Dynamics of magma withdrawal from stratified magma chambers Frank J. Spera Department of Geological Sciences, University of California, Santa Barbara, California 93106 David A. Yuen Department of Geology and Geophysics and Minnesota Supercomputer Institute University of Minnesota, linneapolis, Minnesota 55455 John C. Greer Department of Geology, Arizona State University, Tempe, Arizona 86287 Gram Sewell Department of Mathematical Sciences, University of Texas, El Paso, Texas 79968 ABSTRACT ‘The time history of magma withdrawal through a central vent {rom a iat-roofed chamber strongly stratified in density and viscosity ‘has been numerically modeled. Important parameters include the ‘geometry of the reservoir; the inital vertical compositional profile; * the ratio of viscous, inertial, and gravitational forces; and the basal ‘normal stress driving the eruption, Finite critical stresses inthe range 10? to 106 Pa are required to initiate and maintain an eruption. The ‘composition-time history of erupted magma depends strongly on the reservoir/conduit width (A) such that large A increases (1 the time interval during which miced magma is erupted, (2) the steady-state time (), defined as the time at which the composition of erupted ‘magma is within 1% of the initial basal composition, and (3) the fraction of silicic magma trapped within the chamber. Steady-state times increase by a factor of two as the viscosity contrast increases from 1 to 10%, and they become independent of viscosity variations for contrasts >10*. tis possible to distinguish continuous from discontinuous (Le, layered) pre-eruptive gradients within chambers bby comparing synthesized and measured geochemical stratigraphic sections for particular pyroclastic flow deposits. A mechanism for the generation of compositional gaps in ignimbrtes following either short eruption hiatus or an abrupt increase or decrease of the discharge during an otherwise quasi-steady eruption is quantitatively predicted, Most important, a compositional gap or a series of gaps ‘within a pyroclastic deposit does not necessarily mean that one existed within the chamber before the eruption. Itis impossible to invert stratigraphically controled geochemical data to obtain i situ chamber compositional structure if one does not have detailed {information regarding the location of vents and the variation of ‘magma discharge with time during a pyroclastic eruption. INTRODUCTION Pyrocastc eruptions in which lrg volumes (10! to 103 kam) of trbulenly mixed, incandescent magma are rapidly Gichargd are ‘among the mest violent and energetic terrestrial phenomena. Ii widely recognized that the products of these catastrophic eruptions represent the paral evacuation of chemically and thermally zoned crustal magma ‘chambers. Many Gel, laboratory, and simulation studies are being done to foster understanding ofthe underlying dynamic principles governing the origin of chemical and thermal structure in magma chambers. How- ever, stratigraphic and geochemical studies of pyroclastic fw depois Alone ae not sufcient o infer pre-erupive in stu gradients. The effets of the mixing of magmas due tothe simulianeous withdrawal of magma from diferent location within the chamber (vetcally and radially) must GEOLOGY, ¥. 14, . 723-726, Sepumber 1985 be explicitly accounted for if there are to be any accurate reconstructions of in stu chemical and thermal gradients, Because of the significance of this problem, we have embarked on a series of numerical simulations of magma withdrawal from chambers of arbitrary shape and size and strongly zoned with respect to density (p) and viscosity (n). Both central vent and ring-racture eruptions have been ‘modeled because it has been shown that both styles are relevant in na- ture, in some cases during a single eruption (Bacon, 1983). The numeri- cal models flexible in thatthe dynamic parameters of the problem (c.g, the Reynolds number, the Richardson number, the basal normal stress) ‘may be varied over many orders of magnitude. Additionally, there are no restrictions on the size and shape ofthe reservoir or in the assumed initial profiles of density and viscosity. Nonlinear rheological laws may also be employed. A detailed report concerned wit the numerical methods, uid 0, a uniform upward impetus represented by basal stress (Ss) is applied along y= 0. Provided Sy exceed a crcl value denoted ‘by Sc ee below), magma effusion ikes place. However, ifthe crcl ‘normal basal stress is not exceeded; that is, if the push from below is not ‘strong enough, no eruption occurs. This threshold effect points to the im- portance of magma chamber recharge as an eruption trigger independent ‘of a catastrophic degassing event. In the earlier models of Blake (1981), ‘Spera (1984a), and Blake and Ivey (1986), a constant magma discharge was arbitrarily imposed at the vent. Here, we adopt a more realistic con- dition of uniformly imposed basal normal sess and allow the dis- charg to evolve accordingly. Physically, the normal stress directed vert- cally upward (along 2- in Fig. 1b) i generated when rapaly ascending ‘basaltic melt is suddenly decelerated. This is somewhat like a basaltic “eruption” but one that occurs atthe base of ahighlevel chamber Injec- tion velocities onthe onder of several metres per second ae implied by this model. These are consistent with independent estimates of magma transport rates (e, Spera, 1984b; Shaw, 1985). We find that in systems with strong vsosty stratification, calculated discharge based on con- stan basses varies temporally ‘Mathematical Relations ‘Conservation of mass and linear momentum demands that ay ) Equations 1 and 2 ae writen in nondimensional terms. Velocity, time, stress, length, and density are rendered dimensionless by use ofthe scales ‘m2/ Wy O¥/12, Oy ¥, and pa, Where oy i a characteristic basal normal stress at y= 0, Wis the width of the volcanic conduit, and 7 isthe vis- costy atthe bottom of the reservoir (see Fig 1a) We assume a Newion- jn rheologicl law throughout this study. The evolution ofthe compo- sition field is governed by the conservation equation r Sewvr= 7 T=0, ® where Pis the volume faction of basal at any location and time. Be- cause the time scale of an eruption is measured in hours or days, chemi- ‘al fusion can be ignored. Not thatthe density and viscosity distribu- tins in equation 2 are linked tothe T evolution equation through the ‘dependence of p and 7 on I. The parameter of ths problem include the ‘geometric ratios (4, Band C; see Fig. 1, the Richardson number (Ri= 'p2 80/09) the moifed Reynolds number (Re’ = 92¥2oy/ nthe den- sity ratio (oy/), and the viscosity ratio my/n. Magmatie systems span at Teast an order of magnitude variation in each ofthe geomet ratios _and at least a range of 10* or more in the dynamic variables. Typical pa- ‘rameter ranges are as follows: A, 20 to 500; B, 5 to 0.2; C, 1 t0 0.1; Ri, 10 to 1; Re’ 10° to 107% and n/n | 10 108, The adopted boundary conditions ae identical to those in Spera (19848) except forthe prescrp- tion of stress ater than discharge (Fig. 1b). ‘We find that the inital instantaneous discharge at ied Sy is ‘strong function of ,/12. But it is also found that the critical threshold ‘stress (Sx) i independent of n/n. Thus, a recharge event of some rinimal magnitude is necessary to initiate an eruption. Once st in mo- tion, however, the rates sensitive tothe viscosity structure within both the chamber and the conduit. The vale of Sz fr Ri= 10 is shown in Figure 4 RESULTS Inferring Pre-eruption Gradients ‘The movement of the P= 0.5 locus a a function of time is shown ‘in Figure 2a for a discontinuously layered system. Initially, the upper half ‘of the chamber is fled with rhyolite, the lower half is filled with basalt, * ‘and the interface is horizontal. As the eruption progresses, the interface ‘becomes tilted and is displaced upward toward the chamber roof. There ‘are two time scales relevant to interface evolution. An inital, relatively rapid phase occurs, a the end of which the interface breaches the bottom ‘entrance ofthe conduit. For the parameters appropriate to Figure 23, the ‘conduits breached at ¢= 10. This corresponds roughly toa dimensional time ofa few hours. This rapid evolution is associated with an early tran- sient overshoot of about 5% in the maximum vertical magma velocity Ve * Vn occurs along the axis ofthe volcanic conduit immediately below ‘the bottom entrance. Once the conduit is breached, the interface migrates more slowly, moving up toward the roof ofthe chamber and away from the bottom entrance ofthe conduit simultaneously. ‘In Figure 2, the horizontally averaged magma composition atthe ‘conduit ext (T.)is plotted vs. time forthe layered system (curve labeled 1), After a bref period of effusion, during which nearly pure rhyolite (T = 0)is erupted, the average exit composition (T) increases ata rapid rate, At = 10, atime that represents only 25% ofthe steady-state time, T, i already equal to 0.9. The steady-state time (tis defined here asthe time at which T, the vent composition, is within 1% of being pure “bot- tom-layer” composition. For the set of parameters relevant to Figure 2, f, = 42, Once is reached, a significant fraction of slca-rich magma can remain “trapped” in the reservoir (Le, along the oof away from d in Fig. 1), The amount of trapped silicaenriched magma isa strong function of the aspect rato (A) of the chamber, The results shown in Figure 2 are for A = 30, which is near a lower limit for magmatic systems. Field ob- servations (Erken and Byers, 1976) suggest that aspect ratio as large as GEOLOGY, September 1986Figure 2. a: Poston of rhyolte-basaltinter- {ace (T= 0.6) as function of ime, Note rapid ‘movement of interlace unl condult breached at t= 10, Steady-state time fortis i ‘case is = 42. Other parameters: A= 20, 05, 628.5, do/oy= 0.1, ny/n2=1, Re’ =, i= 103, 5 = 7700. Time to steady state ia ‘approximately doubled for 94/72 = 10% with ‘other parameters fixed. b: Plot of radially av- ‘raged vent-exit composition (T4) va. non ‘dimensional ime for eruption from flat-topped ‘reservoir. Curve 1 is for layered chamber with, ‘equal thicknesses of riyotte and basal. ‘Curve 2s for continuously (ineary)stratiied system. in both cases Ap/p, = 0.1. When vi ‘costystrattication is taken into account, die- tinctive shapes of F,-t curves are preserved. ‘A= 100 may not be uncommon. In these situation, a rather sizable frac- tion of silicic magma remains untapped during an eruption, even though ‘large amount of magma initially located much deeper within the reser- voir flows out. This implies that once a significant fraction of chemically volved magma has accumulated roofward, its complete or neatly com- plete removal requires a repeated series of eruptions separated sufciently i time (hours todays) fora gravitationally stable “interface” to be re- ‘tablished. Its likely that the interface region would be layered on a ‘centimetre: to metresize sale asa result of the estratification proces. ‘This effect could be modeled by use of a suficienty large number off nite elements in the computation. Some banded pumices and mixed- pumice flows may owe ther origin to such a mixing mechanism. Inthe calculations presented here, spatial domains smaller than about 40 m cannot be resolved. Work isin progress in which mete-sied heteroge- nets are resolved by use ofthe Cray 2 supercomputer atthe University cof Minnesota. ‘The shape of the [gt curve depends on A, B,C, Re’, Ri, Sy and the inital compositional profile within the chamber. The simulations in- Aicate the posbilty of cstingushing between, for example continuously and discontinuously (ie, layered) zoned chambers by inspection of Tet curves derived from careful geochemical and voleanologcal sampling. ‘An example ofthis i shown in Figure 2, where curve 1 represents the Tet relation for eruption from a rhyolitebasalt layered system (ayers of qual initial thickness) and curve 2 the Pe relation for eruption from & linearly zoned rhyolite to basalt reservoir. Although both Te curves are ‘monotone in they exhibit distinct tends, especially during the early pars ofthe eruption. In nature, an eruption may stop at anytime, so only a small portion ofthe Pecurve may be represented in any given pyrocastic flow depos- i. The points that a comparison between synthesized and measured Tt ‘curves for particular pyroclastic deposits can potentially lead to insight into the structure of pre-erupive gradients within the chamber. The effect of variations in the viscosity structure isto translate the I curve paral- lel tothe time axis. This transformation preserves, for the most part, the shape ofthe P'-relation. Therefore, two systems characterized by iden- tical parameters except for differences in the viscosity structure wil plot nearly identically if Tis plotted vs. stratigraphic height instead of Tvs. time. gt data offer more stringent constraints onthe stracture of in sta density and viscosity feds within the pre-ruptive chamber. Unforto- nately these data are dificult to collect. Role of Eruption Hiatus Few if any eruptions proceed very long at constant discharge (%°/s) Observations of the 1980 Mount St. Helen eruption indicated a ‘variable discharge during the course of the ruption (Haris et al, 1981) Consequently, we have aplied our model to est te consequences of GEOLOGY, September 1986 i & on VENTEXIT COMPOSITION (f) BaeseTes ime (¢) short eruption hiatus or dramatic change in discharge on the composition ‘of emitted magma. In Figure 3, the results of an example are shown. The inital (pre-eruptive) configuration is fr a layered system asin Figure 2a. ‘Ata specific time, represented by a volume fraction of 02, the normal ‘basal stress is “turned off” fora short period of time. During this time in- terval no magma is erupted; however, magma redistribution toward a more gravitationally table structure takes place within the chamber Finally, the basal normal stress i tured on again and magma begins to ‘erupt anew. As noted in the figure, a compositional gap will appear in the stratigraphic section of the outflow deposit Fora rhyoite-basalt cou- ple, this gap would be 6 wt% SiO, forthe conditions appropriate to Fig- tre 3. Note thatthe magnitude ofthe generated compositional gap is not 30, the relation Sy ~ (Re breaks down, This is similar to results of Spea (1984a) ands related tothe transition betwen creeping and higher velocity low as Re increases ‘At very high Re’, viscosity plays no dynamic role except along the rigid ‘walls ofthe chamber In virtually all the cases studied, the maximum ver tia velocity (Vq)oocus at 7)= ©, A). Figure 4 presents several important results of this study. The plot shows that higher basal normal stresses are required to attain a given ve- locity as the aspect ratio ofthe chamber increases from 10 to 0. For ex- ample, to maintain Vg = 5 requires an increas in Sy bya factor of 3 5A varies fom 10 0 50, i other parameters (B,C, Ri, Re’ Sp/p2, ‘y/ng) are fixed. The regular variation of dVg/dS; with A enables one to reliably extrapolate to much higher aspect ratios and therefore make predictions relevant to large-volume volcanic systems, Another point is Figure 4. Plot of steady-state maximum vertical velocity (Vq) vs. basal normal stress (Sy) for varying aspect ratios (A= 10, 20, 30,40, 50). ‘Additional numerical experiments (not shown) Indicate that dVjq/dSy is independent of n/n Plots of dVq/dSy vs. Ain log-log space are siraight tines enabling extrapolation of Vp - , relations to higher a8- ectratio chambers. Intercept on S, axis defines critical stress (Sea). ‘Which is Independent of A and n,/nx For S, < Sy» no eruption is Dossible. For Re’ = 1, R= 10°, and d/o, = 01, Soy ~2800. Light ‘Curved lines are spin-up Iaochrone for f, 20,25, 30, 40, and 60 for ‘ty/ng= 1. Increasing 74/7, trom 1 to 104 increases f, from 32 to 66 at 5, =12600 and A~= 20, Figure is accurate for Re’ between 10°? and 36. Alls equal to constant value of 10°. Decrease in Rl increases Ve, ‘with other factors constant. ns Pine USA that there exists a critical basal normal stress (Sc, below which extru- son is not possible. For the fixed values of B C, Ri, and p/p relevant to Figure 4, Sc = 2900/Re’. Surprisingly, Sis independent of 1)/n ‘This result has been verified for a layered system with m)/72 up to 10* (eau a basal-rhyoite couple). Finally, the thin curves of Figure 4 represent steady-state isochrons for t= 20, 25, 30, 40, and 60. Unlike the Vq-Sp relation, the isochrons ‘depend on 7/p. Those sketched in Figure 4 correspond tothe case where n/m equals unity. Increasing n,/7 increases. For instance, ,2 32, 64, and 66 for viscosity ratios of 1, 102, and 10%, respectively, ‘other parameters remaining identical. There isan asymptotic relationship between f, and n/n. CONCLUSIONS ‘The eruption of magma from a chemically stratified chamber de- ‘pends upon the geometry ofthe chamber, the spatial variation of magma properties within the chamber, the ratios of inertial and gravitational fores to viscous forces, and the normal stress atthe base ofthe chamber ‘which drives the eruption. Normal stresses in the range 10? t0 106 Pa are ‘needed to initiate an eruption. The chamber/condut width (A) exerts @ strong control onthe composition-time systematics of erupted magma. ‘As A increases (1) the time interval during which mixed magma is ‘erupted increases, (2) the fraction of silicic magma that remains “rapped” in a chamber increases, and (3) the time to steady state in- ‘reases. AS n/p increases from I to 1021, increases and becomes in- ‘dependent of viscosity ratio for n/n >10. It is posible, by comparing actual and synthesized I profies, to distinguish between continuous and discontinuous gradients in speciic magma chambers provided the discharge is known asa function of time. Finally, a mechanism for the production of multiple fow units and/or compositional gaps within pyroclastic flow deposits has been identified. A short hiatus or abrupt change in discharge during the course of an eruption can lead toa com- positional gap inthe pyroclastic low deposit even ifno such gap exited ‘within the chamber. REFERENCES CITED Bacon, CR, 1983, Eropive history of Mount Mazama and Crater Lake Caldera, ‘Cascade Range, US.A: Joural of Volcanology and Geothermal Research, v.18, p.57-115, Blake, 8, 1981, Eruption from zoned magia chambers: Geological Society of Losdoa Journal, 138, pt. 3, p. 281-287. Blake, $, and Ivey, GN, 1986, Magms-ising and the dynamics of withdrawal fiom sated reservoirs Joural of Voleznology and Geothermal Research, ¥.27,p S317. Erken, EB, and Byers, FM, 1976, Ash‘low sure vent in west-central Nevada: Geology. 4p. 247-251 (Grer, J.C, 1986, Dynamics of withdrawal from sated magma chambers (MS. thesis Tempe, Arizona Sute University Haris, DM, Rose, W.L, Roe, R, and Thompson, MR, 1981, Radar observa. tions of ash eruption: US. Geological Survey Profesional Paper 1250, p. 93-108, (Offre, Mand Mathews, RE, 1981, Geochemical evoluon in an advancing viodialy replenished, periodically oppe, continuously facionaed ‘magma chamber: Geological Sosy of London Journal, 138, p. 237-277 ‘Sewell 6, 1985, Analyses ofa Git element method PDE/PROTRAN: New ‘Shaw, HAR, 1985, Links between magma-ectonc rate balances, plutonism and ‘olan: Journal of Geophysical Research, v.90, , 11275-11288 Spera, FJ, 1984, Some numeral experiments ca the withdrawal of magma fiom crustal reservoirs: Journal of Geophysical Research, v.89, p. 8222-8236 —Is84p, Carton donde in petrogenss I: Role of volatiles in the ascent of llaine magma with special reference wo xenolt-bearing mafic lavas Con- {ebuton 1 Mineralogy and Petrology, v. $8, p. 217-222 ‘Manuscript received January 13, 1986 Revised manuscript recived May 22, 1986 ‘Manuscript accepted June 11,1986 GEOLOGY, Sepemter 1986