZUXORUXRUMOIOVUGZKLO[XSÂXOZÂÍTK^KSVR[R
Exemplul 4.16
5VKXGZUX[RÛXYG[KÎR[YO\XKZ[XTKG`ÂZX[KJGIÂ[TGOT[SGO[TGJOTZXKK^VXKYOORK
IÂXUXGROYKGVROIÂKYZKGJK\ÂXGZÂÍTZOSVIKUVKXGZUX[RbbXKZ[XTKG`ÂZX[KJGIÂIKRV[ÝOT
[TGJOTZXKK^VXKYOOKYZKGJK\ÂXGZÂ
Programatorii familiarizaþi cu limbajul Pascal au observat lipsa parantezelor

care, în mod obligatoriu, delimiteazã o expresie Pascal ce conþine operatori logici ºi relaþionali.
Explicaþia este cã operatorii relaþionali au prioritate mai mare decât cei logici.
@aVcRe`cZ]R_ZgV]UVSZe
5VKXGZUXOORGTO\KRJKHOZGIÝOUTKG`ÂGY[VXG[TUXUVKXGTÒJKZOVÍTZXKMJKLGVZ
GY[VXGXKVXK`KTZÂXOOHOTGXKGGIKYZUXG)[KÎKVÝOGUVKXGZUX[R[OJKTKMGÝOKHOZI[HOZ
ZUÝOIKORGRÝOY[TZUVKXGZUXOHOTGXOIGXKGIÝOUTKG`ÂGY[VXGVKXKINORUXJKHOÝOJKVKGIKKGO
VUÒÝOKJOTIKOJUOUVKXGTÒ
5VKXGZUX[RoOT\KXYKG`Â\GRUXORKLOKIÂX[OHOZJOTXKVXK`KTZGXKGHOTGXÂGUVKXGTJ[R[O
HOÝOOJK\GRUGXKJK\OTOOT\KXY
"''
n
5VKXGZUXOOJKJKVRGYGXKVKHOÝOXKGRO`KG`ÂJKVRGYGXKGHOÝORUX[T[OT[SÂXÍTZXKMI[[T
T[SÂXJKVUÒÝOOIÂZXKYZÁTMGYG[JXKGVZG
+^KSVR[RVXKÒTZÂSUJ[RJK[ZORO`GXKGUVKXGZUXORUXRUMOIORGTO\KRJKHOZ
Exemplul 4.17
9ÂR[ÂSIGK^KSVR[GVROIGXKGUVKXGZUX[R[O/VKHOÝOGY[VXGT[SKXKRUXO
21 = 10101(2)
13 = 01101(2)
21 & 13= 00101(2)= 5
6KTZX[LOKIGXKVKXKINKJKHOÝOGLRGÝOVKGIKKGOVUÒÝOKÍTXKVXK`KTZGXKGHOTGXÂG
IKRUXJUOUVKXGTÒYKGVROIÂUVKXGZUX[R/RUMOI
'VROIGXKGUVKXGZUX[R[OJKJKVRGYGXKYVXKJXKGVZG$$GY[VXG\GRUXOOXKGRO`KG`Â
JKVRGYGXKGÍTZXKMOOXKVXK`KTZÂXOHOTGXKIÂZXKJXKGVZGI[VUÒÝOO $$#$$
##*KVRGYGXKGYVXKJXKGVZGI[TVUÒÝOOG[TKO\GRUXOÍTZXKMOKINO\GRKG`Â
I[ÍSVÂXÝOXKGÍTZXKGMÂGGIKYZKOGI[TÍTZOSVIKJKVRGYGXKGYVXKYZÁTMGKINO\GRKG`Â
I[ÍTS[RÝOXKG\GRUXOOI[T
@aVcRe`cZaV¤ZcfcZUVTRcRTeVcV
2OSHGP[R6.6IUTÝOTKUVKXGZUX[RV[TIZIGXKIUTIGZKTKG`ÂJU[ÂOX[XOJKIGXGIZKXK
'IKYZGVUGZKLO[ZORO`GZOVXOTIUSHOTGXKGYGI[UVKXGZUX[RJKGZXOH[OXK\KÒK^KSVR[R

Exemplul 4.18
"'(
2]èZàVcRe`cZ
TGIKGYZÂIGZKMUXOKGSOTIR[YUVKXGZUXOOVKTZX[IUTZXUR[RGLOÂXOOKXUXORUX5VKXGZUX[R
VKTZX[IUTZXUR[RGLOÂXOOKXUXORUX1GXKXUR[RJKGOTNOHGGLOGXKGSKYGPKRUXJKKXUGXK
IGXKGXV[ZKGLOMKTKXGZKJKOTYZX[IÝO[TKGÍTGOTZKGIÂXKOGKYZKVRGYGZ5VKXGZUX[RVUGZK
LOVRGYGZÍTGOTZKGUXOIÂXKO\GXOGHORKIUTYZGTZKK^VXKYOOYG[GVKRJKL[TIÝOKJGXT[
VUGZKYÂGVGXÂÍTGOTZKGOTYZX[IÝO[TORUXJKIUTZXURGK^KI[ÝOKOOÍTGOTZKGJKLOTOÝOORUXJK
L[TIÝOO
5VKXGZUX[R & KYZK [ZOR GZ[TIO IÁTJ VXUMXGSGZUX[R JUXKZK YÂ GLOK`K VXUVXOORK
SKYGPKJKKXUGXKOT[SKYGPKRKYZGTJGXJGRKOTZKXVXKZUX[R[O6.6IGXKJKZKXSOTÂ
ÍTIKZGXKGK^KI[ÝOKOYIXOVZ[R[O;TKUXOSKYGPKRKYZGTJGXJJKKXUGXKY[TZJKX[ZGTZK
VKTZX[\OÒZGZUX
+^KSVR[RIUTÝOTKUÍTIKXIGXKJKGJKYINOJK[TLOOKXZK^ZOTKÔYZKTZGLOGXKGKXUXOO
YZGTJGXJKYZKOTNOHGZÂOGX[ZORO`GZUX[R\GVXOSOSKYGP[Rs+XUGXK,OOKXOTKÔYZKTZt
Exemplul 4.19 (A)
5VKXGZUX[R&GLUYZVRGYGZÍTLGÝGL[TIÝOKOLUVKTVKTZX[GOTNOHGGLOGXKGSKYGP[R[O
YZGTJGXJJKKXUGXKGLOGZÍTIG`[RÍTIGXKLOOKX[RJGZKOTT[VUGZKLOJKYINOY<GXOGHORG
GYUIOGZÂLOOKX[R[OJGZKOT\GXOGHORÂJKZOVXKY[XYÂ\GVXOSO\GRUGXKGLGRYKÍTIG`[R
GVGXOÝOKO[TKOKXUXOTL[TIÝOKJK\GRUGXKG\GXOGHORKO
LOYYK\GGLOG[TSKYGPJKKXUGXK
YG[YK\GVKXSOZKIUTZOT[GXKGK^KI[ÝOKOYIXOVZ[R[O
+^KI[ZGÝOYIXOVZ[RJOTK^KSVR[RJ[VÂIKGÝOKROSOTGZUVKXGZUX[R&JOTY[XYG
YIXOVZ[R[OTGIKYZIG`YK\GGLOGGZÁZSKYGP[RJKKXUGXKYZGTJGXJIÁZOSKYGP[R
VXUMXGSGZUX[R[O
Exemplul 4.19 (B)
5VKXGZUX[RJKK^KI[ÝOKKYZK[ZORO`GZVKTZX[GK^KI[ZGIUSKTÒGRKYOYZKS[R[OJK
UVKXGXKY[HIGXKX[RKG`ÂYKX\KX[R=KH
)USGTJGK^KI[ZGZÂKYZKJKROSOZGZÂVXOTIGXGIZKX[R|HGIQZNOIQvGVUYZXULÍTIROTGZ
5VKXGZUX[RJKK^KI[ÝOKJOTK^KSVR[R\GK^KI[ZGIUSGTJGOVIUTLOMJOT=OTJU]Y
IGXKVKXSOZKGLOGXKGIGXGIZKXOYZOIORUXVRÂIORUXJKXKÝKGOTYZGRGZKÍTYOYZKSOGGJXKYKRUX
/6[ZORO`GZKVKTZX[IUTKÔ[TORKRGXKÝKG8K`[RZGZ[RUHÝOT[ZVXOTK\GR[GXKGUVKXGZUX[R[O
KYZKXK`[RZGZ[RK^KI[ZÂXOOIUSKTÒOOVIUTLOMIGXKYKGZXOH[OK\GXOGHORKO
K^KI
"')
3UJ[RJK[ZORO`GXKGRUVKXGZUX[R[OJKK^KI[ÝOKKYZKK^KSVROLOIGZÍTYIXOVZ[R[XSÂZUX
Exemplul 4.20
5VKXGZUX[RJKK^KI[ÝOKYKVUGZKJU\KJOLUGXZK[ZORGZ[TIOIÁTJYOYZKS[RJKUVKXGXKGR
YKX\KX[R[OMG`JÂKYZKJOTLGSOROG;TO^2OT[^GVKR[RGT[SOZUXIUSKTÒGRKYNKRR[R[O
YOYZKS[R[OJ[IÁTJRGXKGRO`GXKGSGOXGVOJÂOSGOYOSVRÂGGT[SOZUXUVKXGÝOOJKK^KSVR[
XKGRO`GXKGUVKXGÝOORUXJKYGR\GXKVKXOUJOIÂGHG`KRUXJKJGZK[ZORO`GZK
5VKXGZUX[RIUTJOÝOUTGR0+KYZKYOTM[X[RUVKXGZUXIGXKTKIKYOZÂZXKOUVKXGTÒUVKXGZUX
ZKXTGXOVUGZKLO[ZORVKTZX[YIXOKXKG[TUXK^VXKYOOIUTJOÝOUTGRKYOSVRK
9OTZG^GUVKXGZUX[R[OKYZK
[TJK K^VXKYZKUK^VXKYOKRUMOIÂOGXK^VXOK^VXY[TZUXOIKK^VXKYOO6.6
>ÙUVVgR]fRcV
u YKK\GR[KG`ÂK^VX!
u JGIÂK^VXGXK\GRUGXKGZX[KGZ[TIOXK`[RZGZ[RXKZ[XTGZJKUVKXGZUX[RIUTJOÝOUTGR
KYZK\GRUGXKGK^VXKYOKOK^VXGRZLKRXK`[RZGZ[RKYZK\GRUGXKGK^VXKYOKOK^VX
5VKXGZUX[RIUTJOÝOUTGRVKXSOZKYIXOKXKGÍTZXULUXSÂIUSVGIZÂG[TUXOTYZX[IÝO[TO
IUTJOÝOUTGRKXKRGZO\YOSVRKI[SGXLOJKZKXSOTGXKGSOTOS[R[OOSGÔS[R[OGJU[ÂYG[
ZXKO\GRUXO\KÒK^KSVR[R
Exemplul 4.21
+^VXKYOG
G"
H%
SOT#
G
SOT#
H"
I%
SOT
IYKK\GR[KG`ÂGYZLKR
u YKK\GR[KG`ÂK^VXKYOG
G"
H%
SOT#
G
SOT#
HKLKIZ[RLOOTJGZXOH[OXKG\GRUXOO
SOTOSKJOTZXK
GO
H\GXOGHORKO
SOT!
"'*
u YKIUSVGXÂ\GRUGXKGUHÝOT[ZÂRGVGY[RGTZKXOUXI[\GRUGXKG\GXOGHORKO
IOYK
XKZ[XTKG`ÂSOTOS[RJOTZXKGIKYZKG
Nu se recomandã utilizarea excesivã a operatorului condiþional, deoarece
expresiile rezultate sunt greu de urmãrit ºi depanat.
AcVTVUV_èR àVcRe`cZ]`c
'VROIGXKGUVKXGZUXORUXÍTZXUK^VXKYOKYKXKGRO`KG`ÂÍTL[TIÝOKJKVXOUXOZGZKGLOKIÂX[OG
:GHKR[R[XSÂZUXVXKÒTZÂIGZKMUXOORKJKUVKXGZUXOÍTUXJOTKGIXKYIÂZUGXKGVXOUXOZÂÝOOGIKYZUXG
TK^KSVR[RYKJUXKZKIGRI[RGXKGVXUJ[Y[R[OIOLXKRUX[T[OT[SÂXTGZ[XGRÍTYÂ
XK`[RZGZ[RT[KYZKIKRGZKVZGZ
Exemplul 4.22
"(!
9IXOVZ[R\GGLOG\GRUGXKGÍTRUIJKJKUGXKIKK^VXKYOG
VXUJ[Y
TXIGXK
IUTÝOTKJUOUVKXGZUXOI[GIKKGOVXOUXOZGZKYK\GK\GR[GJKRGYZÁTMGRGJXKGVZGIGRI[RÁTJ
XKYZ[R ÍSVÂXÝOXOO RG G VXUJ[Y[R[O
VXUJ[Y
TX /TZXUJ[IKXKG JK VGXGTZK`K VKTZX[
SUJOLOIGXKG UXJOTOO KLKIZ[ÂXOO UVKXGÝOORUX XKÙR\Â VXUHRKSG K^VXKYOG IUXKIZÂ LOOTJ
VXUJ[Y
TX
4`_gVcdZZRfe`^ReV¤ZT`_gVcdZZVia]ZTZeVUVeZa
2OSHGP[R6.6XKGRO`KG`ÂIUT\KXYOOG[ZUSGZKJKZOVVKTZX[\GXOGHORKRKYG[IUTYZGTZKRK
JOTZXUK^VXKYOKGZ[TIOIÁTJKYZKTK\UOK*OTV[TIZ[RJK\KJKXKGRIUT\KXYOORUXG[ZUSGZK
ROSHGP[R6.6KYZKS[RZSGOVKXSOYO\JKIÁZGRZKROSHGPK
)UT\KXYOORKG[ZUSGZKYKXKGRO`KG`ÂJ[VÂ[XSÂZUGXKRKXKM[RO
u *GIÂZUÝOUVKXGTÒOJOTK^VXKYOKY[TZJKZOVÍTZXKMGZ[TIOXK`[RZGZ[RK^VXKYOKO
KYZKÍTZXKMOT[SGOKYZKTK\UOKJKIUT\KXYOOJKZOV
u *GIÂ[TYOTM[XUVKXGTJKYZKJKZOVXKGRGZ[TIO\GRUXORKIKRUXRGRÝOUVKXGTÒYK
IUT\KXZKYIRGZOV[RXKGROGXXK`[RZGZ[RLOTGRKYZKJKGIKRGOZOV
u *GIÂ[TUVKXGTJKYZKJKZOVOXJKIGXGIZKXKGVGXJU[ÂIG`[XO
v JGIÂOX[RJKIGXGIZKXKÍTIKVKI[U\GRUGXKT[SKXOIÂGZ[TIO\GRUGXKGGIKYZKOG
\GJG\GRUGXKGOX[R[O!
v JGIÂOX[RT[ÍTIKVKI[U\GRUGXKT[SKXOIÂGZ[TIOOX[RKYZKIUTYOJKXGZIG
G\ÁTJ\GRUGXKG`KXU
9IXOVZ[R[XSÂZUXK^KSVROLOIÂSUJ[RÍTIGXKY[TZXKGRO`GZKIUT\KXYOORKOSVROIOZKJK
ZOVÍTROSHGP[R6.6
Exemplul 4.23
,[TIÝOG MKZZ_VK XKZ[XTKG`Â [T OX JK IGXGIZKXK XKVXK`KTZÁTJ ZOV[R K^VXKYOKO
YVKIOLOIGZKIGGXM[SKTZ
'Z[TIOIÁTJJUXOSIG\GRUGXKG[TKOK^VXKYOOYÂGOHÂ[TGT[SKZOV\GZXKH[OYÂ
[ZORO`ÂSUVKXGZUX[RJKIUT\KXYOKK^VROIOZÂJKZOV5VKXGZUX[RJKIUT\KXYOKK^VROIOZÂGXK
YOTZG^G
[TJKZOVEJKEJGZKVUGZKLO
u OTZYG[OTZKMKXvZOV[RÍTZXKM!
u JU[HRKXKGRYG[LRUGZvZOV[RXKGR!
u YZXOTMvZOV[ROXJKIGXGIZKXK
"("
Exemplul 4.24
)UT\KXYOORKJKZOVLOKIÂY[TZG[ZUSGZKYG[K^VROIOZKT[SUJOLOIÂZOV[R\GXOGHORKRUX
OSVROIGZKÍTIUT\KXYOK3UJOLOIGXKGZOV[R[O[TKO\GXOGHORKYKVUGZKXKGRO`GVXOTGVKR[R
L[TIÝOKOYKZZ_VKIGXKGXKYOTZG^G
[TJKZOVEJKEJGZKVUGZKG\KG[TGJOT\GRUXORK OTZKMKXJU[HRKYZXOTMGXXG_YG[UHPKIZ
=64È:2$
:_decfTèZf_ZA9A
:_decfTèZf_VR ViacVdZV
TROSHGP[R6.6IGOÍTROSHGP[R)UXOIKK^VXKYOK[XSGZÂJKIGXGIZKX[RV[TIZO
\OM[RÂYKIUTYOJKXÂGLOOTYZX[IÝO[TKOTYZX[IÝO[TKGK^VXKYOK
Exemplul 4.25
+^KSVR[RIUTÝOTKZXKOOTYZX[IÝO[TOK^VXKYOK)GXGIZKX[RV[TIZO\OXM[RÂKYZK
ZKXSOTGZUXJKOTYZX[IÝO[TKSGXIÁTJRUI[RÍTIGXKYKZKXSOTÂGIKGYZG+RKSKTZKRK[TKO
OTYZX[IÝO[TOYKVUZYKVGXGVXOTZX[TT[SÂXUGXKIGXKJKIGXGIZKXKYVGÝO[OZGH
:_decfTèZf_VR T`âfdÍ S]`T

/TYZX[IÝO[TORKVUZLOMX[VGZKÍTZX[TMX[VJKOTYZX[IÝO[TOHRUIHRUI[RLOOTJJKROSOZGZ
VXOTGIURGJK
:_decfTèZf_Z T`_UZèZ`_R]V
2OSHGP[R6.6L[XTO`KG`ÂJU[ÂOTYZX[IÝO[TOIUTJOÝOUTGRK OLOTYZX[IÝO[TKIUTJOÝOUTGRÂ
YOSVRÂOY]OZINOTYZX[IÝO[TKIUTJOÝOUTGRÂS[RZOVRÂ
9OTZG^GOTYZX[IÝO[TOOOLKYZK
"(#
[TJKK^VX2K^VX2K^VX2vK^VXKYOORUMOIK!
OTYZX[IZO[TKEOTYZX[IZO[TKEOTYZX[IZO[TKUXOIKOTYZX[IÝO[TO6.6!
>ÙUVViVTfeRcV
,UXSG 9KK\GR[KG`ÂK^V2OÍTIG`[RÍTIGXKGIKGYZGKYZKGJK\GXGZÂYKK^KI[ZÂ
OTYZX[IÝO[TKE
,UXSG 9KK\GR[KG`ÂK^V2OÍTIG`[RÍTIGXKGIKGYZGKYZKTKT[RÂGJK\GXGZÂYK
K^KI[ZÂOTYZX[IÝO[TKEGRZLKRYKK^KI[ZÂOTYZX[IÝO[TKE
,UXSG
u 9KK\GR[KG`ÂK^V2
u *GIÂK^V2KYZKGJK\GXGZÂYKK^KI[ZÂOTYZX[IÝO[TKEOYKZXKIKRG[XSÂZUGXKG
OTYZX[IÝO[TK
u *GIÂK^V2KYZKLGRYÂYKK\GR[KG`ÂK^V2OYKK^KI[ZÂOTYZX[IÝO[TKEJGIÂ
K^VXKYOGKYZKGJK\ÂXGZÂYG[OTYZX[IÝO[TKEJGIÂK^V2KYZKLGRYÂ
,UXSGGOTYZX[IÝO[TOOOLT[GVGXKÍTROSHGP[R)JGXGRZKROSHGPKYVXKK^KSVR[
ROSHGP[R'*'UOSVRKSKTZKG`ÂÍTGIKGYZÂLUXSÂ
TK^KSVR[RJKSGOPUY\USXKGRO`G[TYIXOVZIGXKYÂIGRI[RK`KSOTOS[RGZXKOT[SKXK
Exemplul 4.26
*KZKXSOTGXKG SOTOS[R[O V[ZKG LO XKGRO`GZÂ SGO YOSVR[ JGX GS VXKLKXGZ GIKGYZÂ
\GXOGTZÂVKTZX[GK^KSVROLOIG[ZORO`GXKGIKRKOJKGZXKOGLUXSKGOTYZX[IÝO[TOOOL
:_decfTèZf_VR dhZeTY
/TYZX[IÝO[TKGY]OZINKYZK[ZORO`GZÂGZ[TIOIÁTJYKJUXKZKYKRKIZGXKG[TKOGIÝO[TO
JOTSGOS[RZKVUYOHORKOGXLURUYOXKG[TUXOTYZX[IÝO[TOOLOSHXOIGZKGXSOIUXGIRGXOZGZKG
YIXOVZ[R[O
"($
9OTZG^G
[TJK
YKRKIZUXvK^VXKYOKI[\GRUXOT[SKXOIKYG[OXJKIGXGIZKXK!
\GREg\GRET IUTYZGTZKT[SKXOIKYG[OXJKIGXGIZKXK!
OTYZX[IZO[TKEgOTYZX[IZO[TKETvUXOIKOTYZX[IÝO[TO6.6OTIR[YO\OTYZX[IÝO[TKG
HRUIagc
>ÙUVViVTfeRcV
u YKK\GR[KG`ÂYKRKIZUX[R!
u JGIÂ\GRUGXKGK^VXKYOKOYKRKIZUXKYZKKMGRÂI[\GREOYKK^KI[ZÂOTYZX[IÝO[TKG
IUXKYV[T`ÂZUGXKGIKYZ[OIGÒTYZX[IZO[TKEO!
u JGIÂ\GRUGXKGK^VXKYOKOT[IUOTIOJKI[TOIO[TGJOTZXK\GRUXORK\GREg\GRET
GZ[TIOYKK^KI[ZÂOTYZX[IÝO[TKGYVKIOLOIGZÂVXOTJKLG[RZJGIÂKÔYZÂ
Instrucþiunea break determinã încheierea execuþiei instrucþiunii switch ºi

trecerea controlului la urmãtoarea instrucþiune. Dacã omitem instrucþiunea break, dupã
executarea instrucþiunii instructiune_i, se trece la executarea instrucþiunii instructiune_i+1
º.a.m.d pânã la întâlnirea unei instrucþiuni break sau pânã la sfârºitul lui switch.
Specificarea unei instrucþiuni default este opþionalã.
+^KSVR[RVXKÒTZÂ[TYIXOVZIGXKIGRI[RKG`ÂY[SGJOLKXKTÝGVXUJ[Y[RYG[
XGVUXZ[RGJU[ÂT[SKXKÍTL[TIÝOKJK\GRUGXKG\GXOGHORKO
UVKXGZOK
"(%
Exemplul 4.27
/TYZX[IÝO[TKGY]OZINKYZKJKUHOIKO[ZORO`GZÂVKTZX[IXKGXKGSKTO[XORUXJKUVÝO[TO
VKTZX[LOKIGXKGRZKXTGZO\ÂXKGRO`ÁTJ[YKUVKXGÝOORKYVKIOLOIK
:_decfTèZf_Z ZeVcReZgV
2OSHGP[R6.6JKLOTKZKZXKOOTYZX[IÝO[TOXKVKZOZO\K
u /TYZX[IÝO[TKGOZKXGZO\ÂI[ZKYZOTOÝOGR ]NORK
u /TYZX[IÝO[TKGOZKXGZO\ÂI[ZKYZLOTGR JUg]NORK
u /TYZX[IÝO[TKGOZKXGZO\ÂI[T[SÂXI[TUYI[ZJKVGO LUX
9OTZG^G
[TJK
u K^VXK^VXK^VXK^VXvK^VXKYOO!
u OTYZX[IÝO[TKOTYZX[IÝO[TKvUXOIKOTYZX[IÝO[TO6.6
>ÙUVViVTfeRcV+
hYZ]V
ARd" 9KK\GR[KG`ÂK^VX
ARd# *GIÂK^VXKYZKGJK\GXGZÂGZ[TIOYKK^KI[ZÂIUXV[ROTYZX[IÝO[TOO]NORKOYKXKOG
VGYGRZLKRK^KI[ÝOGOTYZX[IÝO[TOO]NORKYKÍTINKOK
"(&
U`rhYZ]V
ARd" 9KK^KI[ZÂIUXV[ROTYZX[IÝO[TOOJU]NORK
ARd# 9KK\GR[KG`Â K^VX*GIÂ K^VXKYZKGJK\ÂXGZÂYKXKOG VGYGRZLKRK^KI[ÝOG
OTYZX[IÝO[TOOYKÍTINKOK
W`c
ARd" 9KK\GR[KG`ÂK^VX
ARd# *GIÂK^VXKYZKGJK\GXGZÂYKK^KI[ZÂOTYZX[IÝO[TORKJOTIUXV[ROTYZX[IÝO[TOOLUX!
JGIÂK^VXKYZKLGRYÂK^KI[ÝOGOTYZX[IÝO[TOOLUXYKÍTINKOK
ARd$ 9KK\GR[KG`ÂK^VX
ARd% 9KXKOG6GY
TIUTZOT[GXK\USVXK`KTZGIOTIO\GXOGTZKVKTZX[XKÙR\GXKGGIKRKOGOVXUHRKSK
LURUYOTJJO\KXYKOTYZX[IÝO[TOXKVKZOZO\K6XUHRKSGIUTYZÂÍTIGRI[RGXKG\GRUXOOLGIZUXOGR[R[O
[T[OT[SÂXTGZ[XGR
GRcZR_eR"
<USLURUYOOTYZX[IÝO[TKGW`cÍTsYZOR6GYIGRtGJOIÂ[ZORO`ÂSU\GXOGHORÂIUTZUX
OIGXK
OG\GRUXOJKRGRG
TI[VGY[R
Exemplul 4.28
GRcZR_eR#
<USXKGRO`GOTOÝOGRO`ÂXORKTKIKYGXKÍTIGJX[RK^VX[TJKGS[ZORO`GZUVKXGZUX[R\OXM[RÂ
VKTZX[GMXKMGXKGSGOS[RZUXK^VXKYOO
Exemplul 4.29
GRcZR_eR$
/TYZX[IÝO[TKG
XK`#
OKYZKOTIR[YÂÍTK^VXKYOGJKOTIXKSKTZGXK
Exemplul 4.30
GRcZR_eR%
8KÙR\GXKGVXUHRKSKOVXUV[YKLURUYOTJOTYZX[IÝO[TKGhYZ]V
"('
Exemplul 4.31
GRcZR_eR&
8KÙR\GXKGVXUHRKSKOVXUV[YKLURUYOTJOTYZX[IÝO[TKGJU]NORK
Exemplul 4.32
Instrucþiunea for a fost denumitã, în debutul lecþiei, instrucþiune iterativã

cu numãr cunoscut de paºi deoarece aºa este cunoscutã structura for în literatura de
specialitate. În limbajul PHP, structura for este atât de flexibilã încât poate fi scrisã în
nenumãrate moduri, inclusiv într-o formã apropiatã de instrucþiunea while:
$i=1;
for( ;$i<$n; )
{
. . .
$i++;
}
Prin urmare, structura for poate fi denumitã structurã repetitivã cu numãr cunoscut de
paºi, doar pentru a pãstra tradiþia.
:_decfTèZf_Z]VScVR\¤ZT`_eZ_fV
/TYZX[IÝO[TORKHXKGQOIUTZOT[KIUTYZOZ[OKKÎKVÝOOJKRGVXUMXGSGXKGYZX[IZ[XGZÂ
JKUGXKIK VKXSOZ OKOXKG JOTZXU OZKXGÝOK OTJKVKTJKTZ JK IUTJOÝOG JK ZKXSOTGXK G
OTYZX[IÝO[TOOXKVKZOZO\KIGXKRKIUTÝOTK
/TYZX[IÝO[TKGHXKGQJKZKXSOTÂGHGTJUTGXKGK^KI[ÝOKOOTYZX[IÝO[TOOOZKXGZO\KÍTGRIÂXKO
IUXVYKGLRÂÍTZOSVIKIUTZOT[KJKZKXSOTÂGHGTJUTGXKGOZKXGÝOKOI[XKTZKOZXKIKXKGRG
[XSÂZUGXKGOZKXGÝOK
"((
Exemplul 4.33
9IXOVZ[RJOTK^KSVR[RJKZKXSOTÂJGIÂ[TT[SÂXTGZ[XGRKYZKVXOSYG[T[
6XKY[V[TKSIÂ
TKYZKVXOS
+VXOS#:8;+*GIÂYKMÂYKZK[TJO\OÙXGRYÂ[GZ[TIO
\GXOGHORG
+VXOSJK\OTK,'29+OGXYZX[IZ[XGLUXT[GXKYKTYYÂIUTZOT[KJKIOOKOS
LUXÝGZJOTIOIR[
;ZORO`GXKGOTYZX[IÝO[TOOIUTZOT[KKYZKOR[YZXGZÂJKK^KSVR[R
Exemplul 4.34
9IXOVZ[RJOTK^KSVR[RGTZKXOUXXKGRO`KG`ÂGLOGXKGT[SKXKRUXTGZ[XGRKVGXKSGOSOIO
JKIÁZ/TYZX[IÝO[TKGIUTZOT[KYKK^KI[ZÂJKLOKIGXKJGZÂIÁTJ\GRUGXKG\GXOGHORKO
O
KYZKOSVGXÂJKZKXSOTÁTJTKKLKIZ[GXKGGLOÂXOO\GRUXOOGIKYZKOG
+^KSVRKRKOY[TZVXK`KTZGZKJUGXVKTZX[GK^KSVROLOIGSUJ[RJK[ZORO`GXK
GROTYZX[IÝO[TORUXHXKGQOIUTZOT[KVXKR[IXÂXORKKLKIZ[GZKJKGIKYZKGV[ZÁTJLOXKGRO`GZK
LÂXÂGLURUYOOTYZX[IÝO[TORKJKÍTZXKX[VKXKGOZKXGÝOKO
Limbajul PHP conþine o instrucþiune special conceputã pentru parcurgerea

tablourilor asociative, instrucþiunea foreach. Sintaxa ºi modul de utilizare a instrucþiunii
foreach vor fi descrise amãnunþit în capitolul dedicat tablourilor.
"()
=64È:2%
5VWZ_ZcVRdfSac`XcR^V]`c
6[ZKXKG[T[OROSHGPKYZKJGZÂOJKVUYOHOROZÂÝORKULKXOZKJKGIKYZGJKGYZX[IZ[XGVXUMXGS[R
ÍTY[HVXUMXGSK2OSHGP[R6.6INOGXJGIÂKYZK[TROSHGPJKYIXOVZOTMT[V[ZKGLGIKKÎKVÝOK
9[HVXUMXGSKRK6.6Y[TZJKT[SOZKL[TIÝOOOG[YOTZG^G
[TJK
u OTYZX[IZO[TKEgOTYZX[IZO[TKETVUZLOUXOIKOTYZX[IÝO[TO6.6!
u ROYZGEJKEVGXGSKZXOGXKLUXSG
\
\g
\ETLÂXÂGYKVXKIO`GZOV[RLOKIÂX[O
GXM[SKTZ!GXM[SKTZKRKL[TIÝOKOVUGXZÂT[SKRKJKVGXGSKZXOLUXSGRO!
u XK`[RZGZ[R XKZ[XTGZ JK L[TIÝOK KYZK YVKIOLOIGZ RG LKR IG ÍT )) VXOTZXU
OTYZX[IÝO[TKJKLUXSG XKZ[XTK^VXKYOK
6XOSGROTOKJOTJKLOTOÝOG[TKOL[TIÝOOIUTÝOTÁTJI[\ÁTZ[RINKOKL[TIZOUTT[SKRKL[TIÝOKO
OROYZGGXM[SKTZKRUXVUGXZÂT[SKRKJKR_eVeYG[acèèZaOGXYKI\KTÝGJKOTYZX[IÝO[TO
JKROSOZGZÂVXOTOTYZX[IÝO[TKGHRUIacYKT[SKZKT`caf]Wf_TèZVZ)UXV[R[TKOL[TIÝOOYK
K^KI[ZÂGZ[TIOIÁTJGIKGYZGKYZKGVKRGZÂVXOTZXUOTYZX[IÝO[TKJKLUXSG
2OYZGVGXGSKZXORUXGIZ[GROKYZKIUSV[YÂJOTZXUY[IIKYO[TKJKK^VXKYOO\GXOGHORK
YKVGXGZKVXOT\OXM[RÂ
/GZÂ[TK^KSVR[JKL[TIÝOKYOSVRÂVKTZX[IGRI[R[RGXOKO[T[OJXKVZ[TMNO
Exemplul 4.35
2OSHGPKRK YZ[JOGZK VÁTÂ GI[S 6GYIGR O )) OSV[TKG[ VXKIO`GXKG ZOV[R[O
VGXGSKZXORUXLUXSGROOGZOV[R[OXK`[RZGZ[R[OJKGIKKGSUJ[RJKJKLOTOXKO[ZORO`GXKG
L[TIÝOORUXÍT6.6VUGZKVÂXKGJKX[ZGTZ
:OV[RXK`[RZGZ[R[OXKZ[XTGZJKUL[TIÝOKKYZKJKZKXSOTGZJKIUT\KXYOORKG[ZUSGZKJK
ZOVKLKIZ[GZKRGK\GR[GXKGK^VXKYOKOJOTOTYZX[IÝO[TKGXKZ[XT'YZLKRJGIÂGVKRÂSL[TIÝOG
JOTK^KSVR[RI[\GRUXORKOXK`[RZGZ[R\GLOOGXJGIÂGVKRÂSL[TIÝOGI[
\GRUXORKOqGHIrXK`[RZGZ[R\GLO`KXU
6[ZKSYIXOKOL[TIÝOOIGXKT[XKZ[XTKG`ÂU\GRUGXKGT[SKÍT[XSGK^KI[ZÂXOORUX
IG`ÍTIGXKIUXV[RL[TIÝOKOT[\GIUTÝOTKOTYZX[IÝO[TKGXKZ[XT5GYZLKRJKL[TIÝOKKYZK
KINO\GRKTZ[R[TKOVXUIKJ[XO6GYIGRYG[G[TKOL[TIÝOO))I[ZOV[RXK`[RZGZ[R[O\UOJ
"(*
TK^KSVR[RJKSGOPUYGSJKLOTOZUL[TIÝOKIGXKVKXSOZKGLOGXKG[T[OSKYGPLURUYOTJ
KZOINKZK.:32VKTZX[LUXSGZGXKGGIKYZ[OG
Exemplul 4.36
ARcR^VecZgR]`RcV¤ZaRcR^VecZcVWVcZ_èÍ
TSUJOSVROIOZVGXGSKZXOZXGTYSOO[TKOL[TIÝOOY[TZVGXGSKZXO\GRUGXK*GIÂJUXOS
YÂLURUYOS[TVGXGSKZX[XKLKXOTÝÂKYZKY[LOIOKTZYÂ[ZORO`ÂSUVKXGZUX[RGJXKYÂÍTGOTZKG
VGXGSKZX[R[O+^KSVR[R[XSÂZUXJKYIXOKZKNTOIG[ZORO`ÂXOOXKLKXOTÝKRUXÍTZXUL[TIÝOKIGXK
OTZKXYINOSHÂ\GRUXORKGJU[Â\GXOGHORK
Exemplul 4.37
6[ZKSXKYIXOKK^KSVR[R[ZORO`ÁTJUL[TIÝOKIGXKT[XKZ[XTKG`ÂXK`[RZGZ[RJOXKIZ
IOVXOTOTZKXSKJO[R[T[OVGXGSKZX[ZXGTYSOYVXOTXKLKXOTÝÂTGIKYZIG`YK\GSUJOLOIG
OSUJ[RJKGVKRGRL[TIÝOKO
Exemplul 4.38
TIGJX[RGVKR[R[OL[TIÝOKOVGXGSKZX[RKLKIZO\IUXKYV[T`ÂZUX[T[OVGXGSKZX[LUXSGR
XKLKXOTÝÂZXKH[OKYÂLOKUHROMGZUXO[U\GXOGHORÂOGXVGXGSKZX[RKLKIZO\IUXKYV[T`ÂZUX
[T[OVGXGSKZX[LUXSGR\GRUGXKVUGZKLOUXOIKK^VXKYOK'YZLKRL[TIÝOGJOTK^KSVR[R
VUGZKLOGVKRGZÂVXOT
ARcR^VecZ Zâ]ZTZèZ
*KLOTOÝOG[TKOL[TIÝOO6.6VUGZKYÂIUTÝOTÂ[T[RYG[SGOS[RÝOVGXGSKZXOIÂXUXGROYK
GZXOH[OK\GRUXOOSVROIOZKTIG`[RÍTIGXKGVKR[RL[TIÝOKOYKXKGRO`KG`ÂVXOTUSOZKXKG
VGXGSKZXORUXVKTZX[IGXKYG[JKLOTOZ\GRUXOOSVROIOZKGZ[TIOGXM[SKTZKRKXKYVKIZO\K
VXOSKYI\GRUGXKGVXKYZGHOROZÂJOTIGJX[RJKLOTOÝOKOL[TIÝOKO
")!
Exemplul 4.39
+YZKXKIUSGTJGZYÂYVKIOLOIÂSVGXGSKZXOLUXSGROI[\GRUXOOSVROIOZKRGYLÁXOZ[RROYZKO
JKGXM[SKTZKGRKL[TIÝOKOJKLOTOZKVKTZX[GK\OZGVXUHRKSKRKIKVUZYÂGVGXÂRGGVKR
Exemplul 4.40
6XOS[RGVKRKYZKIUXKIZJKUGXKIKYKGVKRKG`ÂL[TIÝOGLURUYOTJVGXGSKZXOGIZ[GRO
JGXGRJUORKGGVKR\GMKTKXGUG\KXZO`GXKJKUGXKIK\GRUGXKGIUXKYV[TJKVXOS[R[O
VGXGSKZX[LUXSGRJOTROYZGJKGXM[SKTZK
:<'OGXXK`[RZGZ[RXKZ[XTGZKYZK`KXU'R
ZXKORKGGVKRKYZKJKGYKSKTKGIUXKIZ\GRUXORKOLOOTJZXGTYSOYKVGXGSKZXORUX
:<'O
6XKÝVKTZX[GRZXKORKGIUTYOJKXÁTJ[YK\GRUGXKGOSVROIOZÂ
8KÙR\GXKGVXUHRKSKOIUTYZÂÍTYIXOKXKGGTZKZ[R[OL[TIÝOKOY[HLUXSG
GRcZRSZ]V]`TR]V¤ZgRcZRSZ]VX]`SR]V
<GXOGHORKRKJKLOTOZKÍTOTZKXOUX[RIUXV[R[O[TKOL[TIÝOOY[TZgRcZRSZ]V]`TR]VKRKV[ZÁTJLO
[ZORO`GZKJUGXÍTIGJX[RL[TIÝOKOÍTIGXKG[LUYZJKLOTOZK<GXOGHORKRKJKLOTOZKÍTGLGXGIUXV[R[O
L[TIÝOORUXY[TZgRcZRSZ]VX]`SR]VKRKV[ZÁTJLO[ZORO`GZKVKZUZVGXI[XY[RYIXOVZ[R[OI[KÎKVÝOG
IUXV[R[OL[TIÝOORUX
*GIÂJKLOTOSU\GXOGHORÂMRUHGRÂ
Ô[ZORO`ÂSGIKRGOOJKTZOLOIGZUXVKTZX[U\GXOGHORÂ
JOTOTZKXOUX[R[TKOL[TIÝOOGZ[TIO6.6IUTYOJKXÂIÂ\GXOGHORG
^JOTOTZKXOUX[RL[TIÝOKO
KYZKU\GXOGHORÂRUIGRÂVXOT[XSGXKJOLKXOZÂJK\GXOGHORGMRUHGRÂI[GIKRGOT[SK
")"
Exemplul 4.41
<GXOGHORKRKRUIGRKY[TZJOYZX[YKUJGZÂI[ÍTINKOKXKGK^KI[ZÂXOOL[TIÝOKOÍTIGXKG[
LUYZJKLOTOZKTIG`[RÍTIGXKJUXOSIGU\GXOGHORÂRUIGRÂYÂOVÂYZXK`K\GRUGXKGJKRG
[TGVKRGRL[TIÝOKORGGRZ[R\USJKIRGXG\GXOGHORGIGLOOTJYZGZOIÂVXOTZXUIUTYZX[IÝOKI[
YOTZG^G YZGZOI
\GXOGHORÂ
Exemplul 4.42
+^KSVR[ROR[YZXKG`ÂSUJ[RJK[ZORO`GXKG[TKO\GXOGHORKYZGZOIK6XOS[RGVKRGR
L[TIÝOKO/TIXKSKTZGXKXKGRO`KG`ÂJKIRGXGXKG\GXOGHORKOYZGZOIK
ÔOTOÝOGRO`GXKGGIKYZKOG
I[\GRUGXKGv2G[XSÂZUGXKRKGVKR[XO\GXOGHORGYKIUTYOJKXÂJKLOTOZÂOVÂYZXKG`Â
\GRUGXKGUHÝOT[ZÂRGÍTINKOKXKGVXKIKJKTZ[R[OGVKRGRL[TIÝOKO6XOT[XSGXKYIXOVZ[RJOT
K^KSVR[RGLOKG`Â\GRUXORK
+ÔYZÂIG`[XOIÁTJKYZKTKIKYGXYÂ[ZORO`ÂS\GRUGXKG[TKO\GXOGHORKMRUHGRKÍTIGJX[R
[TKOL[TIÝOOR[IX[OSVUYOHORÍTSUJTUXSGRJGXVUYOHORJGIÂJUSKTO[RJK\OÒHOROZGZKGR
\GXOGHORKOMRUHGRKKYZKK^ZOTYÍTIGJX[RL[TIÝOKOVXOTZXUJKIRGXGÝOK
global $variabilã
8KYIXOKSYIXOVZ[RJOTK^KSVR[RJKIRGXÁTJ\GXOGHORG
^JOTIGJX[RL[TIÝOKOZKYZ
IGLOOTJMRUHGRÂ
Exemplul 4.43
")#
7f_TèZZ cVTfcdZgV
TROSHGP[R6.6KYZKVKXSOYÂJKIRGXGXKG[TKOL[TIÝOOGRIÂXKOIUXVIUTÝOTK[TG[ZUGVKR
Exemplul 4.44
*KLOTOXKG[TKOL[TIÝOOXKI[XYO\KT[YKP[YZOLOIÂJKIÁZLUGXZKXGXÍTZXUGVROIGÝOK=KH
,[TIÝOORKXKI[XYO\KIUTY[SÂXKY[XYKOSVUXZGTZKÍTZOSV[RK^KI[ÝOKOOGXYIXOKXKG[TUX
IUTJOÝOOJKUVXOXKKXUTGZKVUGZKVXU\UIGTKVRÂIKXOYKXOUGYK
7f_TèZZ acVUVWZ_ZeV
2OSHGP[R6.6V[TKRGJOYVUÒÝOGVXUMXGSGZUXORUX[TYKZJKVKYZKJKL[TIÝOO
VXKJKLOTOZKMX[VGZKÍTSGOS[RZKIGZKMUXOOJOTZXKIGXKGSOTZOS
Q,[TIÝOOSGZKSGZOIK
Q ,[TIÝOOJKR[IX[I[\GXOGHORKRK
Q ,[TIÝOOVKTZX[VXKR[IXGXKGZGHRU[XORUX
Q ,[TIÝOOVKTZX[VXKR[IXGXKGIGXGIZKXKRUXOGOX[XORUXJKIGXGIZKXK
Q ,[TIÝOOJKSGTOV[RGXKGJOXKIZUGXKRUXOLOOKXKRUX
Q ,[TIÝOOVKTZX[VXKR[IXGXKGJGZKOOUXKO
Q ,[TIÝOOVKTZX[ZXGZGXKGKXUXORUX
Q ,[TIÝOOVKTZX[IUTZXUR[RYKYO[TORUX
Q ,[TIÝOOJKGIIKYRGHG`KRKJKJGZK
Q ,[TIÝOOMXGLOIK
Q ,[TIÝOOYVKIOGRO`GZKÍTZXGTYLKX[RJKJGZKVXOT,:6.::6656KZI
3GT[GR[RJKLGÝÂÍOVXUV[TKYÂVXKÒTZKY[IIOTZUVGXZKJOTZXKIKRKSGOOSVUXZGTZK
L[TIÝOO,[TIÝOORKXKLKXOZUGXKRGZGHRU[XOOX[XOJKIGXGIZKXKYKYO[TOJKSGTOV[RGXKG
LOOKXKRUXOVKTZX[GIIKYGXKGHG`KRUXJKJGZK\UXLOVXK`KTZGZKÍTIGVOZURKRK\OOZUGXK
YKIÝO[TKGJKLGÝÂVXK`KTZÁTJIÁZK\GL[TIÝOOOSVUXZGTZKJOTGRZKIGZKMUXOO
7f_TèZZ ^ReV^ReZTV
2OSHGP[R6.6ÍTIKVÁTJJKRG\KXYO[TKGV[TKRGJOYVUÒÝOKUYKXOKÍTZXKGMÂJK
IUTYZGTZKSGZKSGZOIKJOTZXKIGXKKT[SKXÂSIÁZK\GÍTZGHKR[RJKSGOPUY
")$
)KRKSGOOSVUXZGTZKL[TIÝOOSGZKSGZOIKY[TZVXK`KTZGZKÍTZGHKR[R[XSÂZUXVKTZX[
LOKIGXKL[TIÝOKLOOTJYVKIOLOIGZK T[SKRKGTZKZ[ROUYI[XZÂJKYIXOKXK6XOTZOV\US
ÍTÝKRKMKUXOIKZOVJOTROSHGP[R6.6
+^KSVR[ROR[YZXKG`ÂSUJ[RJK[ZORO`GXKGL[TIÝOORUXSGZKSGZOIK
Exemplul 4.45
7f_TèZZUVT`_gVcdZVØ_ecVSRkV]VUV_f^VcRèZV
baza b1
+^KSVR[ROR[YZXKG`ÂSUJ[RJK[ZORO`GXKGL[TIÝOORUXJKIUT\KXYOKÍTZXKHG`KRKJK
T[SKXGÝOK
")%
Exemplul 4.46
7f_TèZZUVcèf_[ZcV¤Zecf_TYZVcV
,[TIÝOGXU[TJGIÝOUTKG`ÂV[ÝOTJOLKXOZLGÝÂJKL[TIÝOORKVKTZX[XUZ[TPOXKOZX[TINOKXK
YZ[JOGZKVÁTÂGI[S
Exemplul 4.47
*GIÂT[YKYVKIOLOIÂGRJUORKGGXM[SKTZGZ[TIOL[TIÝOGXUZ[TPKZKGXM[SKTZ[RRGIKR
SGOGVXUVOGZÍTZXKM*GIÂKYZKYVKIOLOIGZ[TT[SÂXJK`KIOSGRKVKTZX[XK`[RZGZGZ[TIO
XU[TJKROSOTÂ`KIOSGRKRKÍTVR[YXUZ[TPOTJUVK[RZOSG
")&
7f_TèZZaV_ecfXV_VcRcVR_f^VcV]`cR]VRe`RcV
3[RZKYIXOVZ[XO6.6TKIKYOZÂMKTKXGXKG[TUX\GRUXOGRKGZUGXK!JKK^KSVR[YKVUZ
MKTKXGVGXURKVKTZX[IUTZ[XOT[SKJKLOOKXKKZI
+ÔYZÂSGOS[RZKL[TIÝOOVKTZX[MKTKXGXKGT[SKXKRUXGRKGZUGXKJGXIKGSGOXGVOJÂ
KYZKL[TIÝOGSZEXGTJIGXKGXKYOTZG^G
,[TIÝOGSZEXGTJXKZ[XTKG`Â[TT[SÂXTGZ[XGRGRKGZUXJOTOTZKX\GR[RA<SOT<SG^C
*GIÂVGXGSKZXOY[TZUSOOL[TIÝOGXKZ[XTKG`Â[TT[SÂXGRKGZUXÍTZXKO8'4*E3'>
IUTYZGTZGJKYKSTÁTJIKRSGOSGXKT[SÂXTGZ[XGRVUYOHORJKXKZ[XTGZ<GRUGXKGIUTYZGTZKO
8'4*E3'>KYZKXKZ[XTGZÂJKL[TIÝOGSZEMKZXGTJSG^
Exemplul 4.48
=64È:2&
2a]ZTRèZZcVk`]gReV
2a]ZTRèZR"
'LOGÝOT[SKXKRKVXOSKJOTOTZKX\GR[RATCY[HLUXSG[T[OZGHKRG\ÁTJ)URIURUGTK
TLOTGRYK\GGLOGT[SÂX[RGIKYZUXG
8KÙR\GXK
8KÙR\GXKGIKXOTÝKOT[XOJOIÂVXUHRKSKJKUYKHOZK<USIUTYOJKXGVKXÁTJLOKIGXK
T[SÂXJOTOTZKX\GR[RATCOÍO\USZKYZGVXUVXOKZGZKGJKVXOSGROZGZK*GIÂT[SÂX[RKYZK
VXOS\GRUGXKGGIKYZ[OG\GLOGLOGZÂÍTZXUIKR[RÂJKJGZKGZGHKR[R[O2GIUSVRKZGXKG
[TKOROTOOJKZGHKRGZ[TIOIÁTJT[SÂX[RJKT[SKXKVXOSKKYZKS[RZOVR[JK)URYK\G
ÍTINOJKSGXIGP[RJKYLÁXOZJKROTOK
9OTM[XGVXUHRKSÂ\GLOÍTIG`[RÍTIGXKT[SÂX[RZUZGRJK\GRUXOVXOSKT[KYZKS[RZOVR[
JK)URVKTZX[IÂ[RZOSGROTOKGZGHKR[R[OLOOTJOTIUSVRKZÂ\GLOGLOGZÂTKIUXKYV[T`ÂZUX
JKIO\GLOTK\UOKYÂIUSVRKZÂS[RZOSGROTOKGZGHKR[R[OI[IKR[RK\OJK
")'
Exemplul 4.49
+LKIZ[RK^KI[ZÂXOOYKI\KTÝKOKYZK\OÒHORÍTLKXKGYZXG[XSÂZUGXK
5HYKX\GÝOSUJ[RÍTIGXKYKI\KTÝKRK6.6YKÍTZXKX[VÍTYIUV[ROTYKXÂXOOJKIUJ.:32
2a]ZTRèZR#
8KGRO`GÝOUJOGMXGSÂIGXKYÂXKVXKÒTZKMXGLOIYOZ[GÝOG\UZ[XORUXK^VXOSGZKRG[T
YUTJGPUTROTKI[ZXKO\GXOGTZKJKXÂYV[TY6KTZX[LOKIGXK\GXOGTZÂYKI[TUGZKT[SÂX[R
\UZ[XORUXK^VXOSGZKJKVGXZOIOVGTÝOORGYUTJGP
8KÙR\GXK
)GRI[RÂSXGVUXZ[RVXUIKTZ[GRVKTZX[LOKIGXKJOTZXKIKRKZXKO\GXOGTZK<USXKVXK`KTZG
MXGLOIGIKYZXGVUXZVXOTGLOGXKG[T[OJXKVZ[TMNOIURUXGZJKJOSKTYO[TKVXUVUXÝOUTGRÂ
")(
I[VXUIKTZ[RUHÝOT[Z*XKVZ[TMNO[R\GLOXKVXK`KTZGZVXOTZX[TZGHKRI[UYOTM[XÂIKR[RÂ
6KTZX[GLOGXKGVXUIKTZ[R[OI[`KIOSGRKGS[ZORO`GZL[TIÝOGVXKJKLOTOZÂ
string number_format(expresie_realã, numar_zecimale)
IGXKGXKIGXK`[RZGZOX[RUHÝOT[ZJOTZX[TINOKXKG\GRUXOOK^VXKYOKOXKGRKRGT[SÂX[RJK
`KIOSGRKYVKIOLOIGZ
9IXOVZ[RIKXKÙR\ÂVXUHRKSGKYZKVXK`KTZGZÍTK^KSVR[R
Exemplul 4.50
8K`[RZGZ[RK^KI[ZÂXOOYIXOVZ[R[OVKTZX[\GRUXORKOXKYVKIZO\KYZK
2a]ZTRèZR$
9IXOKÝO U L[TIÝOK I[ JU[Â GXM[SKTZK IGXK GLOKG`Â [T SKYGP 6XOS[R GXM[SKTZ
XKVXKÒTZÂIUJ[RSKYGP[R[OT[SÂXTGZ[XGRGYUIOGZSKYGP[R[OOGXGRJUORKGGXM[SKTZ
VXKIO`KG`ÂZOV[RSKYGP[R[O JKKXUGXKYG[JKOTLUXSGXK
"))
8KÙR\GXK
'LOGXKGSKYGP[R[OYK\GXKGRO`GVXOTOTZKXSKJO[R[T[OZGHKRI[UROTOKOJU[ÂIURUGTK
ÍTVXOSGIKR[RÂYK\GÍTIÂXIGUOSGMOTKIUXKYV[T`ÂZUGXKZOV[R[OSKYGP[R[OOGXÍTIKGRGRZÂ
IKR[RÂYK\GGLOGZK^Z[RSKYGP[R[O
,[TIÝOGIKXKÙR\ÂIKXOTÝGKYZKROYZGZÂÍTK^KSVR[R
Exemplu 4.51
8K`[RZGZ[RGVKR[R[OL[TIÝOKOKYZKOR[YZXGZGYZLKR
,[TIÝOG'LOYGXK3KYGPYKVUGZKJU\KJO[ZORÂÍTZXUGVROIGÝOK=KH[TJKKYZKTK\UOK
JKIÁZK\G`KIOYG[INOGXY[ZKJKSKYGPKJKKXUGXKOG\KXZO`GXK*GIÂT[SÂX[RSKYGPKRUX
KYZKLUGXZKSGXKGIKYZKGVUZLOVÂYZXGZKÍTZX[TLOOKXZK^ZYG[ÍTZXUZGHKRÂJKJGZK
")*
2A=:42È::
)GXKJOTZXK[XSÂZUGXKRKIUTYZGTZKÍTZXKMOKYZKYIXOYÂOTIUXKIZ%
G 0x0ABCD
H +0x10A
I –0331
J 0128
)GXKJOTZXK[XSÂZUXOOOJKTZOLOIGZUXOJK\GXOGHORKKYZKJKLOTOZOTIUXKIZ%
G
E\GOGHORGESKG
H
Y
I
Y
J
EEY[SG
,OK[XSÂZUGXKGYKI\KTÝÂ6.6
<?php
$x=5;
$y=8;
$z=++$x - ++$y + 1;
$y-=$x;
echo “$x $y $z”;
?>
<GRUXORKGLOGZKÍT[XSGK^KI[ZÂXOOYIXOVZ[R[OY[TZ
G –2 3 -2
H –6 3 -2
I –2 -2 -2
J 6 3 -2
,OK[XSÂZUGXKGYKI\KTÝÂ6.6
<?php
$x=10.00;
$y=10;
$z=’12B’;
if($x===$y) echo “1<BR>”;
else echo “0<BR>”;
if((int)$x===$y) echo “1<BR>”;
if($x > $z) echo “1<BR>”;
if($x==$y) echo “1<BR>”;
?>
)K\GRUXOGLOKG`ÂYKI\KTÝG%
"*!
G 0 1 0 1
H 1 1 0 1
I 0 1 1 0
J 1 1 1 1
,OK^GHIJ\GRUXOÍTZXKMOI[TUYI[ZK+^VXKYOGRUMOIÂIKZKYZKG`ÂJGIÂ[TT[SÂX^
GVGXÝOTKOTZKX\GR[R[OAGH§IJCYKYIXOKIUXKIZ
G $x>=$a && $x<$b || $x>$c && $x<=$d
H ($x>=$a & $x<$b) | ($x>$c & $x<=$d)
I $a<=$x<$b || $c<$x<=$d
J $x>=$a && $x<$b && $x>$c && $x<=$d
,OKYKI\KTÝG6.6[XSÂZUGXK
<?php
$x=4;
$y=1;
$z=4;
$rez= ($x>$y ? $z===$x : $y ) < ($y > $z);
echo $rez;
?>
<GRUGXKGGLOGZÂÍT[XSGK^KI[ÝOKOYKI\KTÝKOKYZK
G
H
I OX[R\OJ
J ÍTIKXIGXKGJKGK^KI[ZGYKI\KTÝGMKTKXKG`ÂUKXUGXK
9[IIKYO[TKG[XSÂZUGXKJKOTYZX[IÝO[TOJKJKIOÒKKYZKYIXOYÂTKMROPKTZ
<?php
$x=3;
$y=1;
$z=4;
$t=1.00;
if($x>$y)if($y!==$t)if(++$x==$z)echo “1”;else echo “2” ;
else echo “3”; else echo “4”;
?>
8KYIXOKÝOYKI\KTÝGGK`ÁTJOTYZX[IÝO[TORKJKJKIOÒKÍTUXJOTKGLOXKGYIÂ)K\GRUGXK
GLOKG`ÂYIXOVZ[R%
G
H
I
J
K TOSOI
L KXUGXKJKYOTZG^Â
"*"
*KZKXSOTGÝOU\GRUGXKOTOÝOGRÂVKTZX[\GXOGHORG
^GYZLKRÍTIÁZYKI\KTÝGJKSGOPUYYÂ
GLOK`K\GRUGXKG
<?php
$x=. . . ;
$y= 8;
$nr=0;
while($x>0)
{
$y++;
$x-=$y;
$nr++;
}
echo $nr;
?>
)KXK`[RZGZKYZKGLOGZÍT[XSGK^KI[ZÂXOOYKI\KTÝKO
<?php
for($i=1,$rez=1; $i<=10; $rez<<=1,$i++);
echo $rez;
?>
G
H KXUGXKJKYOTZG^Â
I
J
)KXK`[RZGZYKGLOKG`ÂÍT[XSGK^KI[ZÂXOOYKI\KTÝKO
<?php
$x=7.451;
$y=-4.24;
echo floor($x).’<BR>’;
echo ceil($y).’<BR>’;
echo round($x).’<BR>’;
echo round($x+$y,1).’<BR>’;
?>
G
H
I
J
,OKYKI\KTÝG[XSÂZUGXK
<?php
$x = 1;
$i = 2;
$numar = 21;
do {
"*#
$x= $x && ($numar % $i); //linia 1
$i++;
}while($i<$numar);
echo $x!=1 && $numar!=2 ? ‘NU’:’DA’; //linia 2
?>
T[XSGK^KI[ZÂXOOYKI\KTÝKOYKGLOKG`Â
G KXUGXKÍTROTOG
H KUGXKÍTROTOG
I *'
J 4;
,OKYKI\KTÝG
<?php
$x = 10;
$y = 15;
function F(&$a, $b)
{
$x=12;
$a=$x+$b—;
echo $x.’ ‘;
}
F($x, $y);
echo “$x $y”;
?>
T[XSGK^KI[ZÂXOOYKI\KTÝKOYKGLOKG`Â
G
H
I
J
3UJOLOIÁTJGTZKZ[RL[TIÝOKOJOTK^KXIOÝO[RVXKIKJKTZGYZLKR
function F($a, &$b)
YKI\KTÝG\GGLOG
G
H
I
J
,OKYKI\KTÝG
<?php
function F($x)
{
global $y;
$x+=$y;
"*$
return —$x;
}
$y = 10;
echo F($y).’ ‘.$y;
?>
8K`[RZGZ[RGLOGZÍT[XSGK^KI[ZÂXOOYKI\KTÝKOKYZK
G
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_KYZKJKLOTOZÂJ[VÂ[ZORO`GXKGKOÍTIUXV[RL[TIÝOKO
J
,OK[XSÂZUGXKGL[TIÝOKXKI[XYO\Â
<?php
function F($x)
{
if($x>=0)
for($i=1;$i<$x;$i++) F($x-1);
echo $x.’ ‘;
}
?>
)KYK\GGLOGÍT[XSGGVKR[R[O,%
G
H
I
J
3Ac`S]V^V
8KGRO`GÝO[TYIXOVZ6.6IGXKYÂJKZKXSOTKSOTOS[ROSGÔS[RG\GRUXOÍTZXKMO
8KÙR\GÝOIKXOTÝGÍTJU[ÂSUJ[XO
u [ZORO`ÁTJYZX[IZ[XOJKJKIOÒK!
u GVKRÁTJL[TIÝOORKVXKJKLOTOZKSOTOSG^
*ÁTJ[YKVGZX[\GRUXOT[SKXOIKGHIJYÂYKJKZKXSOTKJGIÂGIKYZKGVUZLUXSG
US[RÝOSK\GRUXORKY[TZJOYZOTIZKJU[ÂIÁZKJU[Â
9KIUTYOJKXÂVGZX[\GRUXOXKGRK^_`[9ÂYKJKZKXSOTKJGIÂGIKYZKGVUZLO
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GIKGYZG
9KIUTYOJKXÂJU[ÂOTZKX\GRKÍTINOYKAGHCOAIJCG"HI"J9ÂYKJKZKXSOTK
OTZKXYKIÝOGGIKYZUXG
9ÂYKXKÙR\KKI[GÝOGJKMXGJ[RGRJUORKGG\ÁTJLUXSGMKTKXGRÂG^HÎ#ÍT
S[RÝOSKGT[SKXKRUXIUSVRK^K9UR[ÝOORK\UXLOGLOGZKI[`KIOSGRK
9KIUTYOJKXÂYKMSKTZ[R'(JGZVXOTIUUXJUTGZKRKIGXZKÒKTKGRKK^ZXKSOZÂÝORUX
YGRK '^_O(^_9ÂYKJKZKXSOTKIGJXGT[RIÂX[OGGVGXÝOTKYKMSKTZ[R'(
*GIÂYKMSKTZ[R'(GXKIGVKZKRKÍTIGJXGTKJOLKXOZKGZ[TIOYK\GGLOG[TSKYGP
IUXKYV[T`ÂZUXOYK\GVXKIO`GIGXKYKSOG^KY[TZOTZKXYKIZGZKJKYKMSKTZ[R'(
"*%
9KIUTYOJKXÂ[TT[SÂXTGZ[XGR^9ÂYKIUT\KXZKGYIÂ^ÍTZXUHG`ÂYVKIOLOIGZÂH
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ÍTZXKHG`KRKJKT[SKXGÝOK
8KGRO`GÝO[TYIXOVZ6.6IGXKYÂIGRI[RK`KI[GTZ[S[RXGZKRUXR[TGXKGLKXKTZK[T[O
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JUHÁTJÂGT[GRÂJK*8GZGR[TGXÂKYZKIUSV[YÂJOTZXUY[SÂLO^Â9[SG2RG
IGXK YK GJG[MÂ JUHÁTJG R[TGXÂ IGRI[RGZÂ VKTZX[ Y[SG XÂSGYÂ JK XGSH[XYGZ
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[XSÂZUGXKRKX[HXOIO
2OTOORKJKJGZKJKUXJOTVGX\UXG\KGUI[RUGXKJKL[TJGRJOYZOTIZÂJKI[RUGXKG
GYUIOGZÂROTOORUXJKUXJOTOSVGX)GRI[RGÝOOY[SGZUZGRÂIK\GLOGINOZGZÂJKIROKTZ
VÁTÂRGLOTGR[RIUTZXGIZ[R[OJKIXKJOZ
9IXOKÝOIÁZKUL[TIÝOKVKTZX[XKGRO`GXKG[XSÂZUGXKRUXVXKR[IXÂXOKRKSKTZGXKJKJGZK
u JKZKXSOTGXKGT[SÂX[R[OJKIOLXKGRK[T[OT[SÂXTGZ[XGR!
u JKZKXSOTGXKGIKR[OSGOSGXKJO\OÙXIUS[TGT[SKXKÍTZXKMO!
u IGRI[RGÝOJKIÁZKUXOGVGXKUIOLXÂJGZÂ)ÍTZUGZKT[SKXKRKTGZ[XGRKSGOSOIO
YG[KMGRKI[4!
u JKZKXSOTGÝOT[SÂX[RIOLXKRUXIUS[TKT[SKXKRUXTGZ[XGRK>O?!
u MKTKXGÝOVXOSOO4ZKXSKTOJOTOX[RR[O,OHUTGIIO
9IXOKÝOGZÁZ\GXOGTZKRKTKXKI[XYO\KIÁZO\GXOGTZKRKXKI[XYO\KGRKL[TIÝOORUXIKX[ZK
9IXOKÝOUL[TIÝOKIGXKMKTKXKG`Â[TT[SÂXGRKGZUXJKZOVXKGRG\ÁTJVGXZKGÍTZXKGMÂ
JK4IOLXKOVGXZKGLXGIÝOUTGXÂJK@IOLXK
)[TUYIÁTJ\GRUGXKGÍTZXKGMÂ>YÂYKJKZKXSOTKIKRSGOSOIT[SÂXVXOSSGOSGXK
JKIÁZ>OIKRSGOSGXKT[SÂXVXOSSGOSOIJKIÁZ>9K\G[ZORO`GUL[TIÝOKIGXK
JKZKXSOTÂJGIÂ[TT[SÂXKYZKYG[T[VXOS
)UTYOJKXÂSOTZKX\GR[RÍTINOYAGHC9ÂYKGLOK`KVKTZX[LOKIGXK\GRUGXKJOTOTZKX\GR[R
AGHC T[SÂX[R JO\OÙXORUX VXUVXOO O ROYZG GIKYZUXG 9K \G [ZORO`G U L[TIÝOK IGXK
GLOKG`ÂJO\OÙXOO[T[OT[SÂXOXKZ[XTKG`ÂVXOT\GRUGXKT[SÂX[RGIKYZUXG
9IXOKÝOUL[TIÝOKI[VGZX[VGXGSKZXOIGXKJKYKTKG`Â[TZGHKRI[2ROTOOO)IURUGTK
G\ÁTJI[RUXORKROTOGZ[XOOOGL[TJGR[R[OJGZKTOTZKXOUX[RLOKIÂXKOIKR[RKYK\GGLOG
[TT[SÂXGRKGZUXÍTZXKO8'4*E3'>
9IXOKÝO U L[TIÝOK IGXK GLOKG`Â U OSGMOTK O ZK^Z[R K^VROIGZO\ GYUIOGZ GIKYZKOG
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IKSKSUXKG`ÂOSGMOTKGOZK^Z[RK^VROIGZO\'RZXKORKGVGXGSKZX[\GG\KG\GRUGXKG
sJXKGVZGtYG[sYZÁTMGtO\GOTJOIGIKR[RGÍTIGXKYKGLOKG`ÂOSGMOTKG'RZXKORKG
VGXGSKZX[\GG\KGU\GRUGXKOSVROIOZÂ
)UVOGÝOÍTLURJKX[RJKR[IX[I[XKTZLOOKXKIKIUTÝOTOSGMOTOÍTLUXSGZ06+-O
JKT[SOZORKOSGMOTKGPVMgOSGMOTKGPVM;ZORO`ÁTJL[TIÝOGYIXOYÂRGK^KXIOÝO[R
VXKIKJKTZMKTKXGÝO[TSOTOGRH[SIGXKYÂIUTÝOTÂIKRKOSGMOTOGK`GZKGRZKXTGZO\
ÍTIKR[RGYZÁTMÂXKYVKIZO\JXKGVZÂGZGHKR[R[OTRUI[RK^VROIGÝOKOYK\GGLOGT[SKRK
"*&
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XKVKZOZO\K
9IXOKÝOUL[TIÝOKIGXKMKTKXKG`ÂUROYZÂ.:32I[KRKSKTZK:K^Z[RGYUIOGZLOKIÂX[O
KRKSKTZ\GLOZXGTYSOYIGVGXGSKZX[9K\UXGJÂ[MGÍTIÂZXKOVGXGSKZXOIGXKYÂ
OTJOIKZOV[RROYZKOT[SKXUZGZÂYG[TKT[SKXUZGZÂLUTZ[RLURUYOZVKTZX[GLOGXKO
JOSKTYO[TKGIUXV[R[OJKROZKXÂ,UXSGZGXKGROYZKOYK\GXKGRO`GVXOTJKLOTOÝOO)99
;RZOSOOZXKOVGXGSKZXO\UXG\KGJKLOTOZK\GRUXOOSVROIOZK
8KYIXOKÝOGVROIGÝOGVXK`KTZGZÂÍTGIKYZIGVOZUR[ZORO`ÁTJUL[TIÝOKVKTZX[GLOGXKG
JXKVZ[TMNO[R[OGYUIOGZ[TKOSÂXOSOVXUIKTZ[GRK,[TIÝOG\GVXOSOIGGXM[SKTZK
R[TMOSKG RÂÝOSKG I[RUGXKG ROTOKO I[RUGXKG OTZKXOUX[R[O O I[RUGXKG \GRUXOO
VXUIKTZ[GRKGLOGZKÍTOTZKXOUX
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OI[RUGXKYVKIOLOIGZKÍTZXUVUÒÝOKVXKIO`GZÂGLKXKYZXKOJKGLOGXK:K^Z[R\GLO
LUXSGZGZ[ZORO`ÁTJSGXIGP[R"*/<$OVXUVXOKZÂÝO)99JKVUÒÝOUTGXKGHYUR[ZÂ\KÒ
IGVOZUR[RRKIÝOGOJOYV[TKXKGKRKSKTZKRUXÍTYZXGZ[XO;ZORO`ÁTJGIKGYZÂL[TIÝOK
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MKTKXGZKGRKGZUX,OKIGXKYKIÝO[TKGLOGZÂ\GLOY[VXGV[YÂVGXÝOGRVKYZKYKIÝO[TKG
GTZKXOUGXÂ
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TROSHGP[R6.6[TZGHRU[VUGZKLOIUTYZX[OZVXOTKT[SKXGXKGKRKSKTZKRUXYGRK
[ZORO`ÁTJGZXOH[OXOYG[L[TIÝOGVXKJKLOTOZÂRccRj'XXG_T[KYZKUL[TIÝOKÍTGJK\ÂXGZ[R
YKTYGRI[\ÁTZ[R[OIOSGOJKMXGHÂ[TKRKSKTZGRROSHGP[R[O6.6IGXKT[VUGZKLOÍTIGJXGZ
TOIOÍTIGZKMUXOGL[TIÝOORUXOTOIOÍTIGZKMUXOGUVKXGZUXORUX
2OSHGP[R6.6OTZXUJ[IK[TIUTIKVZTU[ÍTIKKGIKVXO\KYZKSUJ[RJKOTJK^GXKGR
[T[OZGHRU[OGT[SKVUYOHOROZGZKGJKG[ZORO`GOX[XOJKIGXGIZKXKIGOTJOIOYVXKJKUYKHOXK
JKROSHGPKRKJKVXUMXGSGXKJK[`MKTKXGRIGXKVKXSOZOTJK^GXKGZGHRU[XORUXJUGXI[
OTJOIOJKZOVUXJOTGR6GYIGRYG[I[OTJOIOJOTS[RÝOSKGac)'IKYZKZGHRU[XO
VUGXZÂT[SKRKJKZGHRU[XOGYUIOGZO\KOGXOTJOIOOYK\UXT[SOINKO
3GOS[RZKRKSKTZKRK[T[OZGHRU[VUZLOJKZOV[XOJOLKXOZKYVXKJKUYKHOXKJKROSHGPKRK
JKVXUMXGSGXKYZ[JOGZKVÁTÂÍTVXK`KTZ
)KGSGOYOSVRÂSUJGROZGZKJKGJKLOTO[TZGHRU[KYZKGIKKGJKGLURUYOSGOS[RZK
UVKXGÝOOJKGZXOH[OXKGGI[SYKGXGZÂÍTK^KSVR[R[XSÂZUX
Exemplul 5.1
;ZORO`GXKGVGXGTZK`KRUXJXKVZKOTJOIÂLGVZ[RIÂ\GXOGHORG
4[SKKYZK[TZGHRU[T
[XSGGIKYZUXGZXOH[OXOIKRKZXKOKRKSKTZKOTZXUJ[YKÍTZGHRU[\UXG\KGÍTUXJOTKOTJOIOO
O6[ZKSVXKIO`GJGIÂJUXOSOTJOIOOKRKSKTZKRUX
Exemplul 5.2
TGIKYZIGÌNKORKGYUIOGZKIKRUXZXKOKRKSKTZK\UXLO*KGYKSKTKG
V[ZKS[ZORO`GOX[XOJKIGXGIZKXKVKTZX[GJKLOTOINKORKKRKSKTZKRUX
Exemplul 5.3
'JU[GSUJGROZGZKJKJKLOTOXKG[T[OZGHRU[[ZORO`KG`ÂL[TIÝOGVXKJKLOTOZÂGXXG_IGXK
GXK[XSÂZUGXKGYOTZG^Â
"*)
[TJK
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UVÝOUTGRÂ!
u \GRg\GRETXKVXKÒTZÂ\GRUXORKGYUIOGZKKRKSKTZKRUX
'VKR[RL[TIÝOKOGXXG_LÂXÂGXM[SKTZKY[HLUXSG
ZGHRU[#GXXG_GXKIGKLKIZJKLOTOXKG
ZGHRU[R[O
ZGHRU[KRKSKTZKRK[XSÁTJGLOOTZXUJ[YK[RZKXOUX
+^KSVR[RVUGZKLOXKYIXOYGYZLKR
Exemplul 5.4
9VKIOLOIGXKGINKORUXKRKSKTZKRUXKYZKUVÝOUTGRÂTIG`[RÍTIGXKT[YKYVKIOLOIÂ
TOIOUINKOKYKIUTYOJKXÂIÂZGHRU[RJKLOTOZKYZKOTJK^GZI[OTJOIOJKZOVTGZ[XGRVXOS[R
G\ÁTJ\GRUGXKG
Exemplul 5.5
+YZKVUYOHORYÂGYUIOKSINKO[TUXKRKSKTZKOGXGRZUXGT[TGIKYZIG`ZGHRU[RT[\G
SGOV[ZKGLOVGXI[XYÍTSUJTUXSGRLURUYOTJUOTYZX[IÝO[TKXKVKZOZO\ÂJOTZXKIKRKYZ[JOGZK
Exemplul 5.6
+^KSVR[RGXGZÂI[SYKVUGZKIUTYZX[O[TZGHRU[I[[TT[SÂXVXKIO`GZJKKRKSKTZK
G\ÁTJ\GRUGXKGOTOÝOGRÂ`KXU
Exemplul 5.7
ARcTfcXVcVRf_fZeRS]`f
;ZORO`GXKGZGHRU[XORUXGYUIOGZO\KOTJK^GZKJ[VÂUS[RÝOSKJKOTJOIOTKUXJOTGRÂXOJOIÂ
VXUHRKSGVGXI[XMKXOO[TKOGYZLKRJKYZX[IZ[XO
"**
9ÂK^GSOTÂSVKTZX[ÍTIKV[ZSUJ[RJKGLOGXKGRKRKSKTZKRUX[T[OZGHRU[OTJK^GZI[
\GRUXOIUTYKI[ZO\KÍTIKVÁTJJKRG\GRUGXKG`KXU;TGYZLKRJKZGHRU[YKSGOT[SKZKO
ZGHRU[YKI\KTÝOGR
8KR[ÂS[TK^KSVR[GTZKXOUXIUSVRKZGZI[YKI\KTÝGJKGLOGXKGZ[Z[XUXKRKSKTZKRUX
ZGHRU[R[O
Exemplul 5.8
TGLGXÂJK[ZORO`GXKGL[TIÝOKOIU[TZ
ZGHRU[VKTZX[GJKZKXSOTGOTJOIKRKSGÔSGR
ZGHRU[R[O
4[SKYKI\KTÝGJKGLOGXKGKRKSKTZKRUX[T[OZGHRU[YKI\KTÝOGRYKXKGRO`KG`Â
RGLKRIGÍTUXOIKROSHGPJKVXUMXGSGXK[`[GR
6GXI[XMKXKG[T[OZGHRU[GYUIOGZO\YK\GXKGRO`GI[GP[ZUX[ROTYZX[IÝO[TOOLUXKGIN
IGXKGXK[XSÂZUGXKGYOTZG^Â
[TJK
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ZGHRU[XKVXKÒTZÂT[SKRKZGHRU[R[OVKIGXKRVGXI[XMKS!
u
INKOKKYZKOTJOIKRKKRKSKTZ[R[OI[XKTZ!
u
\GRUGXKKYZK\GRUGXKGKRKSKTZ[R[OI[XKTZ
>ÙUVViVTfeRcV+
2OSHGP[R6.6SKSUXKG`ÂVKTZX[LOKIGXKZGHRU[[TOTJOIGZUXGRKRKSKTZ[R[OI[XKTZ
T[SOZVUOTZKXOTZKXTGRZGHRU[R[O/TYZX[IÝO[TKGLUXKGINVGXI[XMK[TZGHRU[GYUIOGZO\O
VKTZX[LOKIGXKKRKSKTZGRGIKYZ[OGJKZKXSOTÂINKOGO\GRUGXKGGIKYZKGLOOTJSKSUXGZK
ÍT\GXOGHORKRKYVKIOLOIGZK
INKOKO
\GRUGXK
+RKSKTZKRKY[TZVGXI[XYKÍTUXJOTKGYVKIOLOIGZÂÍTSUSKTZ[RIUTYZX[OXOOZGHRU[R[O
/GZÂ[TK^KSVR[IUTIXKZJK[ZORO`GXKGGIKYZKOOTYZX[IÝO[TOVKTZX[JKZKXSOTGXKGVKXYUGTKO
IGXKGXKYGRGXO[RSGÔS
Exemplul 5.9
#!!
*GIÂJUXOSYÂVGXI[XMKSZGHRU[RJUGXÍT\KJKXKGVXKR[IXÂXOO\GRUXOOKRKSKTZKRUXYGRK
LÂXÂYÂTKOTZKXKYK`KINKOGGYUIOGZÂGZ[TIO\USVXUIKJGVXKI[SÍTK^KSVR[R
Exemplul 5.10
'IKRGOZGHRU[VUGZKG\KGGZÁZOTJOIOT[SKXOIOIÁZOOTJOIOJKZOVOXJKIGXGIZKXK
ÍTYÂVGXI[XMKXKGGIKYZ[OGT[SGOVUGZKLOXKGRO`GZÂYKI\KTÝOGRTK^KSVR[RGS
IUTYZX[OZ[TZGHRU[I[KRKSKTZKG\ÁTJKRKSKTZKRKOGJÂ[MÁTJ[RZKXOUX
[TKRKSKTZG\ÁTJINKOGsSGSGt
Exemplul 5.11 (a)

5.11
'LOGXKGYKI\KTÝOGRÂGZGHRU[R[OT[VKXSOZKGIIKY[RRGKRKSKTZ[R
\AqSGSGrCJKO
GIKYZGGVGXÝOTK\KIZUX[R[OT[SÂX[RZUZGRJKKRKSKTZKKYZK6GXI[XMKXKGZGHRU[R[OI[
GP[ZUX[ROTYZX[IÝO[TOOLUXKGINGJOIÂZXGZGXKGZGHRU[R[OIGZGHRU[GYUIOGZO\VKXSOZKGLOGXKG
Z[Z[XUXKRKSKTZKRUX9KI\KTÝGJOTK^KSVR[RGLOKG`Â
Exemplul 5.11(b)
5.11(b)
ARcTfcXVcVRf_fZeRS]`fW`]`dZ_UWf_TèZZUVeZa]ZdeÍ
TYKIÝO[TKGVXKIKJKTZÂGSJOYI[ZGZJKYVXKOTJOIGZUX[ROTZKXTGYUIOGZLOKIÂX[OZGHRU[
IGXKOSUJOLOIÂ\GRUGXKGVKVGXI[XY[RVGXI[XMKXOOZGHRU[R[OT6.6Y[TZJKLOTOZKSGO
S[RZKL[TIÝOOIGXKVKXSOZJKVRGYGXKGÍTGOTZKOÍTGVUOÍTIGJX[R[T[OZGHRU[VXKI[SO
VXKR[GXKG\GRUXOOOGINKOOGYUIOGZK[T[OKRKSKTZ
#!"
,[TIÝOORKGSOTZOZKYKGVKRKG`ÂG\ÁTJIGVGXGSKZX[ZGHRU[RVGXI[XYYOTZG^GGIKYZUXGLOOTJ
u ZOVI[XXKTZGXXG_ZGHRU[vXKZ[XTKG`Â\GRUGXKGKRKSKTZ[R[OI[XKTZ!
u ZOVQK_GXXG_ZGHRU[vÍTZUGXIKINKOGGYUIOGZÂKRKSKTZ[R[OI[XKTZ!
u ZOV TK^ZGXXG_ ZGHRU[ v XKZ[XTKG`Â \GRUGXKG KRKSKTZ[R[O I[XKTZ JKVRGYÁTJ
OTJOIGZUX[ROTZKXTRG[XSÂZUX[RKRKSKTZJOTZGHRU[!
u ZOV VXK\GXXG_ ZGHRU[ v XKZ[XTKG`Â \GRUGXKG KRKSKTZ[R[O I[XKTZ JKVRGYÁTJ
OTJOIGZUX[ROTZKXTRGVXKIKJKTZ[RKRKSKTZJOTZGHRU[!
u ZOVXKYKZGXXG_ZGHRU[vS[ZÂOTJOIGZUX[ROTZKXTRGVXOS[RKRKSKTZGRZGHRU[R[OO
XKZ[XTKG`Â\GRUGXKGGIKYZ[OG!
u ZOVKTJGXXG_ZGHRU[vS[ZÂOTJOIGZUX[ROTZKXTRG[RZOS[RKRKSKTZGRZGHRU[R[OO
XKZ[XTKG`Â\GRUGXKGGIKYZ[OG
9IXOVZ[RJOTK^KSVR[RVGXI[XMK[TZGHRU[LURUYOTJL[TIÝOORKROYZÂOGLOKG`Â
ZUGZKVKXKINORKKRKSKTZK\GRUGXKJOTZX[TZGHRU[GYUIOGZO\
Exemplul 5.12
5GRZÂVYK[JUL[TIÝOK6.6JOTIGZKMUXOGL[TIÝOORUXJKZOVROYZÂKYZKL[TIÝOGROYZIGXK
VKXSOZKVXKR[GXKG\GRUXORUXJOTZX[TZGHRU[OGZXOH[OXKGGIKYZUXG[TKOROYZKJK\GXOGHORK
,[TIÝOGROYZYK[ZORO`KG`ÂÍTK^VXKYOOJKLUXSG
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ZGHRU[ACYKGZXOH[OK\GXOGHORKO
\\GRUGXKG
ZGHRU[ATCYKGZXOH[OK\GXOGHORKO
\ET
Exemplul 5.13
,[TIÝOGROYZVUGZKLOIUTYOJKXGZÂOT\KXYGL[TIÝOKOGXXG_JKUGXKIKÍSVGXZKKRKSKTZKRK
[TKO\GXOGHORKJKZOVYZX[IZ[XGZÍTZX[TYKZJK\GRUXOYIGRGXK
4`_decfZcVR f_fZ eRS]`f SZUZ^V_dZ`_R]

:GHRU[XORKHOJOSKTYOUTGRKY[TZIK\GSGOXGX[ZORO`GZKÍTROSHGP[R6.6JGXJKLOTOXKG
GIKYZUXGKYZKVUYOHORÂVXOTOTZKXSKJO[RL[TIÝOKOGXXG_;TZGHRU[HOJOSKTYOUTGRKYZK
VXO\OZIGLOOTJ[TZGHRU[[TOJOSKTYOUTGRI[KRKSKTZKJKZOVZGHRU[
)UTYZX[OXKG[T[OZGHRU[HOJOSKTYOUTGRI[JU[ÂROTOOOZXKOIURUGTKIKIUTÝOTKKRKSKTZK
ÍTZXKMOVUGZKLOXKGRO`GZÂIGÍTK^KSVR[R
#!#
Exemplul 5.14
=64È:2#
7f_TèZZaV_ecf]fTcf]TfeRS]`fcZ
9VXKJKUYKHOXKJKROSHGPKRKJK[`MKTKXGRROSHGP[R6.6JKLOTKZKT[SKXUGYKL[TIÝOO
VKTZX[VXKR[IXGXKGJGZKRUXSKSUXGZKÍTZGHRU[XOJKRGL[TIÝOOVKTZX[YUXZGXKG\GRUXORUX
VÁTÂRGL[TIÝOOIUSVRK^KIKVKXSOZVXKR[GXKGJGZKRUXJOTHG`KRKJKJGZKÍTZGHRU[XOGYUIOGZO\K
'IKYZKL[TIÝOOXKGRO`KG`ÂG[ZUSGZS[RZKVXKR[IXÂXO[`[GRKGY[VXGJGZKRUXJOTZX[T
ZGHRU[VKXSOÝÁTJVXUMXGSGZUX[R[OYÂYKIUTIKTZXK`KGY[VXGGVROIGÝOKOIUTYZX[OZKLÂXÂ
GLOJOYZXGYJKGSÂT[TZK
2KIÝOGJKLGÝÂXKGRO`KG`ÂUZXKIKXKÍTXK\OYZÂGIKRUXSGOOSVUXZGTZKL[TIÝOOVKTZX[
R[IX[RI[ZGHRU[XOKÎKVZÁTJ[RKVKIKRK[ZORO`GZKVKTZX[VXKR[GXKGJGZKRUXXKZ[XTGZKJK
OTZKXUMÂXORK972GY[VXGHG`KRUXJKJGZK
D`ceRcVReRS]`fcZ]`c
2OSHGP[R6.6L[XTO`KG`ÂUSGXK\GXOKZGZKJKL[TIÝOOVXKJKLOTOZKVKTZX[YUXZGXKG
ZGHRU[XORUX[TOJOSKTYOUTGRKVXK`KTZGZKYOTZKZOIÍTZGHKR[R[XSÂZUX
+^KSVR[RYUXZKG`ÂKRKSKTZKRK[T[OZGHRU[YKI\KTÝOGRÍTL[TIÝOKJK\GRUGXKGGIKYZUXG
Exemplul 5.15
#!$
9KI\KTÝG[XSÂZUGXKYUXZKG`Â[TZGHRU[GYUIOGZO\ÍTL[TIÝOKJKINKOKKRKSKTZKRK
LOOTJGLOGZKÍTUXJOTKGGRLGHKZOIÂGT[SKR[O
Exemplul 5.16
7f_TèZZaV_ecfacV]fTcRcVRV]V^V_eV]`cf_fZeRS]`f
2OSHGP[R6.6IUTÝOTKUS[RZOZ[JOTKJKL[TIÝOOIKVKXSOZZXGTYLUXSGXKGZGHRU[XORUX
IÂ[ZGXKGINKORUXOK^ZXGMKXKGKRKSKTZKRUX6XOTIOVGRKRKL[TIÝOOIGXKUVKXKG`ÂGY[VXG
KRKSKTZKRUXJOTZX[TZGHRU[Y[TZJKZGROGZKÍTIUTZOT[GXK
'XXG_EQK_EKÔYZY
DZ_eRiR+
GR]`RcVcVefc_ReÍ+
,[TIÝOGXKZ[XTKG`Â:8;+JGIÂ\GRUGXKG<GRKYZKGYUIOGZÂINKOO[T[OKRKSKTZGR
ZGHRU[R[O:
Exemplul 5.17
'XXG_EQK_Y
DZ_eRiR+
GR]`RcVcVefc_ReÍ+
,[TIÝOGXKZ[XTKG`Â[TZGHRU[[TOJOSKTYOUTGRIKIUTÝOTKZUGZKINKORKJOTZGHRU[R:
IGXKY[TZGYUIOGZK[TUXKRKSKTZKI[\GRUGXKG<GR*GIÂGRJUORKGVGXGSKZX[KYZKUSOY
GZ[TIO\KIZUX[RXK`[RZGZIUTÝOTKZUGZKINKORKGYUIOGZKKRKSKTZKRUXJOT:
#!%
Exemplul 5.18
'XXG_E\GR[KY
DZ_eRiR+
GR]`RcVcVefc_ReÍ+
,[TIÝOGXKZ[XTKG`Â[TZGHRU[IKIUTÝOTKGIKRKGOKRKSKTZKIGO:ÍTGIKKGOUXJOTK
JGXINKORKGYUIOGZKGIKYZUXGY[TZT[SKXKÍTZXKMOÍTZXKOIU[TZ:
Exemplul 5.19
6[ZKSIUTYOJKXGIÂL[TIÝOGGXXG_E\GR[KYZXGTYLUXSÂ[TZGHRU[GYUIOGZO\ÍTZX[T[R
YKI\KTÝOGR
'XXG_EIU[TZE\GR[KY
DZ_eRiR+
GR]`RcVcVefc_ReÍ+
,[TIÝOGGIIKVZÂIGVGXGSKZX[[TZGHRU[:OÍTZUGXIKIGXK`[RZGZ[TZGHRU[GYUIOGZO\
IGXKGXKJXKVZINKO\GRUXORKJOYZOTIZKJOT:OGXIG\GRUXOT[SÂX[RJKGVGXOÝOOGRKLOKIÂXKO
INKOÍTZGHRU[ROTOÝOGR:
#!&
Exemplul 5.20
,[TIÝOGKYZKJKUYKHOZJK[ZORÂVKTZX[JKZKXSOTGXKGLXKI\KTÝKOJKGVGXOÝOKG[TUX
\GRUXO9KI\KTÝG6.6JOTK^KSVR[RJKZKXSOTÂT[SÂX[RJKGVGXOÝOOGRLOKIÂX[OKRKSKTZ
JOTZGHRU[R:ZGHRU[RGYUIOGZO\XK`[RZGZLOOTJYUXZGZI[GP[ZUX[RL[TIÝOKOQYUXZ
'XXG_ESKXMK
DZ_eRiR+
GR]`RcVcVefc_ReÍ+
,[TIÝOGGXXG_ESKXMKVKXSOZKIUTIGZKTGXKGKRKSKTZKRUXGJU[ÂYG[SGOS[RZK
ZGHRU[XOXK`[RZGZ[RLOOTJ[TTU[ZGHRU[IGXKIUTÝOTKKRKSKTZKRKVXOS[R[OZGHRU[GVUO
KRKSKTZKRKIKR[OJKGRJUORKGZGHRU[KZI
9KI\KTÝG6.6JOTK^KSVR[RXKGRO`KG`ÂIUTIGZKTGXKGGZXKOZGHRU[XO::O:
Exemplul 5.21
'XXG_EYROIK
DZ_eRiR+
GR]`RcVcVefc_ReÍ+
'XXG_EYROIKXKZ[XTKG`ÂÍTZX[TZGHRU[UYKI\KTÝÂJK2MKRKSKTZKJOT:ÍTIKVÁTJJK
RGKRKSKTZ[R:A6U`C
#!'
Exemplul 5.22
,[TIÝOGGXXG_EYROIKXKZ[XTKG`ÂYKI\KTÝGJKKRKSKTZKJOT:ÍTIKVÁTJJKRGKRKSKTZ[R
:A6U`COVÁTÂRGYLÁXOZ[RZGHRU[R[OGZ[TIOIÁTJVGXGSKZX[R2MKYZKUSOY
'XXG_EY[S
DZ_eRiR+
GR]`RcVcVefc_ReÍ+
,[TIÝOGIGRI[RKG`ÂY[SGKRKSKTZKRUXJOTZGHRU[R:ÍTZUXIÁTJ\GRUGXKGUHÝOT[ZÂ
*GIÂKRKSKTZKRKJOT:T[Y[TZJKZOVT[SKXOIGZ[TIORGJKZKXSOTGXKGY[SKOYK
GVROIÂXKM[RORKJKIUT\KXYOKG[ZUSGZÂ
Exemplul 5.23
'XXG_E[TOW[K
DZ_eRiR+
GR]`RcVcVefc_ReÍ+
,[TIÝOGGXXG_E[TOW[KXKZ[XTKG`Â[TZGHRU[IUTYZX[OZVXOTKROSOTGXKGKRKSKTZKRUX
J[VROIGZJOTZGHRU[R:
Exemplul 5.24
#!(
DeZgV ¤Z T`kZ
2OSHGP[R6.6V[TKRGJOYVUÒÝOG[ZORO`GZUX[R[OL[TIÝOOVXKJKLOTOZKVKTZX[R[IX[RI[
YZX[IZ[XOJKJGZKIGXKG[UGT[SOZÂJOYIOVROTÂÍTVXO\OTÝGOTYKXÂXOOKROSOTÂXOOKRKSKTZKRUX
YZO\KOIUÒ
9ZO\KRKOIUÒRKY[TZOSVRKSKTZGZKI[GP[ZUX[RZGHRU[XORUXOGXL[TIÝOORKJKOTYKXGXKO
K^ZXGMKXKG[YOTZG^G
GR]`RcVcVefc_ReÍ+
,[TIÝOGRccRjPafdYGJG[MÂ[T[RYG[SGOS[RZKKRKSKTZK\GR\GRgÍTYZO\G
9:XKZ[XTÁTJTU[RT[SÂXJKKRKSKTZKJOTYZO\Â
,[TIÝOG RccRjPf_dYZWe GJG[MÂ [T[R YG[ SGO S[RZK KRKSKTZK \GR \GRg RG
ÍTIKV[Z[RIUÒO7XKZ[XTÁTJT[SÂX[RJKKRKSKTZKJOTIUGJÂ
,[TIÝOG RccRjPaà K^ZXGMK KRKSKTZ[R JOT \ÁXL[R YZO\KO 9: [RZOS[R KRKSKTZ O
XKZ[XTKG`Â\GRUGXKGGIKYZ[OG*GIÂYZO\GKYZK\OJÂGZ[TIO\GRUGXKGÍTZUGXYÂKYZK
4;22
,[TIÝOGRccRjPdYZWeK^ZXGMKVXOS[RKRKSKTZJOTIUGJG7OXKZ[XTKG`Â\GRUGXKG
GIKYZ[OG*GIÂÍTIUGJÂT[KÔYZÂKRKSKTZKGZ[TIO\GRUGXKGÍTZUGXYÂKYZK4;22
+^KSVR[RVXKÒTZÂUL[TIÝOKJKIUT\KXYOKG[T[OT[SÂXTGZ[XGRJOTHG`GÍT
HG`G [ZORO`ÁTJ U YZO\Â VKTZX[ XKÝOTKXKG XKYZ[XORUX UHÝOT[ZK O VKTZX[ IUSV[TKXKG
XK`[RZGZ[R[O
Exemplul 5.25
#!)
=64È:2$
ZcfcZUVTRcRTeVcV
4UÝO[TOXKLKXOZUGXKRGOX[XORKJKIGXGIZKXKG[LUYZVXK`KTZGZKY[SGXOÍTIGVOZURKRK
VXKIKJKTZKIGY[VUXZVKTZX[[ZORO`GXKGL[TIÝOORUXJKGLOGXKGJGZKRUXOVKTZX[IUTYZX[OXKG
ZGHRU[XORUXTXK`[SGZVXOTIOVGRKRKIGXGIZKXOYZOIOGRKOX[XORUXJKIGXGIZKXKY[TZ
u IUTYZGTZKRKOXJKIGXGIZKXKY[TZJKROSOZGZKVXOTMNOROSKRKYG[GVUYZXUL[XOJOLKXKTÝG
IUTYZÁTJÍTSUJ[RJKK\GR[GXKG\GXOGHORKRUXIUTÝOT[ZKJKGIKYZKG JKROSOZGXKG
YOX[R[OVXOTMNOROSKRKVKXSOZKGLOGXKG\GRUXORUX\GXOGHORKRUXJOTOTZKXOUX[ROX[R[O
ÍTZOSVIK[ZORO`GXKGGVUYZXUL[XORUXJKZKXSOTÂGLOGXKGOX[R[OGGI[SKYZKYIXOY!
u ÍTOTZKXOUX[ROX[XORUXYKVUZ[ZORO`GIGXGIZKXKKYIGVK!
u OX[XORKJKIGXGIZKXKVUZLOIUTIGZKTGZKI[GP[ZUX[RUVKXGZUX[R[OV[TIZ!
u OX[XORKJKIGXGIZKXKVUZLOIUT\KXZOZKG[ZUSGZGZ[TIOIÁTJGVGXÍTZXUK^VXKYOKIK
IUTÝOTKOUVKXGTÒT[SKXOIO
9KIÝO[TKGJKLGÝÂVXKÒTZÂIKRKSGOOSVUXZGTZKL[TIÝOOIKUVKXKG`ÂGY[VXGOX[XORUX
JKIGXGIZKXK
FeZ]ZkRcVR TÙfcZ]`c 2D4::

2OSHGP[R6.6L[XTO`KG`ÂIÁZK\GL[TIÝOOJKR[IX[I[JGZKJKZOVIGXGIZKXJU[ÂJOTZXK
GIKYZKGLOOTJVXK`KTZGZKÍTZGHKR[R[XSÂZUX
TK^KSVR[R[XSÂZUXGLOÂSZUGZKROZKXKRKSOIOGRKGRLGHKZ[R[OKTMRK`ÍSVXK[TÂI[
IUJ[R'9)//GYUIOGZ
Exemplu 5.26
Un ºir de caractere poate fi privit ca fiind un tablou unidimensional cu

elemente de tip caracter. Aceasta înseamnã cã putem parcurge ºirul caracter cu caracter, în
vederea prelucrãrii acestora ºi, de asemenea, putem modifica orice caracter din ºir printr-o
operaþie de atribuire. De exemplu, dacã avem un ºir de caractere $Sir, parcurgerea acestuia se
poate face astfel:
for($j=0;$j<strlen($Sir);$j++) echo $Sir[$j].’<BR>’;
7f_TèZZaV_ecfacV]fTcRcVR¤ZcfcZ]`cUVTRcRTeVcV
,[TIÝOORK6.6IGXKUVKXKG`ÂGY[VXGOX[XORUXJKIGXGIZKXKG[YOTZG^GGYKSÂTÂZUGXK
I[L[TIÝOORKJKLOTOZKÍTHOHROUZKIGYZXOTMNGROSHGP[R[O))JGXG[LUYZOTZXUJ[YK
T[SKXUGYKL[TIÝOOIGXK[[XKG`ÂR[IX[RI[OX[XORKJKIGXGIZKXK L[TIÝOOVKTZX[K^ZXGMKXKG
Y[HOX[XORUXVKTZX[ÍTRUI[OXKGGVGXOÝOORUX[T[OY[HOXÍTZX[TOXL[TIÝOOVKTZX[VXKR[IXGXKG
K^VXKYOORUXXKM[RGZKKZI
#!*
2W]RcVR]f_XZ^ZZf_fZ¤Zc
*KZKXSOTGXKGR[TMOSOO[T[OOXJKIGXGIZKXKYKXKGRO`KG`ÂVXOTGVKR[RL[TIÝOKOYZXRKT
IGXKXKZ[XTKG`ÂT[SÂX[RJKIGXGIZKXKJOTOX[RVXKIO`GZIGVGXGSKZX[
Exemplul 5.27
6]Z^Z_RcVRdaRèZZ]`cUZ_ecf_¤ZcUVTRcRTeVcV
+ROSOTGXKG IGXGIZKXKRUX YVGÝO[ v ]NOZK YVGIKY v JK RG K^ZXKSOZÂÝORK [T[O OX JK
IGXGIZKXKKYZKULGIOROZGZKOSVUXZGTZÂGZ[TIOIÁTJJGZKRKY[TZVXKR[GZKJOTLUXS[RGXK
YG[HG`KJKJGZKGIURUV[ZÁTJYÂGVGXÂYVGÝOOTKJUXOZKIGXKGXMKTKXGKXUXOÍTGVROIGÝOK
)GXGIZKXK]NOZKYVGIKYY[TZIUTYOJKXGZKGZÁZIGXGIZKX[RYVGÝO[IÁZOIGXGIZKXKRK:'(
)8ZGH\KXZOIGRKZI
,[TIÝOORK6.6GLRGZKÍTGIKGYZÂIGZKMUXOKY[TZ
OX[R[OOX OX
+^KSVR[RGXGZÂSUJ[RJK[ZORO`GXKGRL[TIÝOORUXVKTZX[KROSOTGXKGYVGÝOORUXJOTZX[T
OXJKIGXGIZKXK
Exemplul 5.28
OX[XORK
YO
YG[[TIUTÝOT[ZOJKTZOIKÎKVÝOKLÂIÁTJYVGÝOORKOIGXGIZKXKRKZGH
JKRGK^ZXKSOZÂÝO
4`_gVcdZR¤ZcfcZ]`c]R^R[fdTf]VdRf^Z_fdTf]V
2OSHGP[R6.6ULKXÂL[TIÝOOVKTZX[XKGRO`GXKGIUT\KXYOKOIGXGIZKXKRUX[T[OOXRG
SGP[YI[RKYG[SOT[YI[RK YZXZU[VVKXOYZXZURU]KX
#"!
Exemplul 5.29
4`âRcRcVR¤ZcfcZ]`c
,[TIÝOORKVKTZX[IUSVGXGXKGOX[XORUXXKZ[XTKG`ÂU\GRUGXKSGOSOIÂJKIÁZ`KXU
KMGRÂI[`KXUYG[SGOSGXKJKIÁZ`KXUÍTL[TIÝOKJKXK`[RZGZ[RIUSVGXGÝOKO)USVGXGÝOG
YKHG`KG`ÂVKUXJOTKGRKÔIUMXGLOIÂ
Exemplul 5.30
#""
@aVcRèZZTfdfS¤ZcfcZ
2OSHGP[R6.6ULKXÂIÁZK\GL[TIÝOOIGXKXKGRO`KG`ÂUVKXGÝOOGY[VXG[TUXYKI\KTÝKJK
IGXGIZKXKJOTZX[TOXVKIGXKIUT\KTOSYÂRKT[SOSY[HOX[XO+ÔYZÂL[TIÝOOVKTZX[
IÂ[ZGXKGK^ZXGMKXKGÍTRUI[OXKGOZKXMKXKGJKY[HOX[XO9VXKJKUYKHOXKJKL[TIÝOORK
JOTROSHGP[R)[TJKYKR[IXKG`ÂVXOTOTZKXSKJO[RVUOTZKXORUXRGIGXGIZKXL[TIÝOORK
6.6IKUVKXKG`ÂI[Y[HOX[XOY[TZS[RZSGOfVXOKZKTUGYKt
/GZÂIÁZK\GL[TIÝOOOSVUXZGTZKJOTGIKGYZÂIGZKMUXOK
+^KSVR[RXKGRO`KG`ÂÍTRUI[OXKGI[GRZI[\ÁTZGZ[Z[XUXGVGXOÝOORUX[T[OI[\ÁTZ
ÍTZX[TOXJKIGXGIZKXK\KXOLOIÁTJGVUOJGIÂÍTRUI[OXKGYGLÂI[ZI[Y[IIKY
Exemplul 5.31
#"#
ZKXMKXKGZ[Z[XUXGVGXOÝOORUX[T[OY[HOXJOTZX[TOXYKVUGZKXKGRO`GVXOTGVKR[RL[TIÝOKO
YZXEXKVRGIKG\ÁTJIGGRJUORKGVGXGSKZX[OX[R\OJ
9KI\KTÝGJOTK^KSVR[RJKZKXSOTÂT[SÂX[RJKGVGXOÝOOGRK[T[OY[HOXÍTZX[TOX
[ZORO`ÁTJL[TIÝOORKVXKJKLOTOZKYZXVUYOY[HYZX
Exemplul 5.32
2]eVWf_TèZZaV_ecfacV]fTcRcVR¤ZcfcZ]`cUVTRcRTeVcV
/TIR[JKXKG[TUXL[TIÝOOÍTGIKGYZÂIGZKMUXOKT[ÍTYKGSTÂIÂY[TZSGOV[ÝOTOSVUXZGTZK
YG[SGOV[ÝOTLURUYOZUGXKJKIÁZIKRKRGRZKL[TIÝOOVXK`KTZGZK'IKGYZÂYKIÝO[TKXK[TKZK
L[TIÝOOJOTZXKOIGZKMUXOO
u L[TIÝOOVKTZX[K^ZXGMKXKGY[HOX[XORUXOGI[\OTZKRUX!
u L[TIÝOOVKTZX[IUT\KXZOXKG[TUXIGXGIZKXKÍTKTZOZÂÝO.:32!
u L[TIÝOOJKIXOVZGXK
7f_TèZZaV_ecfViecRXVcVRdfS¤ZcfcZ]`c¤ZTfgZ_eV]`c
9ZXZUQ
DZ_eRiR+
GR]`RcVcVefc_ReÍ+
,[TIÝOGYZXZUQK^ZXGMKJOTOX[R9Y[HOX[XORKJKROSOZGZKVXOTZX[T[RJOTZXKIGXGIZKXKRK
JOT9I[TUYI[ZKÍTROZKXGZ[XGJKYVKIOGROZGZKVXOTJKT[SOXKGJKZUQKTY;ZORO`GXKG
L[TIÝOKOYKXKGRO`KG`ÂÍTJUOVGO
u 9K GVKRKG`Â L[TIÝOG VKTZX[ OX[R OTOÝOGR 9 O VKTZX[ YKZ[R JK IGXGIZKXK IK
JKROSOZKG`ÂY[HOX[XORK9!9ZXZUQXKZ[XTKG`ÂY[HOX[RLUXSGZJOTIGXGIZKXKRKJK
RGÍTIKV[Z[ROX[R[OOTOÝOGROVÁTÂRGVXOS[RIGXGIZKXJKROSOZGZUXÍTZÁRTOZ
u ;XSÂZUGXKRKGVKR[XO\UXG\KG[TYOTM[XVGXGSKZX[YKZ[RJKYKVGXGZUXOO\UX
XKZ[XTG[XSÂZUGXKRKY[HOX[XOJOT9
+^KSVR[RJKZKXSOTÂI[\OTZKLUXSGZKJOT4X2OZROZKXKIGXKGVGXÍTZX[TZK^Z
)[\OTZKRKJOTZK^ZY[TZYKVGXGZKVXOTZX[TT[SÂXGXHOZXGXJKYVGÝOOOYKSTKJKV[TIZ[GÝOK
OUXZUMXGLOK
#"$
Exemplul 5.33
+^VRUJK
DZ_eRiR+
GR]`RcVcVefc_ReÍ+
+^ZXGMKJOTOX[R9OXZUGZKY[HOX[XORKJKROSOZGZKVXOTIGXGIZKX[R9KV<GRUGXKGXKZ[XTGZÂ
KYZK[TZGHRU[IKIUTÝOTKY[HOX[XORKK^ZXGYKLOKIGXKÍTZX[TKRKSKTZYKVGXGZ*GIÂ9KV
KYZKOX[R\OJL[TIÝOGXKZ[XTKG`Â,'29+OGXJGIÂYKVGXGZUX[RT[KYZKMÂYOZÍT9OXGZ[TIO
ZGHRU[RXKZ[XTGZ\GG\KG[TYOTM[XKRKSKTZOX[R9OX
Exemplul 5.34
#"%
+^KSVR[RXKLRKIZÂGZÁZSUJ[RJK[ZORO`GXKGL[TIÝOKOK^VRUJKIÁZOUYOZ[GÝOK
VXGIZOIÂÍTIGXKL[TIÝOGYKJU\KJKZK[ZORÂ
/SVRUJK
DZ_eRiR+
GR]`RcVcVefc_ReÍ+
,[TIÝOGOSVRUJKKYZKsOT\KXYGtL[TIÝOKOK^VRUJKXKGRO`ÁTJGMXKMGXKGKRKSKTZKRUX
ZGHRU[R[O:ÍTZX[TOXJKIGXGIZKXKLOKIGXKJU[ÂKRKSKTZKIUTYKI[ZO\KLOOTJYKVGXGZK
VXOTIGXGIZKX[R)
Exemplul 5.35
9ZXE]UXJEIU[TZ
DZ_eRiR+
GR]`RcVcVefc_ReÍ+
,[TIÝOGYZXE]UXJEIU[TZXKZ[XTKG`ÂOTLUXSGÝOOVXO\OTJI[\OTZKRKIUTÝOT[ZKJKOX[R
9ÍTL[TIÝOKJKVGXGSKZX[RLUXSGZ
u JGIÂVGXGSKZX[RLUXSGZROVYKZKL[TIÝOGIGRI[RKG`ÂT[SÂX[RJKI[\OTZKJOT9!
u JGIÂLUXSGZGXK\GRUGXKGGZ[TIOL[TIÝOGXKZ[XTKG`Â[TZGHRU[IKIUTÝOTKZUGZK
I[\OTZKRKJOTOX[R9!
u JGIÂ LUXSGZ GXK \GRUGXKG GZ[TIO L[TIÝOG XKZ[XTKG`Â [T ZGHRU[ GYUIOGZO\
KRKSKTZKRKLOOTJI[\OTZKRKJOTOX[R9OGXINKORKGYUIOGZKLOOTJVUÒÝOORKI[\OTZKRUX
ÍTIGJX[ROX[R[OGJOIÂOTJOIKRKVXOS[R[OIGXGIZKXGRLOKIÂX[OI[\ÁTZ
6XOTI[\ÁTZYKÍTÝKRKMKUYKI\KTÝÂGOX[R[O9LUXSGZÂJOTIGXGIZKXKGRLGHKZOIKJGX
IGXKT[VUGZKÍTIKVKI[[T[RJOTIGXGIZKXKRKGVUYZXULYG[st
#"&
Exemplul 5.36
7f_TèZZaV_ecfT`_gVceZcVRf_`cTRcRTeVcVØ_V_eZeÍèZ9E>=
.ZSRYVKIOGRINGXY
DZ_eRiR+
GR]`RcVcVefc_ReÍ+
;ZORO`GXKGLUXS[RGXKRUX.:32VKTZX[VXKR[GXKGJGZKRUXOTZXUJ[YKJK[ZORO`GZUXVUGZK
LOUUVUXZ[TOZGZKVKTZX[[ZORO`GZUXOOXÂ[OTZKTÝOUTGÝOJKGMKTKXGKXUXOÍTGVROIGÝOG=KH
'IKYZR[IX[VUGZKLOXKGRO`GZJGIÂYKOTYKXKG`ÂIUJ.:32ÍTZX[TKRKSKTZJKLUXS[RGX
JKZOVZK^ZYG[ZK^ZGXKGIUJ[ROTZXUJ[YV[ZÁTJLOINOGXUYKI\KTÝÂ0G\G9IXOVZIK\GLO
K^KI[ZGZÂJKTG\OMGZUXVXU\UIÁTJKXUXOÍTGVROIGÝOK
,[TIÝOG NZSRYVKIOGRINGXY JKZKXSOTÂ ZXGTYLUXSGXKG IGXGIZKXKRUX IGXK G[
YKSTOLOIGÝOKYVKIOGRÂÍT.:32ÍTIGXGIZKXKKINO\GRKTZKJGXIGXKY[TZZXGZGZKJKTG\OMGZUX
IGVKUXOIGXKGRZIGXGIZKX)GXGIZKXKRKYVKIOGRKY[TZ
u qrGSVKXYGTJJK\OTKqGSV!r
u qsqMNOROSKRKJK\OTqW[UZ!r
u qrrGVUYZXUL[RJK\OTKq !r
u q"qSGOSOIJKIÁZJK\OTKqRZ!r
u q$rSGOSGXKJKIÁZJK\OTKqMZ!r
6XOS[RGXM[SKTZGRL[TIÝOKOKYZKOX[R9IK\GLOIUT\KXZOZGRJUORKG\GLOUIUTYZGTZÂ
VXKJKLOTOZÂIGXKYVKIOLOIÂSUJ[RÍTIGXK\UXLOZXGZGZKMNOROSKRKRKOGVUYZXUL[XORKOGX
[RZOS[RVGXGSKZX[YVKIOLOIÂYKZ[RJKIGXGIZKXK[ZORO`GZ
)UTYZGTZKRK[ZORO`GZKVKTZX[JKLOTOXKGSUJ[R[OJKIUT\KXZOXKGRMNOROSKRKRUXY[TZ
u +4:E)536':vIUT\KXZKZKMNOROSKRKRKJOTOX[R9RÂYÁTJGVUYZXUL[XORKTKSUJOLOIGZK!
#"'
u +4:E7;5:+9vIUT\KXZKZKGZÁZMNOROSKRKRKIÁZOGVUYZXUL[XORK!
u +4:E457;5:+9vT[IUT\KXZKZKTOIOMNOROSKRKRKTOIOGVUYZXUL[XORK
Exemplul 5.37
7f_TèZZaV_ecfTcZaeRcVRUReV]`c
3GPUXOZGZKGGVROIGÝOORUX=KHSGTOV[RKG`ÂJGZKIUTLOJKTÝOGRKI[SGXLOJGZKRKVKXYUTGRK
IUJ[RT[SKXOIVKXYUTGRT[SKXKJKZKRKLUTJGZKVXO\OTJIUTZ[XORKHGTIGXKVGXURKJK
GIIKYKZI3KSUXGXKGJGZKRUXIUTLOJKTÝOGRKÍTLOOKXKYG[HG`KJKJGZKYKXKGRO`KG`Â
T[SGOJ[VÂIXOVZGXKGGIKYZUXGIGSÂY[XÂJKVXKIG[ÝOKÍTIG`[RGIIKY[R[OTKG[ZUXO`GZ
RGYKX\KX[RMG`JÂGRGVROIGÝOKO
2OSHGP[R6.6L[XTO`KG`ÂSGOS[RZKL[TIÝOOJKIXOVZGXKGOX[XORUXJKIGXGIZKXK SJ
IX_VZYNGIXI
Exemplul 5.38
+^KSVR[RVXKÒTZÂSUJ[RJK[ZORO`GXKGRL[TIÝOKOSJIGXKOSVRKSKTZKG`Â
GRMUXOZS[RJKIXOVZGXKI[GIKRGOT[SKXKZ[XTÁTJT[SÂX[RJKJKIOLXKNK^G`KIOSGRK
GYUIOGZÍTSUJ[TOIOX[R[OJKIGXGIZKXKIKZXKH[OKIXOVZGZ
=fTcf]TfWf_TèZZ]VaV_ecfUReÍ¤ZeZâ
/TZXUJ[IKXKGGIKYZKOYKIÝO[TOÍTIGJX[RIGVOZUR[RJKLGÝÂÍTRUIYÂGVGXÂÍTIGVOZUR[R
JKJOIGZL[TIÝOORUXT[KYZKÍTZÁSVRÂZUGXKL[TIÝOORKIKUVKXKG`ÂI[JGZKIGRKTJGXOYZOIKO
ZOSVXKZ[XTÁTJZGHRU[XOGYUIOGZO\KYG[OX[XOJKIGXGIZKXK
-KZJGZK
DZ_eRiR+
#"(
GR]`RcVcVefc_ReÍ+
,[TIÝOGMKZJGZKXKZ[XTKG`Â[TZGHRU[GYUIOGZO\I[OTLUXSGÝOOXKLKXOZUGXKRGJGZG
I[XKTZÂOUXGI[XKTZÂG\ÁTJ[XSÂZUGXKRKINKOO\GRUXOGYUIOGZKIKRKSGOOSVUXZGTZK
Exemplul 5.39
)NKIQJGZK
DZ_eRiR+
GR]`RcVcVefc_ReÍ+
,[TIÝOGINKIQJGZKXKZ[XTKG`ÂECF6JGIÂJGZGYVKIOLOIGZÂVXOTVGXGSKZXOKYZK
\GROJÂOÍTZUGXIK72=D6ÍTIGÌUTZXGX5JGZÂIGRKTJGXOYZOIÂKYZKIUTYOJKXGZÂ\GROJÂ
JGIÂ
u GT[RKYZKÍTZXKO!
u R[TGKYZKÍTZXKO!
u Ò[GKYZKÍTZXKOT[SÂX[RSGÔSJKÒRKVKTZX[R[TGJGZÂ
#")
2A=:42È:: 2:eV^ZTfR]VXVcV^f]eZa]Í
¤ZZeV^ZTfcÍdaf_ddTfce
<?php
$T = array(1,2,-1,5,7,10);
$i=$x=0;
while(++$i<count($T)) $x+=$T[$i-1];$i++;
echo $x;
?>
<GRUGXKGGLOGZÂÍT[XSGK^KI[ZÂXOOYKI\KTÝKOKYZK
G
H
I
J
<?php
$T[]=’Zeus’;
$T[]=’Hera’;
$T[4]=’Prometeu’;
$T[3]=’Afrodita’;
for($i=0;$i<count($T);$i++) echo $T[$i].’ ‘; ?>
G @K[Y.KXG'LXUJOZG
H @K[Y.KXG6XUSKZK['LXUJOZG
I .KXG6XUSKZK['LXUJOZG
J +XUGXKRGJKLOTOXKGZGHRU[R[O
<?php
$T=array(‘azi’=>4, ‘maine’=>10, 12, 13, ‘ieri’=>2);
next($T);
next($T);
echo key($T);
?>
G VUOSÁOTK
H SÁOTK
I
J OKXO
<?php
$x = array(0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6);
$i = 0;
$a = -1;
do{
#"*
$x[$i++]=$a;
}while($i<count($x) && $x[++$i]);
?>
G
H
I
J
<?php
$Coada = array();
$Nr = . . .;
$d = 2;
do{
if($Nr % $d == 0) array_unshift($Coada,$d);
if($Nr/2<$d) break;
$d++;
}while(TRUE);
echo array_shift($Coada)==NULL || $Nr==2? ‘DA’:’NU’;
?>
G *KZKXSOTGÝOIKYKGLOKG`ÂÍT[XSGK^KI[ZÂXOOYKI\KTÝKOJGIÂ\GXOGHORG
4XGXK
\GRUGXKG*GXVKTZX[%
H 'YUIOGÝOYKI\KTÝKO[TKT[TÝ
<?php
$T1 = array(1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8);
$Lg = count($T1);
$T2=array_merge(array_slice($T1,2*$Lg/3),array_slice($T1,0,
$Lg/3));
?>
)K\GRUXO\GIUTÝOTKZGHRU[R
:%
,OKYKI\KTÝG6.6[XSÂZUGXK
<?php
$S =trim(‘ fata fierarului fierbe fasole fara foc ‘);
for($i=1;$i<strlen($S);$i++)
if($S[$i-1]==’ ‘ && $S[$i]!=’ ‘) S[$i]=chr(ord($S[$i])-32);
echo $S;
?>
G )GXK\GLOIUTÝOT[Z[ROX[R[OJKIGXGIZKXK
9RGLOTGR[RK^KI[ZÂXOOYKI\KTÝKO%
H 9IXOKÝOUYKI\KTÝÂKINO\GRKTZÂIGXKYÂT[IUTÝOTÂOTYZX[IÝO[TOOZKXGZO\K
9KIUTYOJKXÂ[XSÂZUX[RYIXOVZ6.6
<?php
$s1 = ‘munte’;
$s2 = ‘12032’;
$s3 = ‘’;
##!
for($j=0;$j<strlen($s1);$j++)
{
$i=ord($s2[$j])-48;
while(—$i>=0) $s3.= $s1[$j];
}
echo $s3;
?>
G )KGLOKG`ÂYKI\KTÝG%
H -ÂYOÝOU\GRUGXKVKTZX[
YGYZLKRÍTIÁZ
YO
YYÂLOKOJKTZOIK
,OKYKI\KTÝG
<?php
$s1 = ‘ana Are Pere’;
$s2 = ‘Ana are Pere’;
echo !strncasecmp(ucwords($s1),$s2,3).’ ‘;
echo strcasecmp(ucwords($s1),ucfirst($s2));
?>
<GRUXORKGLOGZKÍT[XSGK^KI[ZÂXOOYKI\KTÝKOY[TZ
G
H
I
J
K
9ÂIUTYOJKXÂSYKI\KTÝGJKSGOPUY
<?php
$s1 = ‘unde sapa sapa locul sare din pamint norocul’;
$x = array_unique(str_word_count($s1,1));
sort($x);
echo implode(“ “, $x);
?>
G *KZKXSOTGÝOOX[RJKIGXGIZKXKGLOGZÍT[XSGK^KI[ZÂXOOYKI\KTÝKO
H -ÂYOÝOGRZÂ\GRUGXKVKTZX[OX[R
YGYZLKRÍTIÁZYKI\KTÝGYÂGLOK`K\GRUGXKGGIKYZ[OG
3Ac`S]V^V
)UTYOJKXÁTJ[TZGHRU[[TOJOSKTYOUTGRI[KRKSKTZKJKZOVT[SKXOIYIXOKÝOIÁZKU
L[TIÝOKVKTZX[LOKIGXKJOTIKXOTÝKRK[XSÂZUGXK
G JKZKXSOTGÝOKRKSKTZ[RSOTOS!
H JKZKXSOTGÝOSOTOS[ROSGÔS[RXKZ[XTÁTJ[RKVXOTOTZKXSKJO[RGJUOVGXGSKZXO!
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Capitolul
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Ce învãþãm?
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De ce învãþãm?
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Datele memorate în variabilele $_GET ºi $_POST pot fi accesate ºi prin intermediul
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este recomandatã începând cu versiunea PHP 4.2.0.
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Exemplul 6.1
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http://localhost/exemple6/6_1.php?nume=Popescu&prenume=Vasile
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Ati introdus: Popescu Vasile
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Figura 6.1
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Exemplul 6.2 (a)

##(
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../scripturi/nume_script.php?date
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Exemplul 6.2(b)
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Figura 6.2
#$"
Exemplul 6.4(a) Sursa HTML a formularului
Exemplul 6.4(b) Script-ul care prelucreazã datele

#$#
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În cadrul ºirului de caractere care specificã modul de deschidere al fiºierului se poate
D adãuga caracterul ‘t’(opþiune implicitã), semnificând tratarea fiºierului ca fiºier text sau
7 ‘b’, care permite tratarea fiºierului ca fiºier binar (succesiune de octeþi).
2 Se recomandã deschiderea fiºierului ca fiºier binar ori de câte ori conþinutul acestuia
E
nu este un text simplu (plain-text), care poate fi deschis cu un editor de texte
rudimentar, cum ar fi NotePad.
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Exemplul 6.6
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JKSGOPUY
Exemplul 6.7
,[TIÝOGLORKVUGZKLO[ZORO`GZÂI[Y[IIKYJGIÂLOOKX[RGLOGZT[KYZKLUGXZKSGXK
GRZLKRVUZYÂGVGXÂKXUXOJOTIG[`GJKVÂOXOOSKSUXOKOJOVUTOHORKOTZKXVXKZUX[R[O6.6
TIG`[RÍTIGXKJUXOSYÂIOZOSLOOKX[RIGXGIZKXI[IGXGIZKXROSHGP[R6.6TKULKXÂ
L[TIÝOGLMKZIIGXKGXKYOTZG^G
,[TIÝOGXKZ[XTKG`Â[TOXLUXSGZJOTZX[TYOTM[XIGXGIZKXXKVXK`KTZÁTJIGXGIZKX[R
JOTVUÒÝOGI[XKTZÂGLOOKX[R[OTIG`[RÍTIGXKYKGP[TMKRGYLÁXOZ[RLOOKX[R[OL[TIÝOG
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IGXGIZKXI[IGXGIZKX
#$&
Exemplul 6.8
DTcZVcVRØ_ecf_WZ¤ZVceVie
2OSHGP[R6.6IUTÝOTKSGOS[RZKL[TIÝOOVKTZX[IOZOXKGJGZKRUXJOTZX[TLOOKXJGX
L[XTO`KG`ÂUYOTM[XÂL[TIÝOKVKTZX[YIXOKXKGJGZKRUXOGT[SKL]XOZK
9OTZG^GL[TIÝOKOKYZK
[TJK
u /J,OYOKXKYZKOJKTZOLOIGZUX[RLOOKX[R[OJKYINOYVKTZX[YIXOKXK!
u 9XKVXKÒTZÂOX[RIK[XSKG`ÂGLOYIXOYÍTLOOKX!
u 2MYVKIOLOIÂT[SÂX[RSGÔSJKUIZKÝOIGXK\UXLOYIXOO
,[TIÝOGL]XOZKXKZ[XTKG`ÂT[SÂX[RUIZKÝORUXYIXOOÍTLOOKXÍTIG`JKY[IIKYXKYVKIZO\
vJGIÂÍTI[XY[RUVKXGÝOKOGGVÂX[ZUKXUGXK
+^KSVR[RYIXOKVXOSKRKT[SKXKTGZ[XGRKÍTZX[TLOOKXZK^ZLOKIGXKT[SÂXVK
IÁZKUROTOK
Exemplul 6.9
)UTÝOT[Z[RLOOKX[R[OT[SKXKU[ZT[\GLOINOGXIKRGZKVZGZÍTIG`[RÍTIGXKR[IXGÝOÍT
YOYZKS[R JK UVKXGXK =OTJU]Y *GIÂ \KÝO JKYINOJK LOOKX[R T[SKXKU[Z I[ GVROIGÝOG
4UZK6GJIUTÝOT[Z[RGIKYZ[OG\GLO
Figura 6.3
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ROTOKKYZKLUXSGZJOTIGXGIZKXKRK2OTK,KKJO)GXXOGMK8KZ[XTqBXBTrÍTZOSVIKÍTYOYZKSKRK
JKUVKXGXKJOTLGSOROG;TO^YLÁXOZ[RROTOKOKYZKSGXIGZJUGXVXOTIGXGIZKX[RqBTr
2OSHGP[R6.6IUTÝOTKOUGRZÂL[TIÝOKVKTZX[YIXOKXKGJGZKRUXÍTZX[TLOOKXLV[ZY
GIKGYZGG\ÁTJGIKKGOYOTZG^ÂOKLKIZIGOL]XOZK
#$'
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[TKOIRGYK,OOKX[RIUTÝOTK[TT[SÂXTKVXKIO`GZJKROTOOLOKIGXKG\ÁTJ[XSÂZUGXKGYZX[IZ[XÂ
NumeElev#Materie#Nota
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KYZKVXKR[GZJOTZX[TLUXS[RGX.:32
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TUZKOGX\GRUXORKY[TZY[SKRKTUZKRUXVXOSOZKRGSGZKXOGOTJOIGZÂJKINKOK!
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Exemplul 6.10
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IOZOZÂJOTLOOKX
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4X4UZK
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GLOXSGZO\IGRI[RÂSSKJOGRGLOKIGXKSGZKXOKMÂYOZÂGRZLKRGLOÂS[TSKYGPJKKXUGXK
=64È:2$
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u MKYZOUTGXKGLOOKXKRUXOJOXKIZUGXKRUXIXKGXKIUVOKXKS[ZGXKg
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GIKYZGG[JXKVZ[XOJKGIIKYT[SGOGY[VXGLOOKXKRUXOLURJKXKRUXJOTJOXKIZUX[RGYUIOGZIUTZ[R[O
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u VXUVXOKZGX[RGXKJXKVZ[XOJKVROTKX]^!
u MX[V[RGXKJXKVZ[XOJKIOZOXKOK^KI[ÝOKX^!
u XKYZ[R[ZORO`GZUXORUXVUZJUGXYÂIOZKGYIÂLOOKX[RXw
9ZGHOROXKGJXKVZ[XORUXGY[VXG[T[OLOOKXYKXKGRO`KG`ÂVXOT[ZORO`GXKG[T[OT[SÂXJK
ZXKOIOLXKÍTHG`GGYUIOGZOX[R[OJKIGXGIZKXKJKLOTOZSGOY[Y'YUIOKXKGYKLGIKVXOT
ÍTRUI[OXKG IGXGIZKXKRUX X]^ I[ IOLXG O G IGXGIZKX[R[O rvq VXOT IOLXG [XSGZÂ JK
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GVUOZXGTYLUXSÂSLOKIGXKMX[VJKZXKOIOLXKHOTGXKÍTIOLXKRKUIZGRKIUXKYV[T`ÂZUGXKO
UHÝOTKST[SÂX[R
5VeVc^Z_RcVR TRcRTeVcZdeZTZ]`c WZ¤ZVcV]`c

5VGXZKJOTZXKIGXGIZKXOYZOIORK[T[OLOOKXVUZLOJKZKXSOTGZKVXOTGVKR[RL[TIÝOORUXJOT
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#$*
Exemplul 6.11
6.11
Funcþiile pentru schimbarea drepturilor de acces pentru un fiºier -chmod()–
ºi funcþia pentru modificarea grupului de care aparþine un fiºier –chgrp()- nu funcþioneazã
decât sub Unix/Linux, de aceea nu sunt detaliate aici.
7f_TèZZaV_ecfXVdeZ`_RcVRWZ¤ZVcV]`c¤ZUZcVTe`RcV]`c
'IKGYZÂYKIÝO[TKXK[TKZKL[TIÝOOVKTZX[XKGRO`GXKGUVKXGÝOORUXJKIUVOKXKS[ZGXK
XKJKT[SOXK GY[VXG LOOKXKRUX O JOXKIZUGXKRUX VXKI[S O L[TIÝOO YVKIOGRO`GZK ÍT
SGTOV[RGXKGJOXKIZUGXKRUX
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OY[HT[SKRKYVKIOLOIGZKJKIGRKG*KYZOTGÝOKTIG`JKY[IIKYL[TIÝOGXKZ[XTKG`Â
:8;+GRZLKRÍTZUGXIK,'29+
,[TIÝOGVUGZKK[GJGIÂLOOKX[R9[XYÂT[KÔYZÂYG[JGIÂYIXOVZ[RT[GXKJXKVZJK
YIXOKXKÍTJOXKIZUX[RJKYZOTGÝOK*GIÂLOOKX[RJKYZOTGÝOKKÔYZÂJKPGGIKYZGKYZKY[VXGYIXOY
Exemplul 6.12
+^KSVR[RXKGRO`KG`ÂUIUVOKGLOOKX[R[OEVNVGLRGZÍTGIKRGOJOXKIZUXIGO
YIXOVZ[RÍTLURJKX[RJOXIGRKGKYZKXKRGZO\ÂRGLURJKX[RÍTIGXKYKGLRÂYIXOVZ[RY[H
GIKRGOT[SK'SLURUYOZUVKXGZUX[R&VKTZX[GOTNOHGKXUXORKYZGTJGXJGLOGZKÍTIG`[R
ÍTIGXKIUVOKXKGK[KG`Â
8KTGSK
DZ_eRiR+
#%!
GR]`RcVcVefc_ReÍ+
,[TIÝOGYINOSHÂJKT[SOXKG[T[OLOOKXJOT4[SK<KINOÍT4[SK4U[4[SK<KINOO
4[SK4U[VUZLOJUGXT[SKJKLOOKXKYG[VUZOTIR[JKIGRKGIÂZXKLOOKXK*GIÂUVKXGÝOG
YKXKGRO`KG`ÂÍTIGJX[RGIKR[OGOJOXKIZUX4[SK<KINOO4[SK4U[Y[TZT[SKJKLOOKXK
IGXKT[OTIR[JIGRKGGZ[TIOL[TIÝOGXKGRO`KG`ÂXKJKT[SOXKGLOOKX[R[O4[SK<KINO*GIÂ
4[SK4U[OTIR[JKUIGRKJOLKXOZÂJKLURJKX[RÍTIGXKYKGLRÂLOOKX[R4[SK<KINOGZ[TIO
L[TIÝOGXKTGSKXKGRO`KG`ÂS[ZGXKGLOOKX[R[O4[SK<KINO
Exemplul 6.13
2GLKRIGÍTIG`[RL[TIÝOKOIUV_L[TIÝOGXKTGSKY[VXGYIXOKLOOKX[RJKYZOTGÝOK
+^KSVR[RXKGRO`KG`ÂS[ZGXKGLOOKX[R[OTUZKZ^ZÍTLURJKX[RJOXY[HGIKRGOT[SK
;TROTQ
DZ_eRiR+
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,[TIÝOGÍTIKGXIÂYÂZKGXMÂLOOKX[RYVKIOLOIGZVXOT)GRKOXKZ[XTKG`Â:8;+ÍTIG`
JKY[IIKY,[TIÝOG[TROTQT[VUGZKLO[ZORO`GZÂVKTZX[ZKXMKXKG[T[OJOXKIZUX
Exemplul 6.14
,[TIÝOG[TROTQKYZKYOSORGXÂIUSKTÒOI[GIKRGOT[SKJOT;TO^2OT[^6KTZX[IKO
TKLGSOROGXO`GÝOI[GIKYZYOYZKSJKUVKXGXKYGOTZXUJ[YOL[TIÝOGJKRKZKIGXKL[TIÝOUTKG`Â
OJKTZOIOGXKGIKKGOYOTZG^Â
3QJOX
DZ_eRiR+
#%"
GR]`RcVcVefc_ReÍ+
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JK GIIKY YVKIOLOIGZK VXOT T[SÂX[R ÍTZXKM XKVXK`KTZGZ ÍT HG`G *XKVZ[XO'IIKY
6GXGSKZX[R*XKVZ[XO'IIKYKYZKOMTUXGZÍTYOYZKS[RJKUVKXGXK=OTJU]YOGXÍT[RZOSKRK
\KXYO[TOGRK6.6KYZKUVÝOUTGR\GRUGXKGOSVROIOZÂLOOTJJXKVZ[XOJKVROTKVKTZX[
ZUGZKIGZKMUXOORKJK[ZORO`GZUXO
,[TIÝOGXKZ[XTKG`Â\GRUGXKG:8;+JGIÂJOXKIZUX[RGLUYZIXKGZI[Y[IIKYO,'29+
ÍTIGÌUTZXGX
Exemplul 6.15
8SJOX
DZ_eRiR+
GR]`RcVcVefc_ReÍ+
,[TIÝOGXSJOXZKXMK[TJOXKIZUXI[T[SKRKYVKIOLOIGZVXOT)GRK,[TIÝOGXKZ[XTKG`Â
\GRUGXKG:8;+JGIÂJOXKIZUX[RGLUYZZKXYI[Y[IIKYO,'29+ÍTIGÌUTZXGX*OXKIZUX[R
ZXKH[OKYÂLOK\OJVKTZX[GV[ZKGLOZKXYOGXJXKVZ[XORKJKGIIKYRGGIKYZGZXKH[OKYÂ
VKXSOZÂZKXMKXKG
Exemplul 6.16
#%#
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VXKR[IXGZKJKGVROIGÝOGXKYVKIZO\Â
+YZKGJK\ÂXGZIÂGSV[ZKG[ZORO`GLOOKXKZK^ZVKTZX[GYZUIGJGZKRKJGXGIKYZVXUIKJK[
GXKIÁZK\GJKLOIOKTÝKSGPUXK
u YKI[XOZGZKYIÂ`[ZÂGJGZKRUXSKSUXGZK LOOKXKRKZK^ZIUTYZX[OZKJK[TYIXOVZ6.6
T[VUZLOVXUZKPGZKKLOIOKTZRGGIIKY[RTKG[ZUXO`GZ!
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SGXOHKTKLOIOO
u YOM[XGTÝGULKXOZÂJKYOYZKS[RJKJXKVZ[XOJKGIIKYOSVRKSKTZGZJK9-(*OG
VUYOHOROZÂÝOOIXOVZÂXOOJGZKRUX!
u GIIKYXGVOJRGJGZKVXOT[ZORO`GXKGJKOTZKXUMÂXO972UXOIÁZJKIUSVRK^K!
u SUJKR[RXKRGÝOUTGRKYZKÍTGIKRGOZOSVYOSVR[JK[ZORO`GZV[ZKXTOIOHOTKJUI[SKTZGZ
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9-(*[XOUVKTYU[XIK3_9726UYZMXK972
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LOOTJ[TVXUJ[YYULZ]GXKJOYZXOH[OZY[HROIKTÝÂ-4;-62JKIÂZXKIUSVGTOGVXUJ[IÂZUGXK
3_972'(
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Necesitatea realizãrii de aplicaþii software care sã poatã opera cu mai multe
tipuri de baze de date, utilizând acelaºi cod sursã, a condus la definirea unor
… interfeþe (colecþii de funcþii) între aplicaþii ºi sistemele de gestiune a bazelor de
þi cã
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independente de sistemul de gestiune aflat în spatele acestora.
O altã interfaþã cu sistemele de gestiune a bazelor de date a fost dezvoltatã pe baza
tehnologiei Java ºi poartã numele de JDBC (Java DataBase Connectivity).
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Figura 6.7 Structura tabelei InfoElevi
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Figura 6.8 Meniul principal al aplicaþiei PhpMyAdmin
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MySQL permite definirea câmpurilor de tip întreg cu autoincrementare,
care au proprietatea de a-ºi mãri valoarea automat atunci când este inseratã o înregistrare
nouã, fãrã a se specifica o valoare pentru câmpurile respective.
În tabelele de mai sus am utilizat câmpuri cu autoincrementare pentru cheile primare:
idelev, idmaterie ºi idnota.
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GRZLKRYK\GZOVÂXOROYZGKRK\ORUXÍTUXJOTKGRLGHKZOIÂ
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Exemplul 7.3
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XK`[RZGZKLURUYOTJL[TIÝOORK
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u S_YWRET[SELOKRJYXKZ[XTKG`ÂT[SÂX[RJKIÁSV[XOIKIUSV[TYKZ[RJKXK`[RZGZK
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Exemplul 7.4
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JOTYKZ[RJKXK`[RZGZKÍTZX[TZGHRU[I[OTJOIOT[SKXOIO
#&*
Exemplul 7.5
6iVTfeRcVR T`^V_kZ]`c UV RTefR]ZkRcV :?D6CE 56=6E6 FA52E6

)USKTÒRKJKGIZ[GRO`GXKIGXKIUTÝOTIUSKTÒRK972/49+8:*+2+:+;6*':+
T[XKZ[XTKG`Â[TYKZJKXK`[RZGZKVXKI[SIUSGTJG9+2+):6KTZX[GJKZKXSOTGJGIÂ
K^KI[ZGXKGIUSKTÒOGVXUJ[YSUJOLOIÂXOGY[VXGHG`KOJKJGZKYK[ZORO`KG`ÂL[TIÝOG
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K^KI[ZGXKG [RZOSKO OTZKXUMÂXO /49+8: *+2+:+ YG[ ;6*':+ GYUIOGZK IUTKÔ[TOO
OJKTZOLOIGZKVXOT/J8KY*GIÂVGXGSKZX[RROVYKZKYKIUTYOJKXÂ[RZOSGIUTKÔ[TKI[
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Exemplul 7.6
#'!
Tabela materii conþine 3 câmpuri, iar comanda SQL INSERT din exemplul
anterior insereazã valori doar pentru câmpurile denumire ºi tip. Câmpul idmaterie este un
câmp cu autoincrementare, astfel cã valoarea sa este inseratã automat în tabelã, fiind cu o
unitate mai mare decât ultima valoare inseratã în acest câmp.
Uneori este nevoie sã determinãm care a fost ultima valoarea inseratã într-un câmp cu
autoincrementare. Acest lucru se determinã prin apelul funcþiei
int mysql_insert_id([resource IdConexiune])
Funcþia returneazã valoarea zero dacã nu s-a efectuat nicio autoincrementare.
@aVcRèZZTfSRkVUVUReV
5VKXGÝOORKJKIXKGXKOZKXMKXKGHG`KRUXJKJGZKYKVUZXKGRO`GOVXOTOTZKXSKJO[R
L[TIÝOORUX6.6
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:8;+JGIÂUVKXGÝOGYGK^KI[ZGZI[Y[IIKYO,'29+GRZLKR
*KZKXSOTGXKGHG`KRUXJKJGZKGLRGZKVKYKX\KXYKXKGRO`KG`ÂVXOTGVKR[RL[TIÝOORUX
6XOSGL[TIÝOKXKZ[XTKG`Â[TYKZJKXK`[RZGZKIKIUTÝOTKOTLUXSGÝOOXKLKXOZUGXKRG
HG`KRKJKJGZKGLRGZKVKYKX\KXT[SKRKGIKYZUXGLOOTJUHÝOT[ZKVXOTGVKR[RL[TIÝOKO
S_YWREZGHRKTGSK/J/TZKXUMGXKKYZKOJKTZOLOIGZUX[RGYUIOGZYKZ[R[OJKXK`[RZGZKXKZ[XTGZ
JKL[TIÝOGS_YWREROYZEJHYOGX/TJOIKYVKIOLOIÂVUÒÝOGHG`KOJKJGZKÍTYKZ[RI[XK`[RZGZK
*KZKXSOTGXKGT[SKRUXZGHKRKRUXJOTZXUHG`ÂJKJGZKKYZKXKGRO`GZÂVXOTGVKR[RL[TIÝOKO
,[TIÝOGS_YWREROYZEZGHRKYL[TIÝOUTKG`ÂYOSORGXL[TIÝOKOS_YWREROYZEJHYXKZ[XTÁTJ
[TYKZJKXK`[RZGZKI[OTLUXSGÝOOJKYVXKZGHKRKRKJOTHG`GJKJGZKYVKIOLOIGZÂYG[,'29+
JGIÂUVKXGÝOGK[KG`Â4[SKRKZGHKRKRUXY[TZK^ZXGYKJOTYKZ[RJKXK`[RZGZKVXOTGVKR[XO
Y[IIKYO\KGRKL[TIÝOKOS_YWREZGHRKTGSK
+^KSVR[RGLOKG`ÂZUGZKHG`KRKJKJGZKKÔYZKTZKVXKI[SOZGHKRKRKIUTÝOT[ZK
JKGIKYZKG
Extragerea numelor bazelor de date/tabelelor din setul de rezultate returnat

de mysql_list_dbs()/mysql_list_tables() poate fi realizatã ºi prin apelul
funcþiei mysql_fetch_array(), precum ºi folosind alte funcþii PHP ce opereazã
asupra seturilor de rezultate.
Crearea ºi ºtergerea tabelelor sunt operaþii care se pot realiza prin intermediul unor
interogãri ce conþin comenzile SQL Create Table, respectiv Drop Table. Limbajul PHP nu
permite realizarea acestor operaþii prin intermediul unor funcþii predefinite.
#'"
Exemplul 7.7
=64È:2#
8VdeZ`_RcVRdVdZf_Z]`cA9A
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\GXOGHORKGRIÂXUXJUSKTO[JK\OÒHOROZGZKYÂLOKSGOSGXKJKIÁZL[TIÝOGYG[YIXOVZ[RÍT
IGXKY[TZJKLOTOZKGYZLKRIG\GRUGXKGGIKYZUXGYÂLOKGIIKYOHORÂZ[Z[XUXLOOKXKRUXIK
IUSV[TGVROIGÝOG
+ÔYZÂZXKOSKIGTOYSKVXOTIGXKV[ZKSXKGRO`GGIKYZR[IX[
u ZXGTYSOZKXKG\GRUXORUX\GXOGHORKRUXVXOTOTZKXSKJO[R;82[R[OYIXOVZ[R[O!
u [ZORO`GXKG\GXOGHORKRUXIUUQOK!
u LURUYOXKGYKYO[TORUX6.6
:XGTYSOZKXKG\GRUXORUX\GXOGHORKRUXVXOTOTZKXSKJO[R;82[R[OYIXOVZ[XORUXKYZK\GXOGTZG
IKGSGOV[ÝOTOTJOIGZÂJKUGXKIK
u KLUXZ[RJKVXUMXGSGXKIXKZK\GXOGHORKRKZXGTYSOYKÍTROTOGJKGVKRZXKH[OTJVXKR[GZK
ÍTLOKIGXKYIXOVZ!
u T[SÂX[R\GXOGHORKRUXT[VUGZKLOVXKGSGXKOJKGYKSKTKGT[YKVUZZXGTYSOZK
IGTZOZÂÝOSGXOJKJGZK!
u YKI[XOZGZKGGVROIGÝOKOKYZKYIÂ`[ZÂ\GRUXORK\GXOGHORKRUXZXGTYSOYKIGVGXGSKZXO
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u \OÒZGZUX[RGXKVUYOHOROZGZKGJKGIUTLOM[XGTG\OMGZUX[RYÂT[VKXSOZÂJOTXGÝO[TO
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L[TIÝOUTÂXOOIUXKIZKGGVROIGÝOKO!
#'#
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IUTLOJKTÝOGRK!
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Y[IIKYO,'29+GRZLKR
'VKR[RL[TIÝOKOYKZIUUQOKZXKH[OKXKGRO`GZRGÍTIKV[Z[RYIXOVZ[R[OÍTGOTZKJKGLOGXKG
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JOT IG[`G SKIGTOYS[R[O JK IUS[TOIGXK IROKTZYKX\KX [ZORO`GZ JK VXUZUIUR[R .::6
:XOSOZKXKGINOGXOG[T[OYOTM[XYVGÝO[VKTZX[GLOGLOGZÍTHXU]YKXJKZKXSOTÂGVKR[XORK
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9VKIOLOIGXKGZOSV[R[OJK\GRGHOROZGZKGR\GXOGHORKOIUUQOKYKXKGRO`KG`ÂLUGXZKIUSUJ
VXOTOTZKXSKJO[RL[TIÝOKOZOSKIGXKÍTZUGXIKIGXK`[RZGZT[SÂX[RYKI[TJKRUXYI[XYKJK
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Exemplul 7.8
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LOOKXKRKGVROIGÝOKO=KHVXOTOTZKXSKJO[RZGHRU[XORUXY[VKXMRUHGRKGYUIOGZO\K
E8+7;+9:
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+ROSOTGXKG[TKO\GXOGHORKIUUQOKYKXKGRO`KG`ÂZUZVXOTZX[TGVKRGRL[TIÝOKOYKZIUUQOK
JKLUXSG
<GXOGHORGIUUQOKVXOSKZKIG\GRUGXKOX[R\OJOGXZOSV[RJKK^VOXGXKKYZKYZGHOROZ
VKTZX[[TSUSKTZGTZKXOUX
#'$
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[TGYG[SGOS[RZKLKXKYZXKGRKTG\OMGZUX[R[O
3KIGTOYS[RYKYO[TORUXKYZKLURUYOZYVXKK^KSVR[ÍT
u SKSUXGXKG[TUXVXKLKXOTÝKGRK\OÒZGZUX[R[O[T[OYOZKVXKLKXOTÝKRKMGZKJKI[RUGXK
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SKSUXGIGXGIZKXOYZOIORKYKYO[TOO9KYO[TKG\GLOOJKTZOLOIGZÂVXOTZX[TOXJKIGXGIZKXK
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Exemplul 7.9
<KXOLOIGXKGKÔYZKTÝKO[TKO\GXOGHORKJKYKYO[TKYKVUGZKLGIKRGLKRIGVKTZX[UXOIK
\GXOGHORÂVXOTGVKR[RL[TIÝOKOOYYKZ
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VXKT[SKRKOI[RUGXKGVXKLKXGZÂ!
Exemplul 7.10 (a)
u IXKG`GVNVKYZKYIXOVZ[RIGXKVXKOGJGZKRKOTZXUJ[YKJK\OÒZGZUXÍTLUXS[RGX
OTOÝOG`ÂYKYO[TKGOSKSUXKG`ÂT[SKRKVXKT[SKRKOI[RUGXKGIG\GXOGHORKJK
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VXOTZX[TGVKRGTZKXOUXGRYIXOVZ[R[OIXKG`GVNVTIG`[RÍTIGXK\GXOGHORKRKJK
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E9+99/54
#'&
Exemplul 7.10 (b)
u GLOYGXKVNVZOVÂXKZKÍTLKXKGYZXGTG\OMGZUX[R[OT[SKRKVXKT[SKRKOI[RUGXKG
GRKYKJK\OÒZGZUX[RI[XKTZK^KSVROLOIÁTJSUJ[RJKGIIKYGXKG\GRUXORUX\GXOGHORKRUX
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Exemplul 7.10 (c)

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Figura 8.1
Ciclul de viaþã al unei
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Figura 8.4
Formularul de
autentificare
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Exemplul 8.3
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#)!
Se realizeazã o interogare SQL pentru a determina dacã numele de cont ºi
parola sunt înregistrate în baza de date; inexistenþa contului sau incorectitudinea parolei
determinã eºuarea tentativei de autentificare.
Se verificã starea contului. Dacã utilizatorul are contul blocat sau încã nevalidat se va
afiºa un mesaj de eroare corespunzãtor.
În cazul în care autentificarea se face cu succes, o parte din informaþiile referitoare la
cont se memoreazã în variabile de sesiune, pentru a putea fi utilizate pe tot parcursul
aplicaþiei. Variabilele de sesiune sunt memorate cu ajutorul tabloului asociativ predefinit
$_SESSION.
Exemplul 8.4
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Exemplul 8.5
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LOOKX[RROHVNV
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Exempul 8.6
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Exemplul 8.7
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Exemplul 8.8
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Cuprins

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Figura 1.1 Etapele procesului de modelare

Figura 1.2 Tabela de date

Exemplul 1.4 (a)

Exemplul 1.4 (b)

Figura 1.3 Diagrama entitate-relaþie

Figura 1.4 Înlocuirea cu entitatea de legãturã

Figura 1.5 Diagrama entitate-relaþie fãrã relaþii many-to-many

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Sã considerãm entitatea departament, folositã pentru memorarea informaþiilor referitoare

Cheia primarã a entitãþii DEPARTAMENT este o combinaþie între atributele cod

# IDangajat # cod departament

Figura 1.6 Structurã conceptualã în a doua formã normalã

Figura 1.7 Schema conceptualã în a treia formã normalã

Figura 1.8 Diagrama entitate - relaþie

Figura 2.1 Structura de principiu a unui SGBD

Figura 2.3 Tabelã de date

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Exemplul 2.6 (b)

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Exemplul 2.7 (b)

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Exemplul 2.21 (b)

WHERE note.idmaterie=materii.idmaterie AND

Primele aplicaþii software ce permiteau navigarea în spaþiul WWW – navigator

Preocupãrile în privinþa sistemelor informaþionale neliniare sunt mai vechi,

Limbajul HTML este un subset al limbajului SGML-Standard Generalized

 Majoritatea navigatoarelor actuale afiºeazã corect conþinutul unui

În reþeaua Internet, o resursã (fiºier, calculator gazdã etc.) poate fi adresatã

În cadrul etichetelor TEXTAREA, TEXT ºi PASSWORD putem utiliza

Figura 1.13 Exemplu de formular complex

 O practicã frecventã printre creatorii de site-uri este aceea de a utiliza douã

1. Dacã un document hipermedia este structurat folosind cadre, atunci se va

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Exemplul 2.24 (a)

Exemplul 2.24 (b)

Exemplul 2.24 (c)

Exemplul 2.24 (d)

Exemplul 2.24 (e)

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