F POWER SYSTEM OPERATION AND CONTROL [For Students of BE/B. Tech./ME/M.Tech., (Electrical) of all Indian Technical Universities] ay Dr. B.R. GUPTA Er. VANDANA SINGHAL Lie Scanned with CamScanner CliCONTENTS ee SS Chapter Pages 1, Introduction 1-31 2, Economic Operation of Power System ana Unit Commitment 32 — 80 3, Hydrothermal Coordination 81 — 96 4. Modelling of Turbine, Generator and Automatic Controllers 97 - 136 5, Load Frequency Control 137 — 180 6. Reactive Power Control 181 — 216 7. Computer Control Power Systems 217 - 236 Bibliography 237 Appendix A : Objective Questions 238 — 252 Appendix B : Glossary 253 — 256 Appendix C : Summary of Important For 257 — 260 Index 261 — 262 (vil) Scanned with CamScannerCHAPTER Introduction 1.1. ENERGY REQUIREMENTS A power station feeds different types of consumers—domestic, commercial, industrial, agricultural etc. The present day power stations invariably feed a grid which delivers power to the load centres. The design of @ power plant or system must take into account the future increase in load. For this Purpose load forecasting studies have to be made to predict the increase in load in the next 20 years or so. A modern power station takes 5 to 10 years for completion and some hydro-electric stations take even longer time. As such the power system planning must be done about 20 years in advance. The estimate of power and the increase in generation capacity depend on maximum demand. the distribution and variation in demand and the energ 1.2. MAXIMUM DEMAND Each device at the consumer terminals has its rated capacity. The connected load of a consumer Means the sum of the continuous ratings of all the devices and outlets installed on his distribution circuit requirements, The maximum demand of a consumer means the maximum power that his circuit is likely to draw at any time. If all the devices and outlets were used simultaneously to the full extent, the maximum demand of the consumer would equal his connected load. Experience has shown that consumers do not use all the devices at full load simultaneously. The maximum demand of each consumer is, therefore, less than his connected load, The maximum demand and the connected load. are related by Maximum Deman Demand Factor = axtmum Demand (1) Connected Load Ifa consumer has 10 bulbs each of 100 watt, his connected load is 1000 watt (assuming that no other electrical device exists in his premises). However he would not use all the 10 lamps simultaneously, At sometime of the day he may use only 3 bulbs, at another time only 2 and still at an another time six. If the maximum number of bulbs used by him demand is 600 watt and demand factor is 0.6 mmultancously is six, his maximum Each device will run at its rated capacity at sometime during its operation, The demand factor indicates the contribution of the device towards the maximum demand of the consumer, Demand factors for various types of loads vary within very wide limits. Some typical values are given in Table 1,1. Example 1.1. A residential consumer has the following connected load : 8 bulbs of 100 W ach, 2 fans of 60 W each and 2 light plug points of 100 W each. His use of electri ity during a day is as under : Scanned with CamScanner12 midnight to 5 am Sam to 7 am Tam to 9 am 9am to 6 pm 6 pm to midnight 2 fans and 4 bulbs ’ Find (a) connected load (b) maximum demand (c) demand factor (4) energy consumed ¢ 24 hours (e) energy consumed in 24 hours if all devices are used all the day. Solution. (a) Connected load = 8 * 100 +2 + 60 +2 * 100 = 1120 W (b) Total wattage at different times is 12 midnight to 5 am 60 W SAM to 7 am 2* 60 + 1 * 100 = 220 W 7AM to 9am NIL 9 AM to 6 pm 2* 60= 120 W 6 PM to midnight 2 60 +4 * 100 = 520 W The maximum demand is 520 W Demand factor = a = 0.464 1120 Energy consumed from 12 midnight to 5 am 60 x 5 = 300 Wh from 5 am to 7 am 220 « 2 = 440 Wh from 7 am to 9 am NIL from 9 am to 6 pm 120 x 9 = 1080 Wh from 6 pm to 12 midnight 520 « 6 = 3120 Wh Total energy consumed during 24 hours = 300 + 440 + 1080 + 3120 4940 Wh = 4.94 kWh (©) If all devices are used throughout the day, the energy consumed is 1120 « 24 = 26880 Wh 26.88 kWh 1.3. GROUP DIVERSITY FACTOR The load actually used by a consumer at any time during a day depends on his requirements at time. Since the requirements at different times are different, the load varies from instant ti during the day. The electric supply authorities have to make provision for generation, transmission distribution facilities to supply loads to different consumers. ‘The investment in all these facilities Proportional to kVA ratings of these equipments. Therefore every electric supply authority has make a reasonable estimate of the maximum kVA demand of the area supplied by it. In every area there are a number of consumers. Let the number of consumers served by particular distribution transformer be 8. This group of 8 consumers will have different gadgets at their premises and each consumer will use the gadgets as per his requirement. of the consumers will have a certain maximum demand. However, it is likely that the demands of different consumers occurs at different times, This is due to different requirements of these 8 consumers, If this happens, the maximum demand of the group than the sum of their maximum demands, The contribution of the maximum demand of @ co to the power requirements of the group depends on the group diversity factor Group Diversity Factor = ‘Sum of individual maximum demands Maximum demand of the group anned with CamScannerINTRODUCTION 3 ‘The group diversity factor is always greater than unity. The consumers maximum. demand divided by the group diversity factor will determine his effective demand at the distribution transformer. Example 1.2. A group of 2 consumers has the following electricity demand pattern on a typical winter day Consumer A: Connected load 2.5 kW Load from 12 midnight to 5 am 100 W from 5 am to 6 am LLKW from 6 am to 8 am 200 W from 8 am to 5 pm NIL from 5 pm to 12 midnight 500 W Consumer B: Connected load 3 kW Load from 11 pm to 7 am NIL from 7 am to 8 am 300 W from 8 am to 10 am 1kW from 10 am to 6 pm 200 W from 6 pm to 11 pm 600 W (a) Calculate demand factors of both consumers. (6) Plot the variation in demand versus time ofthe day for each consumer and the group. (c) Find group diversity factor. (4) Find energy consumed by each consumer in 24 hours. (e) Find the maximum energy which each consumer would consume in 24 hours if his load were constant and eq energy to maximum ene ual to his maximum demand. (f) Find the ratio of actual y for each Solution. (2) Maximum demand of consumer A = 1.1 kW Ll Demand factor of consumer A +5 70.44 Maximum demand of consumer B 1kW 19333 Demand factor of consumer B (b) The variation in demand versus time curves are plotted and shown in Fig, 1.1. This curve is known as chronological load curve. This is further discussed in sections 1.5 and 1.6. g LOAD (WATT) 3} jo "5 10. 3) sua AM TIME PM. Fiy.123. een Scanned with CamScanner"By adding the demands ofthe two consumers at different times, we can plot the chronoloy load ‘of the group. This is shown in Fig: 1-2. me (6) From Fig 1.2 it is seen that maximum demand of the group is 11 1000 Group diversity factor = See = 1.909 ing 24 hours: (@) Energy consumed by A during 24 ho scat tie we ey = 100 «5 +1100 *! + 20( der the chronological load curve ‘Ais equal to the area uni ¢ s equal to energy consumed during 24 hours, It is scen that energy consumed by |A. Thus the area under a chronological load curve Fs Br consumed by B during 24 hours oe ye soo x 1+ 1000 x 2 +200 x 8 +600 x 5= 6900 Wh= 6.9 KR ‘This is equal to the area under load curve B. (e) Maximum energy which A could consume in 24 hours = 1.1 * 24 = 26.4 kWh Maximum energy which B could consume in 24 hours = 1 x 24 = 24 kWh Actual energy _ 5.5 _ Foray oe SY 0.2083 g Maximum energy | 26.4 Actualenergy _ 6.9 _ 9 »g75 ” Maximum energy 24 “The ratio of actual energy to maximum energy of a consumer is known as load factor of the consumer. Similarly the ratio of actual energy to maximum energy of a group of consumers is the joad factor of the group. The ratio ofthe actual energy to maximum energy of @ system 18 the load factor of the system. This is discussed again in section 1.9 This seen from the results of example 1.2 that diversity between the two consumers Hi reduced the maximum demand of this group of two consumers. If their pattern of using electricity ‘Nore similar the total maximum demand would have been 2.1 kW. Diversity has reduced the Combined maximum demand to 1100 W. This reduction in maximum demand and diversity has al important effect on power system economics because the power supply authorities will Rave ta make lesser investment in generation, transmission and distribution facilities Table 1.1. Demand factors For B, Tipe offload . Demand Residential skw and less 07 1 =kW to 1 kW. 0.6 1 kW and above 05 Commercial hb Restaurants, shops and offices, 0.7 Educational institutions, 0 ‘Theatre, Cinema, 05 Hotels . Industrial ‘ ; Cottage (less than 5 kW) 08 Small Scale (5 kW to 25 kW) 07 i - Medium (25 kW to 100 kW) ee Gig Large (More than 100 kW) ean ppg BAS? (MOKe thas O03 POS Scanned with CamScannerINTRODUCTION 5 44. PEAK DIVERSITY FACTOR Diversity will exis in the time of maximum demands of the transformers on the feeders and also as regards the feeders to the sub-station and the sub-statons to the generating station, As one goes from the consumer, individual variations have diminishing effect which result in decreasing numerical values of diversity factors as the power plant end of the system is approached, Table 1.2 gives some typical values of diversity factors. Table 1.2. Diversity factors Residential Commercial Industrial Group diversity factor 3105 14 to 18 14 to 18 Diversity factor between transformers 1.3 1.2 12 Diversity factor between feeders 12 Ll ra Diversity factor between sub-stations 1.1 1 Ml Peak diversity factor 13*12«n1 12xte 1.2% 111 ‘The diversity factors between transformers, between feeders and between sub-station can be combined into a single term commonly referred to as peak diversity factor M jemand of a Consumer Peak Diversity Factor ~ Mxitum Demand of a Consumer Group yemand of the Consumer Group at the time of system peak demand (1.3), Peak diversity factor gives an indication of the effective demand of the consumer group at the time of system peak demand and is the product of the diversity factors, between transformers, between feeders and between sub-stations. When demand factors and diversity factors are known, the system peak demand can be evaluated as under Let individual connected loads of group 1 = individual connected loads of group 2 demand factor of group 1 demand factor of group 2 group diversity factor for group 1 G, = group diversity factor for group 2 = peak diversity factor for group | Py = peak diversity factor for group 2 Maximumdemand of group 1=24%4. i Zbxd; G Demand of group 1 at the time of the system peak demand dosgcadk sran N LEhxd, Te pogo, yt e2 Gene Demand of group 2 at the time of the system peak demand , Sates nt a one ool aie aude | -pienttfanm gisbone. rena ere i Seat ams ROD Maximum demand of group 2 Scanned with CamScannerPOWER SYSTEM : OPERATION AND CONTROL ~ (1.8) NBs dig ate system peak demand = Gp," Ga Pa ‘ Example 1.3. A new residential-cum-shopping complex is ay Bei Tbs sop ' ing a : distribution system. It will have 600 apartments Se av ie cmmected load of 2 kW with demang tromplex will have 20 general purpose sHOPS C80 8 i» fran of 0.8 and will have the following services addition : ‘Service Connected toad Demand factor 10 kW 07 1 Flour mill 1 Saw Mill SkW 08 1 Laundry 20 kW 0.65 0.5 1 Cinema 80 kW consist of 200 tube lights of 40 watt each. ‘The street lighting for the complex will c ‘The residential load demand factor, group diversity factor and peak diversity factor may be assumed as 0.5, 3.0 and 1.25 respectively. The group and peak diversity factors for the commerca] Toad may be taken as 2.0 and 1.6. The street lighting demand, group and peak diversity factors, may be taken as unity. Find the increase in peak ‘demand of the system resulting from this complex Solution. Maximum demand of each appartment = 5 x 0.5 = 2.5 kW 6002-5 _ s00kW Maximum demand of 600 apartments = 500 Demand of 600 apartments at the time of the system peak = y 55 ~ 400 kW Maximum demand of total commercial complex 20x2x0.8+10x0.7+5x0.8 «0.65 +80x0.5 2 324744413440 2 = 48 kW Demand of the commercial load at the time of the system peak = “8 — 30 kw 16 ak = 200% 40 Demand of street lighting at the time of the system pes 1000 =8kW Tncrease in system peak demand = 400 + 30 + 8=43 15, TYPES OF LOAD a main i ere tee sytem ae domes, industri, commercial, municipal, rato sats ce wp stoving the hourly varinon in demand ding the 24 hours ofthe day # ae exons ees Tee me nological load curves follow a typical pattern for cath a above shows some typical chronological load curves for different types 1.5.1, Domestic or Residential load, Resident 7 eee itt Ee oad consists of lights, fan and aplias : water heaters, washing machines ete Scanned with CamScannerSe INTRODUCTION Y ‘The small consumers may generally use all the light points simultaneously giving a demand factor of unity. DOMESTIC INDUSTRIAL COMMERCIAL 2 2 2 3 Q 3 & g g ‘a SN rar ee EL an eM aoe oem (a) (b) (¢) TRACTION STREET LIGHTING TRRIGATION A oI g g g 3 | | | ' i ! Pom T22 5S seize | 6 ee ze (a emer ae AM PM AN PM AM. PM —Summer Winter ( C) 0 Fig, 1.3. Chronological load curves for different types of loads. For big houses, the demand factor may be only around 0.5. During summer the major part of domestic load may consist of referigerator load, fan load during day and light and fan load during ‘evenings. During winter, the major load is light load during evenings and early mornings and some heater load and referigerator load 1.5.2, Industrial load. The industrial load may be further sub-divided into small, medium and heavy. The chronological load curve for industrial load will depend on the number of shifts per day in the industry, the curve in Fig, 1.3 (6) referring to single shift industry. During night the load is mostly lighting plus some loads like refrigeration load which require continuous supply. Around 6AM some machines start working and the load starts increasing, The shift starts at 8 AM and the load suddenly jumps to full value and remains almost constant throughout the day, except during the lunch break, till the end of the shift. The demand factor may vary from about 0.8 for small industries to about 0.5 for heavy industries. The demand factor, especially for small industries, also depends on the nature of the industry. 1.5.3. Commercial load. This load mainly consists of lighting, fans and smali electric appliances. The load is fairly constant from around 9 AM to 8 PM. During night the load may consist of some lighting load. The demand factor is fairly high. 15.4. Urban traction load, This load consists of tram cars, suburban trains and associated railway stations etc. From midnight to around 4 AM, the load is small and limited to mostly lighting load. Around 4 AM the trains start running and the load starts increasing. Around 8 AM the peak travel and the maximum load condition is reached. After 10 AM the service frequency reduces and ——— ul Scanned with CamScannerPOWER SYSTEM : OPERATION AND the load also shows a downward trend. The load again rises towards evenings, around 5 PM, workers start coming back to their homes. After 9 PM the load falls rapidly. 4 1.5.5. Municipal load. This includes load for street lighting, water supply ete. a ‘Street lighting load is practically constant during night thus giving a demand factor and diversity factor of unity. The switching on of the lights and their switching off is synchronised with dusk ang, dawn respectively. Hence the street lights function for a slightly shorter duration during summer than during winter. It is necessary to run separate distributors for street lighting to enable their switching simultaneously. < i ‘The load for water supply is for pumping water to the overhead tanks. It is generally possible | to fit this load during system off-peak hours, usually occurring during night. | 1.5.6. Irrigation load, The load of the tube-wells used for irrigation may constitute a substantial | portion of the system load, For some areas it may be more than even the industrial load. It is a general practice to energise tube-well feeders for about 12 hours a day during night. The demand factor and diversity factor are both almost unity 1.6. VARIATION IN DEMAND, CHRONOLOGICAL LOAD CURVE The system load which is a combination of all the above mentioned loads varies from instant to instant. A graph showing the variation of the system load during the 24 hours of the day is known, as the system chronological load curve. The most important variations of this curve are the monthly and annual load curves each of which is the average of daily load curves over the period named SUMMER A chronological load curve for a typical week day is different from that for a Sunday that for a typical summer day being aga different from that for a winter day. The curve for a typical metropolitan area is shown in Fig 14, --- WINTER Loap During the early morning hours the demand is always low since almost all activities V are at a low key. Around 5 am the load starts | increasing as the industrial and traction loads start coming up. Around 9 am the load reaches \ J a high value and remains almost constant till evening except for some dip at lunch time. The fh eof bao! lefeopal fA; load again increases towards evenings as the ee eee 6 12 residential and the traction loads increase. The aM system peak occurs around S-8 pm and then the load decreases as almost all other loads, except residential, decrease after this time PM —> am PM Chronological load curve for a Metropolitan arca, Fig. 14. On Sundays the industrial loads are mostly absent and traction loads low. As such, Sundays depict a much lower demand. The loads on a Sunday being mostly residential, a Sunday load curve | resembles a residential load curve. During summer the residential loads come up at a time when industrial loads are over and traction loads are decreasing. As such the peak demand during summer is generally lower than during winter. Chronological load curves reflect the activities of the population quite accurately, A cl ‘or a rainy day shows a higher than normal load during the day and evening as compared to day. Thunderstorms during the day usually result in sharp peak demands of short duration Scanned with CamScannerINTRODUCTION 9 by switching on of the lights. Sometimes holiday crowcls may tax the urban electric transport system, causing an increase an the load, The industrial processes and domestic uses impose a highly variable load on the system. One consumer is likely to have a different load curve than the other and the third may have a still different one. This is all the result of the natural fact of the individual differences of the persons. However, as the number of consumers on a system increases, the effect of the individual differences and variations in daily activities is completely submerged into the effect of mass action, As such the daily load curve for one area is not likely to be much different from the curve for another similarly populated area. The early morning dip in chronological load curve is typical of all metropolitan areas in all seasons. Some utilities, by offering low tariffs, persuade people to use energy during off-peak hours thereby easing the situation during system peak load hours. The generation cost to generate additional energy during light load periods is less than the average generation cost. 1.7. LOAD DURATION CURVE-ENERGY LOAD CURVE Energy systems depict a considerable variation in demand. It is necessary, for system planning and operation, to know the total energy requirements and the duration of various loads. The area under a chronological load curve gives the energy consumed (i.e. kWh) during the 24 hours. A load duration curve is a re-arrangement of all the load elements of a chronological curv a descending order. Thus it shows the total number of hours for which a particular load lasts during the day. The area under the load duration curve is, evidently, equal to the area under the chronological load curve. Since the curves are generally of irregular shape, the area can be determined only graphically A graphical method for obtaining a load duration curve from a chronological curve is shown in Figs. 1.5 and 1.6. The abscissa for both the curves is 24 hours. In load duration curve, the abscissa at any load ordinate equals the length of the abscissa intercepted by that load ordinate on the chronological curve. At the system peak load, the infercept is just a point, giving a zero hour duration of the peak load. At load b the intercept is 6, hours and at load c the intercept is. c, + ¢ Sameer es2u1 6 Sid? Ola By). 1A 9 18 4 aa AM TIME PM HOURS > WHR ENERGY Enerey.load:cunye- sical Fig. 1.5. Chronological curve. Fig. 1.6. Load duration curve, Fig. 1 Scanned with CamScannerwhich the load lasts. As such the energy The energy corresponding to the peak tion curve. The energy at loads 6 and cis B “Toads of 6 kW and c kW is (B- C) kWh, ‘curve gives average load M. M represents the tion curve would have if they were of rectangular lowatls of load that can be carried on the base or peak, for available from a source like river flow, can be easily 2 18 | 7a TIME IN HOURS Fig. 1.9. Mass Curve. )watt-hours) as ordinate and time as i wath 8 abscissa, Th upto each hour of the day. The mass curve by summing up the energy consumed upt Baeietealeirve of Figh 5. the rans corel the rate of water flow and the electri canned with CamScannerINTRODUCTION "1 4.9, LOAD FACTOR Load factor fora system or a plant is the ratio of the average load to the peak load, for a certain, period of time. Average load Peak Load ‘Load factor can also be defined as the ratio of the energy consumed in a certain time (say 24 hours or a year) to the energy which would be consumed if the load is maintained at the maximum value throughout that time. Load factor + (1.9) Energy consumed during a time of f hours mo Peak load x/ ‘The peak load is generally taken as that prevailing for a half hour period and the average oad may be that pertaining to a day, a month or a year, thus giving daily, monthly or yearly load Load factor = factor. Load factor has an 499 en effect on power plant design, operation and cost of — 75/- BL generation, z z The load factor depicts 4 50- sok the variation of load during t a t a a certain period but it does 2 not give any indication of the " a4 shape of the load duration —> HOURS —> HOURS: curve. Fig. 1.10 depicts 400, 400 different systems having the same maximum demand, 75; 75 different shapes of load duration curves but the same load factor, 100% load factor means a rectangular load > w ew T duration curve with constant a jl load during the whole period —> HOURS —> HOURS of the time considered. Fig, 1.10, Load duration curves having equal maximum demands 4.10, CAPACITY FACTOR (100 MW) and the same load factor (75%) but different shapes. “The plant capacity factor (also known as plant factor) isthe rato of the average annual load to the power plant capacity. ‘Average Annual Load aay ty Factor = SYeSBe Capacity Factor =p ted Plant Capacity It can also be defined as the ratio of the energy produced by the plant in a year to the maximum energy that the plant could have produced. Ifthe plant is always run at its rated capacity, the capacity factor is 100%. “The capacity factor depicts the extent of the use of the generating station. It is different from load factor because of the reason that the rated capacity of each plant is always greater than the ‘expected maximum load, The power plants have always some reserve capacity to take into account the future expansion, increase in load and maintenance. Maximum Load Capacity Factor = 5 capacity Factor = FE araciy* coud Factor (12) Scanned with CamScannerthe capacity factor imum load, Its evident that if the rated plant capacity equals the ma™ load factor become identical. 1.11. UTILISATION FACTOR ed capaci Its defined as the ratio of the maximum demand to the Tat Maximum Load Utilisation factor = city sted Plant Capa a ia to which the plant is put. A low utilisa has been installed to take into account the ity of plant The utilisation factor for a plant depends on the us factor means thatthe plant is either a standby plant or bas PEeh 1 nigh utilisation fact future increase in the load. For a power plant, in an eee ae loads in excess of rated shows thatthe plant is probably the most efficent in the system. SHEE Te” 1g capacity are also carried, sometimes, utilisation factor may be ™ Pea “(ay Capacity Factor = (Load Factor) = (Utilisation ! 1.12, BASE LOAD AND PEAK LOAD PLANTS The system load varies from time to time. A typical chronological curve is as shown in Fig. 44 1.11. The maximum demand is M. If the total demand is supplied from one power plant having an installed capacity M (or somewhat igher to keep some reserve capacity), the plant will be running under loaded most of the time, thus making the operation uneconomical A better method is to divide the load into two portions, one below the line AB and the other above the line AB. These loads are referred to as base load and peak load respectively. These two loads are supplied from separate plants called the base load plant and the peak load plant. A base load plant operates at a high load factor and should be one which has low operating costs. The Ly, | Peak load plant operates at a low load factor. ri 72 Sometimes the load curve can be divided into three portions ie. base load, intermediate load AM TIMES® Y TEM and peak load. Example 1.4. The load on a power plant on a typical day is as under > LOAD Mw —> BASE LOAD 1.11. Base load and peak load Time 125am 59am 956 pm_—4g P10 . Load (MW) 20 40. 30 ce a pm 10 woe am Plot the chronological load curve and load duration Fi and the energy supplied by the plant in 24 hours, Suve: Find the load factor of te aa {AMI ma Solution. The chronological load curve is plotted in Fig. 1.12. The di f loads is i '¢ duration o! I under : Load (MW) 100 é 40 and 20 and Duration (Hours) 4 e eae above The load duration curve is plotted in Fig, ¥-13, 7 we is he eneray produced by the plant in 24 hi Scanned with CamScannerINTRODUCTION 100 -— ob ma ee I z é 3 340 3 20 ° | L 4 J hs ar aM ew TIME —> Hots y. Fig, 1.12. Chronological curve for Example 1.4, Fig. 1.13. Load duration curve for Example 1.4 = 100 x 4 + 80 x (13 — 4) + 40 (17 — 13) + 20 (24 ~ 17) = 1420 MWh 2 juss Pop = 0.5917 or 59.17% 100 x 24 e plant of Example 1.4 has an installed capacity of 125 MW. Find the Example 1.5. T! capacity factor and the utilisation factor. Solution. Capacity factor —129 , 9 5917 = 0.473 125 100 Utilisation factor = 755 = 0.8 Example 1.6, Plot the energy load curve and the mass curve for the chronological load curve of Example 1.4 Solution. The energy at different load levels is as under Load 0 MW, Energy = 24 = 20= 480 MWh Load = 40 MW, Energy = 480 + 20 « 17 = 820 MWh Load = 80 MW, Energy = 820 + 40 x 13 = 1340 MWh Load = 100 MW, Energy = 1340 + 20 « 4 = 1420 MWh “The energy load curve is plotted in Fig. 1.14. The energy supplied upto different times of the day is as under : Energy supplied upto 5 am = 20 x 5 = 100 MWh Energy supplied upto 9 am = 100 + 40 x 4 = 260 MWh Energy supplied upto 6 pm = 260 + 80 x 9 = 980 MWh Energy supplied upto 10 pm = 980 + 100 x 4 = 1380 MWh Energy supplied upto 12 pm = 1380 + 20 « 2 = 1420 MWh Scanned with CamScanner* POWER SYSTEM : OPERATION AND ‘The mass curve is plotted in Fig, 1.15. “05 1500 1200 80 t { = 900 fies i ~— 600 2 40 § s G 300 20 Epon, 12 6 ° 710 1420 aM PM ENERGY (MWh) —> TIME —> Fi curve for Example 1.4. Fig. 1.14. Energy load curve for Example 1.4. Fig 1.15. Mass curve for Exampl Example 1.7. The maximum demand of a power plant is 40 MW. The capacity factor is 05 and the utilisation factor is 0.8. Find (a) load tactor (b) plant capacity (c) reserve capacity (f) annual energy production Capacity factor 0.5 _ 4 695 Utilisation factor 0.8 Solution. (a) Load factor = _Max.demand __ 40 _ 5) yy Utilisation factor 0.8 (c) Reserve capacity = 50 ~ 40 = 10 MW (d) Annual Energy Production = 40 = 0.625 x 8760 = 219000 MWh Example 1.8. The load curve of an electrical sys different times of the day : Time 0 Sam 9 6 8pm 10 12 Load (MW) 50 50 100 100 150 80 50 Plot chronological load curve. Find the ‘energy required by the system in one day and the system daily load factor. Solution. The chronological load curve is plotted in Fig. 1.16. Energy required by the system in 24 hours (6) Plant capacity em is linear with the following values al 150 100| = 5035 +15. 44190494 1004150,» mw —> 50] 150+80, , 80+50 pr 8O4.50, tapaa in tc sar 8 = 2060 MWh A % 2060 ° Daily load factor = =O) ly Ina taster = parr ap = WAT22 A 57,20% PM TIME —»> Fig. 116 Scanned with CamScannerae EE SO INTRODUCTION 45 Example 1.9. For the system of Example 1.8 plot the load duration curve and the mass curve. Solutio#f-Following the procedure outlined in section 1.7, the load duration curve is plotted in Fig, 1.17. 150 2500} 2000} Poe 3 t 1500} £ 1000 50 z 500) 0 ° ° ere ee 12 HOURS —> Pe hgujncontdaion pat TIME —> Fig. 1.17 | The energy consumed upto different times is as under From 0 midnight upto 5 am, Energy = 250 MWh Ee upto 9 am, Energy = 250 + 300 = 550 MWh ‘i upto 6 pm, Energy = 550 + 900 = 1450 MWh i upto 8 pm, Energy = 1450 + 250 = 1700 MWh = upto 10 pm, Energy = 1700 + 230 = 1930 MWh Mid nights, Energy = 1930 + 130 = 2060 MWh The fass curve is plotted in Fig. 1.18, fmple 1.10. The annual load duration curve of a small hydroplant shows 438 x 10' kWh of energy during the year. It is a peak load plant with 20% annual load factor. Find station capacity Ifplant capacity factor is 15%, find reserve capacity of the plant i upto 12 ghox 0) Pe er ‘ 4 Energy generated during | year Solution. 1 I stor = a ti Annual load factor Max. load « 8760 i p= 38x10 Max. load x 8760 or Maximum load = 2500 kW = 2.5 MW Max. load factor = ——————_—.x load fa Capacity factor = capacity” (oad eetor Max. load, ——* 0.2 lant capacity 0.15 > Scanned with CamScannerPOWER SYSTEM : OPERATION AND. Max.load__0.15_ 9 75 ] Plant capacity 0.2 Max. load _ 2:5 3.333 MW 0.75 0.75 3.333 — 2.5 = 0.833 HW Example 1.11, A power station is to supply 4 areas whose peak loads are 10000 60 8000 kW and 7000 kW. The diversity factor of loads at the station is 1.5 and annual load factor 65%, Find maximum demand on station and annual energy supplied. Suggest installed capacity, into account the increase in maximum demand by 60%, type of station and number and size of ce Plant capacity = Reserve capacity 31000 kW = 31 MW Solution. Sum of maximum demands Sum of max. demands ee Maximum demand = = 20.667 MW Diversity factor I ‘Annual energy = 20.667 « 8760 « 0.65 = 117677.9 MWh Increase in maximum demand = 20.667 * 0.6 = 12.4 MW 20.667 + 12.4 = 33.067 MW can be either a diesel station of@ therefore this station will pine plant with 2 units of Installed capacity For the above value of installed capacity the power stati gas turbine plant. The diesel units are manufactured in small s need too many units and the cost would be very A gas 1 10 MW each and two units of 15 MW each would be suitable. The station will have a total installed capacity of 50 MW and thus will have sufficient reserve capacity also. Example 1.12. The daily load curve data for a system is as under Week days Time 12-Sam -8am -I2 $ pm 9pm 12 pm Load (MW) 100.150 250 150 Saturday and Sunday Time 12-Sam 5 pm 9 pm Load (MW) 100150 200 ist Draw a load duration curve for the system for one week: Find the weekly load factor: Solution. From the above data, the durations of different loads during one week are Load Duration ' 350 MW 4 * 5 = 20 hours di 250MW 20 +8 x 5 = 60 hours 27 200 MW = 60 + 4 x 2 = 68 hours 150 MW 68 + 6 x 5 +15 * 2 = 128 hours x 100 MW 128 + 6 5 + 5 * 2 = 168 hours 100 ik The load duration curve is plotted in Fig. 1.19. The total area under the load duration curve is 31600 ei i. MWh which represents the energy consumption in one week. ° Load Factor = "9° _x 100 = 53.7% 350* 247 Scanned with CamScannerMOHPARTGO = tAAaTe Example 1.13, Find the anmual load factor if the average daily load factor is 0.825, the ratio ~ of average daily peak load to monthly peak load is 0.87 and the ratio of average monthly peak load ‘to annual peak load is 0.78. Preity SSO Mica "Solution. Annual load factor = 0.825 * 0.87 * 0.78 = 0.5598. 6) 1.13, EFFECT OF VOLTAGE AND FREQUENCY ON LOADS sitcrigian@ ‘The variation of active and reactive components of power with voltage and frequency is an important aspect of power system analysis and operation. The composite load at a sub-station usually consists of: Induction motors 50-70%, Lighting and heating 20-25%, Synchronous motors 10%, Transmission losses etc. 10-20%. 1.13.1. Effect of voltage (@ Lighting load. Lighting loads do not consume any reactive power. Since the resistance of lighting devices is not constant, the active power does not vary as (Voltage) but approximately as (voltage)! () Heating. The resistance is almost constant and active power varies as (voltage) (©) Induction motors. The performance of an induction motor can be analysed from its equivalent circuit. The active and reactive power vary with voltage in a rather complex manner. The effect also depends on whether the shaft torque is constant or varies with speed and also whether the motor is running at full load or less than full load. The decrease of voltage causes an, increase in current so that the effect on power is small. If the shaft torque is constant, a 10% drop in voltage at full load condition may cause about 0.5% decrease in power. However if the voltage decreases appreciably (to about 0.8 pu) the power increases with further reduction in voltage. (@ Synchronous motors. The active power does not depend on voltage and remains, more or less, constant. A reduction in voltage causes the vars to increase in the leading direction. In most of the analysis the composite sub-station loads are represented by constant impedances so that both P and Q are assumed to vary as (voltage)? However it is only an approximate representation, 1.13.2. Effect of frequency. The power consumed by a resistive load does not, depend on frequency, However most of the loads are inductive in nature. The impedance of an inductive load depends on the frequency and therefore the power drawn by an inductive load depends on frequency. The analysis of the effect of frequency on motor load is rather complex. Since. only very, small changes in frequency are permissible, the effect of frequency on active and reactive power is neglected in calculations. However in load frequency control studies it is generally assumed that a one per cent decrease in frequency causes a one per cent decrease in active power. 1.14, LOAD FORECASTING Load forecasting can be divided into two categories : Long term load forecasting and Short term load forecasting. 1.14.1. Long term load forecasting. It takes a pretty long time to plan, install and commission additional generating capacity, Generation system expansion planning starts with a forecast of d future load requirements. Proper long term load forecasting is necessary for optimal generation capacity expansion. aM Y Tn preparing a forecast, the system planner is confronted with the following questions : 1, Should the maximum demand be forecast using forecasted energy and load factors or forecast separately. rioting Gilt Sie RAE aie d the total forecast be obtained by combining the fo sppropriat the total forecast be directly obtained fromthe l baie Scanned with CamScannerAND CONTI : poweR SYSTEM © OPERATION ing is extrapolatig One method, used by many utilities, for long range oad Moe ee apo Extrapolation technique involves fitting trend curves to basic ee is found growth trend itself. Once the trend curve is known, the ie Soe ee 4d in trend curve fitting are: curve function at the desired future point. Some of the function: Straight line y= A+ Br Parabola +Br+Cr s curve y=A+Br+ Cr+ DP Exponential y= Ce Gompertz y=in' (A+ Ce) Combination y=A+ Bx + Ce where y is the load in year x (with base year zero) and A. By C D are constants comp generally, by the method of least squares. | nee an If the uncertainty of extrapolated results is to be quantified using Soya ae and variance, the basic technique becomes probabilistic extrapolation. The use © & nol to generate a forecast from random inputs derived from historical data has also been suggested bu is not used in actual practice. ‘Another technique for load forecasting is correlation. This technique relates system loads to various demographic and economic factors. Typically factors like population, employment, industrial) fieenes; applience: saturation, weather data fc. are used in’ correlation techniques. Howewsiiggy forecasting of the demographic and economic factors is rather difficult. : 4 4 1.14.2. Short term load forecasting. A precise short term load forecast is essentially for, monitoring and controlling power system operation. The hourly load forecast with lead time upto} ne week in advance is necessary for on line solution of scheduling problems. A 24 hour load) forecast is needed for successful operation of the power system. One hour forecast is important for on line real time control and security evaluation of a large power system i Short term load forecasting techniques generally involve physical decomposition of load into) components. The load is decomposed into a daily pattern reflecting the difference in activity level) during the day, a weekly pattem representing the day of the week effect on load, a trend componet conceming the seasonal growth in load and a weather sensitive component reflecting the ceva in load due to weather fluctuations, The random error can be statistically analysed to obtain a: stochastic model for error estimation. 4 Thus the expected hourly load forecast is divided into five components and written as | Y(i j) = ADP Gj) + AWP (k, j) + WSC (i, f) + TR) + SEC (i, /) (la Where Y(i, f) = load forecast for j th hour of / th day ADP (j) = average daily load patiern at th hour AWP (k,j) ~ average weekly load increment patter at th hour and & th day of the (b= 1,26.) WSC (i,j) = weather sensitive component at j th hour of i th day TR (i) = trend component of load on i th day SEC (i, j)) = stochastic error component which is assumed ‘ tobe istributed. ‘The average daily pattern represents the hour of the day effect. It is ee load pattern over an optimal number of past days. cue ‘The average weekly pattern reflects the day of the week i ofthib Weeki cjetes’over ecertain nlmber of past weeks ait calsumletas th ‘The weather sensitive component represents the changes i 2 to variations in weather conditions, Generally temperature is considered ee ee eee since data banks for other weather variables like wind, humidity ete ar, nach ne . are, usually, not av average of the Scanned with CamScannerINTRODUCTION 19 The trend component includes three components : a long term growth trend, a short term trend dependent on the economic cycle and a time of the year pattern, ‘The statistical error component represents the error in the estimate, The standard deviation and variance are usually taken as error parameters: Many digital computer programs for load decomposition and forecasting have been developed by many utilities. For details of these computations the reader may refer to [1] in the end of chapter bibliography. Example 1.14. A feeder supplies 3 distribution transformers which feed the following loads: Transformer 1 Motor loads 300 kW, demand factor 0.6 commercial loads 100 kW, demand factor 0.5 Transformer 2 Residential loads 500 kW, demand factor 0.4 ‘Transformer 3 Residential loads 400 kW, demand factor 0.5 The diversity factor of the loads on the three transformers may be taken as 2.3, 2.5 and 2.0 respectively. The diversity factor between transformers is 1.4, Find (a) peak load on each transformer (6) peak load on feeder Solution. (a) Peak load on transformer 1 ~200*0.6+10005 199 kw Peak load on transformer 2 = 0° _g9 kw Peak load on transformer 3 aes 100 kW (B) Peak load on feeder 100+ 80100 _ 599 kw 14 1.15. RESERVE CAPACITY AND REQUIREMENTS Every system must have a certain amount of reserve generating capacity to provide for forced outage and overhaul of generating equipment. The following terms are commonly used in connection with this aspect. 1. Operating reserve is the reserve above firm system load requirement to provide for: regulation within the hour to cover minute to minute variations, load forecasting errors, Joss of equipment and equipment maintenance. It consists of spinning and non-spinning reserve. Spinning reserve is that operating reserve which is connected to the bus (with generators synchoronised) and ready to take load. Many times spinning reserve is obtained by overloading the generators (by increaseing the power input to the turbine) or by fully loading the generating units which are underloaded 3. Non spinning reserve is that operating reserve which is capable of being connected to the bus and loaded within a specified time. This reserve is obtained from fast start generating systems. Gas turbine units and hydroelectric generators can be started and loaded quickly ‘and, therefore, fall in this category. Spinning reserve is more reliable than non-spinning reserve because spinning reserve can espond very quickly. Scanned with CamScanner{ATION AND CONTROL POWER SYSTEM OPER ‘Some other terms used in connection with reserve capacity are: ind peak system load, Installed reserve: The difference between installed generating capacity a iP a eae Cold reserve: Generating units available for service but not maintained at operating sre cael col units and their combined capacity i called cOldTOST¥E, | oo rating se eserves Generating units ready and available fr service (MAMET ci ig temperature but not in actual operation are formed as hot uni an thei called hot reserve. Ready reserve; Gas turbine units an} Joaded quickly. They are referred to as ready reserve. ced rocerve: Reserve capacity which can be purchased ffom another system oF aa itmay be spinning Ce available immediately) of made available afer some ime as pe with the other party. Delayed reserve: Reserv ‘minutes (or even hours). 4.16, FIXED AND OPERATING Ct “The cost incurred in supplying electrical ‘annual cost can be broken up into annual ‘The annual fixed cost consists of interest, taxes general maintenance costs and rate of return, “The Operating cost means the expense: This cost includes cost of fuel, operating labour, cost of maintenance an “The generation cost (ie. Rupees per kwh) can be calculated by dividint of the system by the total energy generated by the system. 1.17, OVERVIEW OF POWER SYSTEM OPERATION Electrical energy cannot be stored in large amounts. Of course small amount of storage is possible in rechargeable patteries. But no method for large scale storage of electrical energy has been devised: so far. Therefore electrical energy has to be generated and supplied instantaneously. ihe operation pli power system becomes-very complex dus to the following fCtors 1 Ht eee the total active power generated must equal the total active power demand aeerintrovs demand varies from instant to instant, Loads also require lagging reactive power. This must also be 4, The voltage and frequency of the system must be rested a eit government regulations. in limits as per the 5. Energy must be generated in much a way that the overall cost is mini 6, Any part of the power system may suffer a forced outage at any ti meh must be in readiness to meet such emergencies, ¥ time. The power system 7. Because of many reasons (which are beyor Joad may increase unexpectedly Gaehaihaste pes system engineers), the i be buplied: and this additional load must. 1.47.1, Unit Commitment. The load demand in a power system varies Since the overall cost has to be kept to a minimum tis teased eee all the time. Therefore itis essential to predict the maximum demand and Serine piper felis dtl iedideneThaasbsniph ee ae decision as to how many and which units about be kep runniag a cerenity run a generating unit means to start the auxiliaries, bring the unit to full speed, Jectric units have the capability to be started and 'e which can be made available after a certain time, may be a few OSTS IN POWER SYSTEM energy has to be recovered from | fixed cost and operating cost. , insurance, depreciation, managerial and the consumers. The total .s which vary with the amount of energy produced. d supplies. total annual costScanned with CamScannerMM: OPERATION AND CONTROL poweR SYSTE! In earlier days this wag rol centre. e hi from a ETE oO an automatic load diay c it is necessary to control all the operations i s dons wer system operation and conto}, done from a manual load dispatch centre. Nowadays i centre. It is equipped with closed loop on line computers 1.18, OVERVIEW OF SYSTEM CONTROL snstant, Ifthe load on @ generator ost Governor Control. Te led Trang rom Breas Change in speed resus is increased, its speed will decrease. Ifthe load deerease™ sped erp acceptable. Therefore iti puiecanee a wit to the generator to compensate for tronic governors are necessary to use a governor to sense match between changes in load. In earlier days flyball governo : used. The electronic governor is fast and accurate. The £0V ge constant. | input and output to keep frequency of output voltage cons! eee | i 1.18.2. Load Frequency Control (LFC). This control is also called Megawat quency or ; in the system through control pif. control. The aim of this control is to maintain real power tae oe Bf eytam Frequency. Whenever the real power demand changes a fTequency SETS Nt frequency error is amplified, mixed and changed toa command sigh govemor, The governor adjusts the turbine input to restore the balance aioe 1.18.3. Economic Dispatch Control (EDC). The total load of the meee me in modi : the different generators such that the generators operate on equal incremental OOS. 1 Ti A, power systems this additional constraint has also to be incorporated in system contro} In ition fo maintaining frequency and voltage within limit the overall cost of generation must be minimum. This is achieved through economic dispatch control. This is possible only through the use of @ digital computer. This computer is located in energy control centre (in India the energy control entre i called load dispatch centre) All power plants are inter linked to this computer in energy control center through modem communication channels, The megawatt setings of different generator are fed to the computer every five minutes or so. Moreover the optimal settings (based on equal incremental cost) are also fed to the computer, The computer senses the difference between actual settings and optimal settings and sends command signals to the generators to adjust megawatt outputs. 1.18.4, Automatie Voltage Regulator (AVR), Every generator is filled with automatic voltage regulator. The functions of AVR are 1. Control of generator output voltage between prescribed limits 2, Proper division of reactive power between the units operating in parallel 3. Increase of excitation under system fault conditions so that maximum synchronising power is available when the fault is cleared to prevent loss of synchronism, 4, Prevention of dangerous overvoltages on the occurrence of sudden loss of load on the! system, ‘The AVR works on the principle of error detection. It controls the voltage of alternator. 1.18.8, System Voltage Control. System Volta é we Control is also | QV contro. The aim ofthis control isto maintain the system voltage iter ee VolaB excitation of machines. AVR senses the difference between a rectified ven ey saluting he stator voltage and a reference voltage. The error signal is amplified and Ray we eed om alternator. The change of excitation maintains the voltage at proper valve ogee tation circu the system. per value and the Var balance if Many other devices ae used for system voltage contro. These are 1. Fixed and switched capacitors. 2, Thyrisor switched capacitor, thyristor controled reactor (TCS_TCR), .mor control ensures @ exciter output to adjust the, Scanned with CamScannerINTRODUCTION a 3, Tap changing transformer and on load tap changing (tap changing under load), 4, Regulating transformer, 5, Series capacitor, 6. Synchronous condensers. 7, Flexible AC controllers (FACTS devices). 4.18.6. SECURITY CONTROL Power system operates under steady state for most of time. However some emergency situations occur from time to time, These are forced outage of generating unit, fault on transmission line, sudden increase or loss of load etc. Sometimes mal operation of a relay may also cause an emergency condition. Moreover the failures may have a cascading effect. It is the job of power system engineers to (1) operate the system such that reliability level is maintained (2) ensure economic operation taking all constraints into account. Security control aims to ensure reliability and economy. Example 1.15. A load can be modelled by a constant impedance Z = R + jX. By what percent will the real power decrease if voltage decreases by 1%, Solution. Pijosvna Coats yp R+jX Zt R-jX (R= jXY(R+IX) a| R+. = wel R Pedi RX? For small change in voltage ABER, 2P AIV|) alv| | a @ AlV AP q() shows that it © a is 1% will be 2% or 1% change in voltage causes 22% change in real power ie. 1% decrease in voltage causes 2% decrease in real power. Example 1.16. A generating station has the following load cycle Time(Hous) 0-6 6-10 10-12 12-16 16-20 20-24 Load (MW) 20 25 30 25 35 20 Draw load curve and calculate (a) maximum demand (6) units generated per day (c) average load (d) load factor. Solution. The load curve is shown in Fig, 1.21 (@) Maximum demand = 35 MW (6) The area under the load curve gives the energy generated in the 24 hour period. Energy = 20x 24+5x4+10x2+5*4+15*4 = 600 MWh = 600 * 10° kWh )0 MWh. (© Average lad = SOM" 25 mw (@) Load Factor = 2100 =71.42% Scanned with CamScannerfialeaedeeeauest Fig. 1.21 Example 1.17. A passive load can be modelled as Z= R + jX. The power factor is 0.8, would 1% drop in frequency affect real power. Solution. As in example 1.15 we 5h ae + nf Ly +4 f AP _aP __jyp[__Rewes eae 2Rx? sy x (Rearepy | PR +X? AP. OG ae an m Sie A mah) 4s) " +X? f ) ef When cos@ = OS anaes 0= (0.6) =0.36 2) AF 290036) 44 enon AL f f “1% drop in frequency means 0.72% increase in load, Example 1.18, The maximum demand on a station is 199 Mw. Th 00 a x load factor is the to total energy generated in a year. Solution. Average load = 100 « 0.4 = 40 Mw Energy generated in year = 40 = 8760 ~ 350400 Mwy Example 1.19. A diesel station supplies the following ; Industrial load = 1500 kW, commercial load = 750 ne loads: 4 bao @ Scanned with CamScannerINTRODUCTION 25 Domestic power load = 100 kW, Domestic light load = 450 kW. Ifthe maximum demand on the station is 2500 kW and number of kWh generated per year is 45 * 10° find (a) Diversity factor (6) Annual load factor. Solution. (4) Sum of maximum demands = 1500 + 750 + 100 + 450 = 2800 kw. 4 280 Diversity factor = “°° - ), ty factor = Soop 7112 s 45 x10 (6) Aver load = () “Average load = =—— Annual load factor = 513.7/2500 = 0.205 Example 1.19. A 400V 3 phase induction motor drives a compressor whose torque is speed independent. The initial ship is 0.03. How will the motor load change if the voltage drops by 1%. The parameters of the motor are as under. Neglect Z,. R, = 0.290 ohm/phase, R, = 0.15 ohm/ phase, X; + X; = 0.7 ohm/phase. All the parameters are referred to stator. Solution. Fig. 1.22 shows the equivalent circuit, = 513.7 kW Fig. 1.22 From induction motor theory we know that Te|V Ps ‘Assuming that motor is operating in linear region of its torque-slip curve and since torque is speed independent. | From Fig. 1.22. Substituting the values New Current /, = 1.0084 J, ‘Thus current increases by 0.84% Scanned with CamScannerOPERATION AND CONTROL 26 POWER SYSTEM : | r-(ae jr 5 2 9 + 0.15/0.03 | 1 ] 0.29 + 0.1570.0306 | 1.0084 or P, = 0.998? Thus, 1% drop in voltage increases current by 0.8 or 496 and decreases power input by 0.2% the sum of the continuous ratings of all the devices 1. The connected load of a consumer and outlets in his premesis. ‘The maximum demand of a c draw at any time. 3. The ratio maximum demand/connected load is the demand f 4, The group diversity factor is the ratio of sum of individual m maximum demand of the group. It is always more than | 5. Peak diversity factor is the ratio of maximum demand of a consumer group to the demand of the consumer group at the time of the system peak demand, It is always more than | jation in demand during the 24 hours of the day. consumer is the maximum power that his circuit is likely to factor of the consumer. aximum demands to the 6. A chronological load curve shows the It's shape, is different for different types of consumers ~ domestic, commercial, industrial, agriculture, traction etc. The system chronological load curve shows the variation in system load during the 24 hours of the day. The area under a chronological load curve gives the energy consumed (kWh or MWh) during the 24 hours. 7. The load duration curve is a rearrangement of all the load elements of a chronological curve in a descending order. Thus it shows the total number of hours for which a particular load lasts during the day. 8. The energy load curve shows the amount of energy between different demand levels. 9. A mass curve is plotted between energy and time. 10. Load factor is the ratio of average load to peak load. M1. Capacity factor is the ratio of average annual load to rated plant pacity 12 Utilisation factor isthe ratio of maximum load to rated plant capacity. 13. The product of load factor and utilisation factor is equal to capacity 14. The chronological load curve can be divided into two regions k load regions. 15. A system needs long term load forecastin forecasting for proper operation LSet State whether the following are True or False: 1.1. Demand factor can be more than 1. 1.2. Group diversity factor cannot be less than 1 1.3. The consumers maximum demand multiplied by at distribution transformer. 1.4, Peak diversity factor is always less than 1. 1.5. For residential loads, demand factor is about 0.6. 1.6. Group diversity factor for residential consumers is less than that for industri trial consumers. acity factor, nown as base load and peak ig for proper planninng and short term load Y BFOup diversity factor is his effective demand | : Scanned with CamScanner