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Compact disc
Encoding Various
Read mechanism 780 nm wavelength
(infrared and red edge)
semiconductor laser (early players
used helium–neon lasers),
1,200 Kbit/s (1×)
[1]
Developed by Philips, Sony
Extended to CD-RW
DVD
Super Audio CD
Optical discs
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General
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Standards
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See also
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t
e
Contents
1Physical details
o 1.1Integrity
o 1.2Disc shapes and diameters
2Logical format
o 2.1Audio CD
o 2.2Super Audio CD
o 2.3CD-MIDI
o 2.4CD-ROM
o 2.5Video CD
o 2.6Super Video CD
o 2.7Photo CD
o 2.8CD-i
o 2.9CD-i Ready
o 2.10Enhanced Music CD (CD+)
o 2.11VinylDisc
3Manufacture
4Writable compact discs
o 4.1Recordable CD
o 4.2ReWritable CD
5Copy protection
6See also
7References
8Further reading
9External links
Physical details[edit]
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See also: Shaped compact disc
Diagram of CD layers
The program area is 86.05 cm2 and the length of the recordable spiral is 86.05 cm2 / 1.6
µm = 5.38 km. With a scanning speed of 1.2 m/s, the playing time is 74 minutes, or
650 MB of data on a CD-ROM. A disc with data packed slightly more densely is
tolerated by most players (though some old ones fail). Using a linear velocity of 1.2 m/s
and a narrower track pitch of 1.5 µm increases the playing time to 80 minutes, and data
capacity to 700 MB.
The pits in a CD are 500 nm wide, between 830 nm and 3,000 nm long and 150 nm deep.
The pits and lands do not directly represent the 0's and 1's of binary data. Instead, non-
return-to-zero, inverted encoding is used: a change from either pit to land or land to pit
indicates a 1, while no change indicates a series of 0's. There must be at least 2, and no
more than 10 0's between each 1, which is defined by the length of the pit. This, in turn,
is decoded by reversing the eight-to-fourteen modulation used in mastering the disc,
and then reversing the cross-interleaved Reed–Solomon coding, finally revealing the
raw data stored on the disc. These encoding techniques (defined in the Red Book) were
originally designed for CD Digital Audio, but they later became a standard for almost all
CD formats (such as CD-ROM).
Integrity[edit]
CDs are susceptible to damage during handling and from environmental exposure. Pits
are much closer to the label side of a disc, enabling defects and contaminants on the
clear side to be out of focus during playback. Consequently, CDs are more likely to
suffer damage on the label side of the disc. Scratches on the clear side can be repaired
by refilling them with similar refractive plastic or by careful polishing. The edges of CDs
are sometimes incompletely sealed, allowing gases and liquids to enter the CD and
corrode the metal reflective layer and/or interfere with the focus of the laser on the pits,
a condition known as disc rot.[9] The fungus Geotrichum candidum has been found—
under conditions of high heat and humidity—to consume the polycarbonate plastic and
aluminium found in CDs.[10][11]
The data integrity of compact discs can be measured using surface error scanning,
which is able to measure the rates of different types of data errors, known
as C1, C2, CU and extended (finer-grain) error measurements known
as E11, E12, E21, E22, E31 and E32, of which higher rates indicate a possibly
damaged or unclean data surface, low media quality, deteriorating
media and recordable media written to by a malfunctioning CD writer.
Error scanning can reliably predict data losses caused by media deteriorating. Support
of error scanning varies among vendors and models of optical disc drives,
and extended error scanning (known as "advanced error scanning" in Nero DiscSpeed)
has only been available on Plextor and some BenQ optical drives so far, as of 2020.[12][13]
Disc shapes and diameters[edit]
Comparison of several forms of disk storage showing tracks (not-to-scale); green denotes
start and red denotes end.
* Some CD-R(W) and DVD-R(W)/DVD+R(W) recorders operate in ZCLV, CAA or CAV
modes.
The digital data on a CD begins at the center of the disc and proceeds toward the edge,
which allows adaptation to the different size formats available. Standard CDs are
available in two sizes. By far, the most common is 120 millimetres (4.7 in) in diameter,
with a 74- or 80-minute audio capacity and a 650 or 700 MB (737,280,000-byte) data
capacity. Discs are 1.2 millimetres (0.047 in) thick, with a 15 millimetres (0.59 in) center
hole. The official Philips history says this capacity was specified by Sony
executive Norio Ohga to be able to contain the entirety of Beethoven's Ninth
Symphony on one disc.[14]
Kees Schouhamer Immink received a personal technical Emmy award for his contributions
to the coding technologies of the Compact Disc, DVD, and Blu-ray disc.
This is a myth according to Kees Immink, as the EFM code format had not yet been
decided in December 1979, when the decision to adopt the 120 mm was made. The
adoption of EFM in June 1980 allowed 30 percent more playing time that would have
resulted in 97 minutes for 120 mm diameter or 74 minutes for a disc as small as 100
millimetres (3.9 in). Instead, however, the information density was lowered by 30
percent to keep the playing time at 74 minutes. [15][16][17] The 120 mm diameter has been
adopted by subsequent formats, including Super Audio CD, DVD, HD DVD, and Blu-
ray Disc. The 80-millimetre (3.1 in) diameter discs ("Mini CDs") can hold up to 24
minutes of music or 210 MB.
Manufacture[edit]
Main article: Compact Disc manufacturing
Individual pits are visible on the micrometer scale.
In 1995, material costs were 30 cents for the jewel case and 10 to 15 cents for the CD.
Wholesale cost of CDs was $0.75 to $1.15, while the typical retail price of a prerecorded
music CD was $16.98.[19] On average, the store received 35 percent of the retail price,
the record company 27 percent, the artist 16 percent, the manufacturer 13 percent, and
the distributor 9 percent.[19] When 8-track cartridges, compact cassettes, and CDs were
introduced, each was marketed at a higher price than the format they succeeded, even
though the cost to produce the media was reduced. This was done because the
apparent value increased. This continued from phonograph records to CDs, but was
broken when Apple marketed MP3s for $0.99, and albums for $9.99. The incremental
cost, though, to produce an MP3 is negligible. [20]
Main article: CD-R
Recordable Compact Discs, CD-Rs, are injection-molded with a "blank" data spiral. A
photosensitive dye is then applied, after which the discs are metalized and lacquer-
coated. The write laser of the CD recorder changes the color of the dye to allow the
read laser of a standard CD player to see the data, just as it would with a standard
stamped disc. The resulting discs can be read by most CD-ROM drives and played in
most audio CD players. CD-Rs follow the Orange Book standard.
CD-R recordings are designed to be permanent. Over time, the dye's physical
characteristics may change causing read errors and data loss until the reading device
cannot recover with error correction methods. Errors can be predicted using surface
error scanning. The design life is from 20 to 100 years, depending on the quality of the
discs, the quality of the writing drive, and storage conditions. [21] However, testing has
demonstrated such degradation of some discs in as little as 18 months under normal
storage conditions.[22][23] This failure is known as disc rot, for which there are several,
mostly environmental, reasons.[24]
The recordable audio CD is designed to be used in a consumer audio CD recorder.
These consumer audio CD recorders use SCMS (Serial Copy Management System), an
early form of digital rights management (DRM), to conform to the AHRA (Audio Home
Recording Act). The Recordable Audio CD is typically somewhat more expensive than
CD-R due to lower production volume and a 3 percent AHRA royalty used to
compensate the music industry for the making of a copy. [25]
High-capacity recordable CD is a higher-density recording format that can hold 20%
more data than of conventional discs.[26] The higher capacity is incompatible with some
recorders and recording software.[27]
ReWritable CD[edit]
Main article: CD-RW
CD-RW is a re-recordable medium that uses a metallic alloy instead of a dye. The write
laser, in this case, is used to heat and alter the properties (amorphous vs. crystalline) of
the alloy, and hence change its reflectivity. A CD-RW does not have as great a
difference in reflectivity as a pressed CD or a CD-R, and so many earlier CD audio
players cannot read CD-RW discs, although most later CD audio players and stand-
alone DVD players can. CD-RWs follow the Orange Book standard.
The ReWritable Audio CD is designed to be used in a consumer audio CD recorder,
which will not (without modification) accept standard CD-RW discs. These consumer
audio CD recorders use the Serial Copy Management System (SCMS), an early form
of digital rights management (DRM), to conform to the United States' Audio Home
Recording Act (AHRA). The ReWritable Audio CD is typically somewhat more
expensive than CD-R due to (a) lower volume and (b) a 3 percent AHRA royalty used to
compensate the music industry for the making of a copy. [25]
Copy protection[edit]
Main article: Compact Disc and DVD copy protection
See also: Sony BMG copy protection rootkit scandal
The Red Book audio specification, except for a simple "anti-copy" statement in the
subcode, does not include any copy protection mechanism. Known at least as early as
2001,[28] attempts were made by record companies to market "copy-protected" non-
standard compact discs, which cannot be ripped, or copied, to hard drives or easily
converted to other formats (like FLAC, MP3 or Vorbis). One major drawback to these
copy-protected discs is that most will not play on either computer CD-ROM drives or
some standalone CD players that use CD-ROM mechanisms. Philips has stated that
such discs are not permitted to bear the trademarked Compact Disc Digital Audio logo
because they violate the Red Book specifications. Numerous copy-protection systems
have been countered by readily available, often free, software, or even by simply turning
off automatic AutoPlay to prevent the running of the DRM executable program.