Composites Part B 92 (2016) 94e132

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Composites Part B
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/compositesb

A review of recent research on the use of cellulosic fibres, their fibre

fabric reinforced cementitious, geo-polymer and polymer composites
in civil engineering
Libo Yan a, b, *, Bohumil Kasal a, b, Liang Huang c
a
Department of Organic and Wood-Based Construction Materials, Technical University of Braunschweig, Hopfengarten 20, Braunschweig 38102, Germany
b
Centre for Light and Environmentally-Friendly Structures, Fraunhofer Wilhelm-Klauditz-Institut WKI, Bienroder Weg 54E, Braunschweig 38108, Germany
c
College of Civil Engineering, Hunan University, Changsha 410082, China

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Environmentally-friendly monofilament cellulosic fibres have been widely used as alternatives for
Received 3 November 2015 conventional steel reinforcement within concrete. Recently, the use of cellulosic fibre fabrics and their
Received in revised form fabric reinforced polymer composites as reinforcement materials within and/or outside of construction
27 January 2016
materials (e.g. concrete) has gained popularity due to their inexpensive cost and favourable specific
Accepted 1 February 2016
Available online 27 February 2016
mechanical properties compared with synthetic fibre fabrics (e.g. E-glass). This review presents a
summary of recent development on cellulosic fibre Fabric Reinforced Cementitious (FRC) and Fabric
Reinforced Geopolymer (FRG) composites, as well as their cellulosic Fabric Reinforced Polymer (FRP)
Keywords:
A. Fibres
composites as reinforcements of concrete, masonry and timber structures for civil engineering appli-
A. Fabrics/textiles cations. This review covers: (1) properties (i.e. chemical composition, microstructure, mechanical
A. Polymerematrix composites (PMCs) properties and cost) of monofilament cellulosic fibres and their comparison with synthetic fibres, the
B. Interfaces relationship between fibre chemical composition and fibre mechanical properties, parameters affect fibre
B. Environmental degradation properties; (2) properties (e.g. fabrication of monofilament fibres to fabrics and structures) of cellulosic
fibre fabrics, properties of polymer matrices, and properties (i.e. flexural, tensile, impact, insulation and
fire properties) of cellulosic fabric FRP composites; and (3) properties (compressive, flexural and tensile
and impact properties) of cellulosic FRC and FRG composites, and the properties of cellulosic FRP
composites reinforced concrete, masonry and timber structures. In addition, the degradation mecha-
nisms of cellulosic FRC and FRP are discussed. Furthermore, the durability of FRC, FRG and FRP com-
posites are reviewed and the methods to improve the durability of FRC, FRG and FRP composites from the
aspects of fibre modification and matrix modification are reviewed and summarized.
© 2016 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction cannabinus, eucalyptus pulp, malva, ramie, pineapple leaf, kenaf

Because of ever-increasing environmental concern and a
requirement for development of environmentally-friendly and
energy-efficient materials, monofilament cellulosic fibres have
been widely used as alternatives for steel or synthetic fibres as
reinforcements within cementitious composites for decades [1e8].
These cellulosic fibres include flax, sisal, jute, hemp, coir, hibiscus
* Corresponding author. Department of Organic and Wood-Based Construction
Materials, Technical University of Braunschweig, Hopfengarten 20, Braunschweig
38102, Germany. Tel.: þ49 531 220 7725.
E-mail addresses: libo.yan@wki.fraunhofer.de, l.yan@tu-braunschweig.de
(L. Yan).
bast, sansevieria leaf, abaca leaf, vakka, bamboo, banana, and palm
and sugarcane fibres, etc. Cellulosic fibres are widely available in
most countries and cost-effectively with low density. They are
biodegradable, renewable, non-hazardous and non-abrasive. In
addition, their specific mechanical properties (i.e. specific strength
and modulus) are comparable to those of synthetic fibres (e.g. E-
glass) when used as reinforcement materials [9e11]. These ad-
vantageous make cellulosic fibres to be convenient materials as
reinforcement of cement-based materials. The purpose of adding
these monofilament cellulosic fibres is to enhance the mechanical
properties (e.g. tensile, flexural and impact properties) of brittle
building materials, such as cement, mortar or concrete, especially
for improving ductility and post-cracking toughness of cement-

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.compositesb.2016.02.002
1359-8368/© 2016 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
 L. Yan et al. / Composites Part B 92 (2016) 94e132
based composite materials provided by the fibres after cracking
started [12e16]. The embedded monofilament cellulosic fibres
bridge the cracks of cement matrix and transfer the stresses.
Moreover, the addition of monofilament cellulosic fibres can reduce
free plastic shrinkage [17] and thermal conductivity [18], and
improve sound absorption [19] and vibration damping properties
of cementitious materials [20].
Although there are many aforementioned advantageous, several
shortcomings in producing cellulosic fibre reinforced cementitious
materials at industrial scale still exist: (1) Suspect of durability.
One major obstacle which needs to be overcame for successful
commercialization of cellulosic fibre reinforced cementitious ma-
terials is their durability. The lack of data related to the durability is
a critical challenge that needed to be addressed prior to the
widespread acceptance and implementation of these materials in
engineering areas [21e24], (2) use of small fibre fraction/content
leads to relatively limited reinforcement effect. In monofilament
configuration, normally the amount of cellulosic fibre used within
cementitious materials is relatively small, i.e. the fibre volume
fraction is controlled within the range from 0.2 to 2.0%
[2,16,23e28]. As well known, for monofilament cellulosic fibre
reinforced cementitious composite, a large fibre content can cause
difficulties in concrete mixing and distribution of fibre, and even a
significant reduction in workability of the fresh concrete which
possible results in large growth of porosity [25e28]. Thus, the
improvement in mechanical properties of cementitious composites
by adding the small amount of cellulosic fibre is positive but also
relatively limited, and (3) significant variations in fibre proper-
ties. Cellulosic fibres have significant variations in chemical com-
positions, diameter, length and surface roughness resulting in the
significant scattering in fibre mechanical properties [29e33].
Consequently, this may cause scattering in mechanical properties of
these cellulosic fibre reinforced cementitious materials.
As the aforementioned reasons, in recent years, there is an
increasing tendency to use cellulosic fibre fabrics and their fabric
reinforced polymer (FRP) composites as reinforcement materials of
conventional building materials. Polymer matrix, reinforced by
woven fabrics, is the form of composites which have been used
most commonly in structural applications such as aircrafts, boats
and automobiles [34]. The advantageous to use cellulosic fibre
fabrics and their FRP composites of construction materials (e.g.
concrete) are as follows: (1) Good stability in mechanical prop-
erties. Fine and regular long monofilament cellulosic fibres are
usually spun into yarns, and next, a number of fibre yarns are
twisted into a continuous strand, and then these strand yarns are
woven into fabrics with different yarn structures such as configu-
ration, alignment and packing of constituent fibres in the yarn cross
section [35,36]. With a standardized manufacturing process,
cellulosic woven fabric allows the control of fibre orientation and
quality, good reproducibility and high productivity. Consequently,
the issues, such as significant variations in monofilament cellulosic
fibre properties, hard to dispersion and random distribution of
cellulosic fibres in cementitious matrix (i.e. which may be not along
the loading direction and cannot provide effective reinforcement),
can be overcame in the case of cellulosic fibre fabrics. Therefore,
these fabrics and their FRP composites exhibit good stability in
mechanical properties so as their reinforced structural materials,
(2) provide effective reinforcements in multi-directions.
Compared with monofilament cellulosic fibres in cementitious
matrix which only provide reinforcement effect in the fibre longi-
tudinal direction, the woven cellulosic fabrics can offer effective
reinforcements for the matrix in multi-directions (e.g. bi-
directional woven fabric in both weft and wrap directions), (3)
not only used within but also outside of cementitious matrix. In
monofilament cellulosic fibre reinforced cementitious composite,
95
these fibres were embedded within the cement matrix only. But for
cellulosic fibre fabrics and their FRP composites, these re-
inforcements can be used either within and/or outside of concrete
members to retrofit/strengthen of existing concrete structures [e.g.
Refs. [37e43]] and to create new hybrid composite concrete
structures [e.g. Refs. [44e52]] or to be new fibre fabric reinforced
geo-polymer (FRG) composites [53e64], and (4) can be used with
other conventional construction materials. Unlike the mono-
filament cellulosic fibres normally embedded within cementitious
matrix, the cellulosic fibre fabrics and their FRP composites can be
used as reinforcement materials of other conventional construction
materials, such as timber [e.g. Refs. [65e69]] and masonry [e.g.
Refs. [70e75]].
Therefore, this study presents an overview of recent develop-
ment on the use of cellulosic fibres, their fabric reinforced
cementitious (FRC) composites, and cellulosic fabric reinforced
geopolymer (FRG) composites and the cellulosic fabric FRP com-
posite reinforced concrete, timber and masonry structures for civil
engineering applications. Firstly, the physical and mechanical
properties and cost of various cellulosic fibres were summarized
and compared with the synthetic fibres such as glass, carbon and
aramid. Next, the microstructures of several most commonly-used
celluloses fibres (i.e. flax, sisal, hemp, cotton and jute) were pre-
sented. The relationship between chemical compositions and me-
chanical properties of monofilament cellulosic fibres were
discussed. Then, the parameters which influent the mechanical
properties of cellulosic fibres were summarized. After that, the
properties such as fabrication of fabrics from monofilament fibres
and structures of cellulosic fibre fabrics, properties of polymer
matrices, and the mechanical properties of their FRP composites
were discussed. Afterwards, the mechanical properties of fabric FRC
and FRG composites, and those of FRP composite strengthened
concrete, masonry and timber structures were reviewed. In addi-
tion, the degradation mechanisms of cellulosic FRC and FRP com-
posites were discussed. Furthermore, the durability of FRC, FRG and
FRP composites were reviewed and the methods to improve the
durability of FRC, FRG and FRP composites from the aspects of fibre
modification and matrix modification were reviewed and
summarized.
2. Characteristics of cellulosic fibres
2.1. Chemical compositions of cellulosic fibres
Cellulosic fibres are natural fibres based on the classification
according to their origin or botanical type, as shown in Fig. 1 [91].
Cellulosic fibre itself is a composite material which is consists of
cellulose, hemicellulose, lignin, wax and pectin as main constitu-
ents and minor amounts of sugars, starch proteins in varying
quantities. The properties of a cellulosic fibre are highly dependent
on its chemical composition. The basic chemical components of a
cellulosic fibre are cellulose, hemicellulose and lignin. In a cellulosic
fibre, the cellulose is the stiffest and strongest organic component
which provides the fibre with strength, stiffness and stability. Cel-
lulose is a natural polymer and the cellulose molecules include
glucose units linked together in long chairs, which in turn are lined
together in bundles named micro-fibrils [22]. However, cellulose is
semi-crystalline polysaccharide with a large amount of hydroxyl
group. This hydrophilic nature causes a poor resistance of cellulosic
fibre to moisture absorption and the poor interfacial bond when
these fibres are used as reinforcement of hydrophobic matrix, such
as polymer [22,76]. Hemicelluloses are polysaccharides bonded
together in relatively short, branching chains. They are intimately
associated with cellulose micro-fibrils, embedding the cellulose in a
matrix [22]. Hemicellulose has an open structure and is fully
96 L. Yan et al. / Composites Part B 92 (2016) 94e132
Fig. 1. Classification of natural and synthetic fibres (Reproduced with permission from Ref. [91]).
amorphous including large numbers of hydroxyl and acetyl groups.
Therefore, hemicellulose is soluble in water and hygroscopic media.
The hemicellulose is strongly bonded to cellulose fibrils by
hydrogen bonds [77,78]. Lignin is amorphous, highly complex, and
mainly aromatic; polymers of phenyl propane units but have the
least water sorption of the cellulosic fibre components. It is a
complex aromatic hydrocarbon polymer that imparts rigidity to
plants. Without lignin, plants could not attain great heights. Lignin
is a three-dimensional polymer which serves as a chemical adhe-
sive within and between fibres [22,76,78]. Pectin is a compound
name of heteropolysaccharides and imparts flexibility to plants,
which is found in bast fibres and fruits. Both lignin and pectin
provide the function as bonding agents [22,31]. Most of plant waxes
are mixtures of substituted long chains of aliphatic hydrocarbons.
They contain alkaline, fatty acids, primary and secondary alcohols,
ketones, aldehydes and other ingredients. The wax in cellulosic fi-
bres impacts the wettability and adhesion of these fibres [22,78].
The chemical compositions of several cellulosic fibres are given in
Table 1 [91]. As shown in Table 1, the chemical composition con-
tents are varies from fibre to fibre. Some fibres, i.e. cotton, flax,
hemp, ramie, sisal, are rich in cellulose, which accounts for more
than 70% of the total chemical composition. These fibres are the
commonly used cellulosic fibres for making woven fabrics studied
in the literature because their high contents in cellulose enable
them to be widely used as reinforcement materials of polymer
composites. The chemical compositions of cellulosic fibres are
highly influenced by the species, geographical and climatic
conditions, and the variety of the plant, agricultural variables such
as soil quality, the weathering conditions, the level of plant matu-
rity, and the quality of the retting process [22,78,79]. All these
factors could influent the chemical compositions of the fibres and
in turn the fibre properties.
2.2. Physical and mechanical properties of cellulosic fibres and their
comparison with synthetic fibres
The mechanical properties of cellulosic fibres also depend on the
physical properties of these fibres such as fibre diameter, length,
density, moisture gain and micro-fibril angle, etc. Table 2 lists the
physical properties of various cellulosic fibres [22,78]. As listed in
Table 2, the fibres are varies in diameter, length, density, moisture
gain and micro-fibril angle. Generally, the tensile strength of a
cellulosic fibre decreases when the fibre length increases. The
longer the fibre, the higher its probability of containing a defect
(e.g. kink bands) and thus of failing prematurely compared to a
shorter fibre [80]. Since cellulosic fibres are highly hydrophilic,
their high moisture absorption and poor dimensional stability
(swelling) characteristics could degrade fibre properties. In addi-
tion, the hydrophilic characteristics of cellulosic fibre can cause a
poor fibre/matrix adhesion due to the presence of pendant hy-
droxyl and polar groups in the components, which lead to high
moisture uptake and lower the properties of the fibres themselves
seriously and thus, lower the mechanical performance of their fibre
reinforced polymer composites. Table 3 gives the estimated
 L. Yan et al. / Composites Part B 92 (2016) 94e132 97

Table 1
Chemical compositions of different cellulosic fibres (Reproduced with permission from Ref. [91]).

Cellulosic fibres Cellulose (%) Hemi-cellulose (%) Pectin (%) Lignin (%) Wax (%)

Abaca 62.5 21 0.8 12 3

Alfa 45.4 38.5 e 38.5 2
Bagasse 37 21 10 22 e
Banana 62.5 12.5 4 7.5 e
Bamboo 34.5 20.5 e 26 e
Coir 46 0.3 4 45 e
Cotton 89 4 6 0.75 0.6
Curaua 73.6 5 e 7.5 e
Flax 72.5 14.5 0.9 2.5 e
Hemp 81 20 0.9 4 0.8
Henequen 60 28 e 8 0.5
Isora 74 e e 23 1.1
Jute 67 16 0.2 9 0.5
Kenaf 53.5 21 2 17 e
Phormium 67 30 e 11 e
Pineapple 80.5 17.5 4 8.3 e
Ramie 72 14 2.0 0.8 e
Sisal 60 11.5 1.2 8 e

Table 2
Physical properties of different cellulosic fibres (Reproduced with permission from Ref. [78]).

Cellulosic fibres Diameter (mm) Length (mm) Density (kg/m3) Moisture gain (%) Micro-fibril angle (degree)

Abaca 18.2 4.9 1500 14 e

Alfa e e 890 e e
Bagasse 10e34 1.7 900 e e
Banana 12e30 2.9 1325 e 11
Bamboo 12e30 2 1500 e e
Coir 10e460 1.3 1250 13 44
Cotton 10e45 42 1550 8.5 25
Curaua 7e10 e 1400 e e
Flax 12e600 31.7 1450 12 10
Hemp 25e600 11.2 1200 12 6.2
Henequen e e 1200 e e
Isora e e 1400 1.2 e
Jute 20e200 2.6 1400 17 8.1
Kenaf 19.8 2.4 1310 17 e
Phormium 15.9 5.4 e e e
Pineapple 50 e 1540 e 10
Ramie 20e80 160 1550 8.5 e
Sisal 8e200 2.5 1400 14 16

Table 3
Estimated global production volume averages of different natural fibres (in million metric tons per year) (Reproduced with permission from
Ref. [22]).

Fibre type Production per year (Million tonnes) Main producer countries

Abaca 0.10 Philippines, Equator

Cotton 25 China, USA, India, Pakistan
Coir 0.45 India, Sri Lanka
Flaxa 0.50e1.5 China, France, Belgium, Ukraine
Hempb 0.10 China
Henequen 0.03 Mexico
Jute 2.5 India, Bangladesh
Kenaf 0.45 China, India, Thailand
Ramie 0.15 China
Silk 0.10 China, India
Sisal 0.30 Brazil, China, Tanzania, Kenya
a
The real production of flax was underestimated because the production of flax in Canada is not considered for calculation.
b
China has announced plan to substantially increase the hemp production for textiles in the coming years to 1.5 million tonnes of fibre per
year.

production volumes of several commonly used cellulosic fibres.
Cotton has the largest yield. Jute and flax fibres also have the
relatively high annual yield [22]. The production yield of cellulosic
fibres should be sufficient once they are used as construction and
building materials.
Table 4 makes a comparison between cellulosic fibres and syn-
thetic fibres in mechanical properties [22,82,83]. In this table, the
specific modulus was approximated using the average of the
extreme values (the upper and lower values) of stiffness and the
average of the extreme values of density found in the literature
98 L. Yan et al. / Composites Part B 92 (2016) 94e132

Table 4
Mechanical properties of cellulosic fibres and synthetic fibres (Reproduced with permission from Ref. [22]).

Fibre type Relative density (g/cm3) Tensile strength (MPa) Elastic modulus (GPa) Specific modulus (GPa  cm3/g) Elongation at failure (%)

Abaca 1.5 400e980 6.2e20 9 1.0e10

Alfa 0.89 35 22 25 5.8
Bagasse 1.25 222e290 17e27.1 18 1.1
Bamboo 0.6e1.1 140e800 11e32 25 2.5e3.7
Banana 1.35 500 12 9 1.5e9
Coir 1.15e1.46 95e230 2.8e6 4 15e51.4
Cotton 1.5e1.6 287e800 5.5e12.6 6 3e10
Curaua 1.4 87e1150 11.8e96 39 1.3e4.9
Flax 1.4e1.5 343e2000 27.6e103 45 1.2e3.3
Hemp 1.4e1.5 270e900 23.5e90 40 1e3.5
Henequen 1.2 430e570 10.1e16.3 11 3.7e5.9
Isora 1.2e1.3 500e600 e e 5e6
Jute 1.3e1.49 320e800 30 30 1e1.8
Kenaf 1.4 223e930 14.5e53 24 1.5e2.7
Piassava 1.4 134e143 1.07e4.59 2 7.8e21.9
Palf 0.8e1.6 180e1627 1.44e82.5 35 1.6e14.5
Ramie 1.0e1.55 400e1000 24.5e128 60 1.2e4.0
Sisal 1.33e1.5 363e700 9.0e38 17 2.0e7.0
Aramid 1.4 3000e3150 63e67 46.4 3.3e3.7
Carbon 1.4 4000 200e240 157 1.4e1.8
E-glass 2.5 1000e3500 70e76 29 0.5
S-glass 2.5 4570 86 34.4 2.8

[9,22]. As shown in the table, ramie fibre has the largest specific
Young's modulus (up to 60 GPa  cm3/g), followed by flax, curaua,
hemp and jute with the modulus over 30 GPa  cm3/g. The specific
modulus of ramie, flax, hemp fibres are larger than that of the
commonly used synthetic E-glass fibre. Flax, ramie, kenaf, jute and
hemp are the strongest fibres among those cellulosic fibres with
high tensile strength, which are relatively close to that of E-glass.
When taking the density into account, the specific tensile strength
of some cellulosic fibres, e.g. flax, is comparable to that of E-glass. It
should be pointed out that the elongation at break of cellulosic fi-
bres, such as flax, jute, hemp, is significantly larger than that of E-
glass. Fig. 2 shows the comparison between cellulosic fibres and E-
glass fibres in cost per weight and cost per unit length [9,22]. It is
clear that the cost per weight of most cellulose fibres are much
lower than that of E-glass, as illustrated in Fig. 2(b). To consider a
better way to compare the costs of various cellulosic fibres, the
range of values for cost per weight is multiplied by the range of
values for the fibre density and an assumed 100 kN load and
divided by the range of values for tensile strength, as shown in
Fig. 2(b). The resulting range of values indicates the potential cost
per length of fibre material capable of resisting the 100 kN load [9].
Among various cellulosic fibres, flax fibre offers the best potential
combination of low cost, light weight, and high strength and stiff-
ness for structural application [9,22]. Fig. 3 shows two Ashby plots,
where the densities of various materials are plotted against tensile
strength and Young's modulus on logarithmic scales for facilitating
easy comparison of materials for differing design criteria [107]. The
dashed lines in Fig. 3 are guidelines for minimum weight tie, beam
and plate design. By this it means that from any material that falls
on the same guideline or on any line parallel to these - a structure,
classed as either a tie, beam or plate can be designed with equal
weight and equivalent stiffness or strength [108]. Fig. 3 shows that
cellulosic fibres and glass fibres are comparable in specific stiffness
and specific strength. However, there is a wide gap when
comparing the mechanical properties of their fibre reinforced
polymer composite materials. This disparity between the proper-
ties of the raw material and their composite materials are attrib-
uted to the use of low volume fractions of short, unaligned,
reinforcement in the cellulosic fibre reinforced polymer compos-
ites. Therefore, when taking the cost (Fig. 2), yield (Table 3) and
mechanical properties (Table 4 & Fig. 3) into account, among
various cellulosic fibres, flax, hemp, jute, sisal and cotton are the

Fig. 2. Comparison between E-glass and cellulosic fibres: (a) cost per weight and (b) cost per unit length (capable of resisting 100 kN load) (Reproduced with permission from
Ref. [22]).
 L. Yan et al. / Composites Part B 92 (2016) 94e132
Fig. 3. Density specific tensile modulus (a) and tensile strength (b) properties. Dashed lines indicate constant material performance for tie stiffness E/q and strength r/q, beam
stiffness E1/2/q and strength r2/3/q and plate stiffness E1/3/q and strength r1/2/q (Reproduced with permission from Ref. [107]).
most promising candidates that can be used to replace glass fibres
as reinforcement materials in composite application. It should be
pointed out here that except for the natural fibres listed in Table 4,
most recently, more and more new natural fibres such as Ferula
communis (chakshir) fibres [221], Arundo donax L. [222], Althaea
officinalis L. (Marshmallow) fibres [223], Sansevieria ehrenbergii fi-
bres [224], Artichoke (Cynara cardunculus L.) fibres [225], Piassava
(Attalea funifera) fibres [226] and Okra (Abelmoschus esculentus)
fibres [227] are used as reinforcement materials of polymer com-
posites. These new and environmentally-friendly natural fibres
have potential to be used as reinforcement materials in civil
engineering.
2.3. Structures of fibres
2.3.1. Flax
Flax (Linum usitatissimum) is one of the most widely used
cellulosic fibres. Flax is bast fibre originated from the stem of flax
plant. Flax is the oldest and the strongest of the cellulosic fibres. It
is relatively soft, absorbs moisture and dries quickly. Fig. 4 shows a
schematic view of the multi-scale structures of flax from stem to
the cellulosic fibrils [85]. At the macroscopic level, a flax stem is
composed, from the outer towards the inner part, of bark, phloem,
xylem and a central void [22]. At the mesoscopic level, the cross-
section of a bundle contains between 10 and 40 fibres which are
linked together mainly by pectin [22,84,85]. At the microscopic
scale, each elementary fibre itself is made of concentric cell walls,
99
which differ from each other in terms of thickness and arrange-
ment of their constitutive components [22]. At the centre of the
elementary fibre, the concentric cylinders with a small open
channel in the middle, i.e. the lumen, which contributes to water
uptake. On the outer side, the thin primary cell wall coats the
thicker secondary cell wall which is responsible for the strength of
the fibre and encloses the lumen. Each layer is composed of micro-
fibrils of cellulose which run parallel one to another and form a
micro-fibril angle with the fibre direction; this angle is minimum
in the secondary cell wall [22,84]. The bulk of the fibre is essen-
tially constituted by the layer S2 of the secondary cell wall
(dominating the cross section), as shown in Fig. 5 [92]. This
thickest cell wall (S2) contains numerous crystalline cellulose
micro-fibrils and amorphous hemicellulose which are oriented at
approximately 10 with the fibre axis and give fibre its high tensile
strength [22]. At the nanoscale, a micro-fibril is constituted of
cellulose chains (crystalline zones) embedded in an amorphous
matrix mainly made of pectin and hemicellulose [84]. These
micro-fibrils represent about 70% of the weight of a flax fibre and
function as the reinforcement material of the fibre [85]. The
typical tensile stressestrain curve of a single flax fibre is given in
Fig. 6 [84]. The curve is consists of: (i) an initial linear region
(strain from 0 to 0.3%) associated with the deformation of each cell
wall, which allows the measurement of modulus; (ii) a second
non-linear region (strain from 0.3 to 1.5%) associated with an
elasto-visco-plastic deformation of the fibre; especially of
the thickest cell wall (S2), since the alignment of the cellulosic
100 L. Yan et al. / Composites Part B 92 (2016) 94e132

Fig. 4. Flax structure from the stem to the cellulosic fibrils (Reproduced with permission from Ref. [85]).

Fig. 5. The micro-structure of a flax fibre cell (a) and cross-section of flax stem (b) (Reproduced with permission from Ref. [22]).

micro-fibrils with the tensile axis led to the re-arrangement of the

amorphous parts of the wall (mainly made of pectin and hemi-
celluloses) and (iii) the final linear stage (strain from 1.5% to
rupture), corresponding to an elastic response of the aligned
micro-fibrils to the applied load [22,84].

Fig. 6. Tensile stressestrain curve of a flax fibre (Reproduced with permission from
Ref. [22]).
2.3.2. Sisal
Sisal (Agave sisalana) is one of the other most widely used
cellulosic fibres. Sisal is extracted from the leaves of the sisal
plant. Fig. 7 shows a photograph of sisal plants. A sisal plant has
200 ± 250 leaves and each leaf contains 1000 ± 1200 fibre
bundles which are composed of 4% fibre, 0.75% cuticle, 8% dry
matter and 87.25% water [86,87]. The sisal leaf includes three
types of fibres: mechanical, ribbon and xylem. Fig. 8 shows the
 L. Yan et al. / Composites Part B 92 (2016) 94e132 101

Fig. 7. Photograph of a sisal plant (https://www.flickr.com/photos/40295335@N00/

5219408347).
Fig. 9. Tensile stressestrain curve of a single sisal fibre (Reproduced with permission
from Ref. [93]).

2.3.3. Hemp
After flax and sisal, hemp (Cannabis sativa) is one of the most
widely used cellulosic fibres used as reinforcement in composites.
Hemp is also a bast fibre originated from the stem of hemp plant.
Fig.10 shows a picture of hemp plants and Fig.11 shows the schematic
representation of a hemp fibre from stem to micro-fibril and the
schematic structure of a hemp fibre cell wall [88]. Like flax, hemp fibre
is a cellulose polymer with similar microstructure. The reported
micro-fibril angle of hemp fibre was 6.2 [78]. The typical tensile
stressestrain curve of a single hemp fibre is given in Fig. 12 [94]. The
curve shows the fibre possessing a non-linear response during the
testing range.

2.3.4. Jute
Jute (Corchorus capsularis (white jute) and Corchorus olitorius (dark
jute)) is also a bast fibre originated from the bark of the jute plant, as
shown in Fig.13. The jute fibre, which forms only a small portion of the
jute plant (5e6% of the green weight) is located between the outer
Fig. 8. Cross-section of a ribbon-fibre bundle (Reproduced with permission from bark and the central pith, or stick [90]. The fibre is extracted from the
Ref. [86]). jute plant by steeping in water (retting). The schematic structure of a
jute fibre cell wall is given in Fig. 14 [90,91]. The reported micro-fibril
angle of jute fibre was 8.1 [22]. The typical tensile stressestrain curve
cross-section of a sisal ribbon-fibre bundle [86]. The mechanical
of a single jute fibre is given in Fig. 15 [95], showing an approximate
fibres are extracted from the periphery of the leaf which are the
linear response.
most commercially useful of the sisal fibres [86]. Sisal fibre is a
bundle of hollow sub-fibres in which the cell walls are reinforced
with spirally oriented cellulose in a hemi-cellulose and lignin
matrix. The composition of the external surface of the cell wall is
a layer of ligneous material and waxy substances which bond the
cell to its adjacent neighbours. The micro-fibril angle of sisal fibre
was reported between 16 and 25 [78,85,86]. The typical tensile
stressestrain curve of a single sisal fibre is given in Fig. 9 [93].
The sisal fibre exhibits a brittle behaviour with a sudden load
drop. Like flax fibre, the curve of sisal can also be divided into
three parts: (i) an initial linear stage with the strain from 0 to
0.2%; (ii) an non-elastic response with the strain from 0.2% to 5%,
corresponding to the elasto-visco-plastic deformation of the
fibre, as the alignment of the cellulosic micro-fibrils with the
tensile axis led to the re-arrangement of the amorphous parts of
the wall (mainly made of pectin and hemicelluloses) and (ii) a
final linear response (5.0% to failure) accompanying with an
elastic response of the aligned micro-fibrils to the applied
tensile load.
Fig. 10. Hemp plants (http://www.hempwickbeeline.com/illegalhemp/).
102 L. Yan et al. / Composites Part B 92 (2016) 94e132

Fig. 11. (a) Schematic representation of a hemp fibre from stem to microfibrils and (b) schematic structure of a hemp fibre cell wall (Reproduced with permission from Ref. [88]).

Fig. 13. Jute plants (http://julzcrafts.com/tag/jute-harvesting-basic-processing/).

Fig. 12. Tensile stressestrain curve of a single hemp fibre (Reproduced with permis-
sion from Ref. [94]).

dry-cleanable. Even though it is not the most ecological crop to

2.3.5. Cotton
Cotton (Gossypium) is the most used fibre for textile engineering
in the world. Cotton fibres are obtained from the seeds of the cotton
plant. Cotton absorbs moisture and dries quickly. It is washable and
grow, cotton is relatively inexpensive to produce. Like flax, hemp
and jute, cotton fibre also has a complex structure [92]. The cuticle
layer consists of wax and pectin materials. The outer wax layer
protects the primary wall, which is composed of cellulose crystal-
line fibrils. The photos of cotton plants and the cotton fibre from the
 L. Yan et al. / Composites Part B 92 (2016) 94e132
Fig. 14. Jute fibre cell wall (Reproduced with permission from Ref. [90]).
Fig. 15. Tensile stressestrain curve of a single jute fibre (Reproduced with permission
from Ref. [95]).
stalk are given in Figs. 16 and 17, respectively [92]. The micro-fibril
angle of cotton fibre was reported 25 [22]. The schematic of the
microstructure of cotton fibre is given in Fig. 18 [96].
Based on the descriptions above, it can be concluded that for
these cellulosic fibres (i.e. flax, hemp, jute, sisal and cotton), their
macroscopic structure is a tubular cylinder with a central cavity,
called lumen. On the microscopic scale, the cellulosic fibre is made
of two cell walls: the primary cell wall and the secondary cell wall.
The primary wall is very thin and coated with a polymer matrix
(designated as middle lamellae and intercellular junctions) that
insure the intercellular cohesion in a fibre bundle. The primary cell
wall is consists of pectin, some lignin and hemicellulose. The sec-
ondary cell wall can be divided into three layers from the outer to
inner: S1, S2 (the thickness) and S3. The main constituents of the
secondary cell were cellulose micro-fibrils with particular orien-
tations. The secondary cell wall gives a cellulosic fibre with tensile
strength.
2.4. Relationship between chemical composition and mechanical
properties of cellulosic fibres
As mentioned above, the main constituents of cellulosic fibres
are the same, but varying in contents. This nature makes the
103
Fig. 16. Cotton plants (https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cotton).
cellulosic fibres to behave differently. Komuraiah et al. [78] pro-
vided a study on the Pearson rank correlation coefficients between
chemical compositions and the mechanical properties of cellulosic
fibres. To find the rank correlation between the two quantities, the
tensile strength, Young's modulus and density were considered as
variable I and their fibre constituents of cellulose, hemi-celluloses,
lignin, pectin and wax were considered as variables II. Once the
rank correlation was found, the regression graphs were drawn, the
equation of the regression line could be found, and the influence of
the various chemical compositions on the fibre mechanical prop-
erties was revealed. Komuraiah et al. [78] reported that the cellu-
lose has a positive correlation with tensile strength, specific
strength, specific Young's modulus, diameter and the length of
cellulosic fibres. In addition, cellulose has a negligible effect on fibre
diameter. However, it is said that cellulose has a negative correla-
tion with the micro-fibril angle of a cellulosic fibre but a little effect
on the moisture gain and strain at failure [78]. Hemicellulose has a
positive correlation with the specific Young's modulus, specific
strength, diameter and moisture gain. An increase in hemicellulose
content increases these characteristics of the cellulosic fibres. The
hemicellulose has a strong correlation with the specific Young's
modulus, specific strength and moisture gain. However, it has a
negligible effect on fibre diameter. It also has a negative correlation
with the tensile strength, density, micro-fibril angle and failure
strain of cellulosic fibres. Lignin is reported to have a positive cor-
relation with the micro-fibril angle, failure strain, and moisture
gain. Lignin has a negative correlation with the tensile strength,
specific strength, specific Young's modulus, density, diameter, and
length [78]. Lignin strongly effects cellulosic fibre tensile strength,
specific strength, length, and specific Young's modulus. The effect
of lignin on the fibre density and diameter is small. Pectin has a
104 L. Yan et al. / Composites Part B 92 (2016) 94e132
Fig. 17. Cotton fibre from cotton stalk (Reproduced with permission from Ref. [92]).
Fig. 18. Schematic of the microstructure of cotton fibre (Reproduced with permission
from Ref. [96]).
positive correlation with the density, micro-fibril angle, failure
strain, specific strength of fibres. Pectin considerably affects the
failure strength, but has a negligible effect on the specific strength.
Pectin also has a negative correlation with the specific strength,
moisture gain, Young's modulus, length, specific strength. Pectin
considerably affects the moisture gain and Young's modulus and it
has a negligible effect on the tensile strength and diameter of fibres.
Wax has a positive correlation with the specific Young's modulus
and moisture gain. With increasing content of wax, the specific
Young's modulus and moisture gain both increase. Wax has a
negative correlation with the density, length, failure strain,
diameter, and specific strength of fibres. It has a considerable effect
on the density, length, failure strain, and diameter but it has a
negligible effect on the tensile strength and micro-fibril angle.
Overall, the tensile strength and Young's modulus of cellulosic
fibres increase with an increase in cellulose content. The high cel-
lulose content in the fibre results in its high tensile strength. The
content of cellulose affects the micro-fibril angle. Fibres are rigid
and have a high tensile strength if the fibrils are aligned with the
fibre axis. A decrease in cellulose content increases the fibre micro-
fibril angle, thus decreases fibre tensile strength. The tensile failure
of cellulosic fibres can be described by the theory of composite [78].
The cellulosic fibre can be considered as a composite material
consisting of cellulose, hemi-celluloses, pectin, lignin, and waxes.
The reinforcing elements of cellulosic fibres are cellulose micro-
fibrils; the micro-fibrils are surrounded by the matrix elements -
hemicelluloses and lignin. When a load is applied, the micro-fibrils
become aligned with fibre axis. The failure of fibre takes place when
matrix element losses its bonding with the reinforcing fibrils and
the hydrogen bonding in the cellulose micro-fibril is broken. Hence,
the smaller the content of cellulose, the lower the fibre tensile
strength is. A cellulosic fibre contains more hemicelluloses, the
content of cellulose is lower. Therefore, an increase in the content of
hemicelluloses decreases the fibre tensile strength. An increase in
content of hemicellulose increases the moisture absorption of the
cellulosic fibres. The content of lignin in cellulosic fibres affects
their structural properties and morphology. An increase in lignin
content increases the water absorption of the fibre. An increase in
lignin content also increases the failure strain of the cellulosic fibre.
Pectin occurs in matured fibres and binds them together. When a
fibre fails, the load is transferred to other fibres through pectin. As
the content of waxes in natural fibres is the least, their influence on
the fibre is the smallest. Cellulosic fibres with low micro-fibril an-
gles in the S2-layer of the cell wall are stiff and show only marginal
yielding before rupture. In contrast, cellulosic fibres with high
cellulose micro-fibril angles are less stiff in a short initial elastic
range and undergo large plastic deformations after yielding [97].
2.5. Parameters affect mechanical properties of cellulosic fibres
Unlike synthetic fibres, cellulosic fibres have great variability in
their mechanical properties due to the conditions experienced in
the field and the potential damage arising from the processes of
 L. Yan et al. / Composites Part B 92 (2016) 94e132 105

production and measurement conditions. These factors which
affect the mechanical properties of cellulosic fibres are summarized
in Table 5 [22]. In the process of production of cellulosic fibres, there
are several different stages: plant growth, harvesting, fibre
extraction and supply. In each stage several factors can influent the
quality of fibres. Except for the structure and property of the fibre
itself, experimental conditions such as fibre gauge length, test
speed, etc., have effect on the mechanical properties of cellulosic
fibres. It is well known that the mechanical properties (e.g. tensile
properties) of single cellulosic fibre have great variability which is
mainly attributed to several factors such as test parameters, test
conditions, area measurements and plant characteristics. For these
reasons, a statistical approach is needed to evaluate the mechanical
properties. The experimental data obtained by mechanical char-
acterization were statistically analyzed using a two-parameter
Weibull distribution, a method widely used to analyze mechani-
cal and physical properties of cellulosic fibres, as suggested by
Charlet et al. [29], Andersons et al. [103], De Fiore et al. [225] and De
Rosa et al. [227].
Since cellulosic fibres are highly hydrophilic, their tensile
moduli are strongly dependent on the environmental relative hu-
midity (RH). Both static and dynamic moduli of cellulosic fibres (e.g.
flax) decreased remarkably with an increase in RH (i.e. RH values
from 30% to 90%) [98]. In general, a cellulosic fibre possessing a
higher tensile strength if fibre length used is short during fibre
tensile test. In other words, the fibre tensile strength decreases with
an increase in fibre length. This is because: (i) the longer the fibre,
the higher its probability of containing a defect (e.g. kink bands)
and thus of failing prematurely compared to a shorter fibre. As the
test length increases, the number of weak links or imperfections
also increases, thus resulting in reduction in tensile strength [22],
and (ii) the failure mechanism of monofilament cellulosic fibres at
shorter clamping length is different from that at longer clamping
length. At large clamping length, cellulosic fibre failure takes place
through the relatively weak pectin interphase that bonds the
elementary fibres together. The pectin interphase is oriented pre-
dominantly in the length direction of the fibre, it breaks by shear
failure. At clamping length below the elementary fibre length,
failure can no longer take place through the pectin interphase, but
the crack must now run through the stronger, cellulosic cell wall of
the elementary fibres [99]. Chemical treatments, such as silane and
alkalization, can improve cellulosic fibre tensile properties
remarkably because the removal of some substances by chemical
treatments increases the ratio of cellulose in the material, the
component which gives the mechanical properties of fibres [100].
In addition, the tensile properties of cellulosic fibres are highly
dependent on the gauge length used for the measurement. The
tensile strength of a cellulosic fibre decreases remarkably with an
increase in gauge length. Except for gauge length effect, the di-
ameters of the fibres also impact the tensile properties. Young's
modulus and strength tend to decrease with an increase of fibre
diameter although a large scattering of the test results [101,102].
The dispersion of cellulosic fibre properties is due to the variation in
cellulose content from an fibre to another and also is a result of the
randomness of the location and size of defects along each fibre,
rather than the scattering of the microstructural (with respect to
fibre lumen diameter, porosity) of the cellulosic fibres should be
responsible for the scattering of the tensile properties [103,104].
Cell wall defects in cellulosic fibres are also one of the most
important parameters which determine the fibre tensile properties.
The fibre strength is to a large extent determined by cell wall de-
fects as kink bands, since the presence of kink bands limits the
tensile strengths of cellulosic fibres. Defect in fibre is also one
reason for large dispersion in the tensile properties of cellulosic
fibres [99,103,105].
2.6. From monofilament cellulosic fibres to fabrics
Like agriculture, textiles have been a fundamental part of human
life since the dawn of civilization. Fragments of cotton articles dated
from 5000 BC have been excavated in Mexico and Pakistan. Cellu-
losic fibre such as jute has been cultivated since antiquity. While the
methods used to make fabrics have changed greatly since then,
their functions have changed very little: today, most cellulosic fi-
bres are still used to make clothing and containers and to insulate,
soften and decorate our living spaces [106]. In textile engineering,
fine and regular long cellulosic fibres (e.g. flax, hemp, jute) are
usually spun into yarns for textiles. For example, flax fabric main-
tains a strong traditional niche among high quality household
textiles, such as bed linen, furnishing fabrics and interior decora-
tion accessories. Shorter flax fibres produce heavier yarns suitable
for kitchen towels, sails, tents and canvas. Lower fibre grades as
reinforcement and filler in composites are used in automotive
interior substrates and furniture [79].
Monofilament fibres are the basic component of fabrics. Cellu-
losic fibres are twisted together to form yarns and threads that are
then woven or knit into fabrics. Yarn is the name of a group of fibres
with or without twist which has substantial length and relatively
small cross-section. In twisted yarns, the friction resulting from
twist consolidates fibres. A twist is introduced to a continuous
filament yarn by twisting. For a twisted yarn made of staple fibres,
the process is called spinning and involves a long chain of prepa-
ratory operations. There is different yarn spinning processes (ring
spinning, open-end spinning, friction spinning) leading to yarns
with distinctive internal distributions of fibres [118].
When spinning monofilament fibres to yarns, a number of fibre
filaments are twisted into a continuous strand producing radial
forces which cause movements of some of these filaments relative
to others, and leads to a closer packing of all the filaments within
any given cross-section. However, the tensile strength of the
monofilament cellulosic fibre bundle cannot achieve that of the
yarn because close to failure some monofilament fibres break and
the rest slip [34]. For fabric with loose packing of fibres in the yarns,
the yarn failure mechanism is slippage dominated, thus the load-
bearing capacity of the slipped fibre is reduced drastically and the
final yarn strength is poor. Three distinctive common fabric types

Table 5
Factors affecting the mechanical properties of cellulosic fibres (Reproduced with permission from Ref. [22]).

Plant growth Specimens of plant, crop cultivation, crop geographical origin, fibre location in plant, local climate, e.g. rainfall and temperature during growth
Harvesting stage Fibre ripeness, which effects: cell wall thickness, coarseness of fibres, adhesion between fibres and surrounding structure, size and shape of lumen,
porosity, microfibril angle
Fibre extraction Decortication process, type of retting method, separating conditions
stage
Supply stage Transportation conditions, storage conditions, age of fibres
Measurement Tensile speed, initial gauge length, moisture, temperature, different cross-section of fibres at different points
conditions
Surface treatment Chemical treatment, upgrading treatment, water treatment, drying treatment, etc
106 L. Yan et al. / Composites Part B 92 (2016) 94e132
are woven, knitted and nonwoven fabrics produced by weaving,
knitting and various non-woven processes, respectively. Fig. 19
shows different types of fabric structure. Woven fabrics generally
consist of two sets of yarns that are interlaced and lie at right angles
to each other. The threads that run along the length of the fabric are
known as warp ends whilst the threads run from selvedge to
selvedge, that is from one side to the other side of the fabric, are
weft picks. Frequently, they are simply referred as ends and picks
[119]. Knitted fabric consists of interloping yarns either weft (weft
knitting) or warp (warp knitting) directions. Warp knitting is a
method of manufacturing a fabric by standard knitting means, in
which the loops made from each warp are formed substantially
along the length of the fabric while weft knitting is a method of
producing a fabric by normal knitting means, in which the loops by
each weft thread are formed considerably across the width of the
fabric [120].
A nonwoven is a textile structure produced by the bonding or
interlocking of fibres, or both, accomplished by mechanical,
chemical, thermal or solvent means and combinations thereof
[118]. One of the major advantages of nonwoven manufacture is
that it is generally done in one continuous process directly from the
raw material to the finished fabric, although there are some ex-
ceptions to this [121]. Fabric types mentioned are the usual single
plane structures also known as 2-D fabrics in which high-
performance fibres are available. Nowadays, fabrics in multi-
plane structures or 3-D fabrics can be manufactured by weaving,
warp knitting, braiding, non-woven and other specially modified
techniques. The various techniques on fabric manufacturing allow
more flexibility on tailoring the textile material which could be
used in diverse of applications [118].
Scardino [119] divided the textile structures or reinforcement
forms into four categories which include simple fabrics (2-D) and
advanced fabrics (3-D) systems. These kinds of reinforcement are
preferably used by manufacturer or researcher because basically
they are easy to handle. Fig. 20 shows some common textile fabrics
used as composite reinforcement [118,123]. Utilizing of 2-D as well
as 3-D fabrics made of cellulosic fibres can be used for various
application and purposes.
2.7. From fabrics to fabric reinforced polymer composites
Increasingly, traditional textiles are being used for industrial
purposes as well as in fibre fabric reinforced polymer composite
(FRP) materials. In FRP composites, polymer matrix holds the fibres
together to provide a shape and transfer the load to the fibres by
adhesion and/or friction. Matrix also provides rigidity and shape to
Fig. 19. Types of common fabric; (a) woven, (b) knitted and (c) non-woven fabrics (Reproduced with permission from Ref. [118]).
structural member, protects fibres from chemical and corrosion,
influent the performance behaviours such as impact and ductility.
Polymer matrix has two categories, which are thermoplastics and
thermoset. The properties of some commonly used thermoplastics
and thermoset are listed in Tables 6 and 7, respectively [22]. Ther-
moplastics have many advantages over thermoset polymers in
fabrication of composites such as low processing, design flexibility,
and ease of moulding complex parts. However, the development of
thermoplastic cellulosic fibre reinforced polymer composites is
restricted by the processing temperature [22]. Generally, the tem-
perature should be below 230  C to avoid degradation of cellulosic
fibres. Among the thermoplastic polymers, PP is the most widely
used in composites. Nowadays more and more researchers are
looking toward to using thermosets since thermoset polymers
outperform thermoplastics in the aspects of mechanical properties,
chemical resistance, thermal stability, and overall durability [22]. In
addition, thermosets allow for more flexibility in structural fibre
configurations and can often be processed at room temperature or
at temperatures comfortably within the safe range for cellulosic
fibres. Among thermosets, epoxy is the most common one. Most
recently, the research of cellulosic fibres reinforced with biode-
gradable polymers “green” composites has increased substantially,
as shown in Table 8. The biodegradable polymers can be classified
based on the origin: naturally occurring or synthetic. Natural
polymers are available in large quantities from renewable sources
while synthetic polymers are produced from non-renewable pe-
troleum-based resources [22]. However, one main limitation of
these bio-polymers is their high initial cost. Most biodegradable
resins currently cost three to five times the commonly used resins
such as PP [22].
Depending on the different polymer matrices, proper
manufacturing techniques should be selected for fabrication of
cellulosic fibre reinforced polymer composites. For cellulosic fibre
reinforced thermosetting composites, the techniques are hand lay-
up and spraying, compression, transfer, resin transfer moulding,
injection moulding, compression injection, pressure bag moulding,
pultrusion, vacuum assisted resin transfer moulding, casting in-
jection moulding and polyurethane foam moulding. For cellulosic
fibre reinforced thermoplastic composites, the processing tech-
niques include extrusion, injection moulding, thermoforming,
compression method, cold pressing, heating, filament winding,
foam moulding, rotational moulding, calendaring and co-extrusion.
More details regarding the different manufacturing techniques can
be found in Refs. [22,219,220]. Fig. 21 gives the materials selection
chart for cellulosic fibre reinforced polymer composites manufac-
tured with thermoplastic (unfilled balloons) or thermoset (filled
 L. Yan et al. / Composites Part B 92 (2016) 94e132 107

Fig. 20. Structure of textile fabric; (aec) 2-D woven fabrics, (d) 3-D fabric, (e and f) braided fabrics, (g and h) knitted fabric and (i) multiaxial multiply warp-knitted fabrics
(Reproduced with permission from Ref. [118]).

Table 6
Properties of typical thermoplastic polymers used in natural fibre composite fabrication (Reproduced with permission from Ref. [22]).

Properties PP LDPE HDPE PS

Density 0.899e0.920 0.910e0.925 0.94e0.96 1.04e10.6

Water absorption (24 h@20  C) 0.01e0.02 <0.015 0.01e0.2 0.03e0.10
Tg ( C) 10 to 230 125 133 to 1000 N/A
Tm ( C) 160e176 105e116 120e140 110e1350
Heat deflection temp ( C) 50e63 32e50 43e60 Max. 220
Coefficient of thermal expansion (mm/mm/ C  105) 6.8e13.5 10 12e13 6e8
Tensile strength (MPa) 26e41.4 40e78 14.5e38 25e69
Elastic modulus (GPa) 0.95e1.77 0.055e0.38 0.4e1.5 4e5
Elongation (%) 15e700 90e800 2.0e130 1e2.5
Izod impact strength (J/m) 21.4e267 >854 26.7e1068 1.1

PP ¼ polypropylene, LDPE ¼ low density polyethylene, HDPE ¼ high-density polyethylene and PS ¼ polystyrene.

Table 7
Properties of typical thermoset polymers used in cellulosic fibre reinforced polymer 3. Mechanical properties of FRC, FRG and FRP reinforced
composites (Reproduced with permission from Ref. [22]). structures
Property Epoxy Polyester Vinyl ester Phenolic
3
3.1. Cellulosic fabric FRC composites
Density (g/cm ) 1.1e1.4 1.2e1.5 1.2e1.4 1.29
Elastic modulus (GPa) 3e6 2e4.5 3.1e3.8 2.8e4.8
Tensile strength (MPa) 35e100 40e90 69e83 35e62 3.1.1. Fabrication of cellulosic fabric FRC composites
Compressive strength (MPa) 100e200 90e250 100 210e360 Cellulosic fabrics have been used as reinforcement materials
Elongation (%) 1e6 2 4e7 1.5e2 within cement-based composites for civil engineering applications
Cure shrinkage (%) 1e2 4e8 N/A e
[e.g. Refs. [53e57,169,170]]. Hakamy et al. [54] reported on using
Water absorption (24 h@20  C) 0.1e0.4 0.1e0.3 0.1 0.1e0.36
Cure temperature ( C) 25e200 25e200 25e150 25e200
hemp fabrics as reinforcement of cementitious composites. The
Izod impact strength (J/m) 0.3 0.15e3.2 2.5 e hemp fabric had a density of 600 kg/m3, modulus of elasticity of
Cost (US$/kg) 3e20 1.5e4.0 3.2e6.4 6.5e12.0 38e58 GPa and tensile strength of 591e857 MPa. For the fabrica-
tion of fabric reinforced cement composites, the hemp fabrics were
first soaked into the cement matrix in the openings of the fabrics.
The fabrication details of the hemp fabric reinforced cement com-
balloons) resins, short-random or long-aligned fibre re- posite specimens were as follows: First, a thin layer of matrix was
inforcements, and various manufacturing routes [220]. The figure poured into the mould, then the pre-soaked hemp fabric was laid
will be beneficial for researchers to select a proper manufacturing on top of it, then another layer of matrix was poured into the mould
technique for making cellulosic fibre reinforced polymer compos- followed by another presoaked hemp fabric and the final layer of
ites with specific fibre configuration and polymer matrix. matrix. The total amount of hemp fabric in each specimen was
108 L. Yan et al. / Composites Part B 92 (2016) 94e132

Table 8
Properties of some biodegradable polymers used in cellulosic fibre reinforced polymer composites (Reproduced with permission from Ref. [22]).

Property PEA PLA SPI PHB PHBV

Density (g/cm3) 1.18 0.9e1.27 1.2e1.5 1.25 1.25

Elastic modulus (GPa) 0.42 1.5e2.7 0.1 0.93 2.38
Tensile strength (MPa) 16.4 60 6.0 21 25.9
Elongation (%) 85e119 8 170e236 5.2e8.4 1.4
Melting temperature ( C) 175 160e190 4e8 161 153
Glass transition temperature ( C) e 56e65 10 1

Note: PEA: polyesteramide, PLA: polylactides, SPI: soy protein isolate resin, PHB: polyhydroxybutyrate, PHBV: polyhydroxybutyrate-co-hydroxyvalerate.

Fig. 21. Materials selection chart for cellulosic fibre reinforced composites manufactured with thermoplastic (unfilled balloons) or thermoset (filled balloons) resins, shortrandom
or long-aligned fibre reinforcements, and various manufacturing routes. Charts show (a) absolute properties, (b) specific properties, (c) properties per unit cost, and (d) properties
per unit eco-impact (Reproduced with permission from Ref. [220]).

about 2.5 wt%. Then, the specimens were demolded after 24 h of
casting and kept in water for curing for 28 days [54].
3.1.2. Mechanical properties of cellulosic fabric FRC composites
3.1.2.1. Thermal properties. The thermal stability of hemp fabric
(HF) reinforced nanoclay cementitious composites was studied by
thermogravimetric analysis (TGA) in terms of the weight loss as a
function of temperature (a heating rate of 10  C/min from 25 to
1000  C) in Argon atmosphere [53,54]. Fig. 22 gives the TGA curves
for nanoclay, hemp fabric, cement paste, HF reinforced cement
composites and HF reinforced cement nanoclay composites. TGA
curves exhibit three distinct stages of decomposition in nanoclay,
hemp fabric, cement paste, hemp fabric reinforced cement com-
posites and fabric reinforced cement nanocomposites: (i) Temper-
ature between room and 230  C, which was related to the
decomposition of Ettringite and dehydration of calcium silicate
hydrate (CeSeH) gel. Hemp fabric reinforced cement nano-
composites show much better thermal stability than that of the
cement paste due to the resistance of nanoclay to decomposition,
(ii) temperature between 420 and 500  C, corresponded to the
decomposition of Ca(OH)2. In this stage, the hemp fabric reinforced
cement nanocomposites containing 1 wt% nanoparticles show a
better thermal stability than all other samples due to dense and
compact nanomatrix through consumption of calcium-hydroxide
(CH) and the formation of secondary CeSeH gels during pozzo-
lanic reaction, (iii) temperature between 670 and 780  C, corre-
sponded to decomposition of CaCO3. At 800e1000  C, hemp fabric
reinforced cement nanocomposites containing 1 wt% show thermal
stability slightly less than that of cement paste, but better than the
other samples. At 1000  C, the char residue of cement paste and
hemp fabric reinforced cement composite is 76.1% and 60.0 wt%,
respectively. The char residue of hemp fabric reinforced cement
 L. Yan et al. / Composites Part B 92 (2016) 94e132 109

Fig. 22. Thermogravimetric analysis curves of nanoclay, hemp fabric (HF), cement paste, HF-reinforced cement composite and HF reinforced nanocomposites (Reproduced with
permission from Ref. [54]).

nanocomposites containing 1, 2 and 3 wt% nanoparticles is 74.9%,
70.9% and 67.6 wt%, respectively. It can be seen that hemp fabric
reinforced cement nanocomposites containing 1 wt% performed
better in thermal stability with higher char residue of 74.9 wt% than
other samples [54].
3.1.2.2. Flexural properties. Fig. 23 shows the flexural strength of
hemp fabric reinforced nanoclay-cement nanocomposites as a
function of nanoclay content and the load vs. displacements of the
fabric reinforced cement composites with and without nanoclay
[55,56]. It is clear that the addition of nanoclay in cement led to a
modest improvement in the flexural strength of all the hemp
fabric reinforced cement nanocomposites, e.g. with an addition of
1 wt% nanoclay, the flexural strength increased from 4.9 to
6.2 MPa. This improvement in flexural strength was believed
attributed to two-fold: (i) the filling effect, where the nanoclay
filled the voids or pores in the cement paste in which the nano-
particles are uniformly dispersed in the matrix thus making the
microstructure of nanocomposites denser than the cement paste,
and (ii) the pozzolanic reaction, in which the nanoclay reacts with
free CH in the cement matrix to produce more CeSeH that also
deposited in pore system [54e57]. Thus, the hemp fabric rein-
forced nanocomposite matrix adhesion is mostly improved
through consumption of CH by nanoclay, especially in the case of
using 1 wt% nanoclay, which is evident from the higher flexural
strength value.
3.1.2.3. Impact properties. Impact strength can be defined as the
ability of a material to withstand impact loading [54]. Fig. 24
shows that the presence of nanoclay enhanced the impact
strength for hemp fabric reinforced cement nanocomposites
remarkably [54]. The impact strength of hemp fabric reinforced
nanocomposites containing 1 wt% nanoclay was 2.45 kJ/m2,
which was about 23% enhancement compared to that of the
hemp fabric reinforced cement composite. This can be inter-
preted by a good interfacial bonding between the fibres and the

Fig. 23. Flexural strength as a function of nanoclay content of hemp fabric reinforced nanoclay-cement nanocomposites (a) and load vs. mid-span deflection curves for HF-
reinforced cement composite and HF-reinforced cement nanocomposites (b) (Reproduced with permission from Ref. [57]).
110 L. Yan et al. / Composites Part B 92 (2016) 94e132
nano-matrix [54]. But, the impact strength decreased when the
clay loading increased. For example, the impact strength of hemp
fabric reinforced nanocomposites containing 3 wt% nanoclay was
2.25 kJ/m2, which was about 13% of reduction compared to that of
hemp fabric reinforced cement composite. This reduction in
impact strength at higher clay loading was attributed to the for-
mation of clay agglomerates and voids resulting in reduced fibre
and nano-matrix adhesion. Follow-up studies [57,58] indicated
that the use of NaOH treatment (i.e. the hemp fabrics were
immersed in NaOH solution (pH ¼ 14) for 48 h at 25  C and then
neutralized with 1% vol. acetic acid) on the hemp fabric can
improve the impact strength of the hemp fabric reinforced
nanoclay cement composites remarkably (up to 10% increase).
Thus, relatively good interfacial bonding between the hemp fabric
and cement matrix was due to the fracture resistance by hemp
fabrics which resulted in increased energy dissipation from crack-
deflection at the fibreematrix interface, fibre-debonding, fibre-
bridging, fibre pull-out and fibre-fracture, as explained by Hak-
amy et al. [57].
3.1.3. Failure mechanism of cellulosic fabric FRC composites
For cellulosic FRC composites, the dominated failure mecha-
nisms include fibre/cement interfacial debonding, fibre pull-out,
and rupture of fibre and fracture of the cement matrix [54e58].
Fig. 25 shows the Scanning Electronic Microscope (SEM) micro-
graphs of the fracture surface and HF/matrix interface of HF
reinforced cement composite and HF reinforced cement nano-
composite containing 1 wt% and 3 wt% nanoclay after fracture
toughness test. The examination of fracture surface of HF rein-
forced nanocomposites containing 1 wt% nanoclay shows good
penetration of matrix between hemp filaments (see Fig. 25(c)) as
well as rough hemp fibre surface (see Fig. 25(d)) [57]. However,
poor adhesion between fibres and matrix is observed in HF
reinforced cement composite ((see Fig. 25(a) and (b)). In HF
reinforced cement nanocomposite containing 3 wt% nanoclay,
macro-crack is observed which revealed relativity weak matrix as
shown in Fig. 25(e), and also debonding of fibre occurs (see
Fig. 25(f)). NaOH treatment of hemp fabrics before the fabrication
of the cement composites was an effective technique to improve
the fabric/cement matrix interfacial bond since the treatment
introduced the fabric fibre rough surfaces which facilitated the
mechanical interlocking between the fabrics and the cement
matrix [58].
Fig. 24. Impact strength as a function of nanoclay content for HF reinforced composite
and HF-reinforced nanocomposites (Reproduced with permission from Ref. [54]).
3.2. Cellulosic fabric FRG composites
3.2.1. Introduction of geopolymer
Ordinary Portland cement (OPC) is a commonly used binder in
concrete. Currently, the concrete industry faces challenges to meet
the growing demand of Portland cement due to limited reserves of
limestone, slow manufacturing growth and increasing carbon
taxes. The carbon taxes arises from the environmental issues and
greenhouse gases emission resulting from the production of OPC
[109]. This calls for the development of alternate binders (such as
alkali-activated cement, calcium sulphoaluminate cement, mag-
nesium oxy carbonate cement, etc.) to Portland cement aiming at to
reduce the environmental impact of construction, use of greater
proportion of waste pozzolan, and also to improve concrete per-
formance [110]. Geopolymer is one of these alternate binders which
attracts considerable attentions because of its early compressive
strength, low permeability, good chemical resistance and excellent
fire resistant behaviour. Because of these advantageous, the geo-
polymer is considered as a promising candidate to replace OPC for
developing various sustainable products in making building ma-
terials, concrete, fire resistant coatings, fibre reinforced geopolymer
composites and waste immobilization solutions for chemical and
nuclear industries. In addition, one interest to use geopolymer is
also due to their exceptionally high thermal, adhesive behaviour
and long-term durability. Geopolymer is environmentally-friendly
material whose manufacturing creates less CO2 emission than
that of OPC [111,112]. The term “geopolymer” is generically used to
describe an amorphous alkali aluminosilicate which is also
commonly used for as “inorganic polymers”, “alkali-activated ce-
ments”, “geocements”, “alkali-bonded ceramics”, “hydroceramics”
etc. [109]. Despite this variety of nomenclature, these terms all
describe materials synthesized utilizing the same chemistry [113].
It essentially consists of a repeating unit of silicate monomer
(eSieOeAleOe). A variety of aluminosilicate materials such as
kaolinite, feldspar and industrial solid residues such as fly ash,
metallurgical slag, mining wastes etc. have been used as solid raw
materials in the geopolymerization technology [109,113].
3.2.2. Fabrication of cellulosic fabric FRG composites
Despite the aforementioned desirable properties, geopolymer
suffers from brittle failure. On the basis of this, in recent years,
geopolymer reinforced with monofilament cellulosic fibres have
been studied by different researchers, e.g. Refs. [59,114]. These
studies showed the improvement in physical and mechanical
properties of geopolymer due to the use of monofilament cellulosic
fibres as reinforcement. However, these studies also pointed out
that the use of monofilament cellulosic fibres can be limited to fibre
damage, agglomeration of fibres and the generation of voids, which
compromise the quality of the geopolymer composite [59,116].
Therefore, most recently, the utilization of continuous cellulosic
fibres, i.e. fabrics to instead of monofilament fibres, as reinforce-
ment of geopolymer has been investigated, which showed prom-
ising results for the cellulosic fabric reinforced geopolymer
composites [59e64]. In general, the fabrication of cellulosic fabric
FRG composites includes several steps [58]: (1) mould preparation,
(2) pre-dry of fabrication, (3) mixing of geopolymer, (4) application
of first layer primer, (5) application of fabric, (5) repetition of
application of geopolymer layer and fabric layer until the desig-
nated thickness, and (6) curing of specimens.
3.2.3. Mechanical properties of cellulosic fabric FRG composites
3.2.3.1. Density and porosity. Alomayri et al. [58e64] reported that
the density of cotton fabric FRG was between 1.50 and 1.85 g/cm3.
The density of the FRG composites decreased with an increase of
cotton fabric layers. Compared with normal concrete (e.g. 2.25 g/
 L. Yan et al. / Composites Part B 92 (2016) 94e132 111

Fig. 25. SEM images showing the fracture surfaces of samples at low and high magnification: (a) and (b) HF-reinforced cement composite, (c) and (d) HF-reinforced nanocomposite
containing 1 wt% nanoclay, (e) and (f) HF-reinforced nanocomposite containing 3 wt% nanoclay (Reproduced with permission from Ref. [57]).

cm3), the density of cotton FRG is much lower. It is found that an
increase in number of cotton fabric layers also caused a gradual
increase in porosity of the composites, which was reported be-
tween 20% and 30%. The increase in porosity of cotton FRG com-
posites was believed attributable to the voids which trapped
beneath the cotton fabric sheets during casting, which in turn
caused higher porosity. The high porosity may lead to poor adhe-
sion between the fibre and the matrix, as explained by Alomayri
et al. [59]. To reduce the porosity and avoid the possible poor fibre/
matrix interfacial bond of cellulosic fabric FRG composites, the
addition of small content of nanoclay, such as nanoclay platelets
(Cloisite 30B) and nano-SiO2 particles during the mixing was rec-
ommended because of the good filling effect of these nanoparticles
[64,117].
3.2.3.2. Thermal properties. TGA is an effective method to evaluate
the thermal stability of fabric FRG composites. The thermograms of
pure geopolymer, cotton FRG composite and cotton fabric are given
in Fig. 26 [60]. It is clear that the cotton fabric shows significant
weight loss due to moisture loss and decomposition of the fibre. In
contrast, both pure geopolymer and cotton FRG composite
experienced minor weight loss at the high temperature (up to
800  C), indicating that geopolymer itself acts as protection of the
cellulosic fibre from the effect of thermal degradation because of its
possible barrier function to reduce the ingress of air and the
resultant oxidative degradation [59]. In other words, the use of
geopolymer paste for cellulosic fibres can improve the thermal
degradation resistance of the fibres.
3.2.3.3. Flexural properties. As shown in Fig. 27, the use of cotton
fabric reinforcement increases the flexural strength and modulus of
the cotton fabric FRG composites remarkably [60]. The increase in
flexural strength due to 2-layer, 3-layer, 4-layer and 6-layer cotton
fabric reinforcement is approximately 35%, 64%, 50% and 48%
respectively. The increase in flexural modulus due to the increase of
cotton fabric layers is 37%, 83%, 66% and 42%, respectively. The in-
crease in the flexural properties results from the orientation of
fabrics within the geopolymer. The FRG composite can achieve the
maximum flexural properties if the fabric orientation is parallel to
the applied load direction where the stress is uniformly distributed
among the fibres [60e62]. However, this cannot be achieved in
monofilament fibre reinforced cementitious or geopolymer
112 L. Yan et al. / Composites Part B 92 (2016) 94e132
Fig. 26. TGA curves of: (a) pure geopolymer, (b) cotton FRG composite and (c) cotton
fabric (Reproduced with permission from Ref. [60]).
composites because of the random distribution of the short fibres in
the matrices.
3.2.3.4. Fracture energy. The influence of OPC content on the frac-
ture toughness of the geopolymer matrix and cotton fabric FRG
composites is shown in Fig. 28 [64]. Among all the composites, the
fracture toughness of the FRG composite containing 5 wt% OPC is
highest. In addition, the fracture toughness of cotton FRG com-
posite is much higher than that of the pure geopolymer matrix with
and without OPC. This can be interpreted by the cotton fibre
bridging effects which resulted in increased energy dissipation
from crack-deflection at the fibre/matrix interface, fibre-
debonding, fibre-bridging, fibre pull-out and fibre-fracture. How-
ever, fracture toughness decreased when the OPC content increased
beyond 5 wt%. The OPC addition resulted in desirable strength
properties as a result of an improvement in fibre/matrix adhesion,
which also made the composites behaved brittle. The addition of
OPC increased the fibre/matrix adhesion, but on the other hand,
Fig. 27. Flexural strength (a) and flexural modulus (b) of cotton fabric reinforced geopolymer composites as a function of cotton fibre content (Reproduced with permission from
Ref. [60]).
Fig. 28. Fracture toughness as a function of OPC content for geopolymers with and
without cotton fabric (Reproduced with permission from Ref. [64]).
hindered the energy absorption mechanisms provided by fibre pull
out and fibre debonding [60e62].
3.2.3.5. Impact strength. The impact strength of geopolymer matrix
containing different OPC contents is shown in Fig. 29 [64]. It is clear
that the impact strength of the geopolymer matrix containing OPC
is higher than that of the pure geopolymer. The impact strength of
the geopolymer increases with an increase in OPC content, which
might be interpreted by the higher toughness and the ability to
absorb energy by forming tortuous pathways for crack propagation
which enhance the impact strength [62,64]. Thus, an increase in
OPC content is very useful to improve the impact strength of a
geopolymer matrix. In addition, the use of cotton fabric also in-
creases the impact strength of all the cotton FRG composites
remarkably due to the favourable capability to absorb impact en-
ergy. Compared with the cotton FRG without OPC of 6.9 kJ/m2, the
use of 5 wt%, 8 wt% and 10 wt% of OPC improved the impact
strength of the composites 7.3 kJ/m2, 7.5 kJ/m2 and 7.8 kJ/m2,
respectively. This can be attributed to a good penetration of CSH
into the cotton fabric, which strongly held the filaments of the
fabric together and led to an enhancement fabric/matrix interfacial
adhesion [64].
3.2.3.6. Compressive strength. Fig. 30 shows the compressive
strength of the flax fabric reinforced geopolymer composites [180].
As can be seen, the increase of flax fabric content leads to a
remarkable increase in compressive strength of the fabric FRG
composites, i.e. the compressive strength of the pure geopolymer
paste increased from 19.4 to 91 MPa after the addition of 4.1 wt%
 L. Yan et al. / Composites Part B 92 (2016) 94e132
Fig. 29. Impact strength as a function of OPC content for geopolymers with and
without cotton fabric (CF) (Reproduced with permission from Ref. [64]).
flax fabric, corresponding to an increase of 369.1%. It should be
pointed out here that based on the best knowledge of the authors,
such significant enhancement in compressive strength of either
geopolymer or cementitious composites due to the addition of
monofilament cellulosic fibres has never been reported in the
literature. The huge enhancement in compressive strength of flax
FRG composite was believed attributed to the interface between the
flax fabric and the matrix which was not exposed to any shear
loading, and in turn reduced the possibility of fabric detachments
or delamination from the matrix at high loads, as explained by
Assaedi et al. [180]. A similar remarkable improvement in
compressive strength was reported by Alomayri et al. [59,60] on
cotton fabric FRG composites.
3.2.4. Failure mechanisms of cellulosic fabric FRG composites
Assaedi et al. [180] also studied the failure mechanisms of flax
fabric FRG composites. They stated that the fibre breakage, fibre
debonding, fibre imprint and pull-out and fracture of the geo-
polymer matrix are the dominated failure mechanisms of fabric
FRG composites. Fig. 31 shows the failure mechanisms of flax FRG
composites, which are similar to those of cellulosic fabric reinforced
cementitious (FRC) composites illustrated in Ref. [58]. The SEM
Fig. 30. Compressive strength as a function of flax fabric content of flax fabric reinforced geopolymer composites (Reproduced with permission from Ref. [180]).
113
studies in Fig. 31 also showed that the fabric fibres bridged the
surface of the cracks in the geopolymer. In addition, the geo-
polymer residual paste attached to the flax fibre surface was
observed, indicating a good fibre and geopolymer matrix interfacial
adhesion. Regarding the techniques to improve cellulosic fibres/
geopolymer adhesion, rare studies can be found in the literature.
Future studies should be focused on this subject to further improve
the fibre/geopolymer matrix interfacial bonding and thus the
composite mechanical properties.
3.3. Cellulosic fabric FRP reinforced construction structures
3.3.1. Mechanical properties of cellulosic fabric FRP composites
Yan et al. [34] studied the effect of alkali treatment on the me-
chanical properties of flax fabric/epoxy composites. The SEM
studies indicated that the breakage of fibre along the load direction,
fibre debonding, fibre pull-out and brittle fracture of the matrix are
the dominated failure mechanisms of flax fabric/epoxy composites,
which are similar to those of cellulosic fabric FRC composites [58] in
Fig. 25 and cellulosic fabric FRG composites in Fig. 31 [180]. In
addition, it was confirmed that the alkali treatment is beneficial to
clean the fibre surface, modify the chemistry on the fibre surface,
lower the moisture uptake and increase fibre surface roughness.
The treatment also removed the impurities and waxy substances
from the fibre surface and created a rougher topography which
facilitated the mechanical interlocking between the fibre and the
polymer. Alkali treatment improved the flax fibre/matrix adhesion
thus increasing the tensile properties of the flax fabric reinforced
epoxy composites. However, the fracture toughness of flax fabric/
epoxy composite is dominated by the fibre volume fraction, rather
than the reinforcement architecture. An improved in yarn and
textile design leads to a superior balance of stiffness, strength and
toughness of flax fabric reinforced composites [22].
Porras et al. [228] investigated a new natural fabric extracted
from Manicaria saccifera palm as reinforcement material in poly-
mer composite and they [229] further studied the thermo-
mechanical properties of a novel Manicaria fabric reinforced Poly-
Lactic Acid (PLA) green composite. They found that Manicaria fabric
showed good thermal stability, low density, low moisture content
and good tensile properties. Further, their properties are
114 L. Yan et al. / Composites Part B 92 (2016) 94e132

Fig. 31. SEM images of the fracture surface for geopolymer composites reinforced with flax fibres show (a) fibre debonding, (b) fibre imprint and pull-out, (c) fibre bridging cracks
((d) and (e) show the adhesion between fibre and matrix), and (f) fibre fracture (Reproduced with permission from Ref. [180]).

comparable to most natural cellulose fabrics and some synthetic
fabrics, such as fibre glass fabrics. The Manciaria saccifera fabric
reinforced PLA composite exhibited good tensile properties and
excellent energy absorption capabilities.
Huang and Netravali [124] studied flax fabric reinforced
concentrated soy protein biodegradable green composites with a
fabric volume fraction of 43%. The tested tensile strength and
modulus was 62 MPa and 1.2 GPa for warp direction, 81.9 MPa and
1.3 GPa for weft direction respectively. Flexural strength and flex-
ural modulus was 25.2 MPa and 1.3 GPa for warp direction,
46.7 MPa and 1.5 GPa for weft direction respectively. Assarar et al.
[126] compared the tensile properties of flax fabric/epoxy and glass
fabric/epoxy composites which were fabricated by a hand lay-up
process. It was found that the tensile strength of flax composites
reached up to 380 MPa - making it close to that of glass-fabric
reinforced epoxy composites.
Jawaid et al. [125] investigated hybrid jute fabric and oil palm
fibre (EFB) reinforced epoxy composites. It was found that the
tensile properties increased with an increase of jute fabric in the
hybrid composites. Dynamic mechanical analysis showed that the
storage modulus, loss modulus and glass transition temperature
also increased slightly with the increment of jute loading. They
stated that the oil palm/jute hybrid composite material could
replace synthetic composites used in construction, automotive and
aerospace industries if it was properly design.
Liang et al. [127] made a comparative study of fatigue behaviour
of flax fabric reinforced epoxy (FFRE) and glass fabric reinforced
epoxy (GFRE) composites. Both composites are made of dry rollers
of non-crimp fabrics with areal weights of flax of 235 g/m2 and
glass of 434 g/m2. Two stacking sequences of composites, i.e. [0/
90]3S and (b) [±45]3S, were fabricated. The measured thickness and
fibre volume fraction of FFRE and GFRE are 2.18 mm and 43.7%, and
2.33 mm and 42.5%, respectively. The tensionetension fatigue
loading test results indicated that the specific stress-number of
cycles to failure curves, show that for the [0/90]3S specimens, flax
fabric reinforced epoxy has lower fatigue endurance than glass
fabric reinforced epoxy, but the [± 45]3S flax fabric reinforced epoxy
specimens offer better specific fatigue endurance than similar glass
fabric reinforced epoxy, in the studied life range (<2  106).
Song et al. [128] examined the thermal properties and visco-
elastic behaviour of hemp/poly (lactic acid) (PLA) composites. They
used twill and plain woven hemp fabrics as reinforcements by
stacking film method. The impact and tensile properties of PLA
resin reinforced with twill structure fabric were found 15% and 10%
higher than the plain woven respectively. Twill woven hemp fabric
composites showed better mechanical strength, thermal and
 L. Yan et al. / Composites Part B 92 (2016) 94e132
viscoelastic behaviour than plain woven hemp fabric composites
and this is due to the structure of the twill fabrics, such as fewer
interlacing and closer packing. Increment of fibre volume fraction
from 6% to 20% were the reason why the coefficient of thermal
expansion of the fabricated hemp fabric composites decreased
considerably (from 70  106 m/ C to the most 10  106 m/ C),
which indicates that the composites have great potential for parts
experiencing a wide range of temperatures, such as automobile and
aerospace applications.
Christian and Billington [129] fabricated hemp fabric composite
to reinforce poly(b-hydroxybutyrate) biopolymer in order to eval-
uate its feasibility for construction applications as replacements for
wood or petroleum-based composites. Michel and Billington [130]
claimed that their bio based polymer composites have suitable
initial specific strength and stiffness for use in commercial appli-
cations but the long-term performance of these materials under
variable environmental conditions is largely unknown. Kabir et al.
[131] reported that the impact resistant of hemp fabric reinforced
epoxy composites ranged from 30 to 210 J/m. Lei et al. [132] showed
that of woven ramie fabric reinforced composites ranged 6e18 kJ/
m2 and the impact resistance of bamboo fabric reinforced com-
posites was between 13.4 and 26.9 kJ/m2, as reported by Porras and
Maranon [133].
Michalak and Krucinska [134] tested thermal insulation prop-
erties of a smart fabric used for making fabric reinforced polymer
composites. The fabric prototype developed was made of three
layers of nonwovens manufactured from the blends of flax and
steel fibres and the two interlayers included spirals, made from
NiTi or a reference copper (Cu) wire. The inner layer (heater) was
heated by electrical current. The external prototype layers imitated
the fabric. Mirrors and infrared camera were used to measure the
thermal properties. The test results showed that composites with
this new multilayer textile fabric prototype providing more heat
insulation through the use of shape-memory elements. The
incorporation of the shape-memory material into textile structure
makes it possible to increase heat insulation because of the in-
crease in the air layer thickness in the transverse direction of a flat
textile fabric.
Hughes et al. [135] tested unidirectional flax fabric/epoxy
composites and concluded that the non-linear tensile stressestrain
relationship of the composites with respect to the flax/matrix
adhesion and the presence of kink bands. Muralidhar [136,137]
stated that the compressive properties of flax fabric/epoxy com-
posites were mainly contributed by the matrix whereas the tensile
properties of the composites were highly influenced by the fabric
volume fraction in the tension direction. The effect of woven flax
fabric on fracture toughness of flax/epoxy composites was reported
by Liu and Hughes [138].
Fire performance of cellulosic fabric FRP composites is an
important parameter for their practical application. Yan et al. [43]
compared the fire performance of flax fabric reinforced epoxy
composites with other construction materials by Limited Oxygen
Index (LOI) test. LOT test describes the tendency of a material to
sustain a flame and provides a convenient, reproducible means of
determining a numerical measure of flammability. The LOI test
determines the minimum concentration of oxygen in a mixture of
oxygen and nitrogen flowing upward in a test column that will just
support combustion. Material with a higher LOI value corresponds
to a better fire performance of the material. The LOI of solid pine-
wood is slightly higher than that of flax fabric/epoxy composite,
indicating that pinewood may be more difficult to be ignited than
flax fabric/epoxy composite due to the higher concentration of
oxygen required sustaining burning. The LOI of flax fabric rein-
forced epoxy composite (23.6%) is larger than the hemp fabric/
epoxy and glass fabric/epoxy composites. The LOI of flax fabric/
115
epoxy composite is also larger than that of wood flour/polyethylene
composites [43].
Bharath and Basavarajappa [139] investigated the flammability
properties of woven coconut tree leaf sheath (CLS) reinforced
Phenol Formaldehyde (PF) composites. The CLS composites were
prepared in both treated (5% NaOH solution) and untreated forms.
It was found that for the alkali-treated composites, the mass loss
rate and flame propagation rate decreased and resistance to flame
increased by both vertical and horizontal Underwriter tests. LOI
results also showed that the alkaline treated CLS fibre with PF resin
has more compatibility. They concluded that this fabric reinforced
composite has promising application in construction and decora-
tive purposes.
Caschera et al. [168] investigated the flame retardant properties
plasma pre-treated diamond like carbon (DLC) coated cotton fab-
rics used for advanced composite fabrication. Fourier transform-
infrared spectroscopy analysis has revealed that different plasma
pre-treatments can impose surface modifications on the chemical
structure of cotton, especially in carboxylic and hydroxyl groups,
leading to a radical alteration of surface roughness and of the
crystalline cellulosic external structure. The pre-treated DLC cot-
tons exhibited good potential as flame-retardant materials used as
reinforcement of polymer composites, showing improved thermal
stability in respect to untreated cotton, as evidenced by increased
ignition times. Moreover, vertical burning tests have demonstrated
that the DLC cotton systems exhibited enhanced flammability
resistance.
3.3.2. Cellulosic fabric FRP composites as reinforcement materials of
construction structures
3.3.2.1. For concrete structures. Cellulosic fabric FRP composites
have been used as external strengthening reinforcement of con-
crete columns [e.g. Refs. [8,42,49,166]] and beams [e.g. Refs.
[37e43]]. Yan et al. [42] studied the compressive behaviour of plain
concrete (PC) and coir fibre reinforced concrete (CFRC) by flax fabric
FRP composite wrappings. It was found that the flax FRP (FFRP)
wrappings increased the ultimate compressive strength, axial
strain, fracture energy and ductility of both PC and CFRC remark-
ably, i.e. compared with PC (strength of 32 MPa) and CFRC (31
strength of MPa), the use of 4-layer FFRP wrapping increased the
ultimate strength of PC and CFRC to 52.9 MPa (an increase of 65.3%)
and 48.7 MPa (an increase of 57.1%), respectively. With an increase
of numbers of flax fabric layers, the ultimate compressive strength
of the strengthened concrete also increased. The increase in
strength is directly proportional to the increase of the fabric layers
[48]. A similar result was also observed for jute fabric FRP wrapped
plain concrete in uni-axial compression [8]. Compared with the
FFRP wrapped PC, the use of coir fibre within concrete reduced the
numbers and widths of the cracks in the concrete core [42]. The
increase in ultimate compressive strength of concrete by FFRP
composites is even more pronounced compared with that of con-
crete by basalt fabric reinforced polymer wrappings, although the
tensile properties of FFRP composites are significantly lower than
those of basalt fibre composites, as stated by Fiore et al. [166].
For concrete beams, Yan et al. [42,43] investigated the micro-
structure and flexural behaviour of PC and CFRC beams externally
strengthened with flax fabric FRP plates. The flax fabric/epoxy
composite plates enhanced the load carrying capacity, flexural
strength, deflection and fracture energy of PC and CFRC beams
remarkably, i.e. compared with unreinforced PC and CFRC in three-
point bending test, the increase in load and fracture energy by 6-
layer FFRP is 327% and 8160%, and 337% and 1064%, respectively.
With an increase of number of FFRP layer, the failure mode of
strengthened PC and CFRC beams varies gradually from flexure to
shear. SEM studies indicate that the FFRP composites and concrete
116 L. Yan et al. / Composites Part B 92 (2016) 94e132
show good interfacial adhesion because of the epoxy adhesive,
which contributing to the significant improvement in their flexural
properties of the strengthening concrete beams. Sen and Jaganna-
tha Reddy [37,39] compared the flexural behaviour of conventional
steel reinforced concrete (RC) beams externally strengthened by
jute fabric, carbon and glass fabric FRP composite plates using full
wrapping and strip wrapping techniques. The results depicted that
jute fabric FRP composites, carbon fabric FRP composites and glass
fabric FRP composites, strengthening improved the ultimate flex-
ural strength of the RC beams by 62.5%, 150% and 125%, respectively,
with full wrapping technique and by 25%, 50% and 37.5%, respec-
tively with strip wrapping technique. However, jute FRP compos-
ites strengthening displayed the highest deformability index and
proved that jute fabric FRP material has potential as a structural
strengthening material. It should be pointed out here that the jute
fabric composites had a tensile strength of 189.5 MPa, which was
only 21% of the tensile strength of carbon fabric composites and
28% of the tensile strength of glass (E-glass) fabric reinforced
composites. The jute FRP composites had a flexural strength of
208.7 MPa, which was 13% and 32% of the flexural strength of
carbon and glass (E-glass) fabric reinforced polymer composites,
respectively. Sisal fabric reinforced polymer composite plates were
also used to strengthen RC beams [38]. The flexure tests showed
good increase in its flexural strength and improvement in load
deflection behaviour due to sisal fabric reinforced polymer com-
posites strengthening. The RC beam strengthened by sisal FRP
composite showed high ductility and also delayed the formation of
cracks, without delamination of the sisal fabric composite plates
from the concrete, indicating a good compatibility between the
sisal fabric composite plate and the concrete. Alam et al. [40,41] also
use kenaf fabric, jute fabric and jute rope reinforced polymer
composite plates to retrofit RC beams. Their test results showed the
potential to use these cellulosic fabric FRP composites as external
strengthening materials of concrete structures.
3.3.2.2. For masonry structures. Cellulosic fibre fabric FRP com-
posites have been also used as external strengthening reinforce-
ment of masonry structures due to their environmental impact to
masonry [e.g. Refs. [70e75]]. Another important reason is that
historical masonry is characterized by moderate compressive and
shear strengths, very low tensile strength and low to moderate
stiffness. Thus, a suitable strengthening system for masonry
structures should possess a similar stiffness for mechanical
compatibility with the substrate, while exhibiting enough tensile
capacity. Within this context, the use of cellulosic fibres/fabrics
seems quite appealing, more than the use of high performance fi-
bres such as carbon, which present a too high stiffness, hardly
compatible with the substrate and a non-exploitable tensile
strength [70,71]. Codispoti et al. [72] stated that flax, hemp and jute
fabric FRP composites have potentials as strengthening systems of
masonry structures. Olivito et al. [73] also tested the mechanical
properties of flax and sisal fabric FRP composites and concluded
that these cellulosic fabric reinforced composites with ductile
behaviour and suitable mechanical performance for strengthening
application in masonry structures. In addition, considering fabric
geometry and physical properties such as the mass per unit area
and the linear density, the flax fabric provided better anchorage
development than sisal and glass fabrics in composites used for
strengthening of masonry structures. Cevallos et al. [74,75] tested
flax fabric FRP strengthened masonry elements subjected to
concentric and eccentric loading conditions. Analysis of the
loadedisplacement and momentecurvature response revealed
that the flax fabric composite-based strengthening systems
improve the strength and deformability of masonry which help
prevent the composite and the masonry substrate from debonding.
Ibarra-Castanedo et al. [71] also used the active infrared thermog-
raphy to assess the structural behaviour of (1) a laboratory masonry
specimen reinforced with flax fabric/epoxy composites and con-
taining several artificial defects; and (2) an actual flax fabric/epoxy
composite retrofitted masonry wall in the Faculty of Engineering of
the University of L'Aquila (Italy) that was seriously affected by the
2009 earthquake. All these studies indicated cellulosic fabric rein-
forced composites (e.g. flax, hemp and jute) are feasible as prom-
ising strengthening systems for masonry structures, especially for
historical masonry buildings.
3.3.2.3. For timber structures. Cellulosic fibre fabric FRP composites
have been used as external strengthening reinforcement of timber
structures, such as laminated veneer lumber, solid wood and glu-
lam [e.g. Refs. [65e69]]. Andre
et al. [65] used cellulosic flax fabric
FRP composites as strengthening of glue-laminated timber in ten-
sion perpendicular to the gain because flax fibres are recyclable and
CO2 neutral with low density and high specific mechanical prop-
erties. Fig. 32 shows the test set up of the reinforced glulam [65].
The results also compared with glass fabric reinforced polymer
strengthened specimens. It was found that both flax and glass
fabric FRP composites strengthening modified the failure of glulam
from brittle to semi-ductile, with warning cracks in the glulam
before failure in the fibres. The increase in tensile strength of the
timber specimen by glass FRP composites (250 g/m2) and flax fabric
reinforced composites (230 g/m2) is 246% and 204%, the increase in
modulus of elasticity due to glass and flax FRP strengthening is
161% and 165%, respectively. The higher increase in tensile strength
by glass FRP is attributed to the significantly higher tensile strength
of the glass FRP laminates (131 MPa of flax reinforced composites
vs. 850 MPa of glass reinforced composites) and the higher fibre
content (45% of glass vs. 25% of flax) in glass fabric composite
laminates. This study showed flax FRP strengthened glulam with
very promising properties. Speranzini and Agnetti [68] compared
the structural performance of solid wood beams (size of
40 mm  50 mm  1000 mm) strengthened with basalt, carbon,
glass, flax and hemp fabric FRP laminates under four-point bending
tests. The tensile load-deflection curves of unreinforced and rein-
forced solid wooden beams are given in Fig. 33. It shows that the
reinforced specimens have a different behaviour from those
without reinforcement, namely, they have a much higher tensile
strength and ductility due to the reinforcement. The enhancement
in flexural strength and ductility of flax and hemp fabric FRP lam-
inates strengthening are comparable to those by carbon, glass or
basalt fabric FRP laminates, although the tensile properties of flax
and hemp composites are significantly lower than those of carbon,
glass and basalt composites. A follow-up test was conducted to
investigate the flexural behaviour of large scale (200 mm
 200 mm  4000 mm) beams strengthened by flax and basalt
fabric FRP laminates after 6 month and 12 month seasoning [67,69].
The load-deflection curves are shown in Fig. 34. It is clear that the
flax fabric FRP laminate strengthening wooden beams showed
comparable (at 6 month seasoning) or even higher (at 12 month
seasoning) load resistance compared with the specimens by basalt
FRP laminates. After 12 month seasoning, the test results indicated
that the flax fabric reinforcement increased the load resistance of
the beam up to 66% on average, while the basalt fabric reinforce-
ment gave an average increase of about 38%. The stiffness of the
beams did not show significant increase by the reinforcement. In
this study, the tensile strength of basalt and flax fabric FRP com-
posite is 2000 MPa and 352 MPa and the modulus of elasticity of
the basalt and flax fibre composite is 95 GPa and 34 GPa, respec-
tively [67]. Another study on flax, hemp and basalt fabric FRP
laminate strengthened laminated veneer lumber beams indicated
that the flax and hemp fabric reinforced polymer laminate provided
 L. Yan et al. / Composites Part B 92 (2016) 94e132
Fig. 32. Test set up of flax fabric reinforced polymer composites strengthened glulam (Reproduced with permission from Ref. [65]).
Fig. 33. Tensile load-deflection curves for unreinforced and basalt, flax and hemp
fabric reinforced composites strengthened solid wooden beams (Reproduced with
permission from Ref. [68]).
a comparable reinforcement effect on the laminated veneer lumber
beams with that reinforced by basalt fabric reinforced laminates.
3.3.2.4. Cellulosic fabric FRP composites used in hybrid structures.
Cellulosic flax fabric reinforced epoxidized pine-oil resin compos-
ites have been used with rigid closed-cell polyisocyanurate foam to
be structural sandwich panels as light-weight thermal insulation
walls for civil engineering [167]. The sandwich panel is composed
of flax/epoxidized pine-oil composite skins and an inner poly-
isocyanurate foam. The flexural behaviour of flax FRP panels is
compared with panels with glass FRP skins. The tested tensile
strength and modulus of flax composite and glass composite are
177 MPa and 11.8 GPa, and 735 MPa and 39.2 GPa, respectively. The
tested compressive strength and modulus of flax composite and
117
glass composite are 83 MPa and 3.7 GPa, and 269 MPa and 33.7 GPa,
respectively. The test results showed that the sandwich panels with
flax fabric FRP skins can indeed provide equivalent structural per-
formance to panels with glass fabric FRP skins. Flax fibre sandwich
panels show a more ductile failure than the glass fibre sandwich
panels.
Cellulosic flax fabric FRP composites in the form of pre-
fabricated tubes have been used with concrete to be a hybrid
structure, i.e. flax fabric reinforced polymer (FFRP) composite tube
encased coir fibre reinforced concrete (CFRC), which is termed as
FFRPeCFRC [e.g. Refs. [44e52]]. This steel-free hybrid structure is
composed an outer FFRP tube and a CFRC core. The pre-fabricated
FFRP tube serves as the permanent formwork for fresh concrete
and also as a jacket protects the concrete core from outer aggressive
environments. As the reinforcement and confinement device of
concrete, the tube also increases the load carrying capacity and
ductility of the concrete. Coir fibres are added within the concrete
to reduce concrete cracks and eventually modify the failure mode
of concrete from brittle to ductile because of fibre bridging effect.
Previous studies [44e46] showed a good potential of FFRPeCFRC
structure as axial and flexural structural members, i.e. in axial
compression, compared with unconfined CFRC, all the specimens
with FFRP tube confinement their peak strength, axial strain at
peak strength and energy absorption capacity increased remark-
ably, i.e. the confinement effectiveness (defined as the ratio of peak
stress of the confined concrete that of the unconfined concrete) of
2-layer, 4-layer and 6-layer specimens is 1.59, 2.35 and 3.13,
respectively. Therefore, as FFRP thickness or the number of FFRP
layers increases, the FFRP tube confinement became more effective.
In flexure, compared with the peak load and energy absorption
capacity of the unconfined CFRC beam, the increases in load for by
FFRP tube with 6 layer fabrics is 907.7% and 7048%, respectively. The
structural performance of FFRPeCFRC beams also was compared
with the conventional RC beams with a same dimension. The re-
sults showed that the load carrying capacity of RC beam with an
over reinforcement ratio of 2.56% was 27.1 kN, but that of the 2-
layer and 4-layer FFRPeCFRC was 29.7 kN and 84.7 kN, respec-
tively. The fracture energy of the RC beam was 348 J, while that of 2-
layer and 4-layer FFRPeCFRC was 184 J and 794 J. In addition, the
118 L. Yan et al. / Composites Part B 92 (2016) 94e132
Fig. 34. Load-deflection curves for reinforced and unreinforced beams after (a) 6 months seasoning and (b) 12 month reasoning (Reproduced with permission from Ref. [69]).
FFRPeCFRC beams showed comparable ductility with that of RC
beams. Compared with the confinement effectiveness of synthetic
(i.e. glass, carbon or aramid) fabric FRP composite tube on concrete
columns, the confinement performance of natural flax fabric FRP
composite tube on concrete columns is comparable [49]. The ten-
sile properties of the glass or carbon FRP composites used for their
confined concrete varied from 381 to 4400 MPa and 38.1e580 GPa.
The confinement effectiveness and confinement ratio of glass or
carbon FRP confined concrete varies from 1.11 to 2.96 and from
0.033 to 0.604. The obtained confinement effectiveness and
confinement ratio of FFRP confined concrete are 1.46e2.08 and
0.210e0.566, respectively. However, it should be pointed out here
that the tensile strength and tensile modulus of the flax FRP com-
posites is significantly lower than those of glass or carbon FRP
composites, which is 130 MPa and 8.7 GPa, respectively [49]. In
addition, in hammer-induced longitudinal, transversal and
torsional vibration patterns, compared with the unreinforced
concrete beams, the FFRP tube and coir fibre increased the damping
characteristics of the hybrid concrete beams significantly, thus
reduced the effect of dynamic loadings on the structural response
[20]. A follow-up shake table test of FFRPeCFRC columns showed
that this hybrid structure has the potential to be future earthquake-
resistant structures such as bridge piers [50e52].
It should be pointed out here that cellulosic fabrics also have
potential to be used as reinforcement of plaster, although the
literature reported mainly studies regarding the use of mono-
filament cellulosic fibres as reinforcement of plasters [e.g. Refs.
[230e233]].
4. Degradation mechanisms of FRC, FRG and FRP composites
4.1. Degradation mechanisms of cellulosic fibre/fabric in
cementitious matrix
Although cellulosic fibres/fabrics as reinforcement materials
exhibited promising results to improve the mechanical properties
of geopolymer and cementitious remarkably, but their usefulness in
cement-based matrices is limited by the relatively low degradation
resistance in alkaline environments, which means the strength of
the cellulosic fibres/fabrics degrades when added in cement
matrices exposed to aggressive environmental conditions [181].
The degradation of cellulosic fibres/fabrics in the alkaline envi-
ronment of cement depletes their reinforcing effect, which is a
challenge that should be addressed prior to the widespread
acceptance and implementation of their cement-based composites
in practical engineering. Gram [182] and Tole ^do Filho [21]
investigated the degradation of cellulosic fibres in cement. They
stated that the dissolution of lignin and hemicellulose in a cement
pore solution and alkaline hydrolysis of cellulose molecules, which
causes the degradation of molecular chains and the reduction in the
degree of polymerization and the tensile strength were the main
ageing mechanisms of cellulosic fibres in cement-based compos-
ites. In addition, the crystallization of lime in the lumen and middle
lamellae also degraded the flexibility and strength of cellulosic fi-
bres [183]. Melo Filho et al. [184] investigated two fibre degradation
mechanisms in Portland cement composites: fibre mineralization
and degradation of cellulose, hemicellulose and lignin due to the
existence of calcium hydroxide and absorption of calcium and hy-
droxyl ions. However, the results obtained so far have been insuf-
ficient, primarily because the intrinsic degradation kinetics and
mechanisms of cellulosic fibre and its three main components,
cellulose, hemicellulose and lignin, in solid phase and pore solution
of cement have not been successfully investigated.
Wei and Meyer [23] described the degradation of cellulosic fi-
bres (e.g. sisal) in cement including: (1) the alkaline degradation
(hydrolysis) and (2) mineralization. Lignin functions as cuticle or
glue in the cell wall of cellulosic fibre giving its structure and
protecting the fibre against microbial or chemical degradation of
the polysaccharides. Wei and Meyer stated that the alkaline
degradation of cellulosic fibre in a cement matrix is believed
attributed to the high alkalinity of cement solid phase and pore
solution. As shown in Fig. 35, the alkaline degradation of cellulosic
fibre in cement can be divided into four steps: (i) Degradation of
lignin and part of hemicellulose, which leads to the exposure of
holocellulose in the pore solution and solid phase of the matrix; (ii)
In this step, degradation occurs mainly on hemicellulose, which
causes the decrease of integrity and stability of the cell wall of
cellulosic fibre; (iii) After the degradation of lignin, hemicellulose
and intramolecular hydrogen bonding, there remains no binding
for cellulose micro-fibrils, and as a result cellulose fibres disperse in
the pore solution of the matrix, which in turn, accelerates the
degradation of cellulose; (iv) The last step is the failure of cellulose
micro-fibrils, which is caused by alkaline hydrolysis of amorphous
regions containing non-reducing end, and leads to the complete
degradation of the cellulosic fibre [23]. As the degradation pro-
ceeds, the hydration products, such as CeSeH and soluble por-
tlandite, gradually infiltrate into the cell wall, which in turn leads to
mineralization and embrittlement of the cellulosic fibre [23].
Except for the alkali hydrolysis of cellulose, hemi-cellulose and
lignin, cell wall mineralization is also an important degradation
mechanism which leads to the fibre embrittlement and the
reduction of strength and strain capacity. Caused by the migration
 L. Yan et al. / Composites Part B 92 (2016) 94e132 119

Fig. 35. Diagrammatic sketch of microstructure (a) and cellulosic fibre's alkaline degradation process (b) (Reproduced with permission from Ref. [23]).

of hydration products to lumens and to the middle lamella, and
volume variation in these fibres due to their high water absorption,
fibre mineralization is sensitive to the CH amount of the matrix
[185]. In addition, two mineralization mechanisms are proposed by
Wei and Meyer [23]: CH-mineralization and self-mineralization.
Caused by the migration of hydration products (calcium hydrox-
ide) to lumens and to the middle lamella, and volume variation, CH-
mineralization indicates that the CH content of the matrix and Ca2þ
concentration in the pore solution contributes to the degradation of
natural fibre. However, self-mineralization demonstrates the hy-
drolysis rate of amorphous components (lignin and hemicellulose),
therefore the contribution of alkalinity of the matrix to the fibre
degradation can be determined. It is well known that the
precipitation of hydration products, likely calcium hydroxide,
within the fibre cell wall structure is the main reason for cell wall
mineralization [23,25].
4.2. Degradation mechanism of cellulosic fibre/fabric and their FRP
composites
Like cellulosic fibre/fabric FRG and FRC composites, there are
many promising achievements at laboratory or pilot scale for
cellulosic fibre/fabric FRP composites, several challenges in
applying their composites at the industrial scale are still exist [22].
One major obstacle which needs to be overcame is to understand
the degradation mechanisms of FRP composites in different ageing
120 L. Yan et al. / Composites Part B 92 (2016) 94e132
conditions and how their degradation impacts the durability. As
mentioned before, some disadvantages associated with the use of
cellulosic fibre/fabric as reinforcement in polymer composites are
their incompatibility due to the hydrophilic nature of cellulosic fi-
bres, poor moisture resistance, inferior fire resistance, limited
processing temperatures, lower durability and variation in quality.
In a polymer composite, the transport of water can be facilitated by
three mechanisms which are: (i) by diffusion inside the matrix, (ii)
by imperfections within the matrix (microspace, pores or cracks),
and (iii) by capillarity along the fibre/matrix interface. When a
cellulosic fibre/polymer composite is exposed to moisture, water
penetrates and attaches onto hydrophilic groups of fibre, estab-
lishing intermolecular hydrogen bonding with fibres and reduces
interfacial adhesion of fibre and matrix. Degradation process occurs
when swelling of cellulosic fibres develop stress at interface regions
leading to microcracking mechanism in the matrix around swollen
fibres and this promotes capillarity and transport via microcracks.
Water soluble substances start leaching from fibres and eventually
lead to ultimate debonding between fibre and matrix. Debonding
between fibre and matrix is initiated by the development of os-
motic pressure pockets at the surface of fibres due to the leaching of
water soluble substances from the fibre surface [186]. The effect of
water on cellulosic fibre and polymer matrix interfacial bond is
illustrated in Fig. 36. After long period, biological activities such as
fungi growth degrade cellulosic fibres [186]. The characteristics of
natural fibre composites immersed in water are influenced by the
nature of the fibre and matrix materials, by the relative humidity
and manufacturing technique, which determines factors such as
porosity and volume fraction of fibres [187]. The manner in which
composite materials absorb water depends upon several factors
such as temperature, fibre volume fraction, orientation of rein-
forcement, permeability nature of fibre, and area of exposed sur-
faces, diffusivity, reaction between water and matrix and surface
protection [188].
Yan et al. [189,190] investigated the long-term degradation of
cellulosic fabric/epoxy composites (e.g. flax) in different ageing
conditions, e.g. water, seawater and alkaline solutions for 1 year, UV
and water spraying cycle for 1500 h. Several degradation mecha-
nisms of the cellulosic fabric FRP composites were confirmed: (1)
change in chemical compositions of fibres, (2) degradation in
strength of fibre, (3) degradation in polymer matrix, and (4)
degradation in fibre/polymer matrix interfacial bond. These studies
found that the reduction in the mechanical properties (i.e. tensile
and flexural) of the flax fabric/epoxy composites was mainly
attributed to degradation of flax fibres and fibre/matrix interfacial
bonding. UV and high humidity (water spraying) cycles had nega-
tive effect on chemical contents of cellulose, hemicellulose, and
lignin within the flax fibre. The breaking down of cellulose, hemi-
cellulose and lignin after exposure led to poor fibre and matrix
interfacial bond. Weathering cycles tended to increase wettability
of flax fibres by removing the hydrophobic substances such as
hydrocarbons, waxes and lignin, which also contributed to the
degradation of fibre/matrix interfacial bond, as lignin and waxes act
mainly as bonding agents in flax fibres. In addition, micro-cracks on
weathered composite surfaces restricted the efficiency of stress
transfer from epoxy matrix to fibres, causing poor tensile properties
[190]. Fig. 37 shows the comparison in fibre/polymer matrix in-
terfaces of flax fabric/epoxy composites after immersed in different
ageing solutions for 1 year. In ultraviolet radiation cycle, photo-
degradation caused changes in all scales of polymer dimension,
including the monomer unit (oxidation), the chain (crosslinking or
chain scission), the morphology (breakdown of tie molecules and
crystal), and on the macroscopic scale [189]. The ultraviolet radia-
tion absorbed by polymers modifies the chemical structure,
providing molecular chain scission and/or chain crosslinking.
Degradation processes by weathering which includes photo-
radiation, thermal degradation, photo-oxidation and hydrolysis
provide changes in the chemical, physical and mechanical proper-
ties of materials [186,189,191]. Photodegradation of polymers due
to photo-oxidation is promoted by UV irradiation. Oxidation gra-
dients cause density gradients that results in stresses, and when
combined with chain scission (reduction in molecular weight)
which leads to shorter polymer chains, will initiate and propagate
cracks. Cracks on surface leads to light diffusion (a whitening effect
in appearance) and deterioration of mechanical properties [191].
For widespread use of cellulosic fibre/fabric reinforced polymer
composites, one critical technical barrier is the degree of fire
resistance of the material [186,192]. At lower of 100e200  C, FRP
composites soften, creep and distort (degradation of mechanical
property) causing buckling for load bearing structure. At
300e500  C, polymer matrix decomposes, releasing heat and toxic
volatiles. Decomposition of burning polymers includes the pro-
duction of combustible gases, non-combustible gases, liquids,
solids (usually char), and entrained solid particles (smoke). These
outcomes may produce hazards such as the evolution of toxic gases,
loss of physical integrity, and melting and dripping thereby
providing other ignition sources [186]. For cellulosic fibres, flam-
mability is due to differences in chemical composition. Higher
cellulose content results in higher flammability while higher lignin
content results in greater char formation. The present of silica or
ash provides better fire resistance [186]. In terms of the fibre
microstructure, high crystallinity and lower polymerization
improve fire resistance. Polymer by itself when exposed to high
temperature behaves poorly and becomes very hazardous. Fibre is
introduced to improve this condition but in the case of cellulosic
fibres, the improvement is limited due to the characteristics of the
fibres which are more flammable than synthetic fibres [192]. Fig. 38
shows the degradation of pure epoxy and kenaf/epoxy composite at
different temperature exposure.
5. Durability of cellulosic FRC, FRP and FRG composites
If being used in practice, cellulosic fibre and their fabric FRC, FRG
and FRP composites will be exposed to various harsh environments
such as temperature and humidity variance, raining, acid and
alkaline solutions, UV light, freeze-thaw, thermal cycles, sulphate
or chloride attack, etc., resulting degradation of these composite
materials and thus raising safety concerns. Therefore, under-
standing the durability performance of these composites has po-
tential industrial significance. Durability of cellulosic FRC, FRG and
FRP composites is related to the ability to resist both external (e.g.
temperature and humidity variance, raining, acid and alkaline so-
lutions, UV light, sulphate or chloride attack, etc.) and internal
damage (compatibility between fibres and various matrices, volu-
metric changes) [31,189,190].
For durability of cellulosic fibre/fabric FRC composites, Gram
[182] explained that cellulosic fibres immersed in Portland cement
will degrade because the high alkaline environment will dissolve
the fundamental constituents of the fibres, such as lignin and
hemicellulose, and in turn weakening the structure of the cellulosic
fibres, such as coir and sisal. Gram [182] also concluded that the coir
and sisal fibres could preserve their tensile strength in carbonated
concrete with the value of pH less than 9. A similar durability
investigation on sisal and coir fibres was also performed by Filho
et al. [16]. These fibres were placed in a sodium hydroxide solution
for 420 days. It was observed that there was 27.3% and 39.1%
reduction in tensile strength for sisal and coir fibres, respectively.
John et al. [193] investigated coir fibre reinforced blast-furnace slag
cement mortar, which was taken from the internal and external
walls of a 12 year old house. Fibres removed from the old samples
 L. Yan et al. / Composites Part B 92 (2016) 94e132 121

Fig. 36. Effect of water on cellulosic fibre and polymer matrix interfacial bond (Reproduced with permission from Ref. [186]).

Fig. 37. SEM image of flax fibre/polymer interfaces: (a) control specimen without ageing, (b) aged in water for 1 year, (c) aged in seawater for 1 year and (d) aged in 5% NaOH
solution for 1 year (Reproduced with permission from Ref. [189]).
122 L. Yan et al. / Composites Part B 92 (2016) 94e132
Fig. 38. Physical observation of kenaf/epoxy composite and neat epoxy at different temperature exposure (Reproduced with permission from Ref. [192]).
were reported to be undamaged. No significant difference was
found in the lignin content of fibres removed from external and
internal walls, confirming the durability of coconut fibres in cement
composites. Siva raja et al. [194] tested the mechanical properties of
sisal fibre reinforced concrete at an interval of 3 months for a period
of 2 years under alternate wetting and drying conditions. The test
results indicated that the compressive strength increased from
27.8 MPa to 30.3 MPa, splitting tensile strength enhanced from
3.28 MPa to 3.58 MPa and the modulus of rupture added from
4.79 MPa to 4.85 MPa at the ages of 28 days to 2 years. The wetting
and drying for a period of 2 years had an insignificant effect on the
mechanical properties of CFRC. Li et al. [195] studied untreated and
alkaline-treated coir fibre reinforced cementitious composites for
normal curing and accelerated ageing. For accelerated ageing in the
last two days of curing, the specimens were taken out of the water
tank, air dried, and then frozen at 10  C for 24 h, followed by
thawing the specimens at 24  C for 2 h and baking them in a forced
draft oven at 90  C for 22 h. The resulting mortar with treated fibres
had lesser flexural strength (0.8%) and ductility (4%) but greater
toughness (19%) than mortar with untreated fibres for normal
cured specimens. However, for accelerated ageing specimens,
treated fibres reinforced mortar had a lesser flexural strength (38%)
but greater toughness (44%) and ductility (73%) than that of un-
treated fibres reinforced mortar.
For durability of cellulosic fibre/fabric FRP composites, Yan et al.
[190] indicated that flax fabric reinforced epoxy composites had
reduction in tensile and flexural properties after immersed in wa-
ter, seawater and alkaline (5% NaOH) solution ageing for 1 year, e.g.
the reduction in tensile strength and modulus was 22.6e31.1% and
24.0e36.4% and the reduction in flexural strength and modulus was
9.3e23.5% and 13.9e25.2%, respectively. Alkaline solution ageing
led to the largest reduction, followed by the seawater and then the
water ageing. The exposure of flax fabric reinforced epoxy com-
posites in an UV and water spraying accelerated weathering
chamber [189] also showed that the tensile strength/modulus of
the weathered composites decreased 29.9% and 34.9%, respectively.
The flexural strength/modulus reduced 10.0% and 10.2%, respec-
tively. Stamboulis et al. [196] confirmed that the development of
fungus and bacteria in flax fabric reinforced composites due to
biodegradation or moisture retention is a major concern in their
development as structural materials. Different weathering
conditions may also produce colour change, weight loss, surface
roughening and strength reduction of the cellulosic fibre reinforced
polymer composites [197].
For durability of cellulosic fibre/fabric FRG composites, no
studies can be found in the literature. However, the Thermogravi-
metric analysis by Alomayri et al. [58,60,62] confirmed that the
geopolymer itself acts as protection of the cellulosic fibre (i.e. cot-
ton fabric) from the effect of thermal degradation because of its
possible barrier function to reduce the ingress of air and the
resultant oxidative degradation. In other words, the use of geo-
polymer paste for cellulosic fibres/fabric can improve the thermal
degradation resistance of these fibres/fabrics. In order to have du-
rable cellulosic fibre/fabric FRC, FRP and FRG composites used in
civil engineering, in principal, there are two strategies to achieve:
fibre treatment and matrix treatment.
5.1. Methods to improve the durability of cellulosic fibre/fabric FRC
composites
5.1.1. Treatment of cellulosic fibre/fabric
For cellulosic fibre/fabric FRC composites, their mechanical
properties are highly dependent on the properties of the fibre/
fabric and the cement matrix used, as well as the interfacial bond
behaviour between the fabric/fibre and the matrix since the stress
transfers from the matrix to the fabric/fibre are via their interfaces.
All cellulosic fibres are hydrophilic in nature since the lignocellu-
lose within their structure contains strongly polarized hydroxyl
groups. These fibres, therefore, are inherently incompatible with
various matrices, such as cementitious. In addition, as discussed
before, the high alkalinity of water in the pore of the cementitious
matrix weakens the cellulosic fibres, induces their mineralization.
Moreover, the severe weathering conditions that the composites
exposed induce water uptake and release of the composites, which
results in continuous volume changes of the porous cement matrix
and the hydrophilic cellulosic fibre cell walls [2,23,28,31,171]. All
these issues may lead to degradation at the cellulosic fibre and the
cement matrix interfaces and in turn the durability degradation of
the composites. Therefore, generally speaking, the treatment of
cellulosic fibres and/or fabrics by physical and chemical treatments
aims to improve the fibre/cement matrix interfacial adhesion and
thus the durability of their composites.
 L. Yan et al. / Composites Part B 92 (2016) 94e132
It was reported that hornification of cellulosic fibres can obtain
more durable cellulosic fibre reinforced cementitious composites
[27]. Hornification is an irreversible effect which occurs on cellu-
losic fibres subjected to drying and rewetting cycles principally,
which leads to cellulosic fibres with higher dimensional stability
and lower water retention values [28]. It was found that the
hornification treatment is effectively to improve the durability of
sisal, coir and cotton fibre reinforced cementitious composites
[27,177]. Ferreira et al. [244] investigated the effect of wet and dry
cycles on sisal fibre and cement matrix bonding. Compared with
untreated fibres, the adhesion and frictional bond strength of the
treated fibres increased 40% and 50% respectively. Moreover, the
maximum pull-out load increased with the embedment length,
reaching 6.35 and 8.46 N for the untreated and treated fibres,
respectively, for a fibre length of 25 mm. The hornification process
reduced the dimensional changes of the fibres in the cement
matrix.
Tonoli et al. [171] evaluated the surface modification (i.e. use
Methacryloxypropyltrimethoxysilane (MPTS) and Amino-
propyltriethoxysilane (APTS)) of cellulosic pulp fibres on the me-
chanical and microstructure of cellulosic fibre reinforced cement
composites. The surface modification showed significant influence
on the microstructure of the composites on the fibre/matrix
interface and in the mineralization of the fibre lumen. At 28 days,
compared with the untreated fibre reinforced composites, both
treatments increased the modulus of rupture and modulus of
elasticity of the composites remarkably. Under 200 accelerated
ageing cycles, the modulus of rupture and modulus of elasticity of
both treated composites were larger than the untreated one
although the cycles decreased modulus of rupture and toughness of
all the composites. Composites reinforced with MPTS-modified fi-
bres presented fibres free from cement hydration products, while
APTS-modified fibres presented accelerated mineralization. Higher
mineralization of the fibres led to higher embrittlement of the
composite after accelerated ageing cycles. These observations were
therefore very useful for understanding the mechanisms of
degradation of fibre/cement composites and improving their
durability.
Belgacem and Gandini [172] investigated the use of chemical
surface treatment on cellulosic fibres to reduce their hydrophilic
character and improve their adhesion on the cement matrix. The
blocking through chemical pathways reduces the number of reac-
tive hydroxyl groups concomitant with the formation of bonds
between the cellulose fibres and the cementitious matrix, resulting
in the diminution of the water absorption and in improvements of
the mechanical properties and durability of the cellulosic fibre
reinforced cementitious composite.
Blankenhorn et al. [173,174] and Bilba and Arsene [178] reported
that the use of silane coupling agents like alkyl-alkoxysilane to treat
cellulosic fibres enhanced the cellulosic fibre and cement matrix
adhesion and their composite durability. Xu and Chung [175]
described that the use of silane bridged the cellulosic fibre sur-
face, the fumed silica and the cement matrix, yielding denser and
stronger composites. In a patent by Merkley and Luo [176]
described the improvement in cellulosic fibre reinforced cement
composite strength and durability though enhancing the fibre/
cement interfacial adhesion using silane agents, alkoxysilanes,
alkyl-alkoxysilanes, halide organosilanes, carboxylated organo-
silanes and epoxy-alkoxysilanes.
Jo et al. [24] reported on the use of alkali treatment on jute fibres
to improve the mechanical properties and durability of the rein-
forced mortar composites. The compressive and flexural strengths
of the control cement mortar (cured for 90 days) are 34.5 MPa and
7.4 MPa, respectively. In contrast, the compressive and flexural
strengths of the alkali-treated jute fibre reinforced cement mortar
123
(cured for 90 days) are 36.2 and 10.4 MPa, respectively. Addition-
ally, based on the analyses of the bending properties, it is assessed
that the fracture toughness, toughness indices and post-cracking
resistance energy of alkali-treated jute fibre reinforced mortar are
improved by 1.5, 0.6 and 22.5 times, respectively, as compared to
that of the control mortar. Whereas, the above properties of raw
jute fibre reinforced mortar samples are improved by 1.4, 0.5 and
20.4 times, respectively, as compared to that of the control mortar
counterpart. A similar result was observed by Sedan et al. [179] on
alkali-treated hemp fibre reinforced cement composites. Alkali
treatment is highly effective to enhance mechanical, physical and
thermal properties of fibres and composites. Additionally, it could
increase the interface interaction between cellulosic fibres and the
matrices. Removal of hemi-celluloses and other soluble sugars, and
splitting of fibre into fibrils due to alkali treatment play a significant
role in enhancing the mechanical properties of the composites. The
enhancement of effective surface area of fibres due to the alkali-
treatment increases the availability of the effective surface area
for bonding between fibres and the matrix at the interface [24,179].
Moslemi et al. [177] reported that cellulosic fibre/matrix in-
compatibility can be eliminated by some special treatment onto the
fibre surface, i.e. the hotecold water extraction, soaking and
chemical extraction of wood fibres improve the fibre/matrix
interfacial compatibility and long term durability. Other re-
searchers reported that the use of water-repellents or fibre
impregnation with sodium silicate, sodium sulphite or magnesium
sulphate can improve the cellulosic fibres and concrete interfacial
adhesion which in turn enhanced their mechanical properties and
durability [180,181,198], e.g. the use of a water-repellent in bamboo
fibres allowed for only 4% water absorption. Cellulosic fibres with
coatings can be water-resistant and alkaline-free, and improve the
cement-based composite durability. Bilba and Arsene [178] also
recommended using silane coating to improve the durability of
cellulosic fibre reinforced concrete, such as bagasse. Toledo et al.
[17] recommend the immersion of the fibre in silica fume slurry
before adding it to the mix which can obtain more durable com-
posites. Savastano et al. [199,200] mentioned that using pulped
fibres can improve the durability performance. Jua
rez et al. [201]
stated that the fibre extraction process can prevent durability re-
ductions. Motta et al. [202] used compression and temperature
(120, 160 and 200  C) to increase fibre stiffness and decrease fibre
moisture absorption. Combining pyrolysis and silane treatment
improved the water resistance of the fibres, which become more
hydrophobic [203]. Other studies were performed to investigate
Eucalyptus kraft pulp fibres submitted to chemical treatment in
order to reduce their hydrophilic character and thus increase the
durability [204,205].
5.1.2. Treatment of cementitious matrix
To increase the durability of cellulosic fibre/fabric reinforced
cementitious composites, some authors suggested to modify the
cement matrix, e.g. using low alkaline concrete and adding poz-
zolans such as husk ash, blast furnace slag or fly ash to Portland
cement [12,206]. The principal to use pozzolans is that the pozzo-
lanic reaction is completed during the hydration process between
the calcium hydroxide and the amorphous silica, producing the
stable hydrated calcium silicate salt, which promotes the trans-
formation of portlandite into CeSeH gel [28]. Mohr et al. [207] used
ternary blends including metakaolin, ground granulated blast
furnace slag, class F fly ash, class C fly ash, volcanic ash and silica
fume in the cellulosic fibre reinforced cementitious composites. It
was found that these supplementary materials mitigated the
degradation of kraft pulp fibre reinforced cement-based compos-
ites and in turn improved the durability of the composites due to
the wet-drying cycling and the reduction in the calcium hydroxide
124 L. Yan et al. / Composites Part B 92 (2016) 94e132
content and the stabilization of the alkali content. In addition, the
partial replacement of OPC with undensified silica fume and blast-
furnace slag (10% and 40% by weight of OPC) can reduce the alka-
linity of the cementitious matrix and the content of calcium hy-
droxide, which in turn improve the composite durability [16]. The
matrix treatment with undensified silica fume mitigated the
strength reduction of the composites [16]. D'Almeida et al. [208]
used metakaolin to replace 50% of Portland cement in the cement
matrix in order to have a free of calcium hydroxide, which pre-
vented migration of calcium hydroxide to the fibre lumen, middle
lamella and cell walls and thus avoid embrittlement behaviour.
Toledo Filho et al. [185] also used calcined clay to replace the OPC so
as to have a matrix free of calcium hydroxide for sisal fibre rein-
forced cementitious composites. This study confirmed that the
long-term embrittlement of the composites was completely avoi-
ded through the use of this CH-free matrix (with 50% calcined clay
as partial replacement of OPC), and eventually a more durable sisal
fibre reinforced cement-based composite was obtained.
In addition, accelerating the carbonation process can induce
lower alkalinity which improves the durability of cellulosic fibre
reinforced cementitious composites. Carbonation allows the quick
reaction of Ca(OH)2 with carbon dioxide (CO2) resulting in CaCO3.
This process also has an influence on the mechanical properties and
the durability of cellulosic fibre/fabric reinforced cementitious
composites [28]. Tonoli et al. [209] investigated the effect of
accelerated carbonation in cellulosic fibre reinforced cementitious
composites (e.g. coir and sisal) used as roofing tiles. They found that
used artificial carbonation in order to obtain CaCO3 from Ca(OH)2
leads to an increasing strength and reduced water absorption of the
composites. A similar research was conducted on eucalyptus pulp
fibre reinforced cementitious composites [210]. It proved that he
accelerated carbonation could be considered as a viable curing
condition when looking for durable eucalyptus cellulosic pulp
reinforced cement-based composites. The decrease in the alkalinity
of the cement matrix, lower porosity, and smaller average pore
diameter associated with the densification of the matrix for the
higher precipitation of CaCO3 could explain the mitigation of the
composite degradation [210].
5.2. Methods to improve the durability of cellulosic fibre/fabric FRP
composites
5.2.1. Treatment of cellulosic fibre/fabric
The main problem of cellulosic fibres and polymer matrix is
their incompatibility. The hydrophilic characteristics of the cellu-
losic fibres lead to high moisture uptake which can seriously lower
the tensile properties of the fibres themselves and thus lower the
mechanical performance and durability of their FRP composites. In
addition, pectin and waxy substance covers the reactive functional
groups of the cellulosic fibres and act as a barrier to interlocking
with the matrix [22]. Therefore, in order to improve fibre/matrix
interfacial bonding to have more durable cellulosic fibre/fabric
reinforced polymer composites, surface modifications of cellulosic
fibres can be considered, i.e. physical methods, chemical methods,
reactive additives and coupling agents. As a result, better me-
chanical and thermal properties of their fibre reinforced compos-
ites can be achieved.
The commonly used physical methods for surface modification
of cellulosic fibres include electric discharge (corona, cold plasma),
corona treatment, stretching, calendaring, thermos-treatments,
hybrid yarn. These physical methods do not make changes on the
structural composition but modify the surface properties of the
fibres. This is one of the most used techniques for surface oxidation
activation of cellulosic fibres, which changes the surface energy of
the fibres. The same effects can be achieved by cold plasma
treatment of various cellulosic fibres. These treatments improved
the mechanical bonding with the matrix and in turn improved the
composite properties [140,141]. Plasma treatment is an effective
method to modify the surface of cellulosic fibres without changing
their bulk properties. The plasma discharge can be generated by
either corona treatment or cold plasma treatment. Both methods
are considered as a plasma treatment when ionized gas has an
equivalent number of positive and negative charged molecules that
react with the surface of the present material. The distinguishing
feature between the two categories of plasmas is the frequency of
the electric discharge. High-frequency cold plasma can be produced
by microwave energy, whereas a lower frequency alternating cur-
rent discharge at atmospheric pressure produces corona plasma
[142]. The type of ionized gas and the length of exposure influenced
the modification of the wood and synthetic polymer surfaces [142].
Chemical and morphological modification can be very heteroge-
neous depending on the treatment conditions, therefore it is not
easy to generalize; process control is a critical aspect and the final
surface modifications strongly depend on it [143]. Plasma treat-
ment was found to be effective for modified cellulosic fibre/poly-
mer interface and their composites such as made from flax and
hemp fibres [144]. To have durable flax fibre reinforced composites,
the modification of the poor environmental and dimensional sta-
bility of lignocellulosic materials, e.g. using Duralin treatment of
flax fibres to reduce moisture absorption and swelling, was rec-
ommended [196]. It confirmed that the moisture absorption and
swelling of the Duralin treated flax composites is approximately
30% lower than that of the composites based on untreated flax fi-
bres. Improved understanding of interfacial properties is also
essential to optimize the mechanical properties and durability of
bio-composites materials. Le Duigou et al. [104] used different
thermal treatments, i.e. cooling rate and annealing to increase
interfacial bonding of flax fibre/poly(L-lactide) composites.
The chemical methods for surface modification of cellulosic fi-
bres include alkaline treatment, silane treatment, acetylation,
benzoylation treatment, stearic acid treatment, peroxide treat-
ment, acrylation treatment, maleated couplings agents, perman-
ganate treatment, isocyanate treatment and enzymatic treatment
[22,142e146] for improving fibre strength, fibre fitness and/or
fibre/matrix interfacial adhesion and their composite durability:
(1) Alkali treatment (mercerization): It is one of the most
commonly used method to treat cellulosic fibres or their fibre
fabrics. In this treatment, parameters as type and concen-
tration of the alkali solution, operational temperature, tem-
perature treatment time, material strength, as well as the
applied additives are considered. The fibre or fabric was
immersed in various alkali solutions with different concen-
trations at different temperatures for different periods, and
then the fibre or fabric was washed with water or distill
water and dried in ventilated oven. It allows disrupting fibre
clusters and obtaining smaller and better quality fibres and
also improves fibre wetting [145]. Various alkali solutions
were found to have effectively improve the interface prop-
erties, mechanical properties and durability of composites
such as flax fabric/epoxy [34,36], jute fabric/biopol [147] and
jute fabric/polyester [15], and cotton fabric/polyester [149]
composites. It should be pointed out here that a proper se-
lection of treatment time, treatment temperature and con-
centration of the alkali solution is critical to have improved
mechanical properties of cellulosic fibres and their fibre
reinforced polymer composites by fibre alkalization. For
example, Alawar et al. [234] investigated the effect of NaOH
solution treatment with concentrations of 0.5%, 1%, 1.5%, 2.5%
and 5% at 100  C for 1 h on data palm fibre and they found
 L. Yan et al. / Composites Part B 92 (2016) 94e132
that 1% NaOH showed optimum mechanical properties of the
fibres. Mylsamy and Rajendran [235] studied the effect of
NaOH solution treatment on Agave fibre at varying concen-
trations (i.e. 5%, 10% and 15%), temperature (i.e. 40  C, 50  C,
60  C, 80  C, 100  C) and treatment time (i.e. 30 min and 1 h).
They found that the fibre treated at 5% NaOH, at 80  C and for
30 min showed the optimum tensile properties. Mohd
Edderozey et al. [236] treated kenaf fibres with NaOH solu-
tion with concentrations of 3%, 6% and 9% for 3 h at room
temperature and found that 6% NaOH showed optimum
tensile properties of the fibres. Mahjoub et al. [238] treated
kenaf fibres with NaOH solution with concentrations of 5%,
7%, 10% and 15% for 3 h and 24 h and they found that 5%
NaOH for 3 h was the best for the tensile properties of kenaf
fibres. Fiore et al. [239] treated kenaf fibres in a NaOH solu-
tion (6% in weight) at room temperature for 48 h and 144 h.
They found that treatment at 48 h allowed the fibres to have
clear surface and improved the mechanical properties of the
composites due to the improvement in the fibre/matrix
compatibility.
(2) Silane treatment: Silane is a chemical compound with
chemical formula SiH4. Silanes are used as coupling agents to
let cellulosic fibres adhere to a polymer matrix, stabilizing
the composite material. Silane coupling agents may reduce
the number of cellulose hydroxyl groups in the fibreematrix
interface. In the presence of moisture, hydrolyzable alkoxy
group leads to the formation of silanols. The silanol then
reacts with the hydroxyl group of the fibre, forming stable
covalent bonds to the cell wall that are chemisorbed onto the
fibre surface. Therefore, the hydrocarbon chains provided by
the application of silane restrain the swelling of the fibre by
creating a crosslinked network due to covalent bonding be-
tween the matrix and the fibre [145]. Kushwaha and Kumar
[240] concluded that the silane treatment improved the
water resistant properties of bamboo fibre reinforced poly-
mer composites. Bisanda and Ansell [241] found that the
silane treatment is effective in reducing moisture uptake of
sisal fibres and in improving the tensile and flexural prop-
erties of sisal fibre reinforced epoxy composites due to the
improvement of fibre/matrix adhesion. Silanes were also
found to be effective for modified cellulosic fibre/polymer
interface and their composites such as henequen/high den-
sity polyethylene [142], alfa/low density polyethylene [141],
pinewood/low density polyethylene [141] composites.
(3) Acetylation treatment: Acetylation of cellulosic fibres is a
well-known esterification method causing plasticization of
cellulosic fibres [145]. The reaction involves the generation of
acetic acid (CH3COOH) as by-product which must be
removed from the lignocellulosic material before the fibre is
used. Chemical modification with acetic anhydride sub-
stitutes the polymer hydroxyl groups of the cell wall with
acetyl groups, modifying the properties of these polymers so
that they become hydrophobic [150]. Thus, acetylation re-
duces the hygroscopic nature of cellulosic fibres and in-
creases the dimensional stability of their composites.
Acetylation was found to be effective for composites such as
sisal/epoxy [151] and henequen/high density polyethylene
composites [141].
(4) Benzoylation treatment: Benzoylation is an important trans-
formation in organic synthesis [43]. Benzoyl chloride is most
often used in fibre treatment [145]. Benzoyl chloride includes
benzoyl which is attributed to the decreased hydrophilic
nature of the treated fibre and improved interaction with the
hydrophobic PS matrix. Benzoylation of fibre improves fibre
matrix adhesion, thereby considerably increasing the
125
strength of composite, decreasing its water absorption and
improving its thermal stability. Benzoylation was found to be
effective for composites such as sisal/polystyrene [152] and
flax/polyethylene [153] composites.
(5) Stearic acid treatment: Stearic acid mixed in ethyl alcohol
solution can be used to treat cellulosic fibres because this
treatment removed non-crystalline constituents of the
cellulosic fibres, which alters the fibre surface topography
[145]. The treated cellulosic fibres were more crystalline than
the untreated and reduced the fibre surface free energy.
Stearic acid treatment was found to be effective for com-
posites such as sisal/low density polyethylene [154] and flax/
polypropylene [155] composites.
(6) Peroxide treatment: Peroxide is a specific functional group or
a molecule with the functional group ROOR containing the
divalent ion OeO. Organic peroxides tend to decompose
easily to free radicals of the form RO; RO then reacts with the
hydrogen group of the matrix and cellulose fibres which
reduces the hydrophilicity of cellulosic fibres and increases
the tensile properties of the fibres [145]. Peroxide treatment
was found to be effective for composites such as sisal/low
density polyethylene [154] and oil palm/phenol formalde-
hyde [156] composites.
(7) Acrylation treatment: Acrylation reaction is initiated by free
radicals of the cellulose molecule. Cellulose can be treated
with high energy radiation to generate radicals together with
chain scission [145]. The treatment can improve the water
absorption of cellulosic fibres and their mechanical proper-
ties of the composites. Acrylation treatment was found to be
effective for composites such as oil palm/phenol formalde-
hyde [156] and flax/high density polyethylene [157]
composites.
(8) Maleated couplings agents: Maleated coupling agents are
widely used to strengthen composites containing fillers and
fibre reinforcements. The difference with other chemical
treatments is that maleic anhydride is not only used to
modify fibre surface but also the PP matrix to achieve better
interfacial bonding and mechanical properties in composites.
The PP chain permits maleic anhydride to be cohesive and
produce maleic anhydride grafted polypropylene (MAPP).
Then the treatment of cellulose fibres with hot MAPP co-
polymers provides covalent bonds across the interface [145].
This treatment can increase the surface energy of cellulosic
fibres which can be closer to the surface energy of matrix,
which resulting in better wettability and higher interfacial
adhesion of the cellulosic fibres. Maleated couplings agents
were found to be effective for composites such as jute/
polyester [158] and flax/polypropylene [211,212] composites.
(9) Permanganate treatment: Permanganate is a compound that
contains permanganate group MnO4  . Permanganate treat-
ment leads to the formation of cellulose radical through
MnO3  ion formation. Then, highly reactive Mn3þ ions are
responsible for initiating graft copolymerization. This treat-
ment can reduce the hydrophilic nature of cellulosic fibres
and thus improve the composite properties. Permanganate
treatment was found to be effective for composites such as
sisal/low-density polyethylene [154] and oil palm/phenol
formaldehyde [156] composites.
(10) Isocyanate treatment: An isocyanate is a compound contain-
ing the isocyanate functional group eN]C]O, which is
highly susceptible to reaction with the hydroxyl groups of
cellulose and lignin in fibres, thus improving the interface
adhesion between cellulosic fibres and the polymer matrix.
Isocyanate treatment was found to be effective for
126 L. Yan et al. / Composites Part B 92 (2016) 94e132
composites such as sisal/polyethylene [159] and pineapple/
polyethylene [160] composites.
(11) Enzymatic treatment: Enzymes are an increasingly interesting
option as such or when combined with chemical and me-
chanical methods for modification and processing of com-
posites. This is due to the fact that enzymes are highly
specific and efficient catalysts and they work in mild, energy-
saving conditions. Oxidative enzymes, such as laccases or
peroxidases, can be used to activate and further functionalize
lignocellulosic [161]. The primary reaction of laccase is the
oxidation of phenolic hydroxyls to phenoxy radicals in the
presence of oxygen. Laccases can thus be used to activate
lignin and different types of lipophilic extractives present in
the complex lignocellulosic materials. Enzymatic treatment
was found to be effective for composites made from sisal and
flax fibres [162e165].
Some recent studies show an increasing tendency to use alter-
native and eco-friendly treatments of cellulosic fibres. For example,
Fiore et al. [242] used a treatment based on sodium bicarbonate
solution to treat sisal fibres and its epoxy composite. The sisal fibres
were treated with a 10% in weight solution of sodium bicarbonate
for 24, 120 and 240 h at room temperature, respectively. They found
that the treated fibres showed notable improvements of mechan-
ical properties compared to untreated one. In particular, the 24 h
treated fibres showed improvements up to about 138.5% and 63.2%
of tensile strength and modulus, respectively. After 120 h of
treatment, tensile strength and modulus showed variations
of þ197.9% and þ115.0%. A further increment in tensile modulus
was also observed between 120 h and 240 h of treatment whereas
the tensile strength slightly decreased (i.e. from 930.9 MPa to
911.2 MPa, for fibres treated 120 h and 240 h, respectively). Ishak
et al. [243] used seawater to treat sugar palm fibre and its epoxy
composite. The fibres were soaked in the seawater (taken from
Pantai Bagan Lalang, Sepang, Selangor, Malaysia) for 30 days. The
test results indicated that the seawater treatment increased the
impact and flexural strength of the composites with fibre content of
20% and 30% due to the improved surface characteristics of fibres by
removal of the outer layer of hemicellulose and pectin, and led to
improve fibre-matrix interface.
5.2.2. Treatment of polymer matrix
Modification of polymer matrix can also be effectively to
improve the durability of cellulosic fibre/fabric FRP composites. A
proper modification such as functionalizing and blending on
polymer matrix (e.g. by acrylic acid and vinyl trimethoxy silane
[197]) is also beneficial for the development of durable cellulosic
fibre reinforced polymer composites. In addition, the use of maleic
anhydride-polypropylene copolymer (MAPP) [211] and as Poly-
propylene-graft-Maleic anhydride (PP-g-MA, Grade: G-3015) and
Polyethylene-graft-Maleic anhydride (PE-g-MA, Grade: G-2608)
[218] as compatibilizers to treat polymer matrix (i.e. PP) results in
reduced water uptake and improved mechanical properties and
durability of short flax/PP composites.
5.2.3. Hybridization of cellulosic fibre/fabric with synthetic fibre/
fabric
To have durable cellulosic fibre/fabric FRP composites, recently
some researchers considered the hybridization of cellulosic fibre/
fabric with synthetic fibre/fabric to fabricate composites. Hybrid
composites are usually designed and processed by the combination
of a synthetic fibre and cellulosic fibre in a matrix. The behaviour of
hybrid composites is a weighed sum of the individual components.
The hybrid composite properties exclusively governed by the
length of individual fibres, orientation, fibre to matrix bonding,
content, extent of intermingling of fibres, and arrangement of both
of the fibres. Rule of mixtures can be used to determine the prop-
erties of the hybrid system consisting of two components. More-
over, successful use of hybrid composites is determined by the
mechanical, chemical, and physical stability of the fibre/matrix
system [213]. Reinforcements have been incorporated either by: (1)
intermingling of two types of short fibres thoroughly before
incorporating them into the polymer in a mixer, or added alter-
nately into the polymer with or without modification, (2) sand-
wiching of fibres or their mats or fabrics and (3) using non-woven
or woven fabrics of both types of reinforcements [213].
Duxon et al. [113] considered hybridization of cellulosic fibre
(e.g. flax) with stronger and more corrosion-resistant synthetic
fibre, for example, glass or carbon fibre, can improve the stiffness,
strength and moisture resistance of the composite. Priya and Rai
[215] stated that the bamboo-glass/PP hybrid composite showed
better fatigue resistance than bamboo/PP composites at all load
levels tested and the silk/glass hybrid composites had less water
uptakes than that of the silk fibre reinforced composites. Cicala
et al. [216] considered the hybridization of glass fibres with cellu-
losic fibres (i.e. hemp, flax and kenaf) for applications in the piping
industry. The hybrid composite laminates were tested after im-
mersion in aqueous acid solutions for 40 days. The mechanical test
showed that only small variations of the mechanical properties
after immersion were obtained. The use of hybrid lay-up led to a
pipe which fulfilled the requirements of mechanical resistance for
the intended use. Fiore et al. [217] investigated the effect of external
basalt layers on the durability behaviour of flax reinforced com-
posites. The flax fabric reinforced polymer composites and the
hybrid flax/basalt reinforced composites were exposed to the crit-
ical environmental conditions including salt fog had a chemical
composition of 5% NaCl solution at 35  C for 2 months. They found
that the hybridization improved the durability of flax fabric rein-
forced epoxy composites remarkably due to the use of external
basalt fabric layers.
5.3. Methods to improve the durability of cellulosic fibre/fabric FRG
composites
5.3.1. Treatment of cellulosic fibre/fabric
Based on the best knowledge of the authors, no studies can be
found in the literature regarding the durability investigation of
cellulosic fibre/fabric FRG composites. However, theoretically
speaking, the fibre treatment techniques described for cellulosic
fibre/fabric FRC composites might be appropriate to improve the
durability of cellulosic fibre/fabric FRG composites because these
two kind of composites have the same reinforcement materials,
namely, cellulosic fibres. In the future study, research should be
carried out to verify if these fibre treatment techniques (e.g.
hornification, surface modification with alkaline solution, MPTS,
APTS and silane coupling agents, use of water-repellents or fibre
impregnation with sodium silicate, sodium sulphite or magnesium
sulphate, silane coatings, etc.) used for improving the durability of
cellulosic FRC are also appropriate for cellulosic FRG composites.
5.3.2. Treatment of geopolymer matrix
Based on the best knowledge of the authors, no studies can be
also found in the literature regarding the durability investigation of
cellulosic fibre/fabric FRG composites by modification of geo-
polymer matrix. However, it should be highlighted here that the
geopolymer matrix itself is a binder which can be designed with
high content of fly ash, blast-furnace slag, metakaolin and silica.
These compositions have been found to be effective for improving
the durability of cellulosic fibre/fabric FRC composites with addi-
tion of small fractions [e.g. Refs. [16,23,182,185,208]], as discussed
 L. Yan et al. / Composites Part B 92 (2016) 94e132
in Section 5.1.2. Therefore, the geopolymer matrices with high
content of compositions such as fly ash, blast-furnace slag, meta-
kaolin and silica themselves can act as protection of the cellulosic
fibre and thus improve the cellulosic fibre/fabric FRG composites.
To further improve the durability of cellulosic FRG composites,
geopolymer matrices with higher content of these protective
compositions can be designed and tailored properly to reduce the
degradation of cellulosic fibre/fabric in their matrices.
6. Concluding remarks
This paper provides an overview on the recent developments of
cellulosic fibre fabric reinforced cementitious (FRC) and fabric
reinforced geopolymer (FRG) composites, as well as cellulosic fibre
fabric reinforced polymer (FRP) composites as reinforcement of
concrete, masonry and timber structures used for civil engineering
applications. The main conclusions are as follows:
(1) Among cellulosic fibres, flax, hemp, jute, sisal and cotton are
the most commonly cellulosic fibres used for fabric rein-
forcement materials of cementitious, geopolymer and poly-
mer composites due to their relatively good specific strength
and modulus. For cellulosic fibres such as flax, hemp, jute,
sisal and cotton, their macroscopic structure can be sketched
as a tubular cylinder with a central cavity, the lumen. On the
microscopic scale, the fibres are made of two cell walls, the
very thin primary cell wall and the secondary cell wall, which
can be divided into three layers from the outer to inner, S1, S2
(the thickest) and S3.
(2) The chemical compositions of cellulosic fibres are cellulose,
hemi-cellulose, lignin, wax and pectin as the main constit-
uents and minor amounts of sugars, starch proteins in
varying quantities. Cellulose is the stiffest and the strongest
organic component which provides the fibres with strength,
stiffness and stability. Hemicellulose has an open structure
including large numbers of hydroxyl and acetyl groups which
is responsible for fibre moisture content. Lignin and pectin
serve as a chemical adhesive within and between fibres.
Cellulosic fibre possessing high cellulose content has high
tensile strength and modulus. A decrease in the cellulose
content increases the micro-fibril angle of the fibre, thus
decreasing the fibre tensile strength. Cellulosic fibre with
small micro-fibril angle is rigid and has a high tensile
strength. An increase in content of hemicellulose decreases
the fibre tensile strength but increases fibre moisture gain.
An increase in lignin content increases fibre water absorption
and fibre failure strain. Stresses transfer from fibres to fibres
are via pectin.
(3) Cellulosic fibres have great variability in fibre mechanical
properties of the conditions the species, geographical and
climatic conditions, and the variety of the plant, agricultural
variables such as soil quality, the weathering conditions, the
level of plant maturity, and the quality of the retting process
and measurement conditions of that include or exclude
moisture. The measurement conditions include fibre gauge
length, test speed, relative humidity, and location of the fibre
in the plant, fibre length, fibre diameter, and fibre defects
(e.g. kink bands).
(4) Cellulosic fibre fabrics with cementitious, geopolymer and
polymer matrices exhibited promising structural perfor-
mance such as compressive, impact, tensile, flexural, and
thermal and toughness properties. Cellulosic fibre fabrics
reinforced polymer composites as reinforcement materials
enhanced the structural performance of the concrete, ma-
sonry and timber structure remarkably in the terms of
127
ductility, toughness, deformation and load carrying capacity.
For cellulosic fibre fabric reinforced cementitious, reinforced
geopolymer and reinforced polymer composites, their failure
mechanisms are the same, i.e. fibre breakage, fibre pull-out,
rupture of matrix and fibre debonding from the matrix.
(5) The degradation mechanisms of cellulosic fibre/fabric in
cementitious composites mainly include twofold: (a) alka-
line degradation (hydrolysis) and (b) fibre mineralization.
The alkaline degradation of cellulosic fibres is due to the high
alkalinity of cement solid phase and pore solution. The
degradation progress includes: (i) degradation of lignin and
part of hemicellulose; (ii) degradation of hemicellulose; (iii)
degradation of cellulose; and (iv) failure of cellulose micro-
fibrils and then the complete degradation of the cellulosic
fibre. Cell wall mineralization (i.e. CH-mineralization and
self-mineralization) is also an important degradation
mechanism which leads to the fibre embrittlement and the
reduction of strength and strain capacity. Caused by the
migration of hydration products to lumens and to the middle
lamella, and volume variation in these fibres due to their
high water absorption, fibre mineralization is sensitive to the
CH amount of the matrix. The precipitation of hydration
products, likely calcium hydroxide, within the fibre cell wall
structure is the main reason for cell wall mineralization.
(6) The degradation mechanisms of cellulosic fibre/fabric in
polymer composites due to UV and different ageing solutions
(i.e. water, seawater and alkali solutions) mainly include: (a)
change in chemical compositions of fibres; (b) degradation in
strength of fibre; (c) degradation in polymer matrix; and (d)
degradation in fibre/polymer matrix interfacial bond. UV and
high humidity (water spraying) cycles had negative effect on
chemical contents of cellulose, hemicellulose, and lignin
within cellulosic fibres. The breaking down of cellulose,
hemicellulose and lignin after exposure could lead to poor
fibre and matrix interfacial bond. Weathering cycles tend to
increase wettability of cellulosic fibres (e.g. flax) by removing
the hydrophobic substances such as hydrocarbons, waxes
and lignin, which also contributed to the degradation of
fibre/matrix interfacial bond, as lignin and waxes act mainly
as bonding agents in flax fibres. In addition, micro-cracks on
weathered composite surfaces restricted the efficiency of
stress transfer from epoxy matrix to fibres, causing poor
tensile properties. In ultraviolet radiation cycle, photo-
degradation caused changes in all scales of polymer dimen-
sion, including the monomer unit (oxidation), the chain
(crosslinking or chain scission), the morphology (breakdown
of tie molecules and crystal), and on the macroscopic scale.
Degradation processes by weathering which includes photo-
radiation, thermal degradation, photo-oxidation and hydro-
lysis provide changes in the chemical, physical and me-
chanical properties of materials.
(7) To have durable cellulosic fibre/fabric reinforced cementi-
tious composites, treatments can be performed for fibres and
the matrix. For fibre treatment, it includes: hornification of
cellulosic fibres, wet and dry cycle treatment, surface modi-
fication with alkaline solutions (e.g. NaOH), silane coupling
agents like alkoxysilanes, alkyl-alkoxysilanes, halide orga-
nosilanes, carboxylated organosilanes and epoxy-
alkoxysilanes, Methacryloxypropyltrimethoxysilane (MPTS)
and Aminopropyltriethoxysilane (APTS), water-repellents,
fibre impregnation with silica fume slurry, sodium silicate,
sodium sulphite or magnesium sulphate, fibre with silane
coating. For cement matrix treatment, it includes: (i) using
low alkaline concrete, adding pozzolans such as husk ash,
blast furnace slag, metakaolin and fly ash to Portland cement,
128 L. Yan et al. / Composites Part B 92 (2016) 94e132
addition of calcined clay and silica fume to Portland cement;
and (ii) accelerated carbonation process.
(8) To have durable cellulosic fibre/fabric reinforced polymer
composites, fibre and polymer matrix treatments can be
considered. In addition, hybridization with synthetic fibres
can be used. For fibre treatment, it includes: (i) physical
methods for surface modification: electric discharge (corona,
cold plasma), corona treatment, stretching, calendaring,
thermos-treatments, hybrid yarn and Duralin treatment; (ii)
chemical methods for surface modification: alkaline treat-
ment, silane treatment, acetylation, benzoylation treatment,
stearic acid treatment, peroxide treatment, acrylation treat-
ment, maleated couplings agents, permanganate treatment,
isocyanate treatment and enzymatic treatment. For polymer
matrix treatment, it includes: use maleic anhydride-
polypropylene copolymer (MAPP), Polypropylene-graft-Ma-
leic anhydride (PP-g-MA, Grade: G-3015) and Polyethylene-
graft-Maleic anhydride (PE-g-MA, Grade: G-2608) as
compatibilizers.
In general, future work needs to be done to better understand
the degradation mechanisms of cellulosic fibre FRG, FRC and FRP
composites, especially for the degradation of cellulosic fibre/fabric
in geopolymer. In addition, proper and novel surface modification
methods on both cellulosic fibre and their matrices (i.e. cement,
geopolymer and polymer) should be developed to improve the
mechanical properties, moisture resistance and durability of these
composites.
Acknowledgements
The authors are grateful to all the publishers (e.g. Elsevier
Publishers, SAGE, Springer, John Wiley and Sons) and authors who
have permitted to use figures and tables from their publications.
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