ASNT Level III Study Guide’ second edition by John D. FentonCopyright © 2001 by The American Society for Nondestructive Testing, Inc. ASNT is not responsible for the thenticity or accuracy of information herein. Published opinions and statements do not necessarily 8 Of ASNT. Prod ervices that are advertised or mentioned do not carry the endorsement or recommend ASNT IRRSP, Materials Evaluation, NDT Handbook, The NDT Technician a rademarks of The Ai Society for Nondestructive Testing, Inc. ACCP. ASNT, Level I11 5 Rese Nondestructive Evaluation a and are registered trademar Nondestructive Testing, I ASNT exists to create a safer world by promoting the profession and tech ISBN-13: 978-1-57117-07 ISBN-10:1-57117-070-7 n the United States of America level III study guide magnetic particle testing method / by r nton.-~ 2nd ed Incl raphical references, ISBN 1-57117-070. Magnetic testing, I, Tth TAI7.3 E46 200 620.1°1278-de2 200100259 ist printing 2001 tructive Testing Handh The American SocietyForeword he American Society for Nondestructive Testing, Ine. (ASNT) has prepared a series of Level III study guides which are intended to pres testin tthe major areas in each nondestructive ethod. They can be used to prepare for taking ASNT NDT Level III tests or an employer's in-house Level IIT tests. The Level ITT candidate should use this study guide as a preparation tool even though it does not contain all of the information an ASNT NDT In using this study guide, specific references ate ¢ s expected to know, detailed information can be obtained, The references used in this study guide are listed under References. Typical Level IIl questions at the end of each section serve as a benchmark for dctermining the candidate's comprchens Mtyp use of this study guide might include 1. Review the questions at the end of each section to assess your comprehension of the etic particle method Tr the ques i in a certain section are found to be difficult, you should carefully study the information presented in that section as well as the cited reference material. This review of the information in the study fresh your memory of theory and facts long forgotten,Preface devices such as Hall eff establishing magnetic particle techniques, cd initially for estimating, then supplemented with a more quanti mining field strength and directionReferences I. Reference A Bets, C.E., Principles of Me Particle Testing, Magnatlux Corp... Chi 2, Refere eB Schmidt, 1. Thomas, and Kermit Skeie, technical editors, Paul Melntire, editor Nondestructive Testing Handbook, second edition, Volume 6. M 3. Reference ¢ ASTM E 144 Standard Practice jor Magneric Particle Examination, ASTM Standards, Nol. 03.03, ASTM. West Conshohocken, Pennsylvania, Current Editi 4. Reference D ASTM E 1316 Termind 1 Nondestructive Examination, AST s Vol. 03.03, ASTM, West Conshohocken, Pennsylvania, Current Edition 5. Reference E ASTM E 709 Stand ‘onshohocks jor M Particle Examination, ASTM, Wi ‘nnsylvania, Current EditionTable of Contents Forward a ait face st. 6: ia av References — y Table of Contents vii Chapter 1 ~ Introduction a istory 1 Typical Magnetic Particle Testing Proce 1 Magnetic Particle Testing Fundamentals Chapter 2 ~ Materials and the Theory of Magnetism 3 rexhuction 3 Material Character Magnetic Field Characterst ‘ lectric Currents and Magnetic Fields in Conductors Magnetic Hysteresis Curve ~ Induction by Coil 5 Magnetic Field ~ Induction of Ferromagnetic Materials (Hysteresis Curve r Permeability 6 Magnetic Flux and Flux Density Magnetization of Ferromagnetic Materia 8 Permanent Magnets ‘entral Conductor 8 Chapter 3 - Currents Used in the N Testing Inspection Process ......-..000020++ nana 3 Magnetizing Current 1 Alternating Current 1 Direct Current 1 Half Wave Rectified Currer 1 Full Wave Ree urrent (Single Phase 1 Three Phase Full Wave Rectified Current H 1 f V 1 f Magnetization Using Permanent Magnets 10 Induce Magnetic Fields Using Electric Currents to Induce Magnetic Field Direct Current Half Wave Direct Curreni Full Wave Rectified Single or Three Phase 5 Review Question: 6Chapter 4 — Field Strength and Distribution ...........6... 17 Magnetization ircular Magnetization Longitudinal Magnetization 7 Low Fill-Factor Coils is ble Wrap or High Fal-F Is 8 Invermediate FilFactor Coik " Calculating the Length-to-Diameter Ratio Ww Cylindrical Par 9 Alternating Curren 20 rai Hollow Cylinder x Nonmagnetic Mater 2 Other Symmetrical Shapes z Ring 23 Review Questions Chapter 5 ~ ic Field Direction au 5 Estemal Magnetic Field Measurement Field Indicators Pie Gages Shims Hall Effect Meter (Gauss Meter) Other Devices Review Questions Chapter 6 ~ Magnetic Particle Testing Equipment : fhirodiction Permanent Magnet Yokes 5 Electromagnetic Yoke 5 Prods 35 Coils 36 Other Devices 6 Portable Power Supplies 6 Mobile Power Supplies 6 Heavy Duty Equipment ‘ Bench Equipment 7 Multdirectional Unite 7 Automatic Units : Special Purpose Units 8 Light w Visible Li . Ambient Light % Extraneous Light x Review Questions 41Chapter 7 - Magne faspection Material Magnetic Particles Dry Particle Wer Particles 2 Particle Testing Materials Concentrate Characteristics and Control of Magnetic Particles Shape Density Contrast and Visibilit Magnetic Permeability and Retentivity Flammability Odor Reactive Constituents Characteristics and Control of Water Suspensions Characteristics and Control of Rubber Suspension: Chapter 8 - Magnetic Particle Testing Practices . Magnetic Particle Test Fundamental Dry Panicles Wet Suspensi Magnetic Rubber Residual Magnetization Continuous Magnetization { Magnetic Field Direct Circular Magneiication L L igitudinal Magnetization Choice of Equipment and Applicatio Permanent Magni Yokes and Coils Poctable Power Supplies Mobile Powe Stationary Equipment Supplies Derma Rea Method Effects of Test Object Variables ling and Measuring Demagnetization Surface Treatment Surface Condition and Cleanliness Review Questions and Variable Magnetic Field Application a3ch ‘er 9 ~ Indications and Interpretati Dverview Geometric and Section Cha Improper Surface Preparation Excessive Magi netic Weitin Permeability Variations Residual and External Fields Metallurgical Changes Discontinuities Surface Discontinuities Subsurface Discontinuities 62 Effects of Discontinuities on Servicesbility 62 Determination of Discontinuity Depth 63 Metallurgical Examination 63 Recording Indications 63 Interpretation and Evaluation of Test i Review Questions 64 Chapter 10 Probability of Detection sraeane 6 Deca ee ee petection “7 Probability of Detection 7 Reliab 6 Human Factors that Affect Reliability 7 Reproducibility “7 Chapter 11 ~ Process and Equipment Controls - teeee eee Pont) sad Vecaten of Eytomen aon @ Electrical Systern und Contols ° ximum Unit Output Pa Shoat Test Ps Ammeter Check o Quick Break T 0 Shot Taner Check 70 Other Machine Checks 70 Particle Concentation Check 70 Paticle Condition Check 70 Particle Contamination Check 70 Vehicle (Carie) Contamination Check. 1 cle Brightness Check n Water Break Check 7 Viscosity Check i Intensity and Incegrity 7 Measurement of Ultraviolet Ligh 1 Measurcinent of Visible Light Measurement of Ambient Light Review QuestionsChapter 12 - Specifications, Procedures, Techniques and Standards Acceptance Criteria Provedui Sample Magnetic Particle Testing Procedur: ner Types of Controlling Documents come bene rodustion Personnel Parts Appendix 1 — Test Procedure Example Appendix 2 — Magnetization Chart ......00eeeeeseeees Appendix 3 ~ Materials Properties . Appendix 4 ~ Glossary Answers to Review QuChapter 1 Introduction History Around 2000 BC, plentiful deposits of a mineral called magnetite (Fe,O,), 2 type of hard ferrite, w found in the district of Magnesia in A. The first permanent magnets were made by rubbing Magnetite was the only known source of m until the nineteenth century, In the 1400s, magnetite was ors. In 1600, the first scientific Minor. These etism used in the compasses of early nav Willatn Gilbert published DeMagne study on magnetism though the laws of ¢ re not formulated until the eighteenth and nineteenth centu In 1819, Hans Christian Oers ed observed that an cleetric current in a wite affected magnetic compass ncede, thus establishing the link between electricity and magnetism. Later, contributions by Faraday, Maxw Hertz and others resulted in the science of m: pcing born. Their work demonstrated that ma that no Subject without cis and electricity are so intimately cone imelligent study can be made of o knowledge of the other In 1900, Drude suggested that electrons were the agents that conducted e nasiderable theory a icity. By this time id mathematics were so ingrained oday equations and sary show current flowing in the oppos Modern mag netic particle testing equipment and techniques were first developed in 1928 by A.V. deForest and FB. Doane. Magnetic fields and fine iron particles .¢ been used to form indications of permeability in magnetizable alloys for seve ocess has developed into a common rhondestructive testing method for steel and other ferromagnetic materials, Typical Magnetic Particle Testing Process. atic particle testing process involves the review of specifications and procedures, selection of equipment, selection of particles and . selection nique, magnetization and the local application of patictes Jn. ierpretation and eval In order for ASNT NDT L properly ap understanding of magnetic fields and the reaction of vel Ills to safely and pply this process, they must have a basic Magnetic Particle Testing Fundamentals et with a north and a south pole is broken into two pieces, two complete bar magnets will Ifa bar ma result, each having a north and south pole. This process of breaking can go on until there are any number of separate complete magnet Ta magnet is cracked, but not broken similar result occurs, 4 ompletely a somewha into two pic north and south pole will form at opposite faces of the crack, just as if the break were complete. The strength o the magnetic field at these poles will be different from th is related that ofthe fully broken pieces and the stre to the physical dimensions (depth, length and width) of the crack, the material characteristics and the strength of the applied field The fields in thy other physical or magnetic discontinuities on the surface Feeds. Figute | space in and above racks or at of a magnetized part are called leak shows the leaks cone sid n air and re-entering of the crack, expanding the material on the other side, The flux fr poles of opposite polarity Form a bridge over the crack Magnetic flux always finds the path of least resistance Air at the crack has a high reluctance for the pass f soft iron magnetic flux. However, when a stall pie is brought close to the leakage field, the magnetic flux jure 1.1: Leakage field at air gap in longitudinally magnetized part Leakage field Tost pleco2/ ASNT Level IIT Study will attract it because it provides much less resistance to the flow of magnetic flux than Small particles of soft ir permeability and low retentivity see Figure 1.2 attracted to very small Ieakage fields. As more and more particles are attracted, they pile up, providing a metallic path of low magnetic reluctance th partictes can be visually detected and is bridges the erack. The bri Hed indication. An indication is not a detect unless it exceeds the tolerances contained in a specification or standaed. The leakage field strength is controlled by the material's permeability, the depth and width of the Jiscomtinuity and the relative strength of the applied ilic lux. The size and shape of the indication approximates the relative size of the discontinuity. A surface discontinuity is distinguishabl subsurface discontinuity because a surface eruek forms a narrow, sharp indication [Figure 1.2(a)]. whereas a face discontinuity such as a slag inclusion will re 1 24b)] Similarly, relatively thin coatings of paint plat the fa subsurface indication [Figure 1.2(c) ngs could undetected. Coating thickness limits for applications are defined in Reference ( exhibit a broad, fuzzy indication [Fig the surface can cause a surface erack to ha appea k a discontinuity leaving it Reference € article Testing Figure 1.2: Magnetic particles attracted by leakage field Particle bulldup at leakage teld (@) Surface crack Particle buildup at leakage field (b) Subsurface erack Panicle buildup at leakage field Paint or plating (6) Crack under paintChapter 2 Materials and the Theory of Magnetism Introduction All matter is composed of atoms having positively ged protons in the nuclei and negatively charged ectrons in continual mot lei. Iris this 9 around the nu within an alom. An electron moving in orbit around a nucleus is an electric current and generates a magnetic field exactly as does a current (electron) flowing in a conductor. The strength of the electric current by the orbit moment. All electrons in motion create a current with an wiated magnetic field. These fields respond to the presence of an electric current Mow nrowgh the ways based on the chemistry and physical condition of Material Characteristics When matter is placed within the force field of an external magnetic field, the 1agnetic moments of that When this scour, the material produces its own macroscopic natcrial’s electrons may become magnetic field. This is known as Faraday’s law of m induction, When under the influence of the xtermal magnetic field, the material exhibits specific magnetic behavior (characteristics). The three mos! ism is the most important Diamagnetic Materials Any material with a negative relative perme that is slighty Hess th jc. When such materials are pla fe field their >that of rt other stronger influences and does not persist induced magnetism is ina direction opps iron, This very Weak form of magnetism is nor lied field is removed. Some examples of Paramagnetic Materials When the internal magnetic field of a material is ned in the same direction as the applied external field, and the materia a small positive susceptibility than one, the material is called p Magnetism does not persist after the applied field is removed, Paramagnetism occurs in all atoms and sles that have ns (s tnd transition elements). It ean alno occu substances, such as those metals of magnetic moment. with the spins of conducting electrons. Examples of paramagnetic mat minum, platinum, copper sulfate and wood include a Ferromagnetic Materials When the internal magnetic field of the materia i aligned in the same direction as the applied external field, and th anc high posit susceptibility fone, the materi s called ferromagnetic. Ferromagneti sof a ized io saturation and dispersed ir random fashion so that the net macroscopic magnetization is essentially 0, There may be domains in a grain or they may extend over several ‘When an external field is applied to Ferromagnetic materials, these magnetic domains align parallel to the applied fields, The domains are approximately 10° to 107 m, Its the intercha action between ions and the superposition of atomic domains that are the cause of the vastly increased flux deasity, I'the sample has been prepared without the influence of any exten field, the domains will be ran al, the magnetic domains exhibit orientation, When an extemal magnetic field is ne of the domains are aligned with the field n size atthe expense of the others. As the netic field intensity is steadily increased additional domains are aligned. A farther increase his step magnetization of ferromagnetic rial is known as the Barthausen effect or Bark en steps. Eventually all of the domains are ith the applied field an turated, Some magnetization persists after the d the material is said to applied field is removed The only elements that are strongly attracted to iagnetic field re iron, cobalt, nickel and gadolinium,ATASNT Love i aterial, gadolinium is jemperatur we ate Many alloys and oxides ter th Hed for A ts magnetic properties for a few Magnetic Field Characteristics When ma smain aligned or extended h xl. This residual field is ql wal m The abilit Figure 2.1: Magnetic field surrounding a bar magnet Study Guide: Magnetic Particle Testing Wea bar my haped p. the magnetic fiek closed circuit in the magnetic materia sm Magnetic lines of force have the following propertic They form closed le 2. They do not eross one another 3. They seek paths of least magnetic resistanc 4. Their density decreases as distance from the f 5. They are considered to have direction by fom north to south ex Whea two magnets are moved into close proximity Figure 2.2: Magnetic attraction and repulsion N S jee S N N S}++N Reference B Electric Currents and Magnetic Fields in Conductors Magnetic fields exist in and around electrical mductors in which electrical current is flowing Figure 2.3), The French physicist Ampe the magnetic effects of ¢ Ampere’s positive charge, When itThe nuclei of atoms in metals hold their outermost orbital electro y that these electrons drift fron negative to positive, The negatively charged electron, he positive direction throu the metal is exactly equivalent to a correspondin positively charged ion, moving nive direction. A curr ating at room temperature and under the witions Dislodging of the outer electrons leaves positive ions in the metal, however, there is no flow of positive ions in metals as there is in gases und liquids, straight current-carrying conductor is cicular, encite \d perpendicular to the conductor, Moce important is the concept that the direction of the magn i field has a perpendicular flow The magnetic fie ing as electric current flows in the conductor, how ist but will be less intense when the current is removed, The intensity of the ma field is linea f the n Jong the length of the conductor eral proportion to the current (amperes and dimin inversely with inereasing distance from the conductor Figure 2.3: Current versus magnetic field eisticies tion of Magnetic Field Figure 2.4; Positive and negative current toe \ a aa ab. |}. — +E ( i= x Electron Chapter 2 ~ Mate als and the Theory of Magnetism / § When a straight conductor is formed into a loop coil (Figure 2.5) and eleetrie current flows through it, th ction of the magnetic field is perpendicular plane of the coil. Because lines of force form closed loops. the coil's magnetic field outside the coil forms a toroid. Figure 2.5: Magnetic field in a coll Magnetic Hysteresis Loop — Induction by Coil magnetic properties of materials of concem can be Alescribed! by examining the magnetic hysteresis In Figure 2.6, the flux density # that results fr ariations in the magnetizing force H is plotied. 8 is the jertical axis and 7 the horizonts magnetomotive force per unit length of ie path same material throughout, For 60 measured i ampere turns per centimeter. Ifthe magnetomot is given in amperes, then Hf is shown in amperes p meter. B is normally shown in Magnetic Field — Induction of Ferromagnetic Materials (Hysteresis Curve) Starting with a ferromagnetic material that has not been previously magnetized, oF & mat f lly demagnetized (Figure 2 ne magnetizi: orce H is increased from 0 t0 point a, the Mux 4 increases to point a and along the curved dashed line. A point a almost all of the magnetic domains are align ith the field. A further increase in the magnetizin force produces very little change in &, The mater6/ASNT Level IIT Study Guide: Magnetic Particle Testin sid to be magnetically saturated or saturated. As th The magnetizing force energy. 0, c, required to reduce unetizing foree H is decreased to 0, curve a b the remanence flux density (b, 0 ) 10.0 is called the normally referred {0 as the field removal portion of the pereive force, or coercivity of the material. The mater curve) the magnetic domains begin to change orientation is nat completely magnetized, and will not be until (Gireetion), The flux density values in the material hheated above the Curie point and becoming di nw the path a 10 b. However, when the m: netizing (he domains are again randomly oriented). As th reaches 0, the flux density is only reduced to. the _- magnetizing force is inereased to d. the flux density ‘material stil has a net, or residual, magnetic flux, 0. b. in reaches saturation, but in the 0 This magnetic ux is called the remanence oF res ind following the path c, d. The magnetizing force field 4 and is the result of magnetic domains sill aligned is again reduced to 0, the flux density is reduced in the magnetized direction that have not all been following the path d. e. When the magnetizing force sed. The magnetizing force is now reversed and reaches 0 at pointe, there is residual field remaining in sradually increased. When it has been increased to c, the the part. The value of this residual ficld, 0, e. will he the idual magnetic field, remanence. is 0. The material ame as the value, 0, b, but inthe opposite direction. Th has no net magnetic field, there are simply as many magnetizing field is again reversed and incre: 2 domains aligned in one direction as the other, leaving a The flux density does not follow the path from 0 flux density of 0 for the part (dashed curve), it follows the path from e to a, This closed curve (path a, b, ¢, de, fa) is called the Folie DeLliyslenaeeuve hysteresis eurve or hysteres Wihe magnetizing (Flux density) B+ Saturation liscussed, the value of the flux density will follow the a same path. a Materials with closed loops, very small h, seectvty manmade ferrites and magnetic particles, are used in “ Jeetronic equipment, cores for coils in eddy current pacity probes. etc. These materials have very low retentivity E Hel an very high permeability. Matcrake with very loops, very high values for b, ¢ an Meagiaiteing are used for permanent magnets, These materials ha force high retemtivty and permeability Permeability As stated previously, magnetic lines of fore follow uration of ae the path of least magnetic resistance. They concentrate polarity (Flux density more in a piece of ifon placed between the poles of net, or Within a m: wanetic field, than they do in air or Permeability has been characterized as the ease with between permeability 1, magnetic flux density, B, and magnetizing force, H, will be evaluated through the hhystetesis curve. In Figure 2.8, each point along the curve 0, b represents a different value for th permeability of that material and nt on the intensity of the applied force H. Permeability can be expressed B H Uniform magnete fie Combined field of bar anHu the magnetizing foree B he flux density produced within the material by H. Therefore. permeability p is defined as the slope of the curve at any point on the curve and varies continuously along the eurve. (See Figure 2.8.) The ie of B, and HY, at point jy is defined as i, variable j,,,, is determined by drawing a line'from the in, 0, 10a point tangential (o the curve, represented by the dashed line, The point of intersection of the dashed line and the eurve is the maximum permeability Equation 1. is given by B, We H Relative permeability is defined as u he ee Equation 2 My = 107 (Hem) in SH units, permeability of free sp In the above example the relative permeability at point jt, is given by in tyes mn Equation 3 Different ferromagnetic mate D alues of permeability alloys) have widely differing befor any external field is he external field is applied BAH (ihe slope of in Figure 2.8, = applied and yi, = 1 when B= H, At any point i is equal & The permeability normally given in texts tables and other references is maximum permeability. fh. The maximum permeability isthe point at which the curve is its steepest, where it has its greatest slope. Another value sometimes given is the initial permeability... These n Figure 28, lationships are shown eters relating t etic properties of reciprocal of p he Curie point or Curie the temperature above Which magnetized remperature 2 Materials and the Theory of Magnetism /7 Chapte Figure 2.8: Permeability (a) initial magnetization curve for a steel having relatively low permeability; (b) plot of the Permeability of the steel as a function of H Ham cooldown. Appendix 3 provides the Curie points of son ‘common ferromagnetic materials Reference A. Reference B Magnetic Flux and Flux Density Previously describe magnetic field the phrase lines af force was wsed 10 Ina strict technical sense, lines of force are imaginary lines of equal magnetic intensity that enable the field. The term fla nagnetic Fields several w, howe nothing should be shape with respect to the number of lines of force associated with a magnetic ic point or within a defined area flux is rarely of any practical concer. Flic den aan area, is of greater practical importanc varies throughout the spaceS/ASNT Level II Study Guide: Magnetic Particte Testing influenced by a magnetic field, the relative strength of the field! in various regions of the affected space is mor ificant. Thus, ux density is defined as the number of fines of flux intercepting an area perpendicular to the flux. Its calculated using 7 gee A Equation 4 where: F ‘magnetic flux in Wh (1 Wb = 10" lines of flux), A = area perpendicular to the flux in square meters (m2), B= flux density in Whim? (1 Wm Reference A, Reference B Reference C SS Magnetization of Ferromagnetic Material Ferromagnetic materials can be magnetized using any technique that produces a magnetic field in the part These techniques can be collectively classified as either direct or indinect (induced) magnetization, Direct Magnetization In direct magnetization, an electric current is passed through the put: the partis the conductor of the elecitic ‘current When the electric current is flowing through a conductor, such as a rod, wire or portions of a complex shaped part an encircling magnetic fild is established both within and outside the conductor. I the conductor is ‘of uniform cross section and straight, the field (the number of magnetic lines oF force) will be uniform along its length, Externally, the force decreases with increasing ‘radial distance from the conductor. The external strength of the field is directly proportional to the current flow (that is, the number of amperes) and inversely Proportional to the distance perpendicular tothe axis of the conductor: The fines of foree assume concentric ecular paths both within und around the conductor. ‘Thus, the field is cirewlar and aligned, normally at 90 degrees to the axis of the conductor or direction of current flow. (See Figure 23.) ‘When the conductor isa ferromagnetic material, the high j, tends to concentrate the magnetic flux within the conductor, Figure 27, The magnetic field in the ‘conductor is called a cinular field becuase it circulates laround the axis of the conductor. A magnetizing current can be applied directly to ferromagnetic materials with heads. prods. clamps. or other forms of electrical contacts. ‘When using direct magnetization techniques. preca be taken to ensure good electrical Contact, which prevents arcing and/or burning of the material Reference A Reference B Reterence C Indirect Magnetization Indirect (induced) magnetism results when a ferromagnetic material is influenced by an external ‘muagneti¢ field, The external field can be ereated by a permanent magnet or electromagnetic devices such as ‘central conductors, coils and yokes. Permanent Magnets Permanent magnets can magnetize ferromagnetic ‘materials that are brought into close proximity to, or into iiect physical contact with, the magnet. Ifa bar mag is used, an opposite magnetic pole is established in the ‘material being magnetized. At the point of contact or at the point of nearest approach, the induced lines of force will seek to close with the pole at the opposite end of the inducing magnet. Hence, the field direction is considered longitudinal (parallel to the axis of the part) if the material being magnetized is bar shaped. Ione end of a bar magnet (single pote) is used to magnetize a plate or similarly large area, the field will be radial away from the magner’s pole. More commonly, permanent magnets used for ‘Magnetic induction are U shaped and referred to as horseshoe magnets. The induced field is essentially straight berween the two poles, Central Conductors A circular magnetic field can he induced into a hollow cylinder by pl arrying conductor inside the eylinder. The citcular magnetic field the conductor induces circular field in the maznetic ‘material of the cylinder. The strength of the magnetic Feld is contrtted by adjusting the electrical eun the conductor. The entire volume of the cylinder can magnetized by this technique Coils and Solenoids Coils are conductors formed by a number of loops, Solenoids are coils where the length is greater than the diameter. The magnetic flelds around each tum of a coilChapter Materials and the Theory of Magnetism /9 F 5 netic ield within the coil is sentially puralel to the axis ofthe coil and sti inside surface of the coil. Pans placed within th il are magnetized in a direction parallel Parts are normally placed in the coil s he longitudinal axis of the partis parallel to the axis within the coil and parallel to the ine o ‘i indirect iat . emtally the current directly Uhrough the pat (direc Reference A Reference BeS eeeEEeEeEeEeeeee——E—eEeEeEeEEEeEeEeEeEeEeEeEeEeEeEeEeEeEeEE——E————s 10/ ASNT Level III Study Guide: Magnetic Particle Testing Review Questions 27 2.1 Apermanemt magnet is x material with magnetic domains that: are held in fixed positions that cancel out ith directions b. arein xed positio with « prepo of the magnetic domains alg direction. ©. fluctuate in random positions so aligned to attract a magnetic material 4._reverse polarity with each reversal of applied current wihey are 28 All bar magnets have: 2. two poles, b. circular flux lines within the matcrial only little or no extemal magnetic Field 29 4d. atotally external magnet field 2.3. Magnetic lines of foree do NOT 4. fort closed loops that do not ross. increase in density as the distance from the poles of a permanent magnet increases ©. have direction A. seck paths 0 Teast reluctance, 210 catest magnetic resistance or If the like poles of two magi close proximity, the magnets will sare brought into act one another, 2.5 The magnetic field surrounding an electromagnet, 2.11 containing a ferromagnetic test partis the immediately after the current ceases t flow 'b. when the magnetizing current is flowing. © atthe time the magnetic particles are to the part, 4. just before current reversal 2.6 —Assolenoid is a coiled conductor that 2.12 8. comtains up to one loop. ns number of loops contains « nonmagnetic metal core 4d. is used to induce circular magnetism inside the coil In ferromagnetic materials, the magi domains ate: a. aligned with the magnetizing field b. aligned only when the mag. Rowing. randomly oriented at all times, |. always aligned perpendicular to the magnetizing field izing current is The magnetic field in a greatest the current is first turned on, 1b. on the immediate outer surface of the evil © om the inside of the coil and adjacent to the inner surface 4. at the center of the coil awh The value of permeability is: aa fixed value dependin; rial the type of b. between 1 and 100 forall ferromagnetic materials © dependent on the value of #1 dependent on the amount of magnetizing force ney essary to overcome saturation. The coercive force of the magnetic ma whose hysteresis loop is shown in Figure 2.6 is given by the: value of B at point d b. value of B at point e ©. product of # and Hat point £ negative value of Hf at point c ©. area enclosed within the hysteresis loop. When / is reduced, the associated values of & follow the curve a to b in Figure 2.6. The field at bis called the: 2. remnant flux density b. saturation, 4 characteristic pen © permeability ability In magnetic particle tes that cam be tested are 2. ferromagnetic, b the only materials ferrimagnetic ETChapter 2 - Materials and the Theory of Magnetism (111Chapter 3 Currents Used in the Magnetic Particle Testing Inspection Process agnetization because the current flows continuously i Magnetizing Current etified curtent and three phas e rectified ) flux at the center to a maximum a the surface. Dicce Alternating Current direct current generators, Rectified current is norm: Half Wave Rectified Current a F ive second (60) Hz), The inductive effect of current reversal nds wo produce a high density of electric ¢ ca rect Full Wave Rectified Current (Single Phase) fatigue cracks, Direct curren a Full wave direct current rectification inverts th Alternating current flows from 0/t0 positive rnaximun regative current to positive current. This rectification vollage. then returns to 0, proceeds to a negative voltage caves some ripple. The current is then filtered to remove ‘Three Phase Full Wave Rectified Current Alternating current is also available in three phase Direct Current When th Alternating current is also fect current is obtained, This current can be filtered Figure 3.1: Single phase alternating current Re wave form Magnetization ASNT NDT Level III personnel are responsible for selecting the type of equipment used to indu14/ ASNT Level ITI Study Guide: ticle Testing Figure 3.2: Rectification of alternating current to half wave direct current - / \ [ \, ° ry i et i\ /\, ‘le phas lemating current input cttier __y Half wave direct put Figure 3.3: Full wave direct current “CV LN Eger | OOCY . V7 \ ReciifierFilter® 0 Single phase Bridge rectifier ana titer aerating curent input Figure 3.4: Three phase alternating current rectified to full wave rectified direct cur aos, base a) emaheg) aes ° Each phase individually Full wave rectiiod rection with a three phase 9 | single phase reciifier 5 ~ —= Three phase alternating Rectitior and fitor Full wave rectified eeurrent input three phase and titorod rection and stength ofthe electric current used to The magnetic particle used with permanent magn produce magnetic fields in es item should be suspended in an approved liquid cate Using Permanent Magnets to Induce field; the flow of the solution provides mobility to Magnetic Fields Particles. Dry panicles require pulsed, changin In magnetic purticle testing, applications involving shemating fields to become mobile permanent magnets ate limited, mainly because the For maximum visibility ofan indication, it should be strength ofthe field that can be induced is relatively low. cae in the area between the two pole picces of the Some permanent magnet yokes have adjustable legs that magnet, The long axis of the indication should be allow the induce flux level to be varied by changing the positioned 90 degrees * 45 degrees with a line between distance between the contacts, The primary value of the poles. The flux is stronger nearer to the poles than it rmanent magnets isin their portability with no need is in the center of the gap. Maximum coniaet bets for external power. They are usully used to tet small the pole and the test surface should be maintained areas of parts where cracks frequently occur. The induced field is longitudinal because the magnet is Using Electric Currents to Induce positioned so the field between the magnets poles is Magnetic Fields perpendicular to the direction of the discontinu When making recommendations for the procurement of costly inspection equipment, the ASNT NDT Level IllChapter 3~ Curves ‘must consider ' of different power supplies, the power available at inspection sites, the need for portability and a projection of the power required for future production. The type of power required influences each of the above considerations. A detailed understanding of the adv different magnetizing currents is very important. Alternating Current Alternat ig current is the power source supplied by utility companies and much of the direet current is derived from it, No teetifics are requined so the weight pment is reduced, A\ used for demagnetizers. Autot ers transform altemating current into a wide selection of current requirements, Because transformers are not needed in a vipment, the i less expensive than most other iformers and saturable equipment is power supplies As previ ly shown, altemating current does not penetrate deeply into metal, This limitation is actually an advantage when inspecting inservice pats: the skin effect of altemating current emphasizes fatigue cracks, which always start atthe surface. Irrelevant subsurface Variations. which may distract the inspector, are not detected by the minimally penetrating current. However: if deeper penetration is desired, alternating current is not sood choice Direct Current Direct current his always been the primary type af ization for magnetic particle Initially, production inspection equipment used \wet-cell batteries connected in parallel to Fulfill the hi requirements. Because batteries require constant maintenance to enyure they are adequately charged, their frequent replacement was a continuing expense. The advantage of batiery-powered inspection equipment was that it could be operated on low current line hatte chargers. Using dry plate rectifiers to obtain direct ‘current directly from alternating current power proved much more practical hecause alternai leas line power Furnished by a company. Direct current power supplies for ma, lable with outputs up to 20.000 A; 6000 A is standard for stationary equipment Where three phase altemating current power is available. However, up to 5000 A direct current is available trom single phase alternating current. Direct current is feasible yokes because small solid state diodes are available. These yokes and prewrapped coils need only 120 V alternating current sources. of dir is its deep penetrating ability in metal, which e Particle testing are av A major advan current for magnetization bles gnetic Particle Testing Inspection Process / subsurface discontinuities to be revealed. Direct current from batteries or full wave rectified alternating current is used with the wer particle technique because full wave direct current does not provide mobility for dry powder. le primary advantage of direct current it eaves residual magnetism that indication longer, allowing mo inspector to det holds and evaluate indie Half Wave Direct Current Half wave direct current results from rectification of Single phase alternating curn ty clipping off the lage peaks of the wave. (See Figure 3.2.) hhas the penetrating characteristics of direct current with the added advantage that the pulsing current provides good mobility for dry magnetic particle powder, Portable half wave direct current power sources are available for low current applications because current can be obvained from one dry plate rectifier or from solid state diodes. Half wave direct current can also be used with a wet particle suspension to provide good sensitivity for revealing fine surface cracks. For detecting subsurface discontinuities hhalf wave direet current used with dry powder is considered to be the best combination. For this reason, half wave direct current is a pri wold and casting inspection, Because ccurtent leaves 1 part in a partially magnetized state, most half wave direet current equipment provides netization options, either alternating current, reversing direct current of both, Up to 1500 A outpat is lable in portable 6000 A in mobile negative vol Halt w: direct curte ry power source for dom Full Wave Rectified Single or Three Phase Full wave rectified alternating current provides the ‘most efficient conversion of altemating current power te direct current (Figures 3.3 and 3.4), Full wave reetifi are dry plate rectifiers set up in a bridge circuit. Instead of clipping off the negative going half eyele. the bridge rectifier converts it to positiv ing half eyele, Most urrent equipment alo phases provides very osely matches the direct full wave rectified alternat uses three phase power. The t tow ripple direct current that current output of a battery Three phase full wave reet ‘normally used in units that provide from 3000 to 10.000 A of current ed alternatCE Ee 16/ ASNT Level III Study Guide: Magnetic Particle Testing Review Questions 3.7 Half wave direct current is: a pulsed dire 3.1 Direet current can be obtained from: bused with dry powder. a. batteries ©. used for inspecting w bh rectified altemating current 4 & generators 4. all of the above, 38 Full wave, three phase reciifie The source that supplies the most powe b An advan : A disadvanta b An tha b Half wave direet current is obtained tizing is b.uses.a single brid three phase altemating current, full wave ©. is used in low current equipment rectified 4. is not practical as a source of n single phase alternating current. full wave current ecified, alternating current unrectifie. single phase alter rt, half wave rectified c of alternating current is that iis most readily available equipment can be made lighter. it leaves the pant demagnetized, all of the above. g current is that it: cannot be used with dry powder. thas poor penetrating power. can only provide low ux densities. cean be used for resi metic particle testing advantage of direct current from batteries is batteries require little maintenance demagnetization is accomplished by simply reversing polarity batteries never require replicement batteties can operate on line voltage to a charger and provide a high current output three phase direct current power of the above. produces low ripple dineChapter 4 Field Strength and Distribution Magnetization With the exception ofthe few imsances whe Parts. Battery-powered equipment has not been manufactured for many years and will not be discuysed. Specialized techniques, such as multidirectional, will not be covered, Parts can be magnetized usi magnetization. Cireular magnetization is produced cither by passing a current directly through the pat (direct magnetization) or by passing eurrent through a central conductor running through a hollow part (indirect magnetization), Longitudinal magnetism uses an external magnetic field to produce (induce) magnetism (indirect netization), Alternat be used for either technique depending on f discussed in Chapter 3 and diagramed in Appendix 2. urrent or direct current can Circular Magnetization Circular fields are produced by passing cument through the part as shown in Figure 4.1 or by passin 1 a central conductor as shown in F onductor. It 2. Acireular field exists in and around the should be noted thatthe field is perpendicular (80 degrees) to the ent flow for simple parts such as rods, nuts, bolts, etc. While the current is flowing there er field inside is a much strony ferromagnetic conductor than ins ondluctor, however, the ficlds surrounding these two conductors are the same Ifa central conductor is used to induce a circular field nt of the conductor becomes important. ‘The field around the in a hollow cylinder, as in Figure 4.2, the placen Figure 4.1: Relationship of current to. magnetic field Test article \ { cylinder is symmetrical if the conductor is in the cente however, ifthe conductor is phaced adjacent to the inner circumference, the fiekd strength is much stronger at the cylinder wall nearest to the conductor, Depending on the diameter. rotating the part and evaluating several sections of the le Mad Recommended values for eitcula A general rule-of-thumb is to use 800 to 1000 A per 'S mm (1 in) 0 ‘current snd 500 t0 600 A per 25 mm th may be necessary per ASTM F jameter or cross section with direct in.) with alternating current Reference A, Reference B Reference C Longitudinal Magnetization Longitudinal magnetization can be performed in a coil, as shown in Figure 4.3. The stron ar the inside surface of the coil and the Mux ward the center of the coil, If 4 part is relatively uniform in permeability and cross section, it ean be assumed that the flux density will be uniform over the cross section excep! a each end of the part. However, for complex parts the flux density will not be uniform. The quick break feature was Figure 4.2: Field produced by using a central conductor Magnene ie Ze — ral conductor \ P<, Tost article There is disagreement betneen common p ectical heory regarsing current pola, mort polanty isnot shown18 / ASNT vel IHL Study Guide: Figure 4.3: Coil showing relationship of ‘current, magnetizing field and induced field Magnetic field gy) \ \ Current direction Test article Longitudinal magnetic fed There is dicagraoment between common practice and cloctrical theory rogarding current polarity, Theralor, the current polaty isnt shown, designed to help compensate for the decreased flux. density at the ends of the par When using coils and calculating amperages, the rhumber of turns in the coil, the location of the part \ithin the coil (edge or center), the length and diameter (cross section diagonal) ofthe part. the radius of the coil ida fill-factor constant must be considered. Several empirical equations were developed to nt valves for magnetization, These rule-of-thumb relationships must be used with cautio \d should be backed up with another device such as the set meter. They do not take into consideration the Permeability, part confizuaration and other factors The rule-of-thumb Equation $ was reduced by experiment to: 45000 LID Equation 5 the number of tums in the col J = the current (given in amperes), and, L/D = the length-to-diameter ratio of the pat to be magnetized, Equation 5 can be used to determine ampere turns led for longitudinal magnetization using an cencircling coil with the part adjacent to the inside surface of the coil Other equations specified in ASTM Practice E144 .0 rule-of-thumb equations, These equations assume the part placed in the coil with the longitudinal axes parallel 10 the fiekd of the evil, the lagnetic Particle Testing, Aength-to-diameter ratio and th limits previously specified. These ext pesipeability within the ns ae as Follows: Low Fill-Factor Coils When the ross sectional area ofthe coil i ten oF roe times the eross sectional area of the part being tested, the product of the number of eo tras N and the current in amperes through the coil / shall be as follows: For parts positioned 10 the side of the coil Equation 6 where: K = 45.000 ampere turns, L length of the part, snd diameter of the part (measured in the same units as the length). For party positioned in the center ofthe coil = (210% apse Equation 7 where: R= radius of the coil, mm (or inches), K = 1690 ampere tumns per mm (43.000 ampere turns per inch if & is, measured in inches), length of the par, and diameter of the part (a same units as the length), ured in the Ifthe part has hollow portions. replace D with Dy 3 in Equations 10 and IL. These formulas hold only if [7D 1s 2 to 1S inclusive. If L/D is less than 2, pole pi (pieces of ferromagnetic material with the same diameter as the part being tested) are placed on cach end of the part to effectively increase L/D to 2 or greater. I L/D is greater than 15, the value of 15 shall be substituted for wD. Cable Wrap or High Fill-Factor Coils When the eross sectional area of the coil is less than twice the cross sectional area (ineluding hollow portions) Df the part under the product of the number of coils tums N and the current in amperes though the coil 1 shall be as follows:(Chapter 4 — Field Strength and Distribution /19 +10%) ¥ A, a sn wc anno i tn d= ereetvasl neat Gebanen poe Eauitons oie mn Fs ssminpew as for cndeat pan, his ep wo he Fetowing bos gore tame unityas len D,, =[(oD)*-(10)'] - 7: Equation 11 Chg a wai bon pt ga in Equtions 10 and LI. These formal hold only (FLD —— Jesper la ae docs (5) TFEOD iene a Figure 4.4: Magnete field distribution in pole pieces (pieces of ferromagnetic material with the ferromagnetic material using alternating ‘same diameter as the part being tested) shall be placed ‘current (solid material) on each end of the part to effectively increase the L/D to a or greater If the 17D is greater than 15, the value of 15 Shall be substituted for L/D. c e whore: Intermediate Fill-Factor Coils & R = Rediss When the eross seetional area of the coil is between g| B, = Maximum fed strength wo and ten times the cross sectional area of the part i B, = Field strength at surace being tested the product of the number of tums N and | the current through the oil shall be as follows —- & | /\\ stance a ' 2 4, > N= (NN _ Equation 9 ( yy (ND, = value of NF calculated for low fil-fuctor Xe (Np, = Value of NY caleulated for high fil-factor a coils and | Figure 4.5: Magnetic field distribution in r ratio ofthe cross sectional area ofthe coil ferromagnetic material using elternating to the cross sectional area ofthe part. For current (hollow material) example, ifthe coil is 254 mm (10 in.) in diameter and the part is a tod 127 mm 8 5 in.) in diameter | as Maximum field strength Calculating the Length-to-Diameter Ratio for a Hollow or Cylindrical Part When calculating the lengih-to-diameter rato fora flow cena ut Dl eee whan | effective diameter Day eakulted using the folloning [(4-A)] p, =o Ara) x Equation 10 __20/ ASNT Level IIS where! OD = — outside diameter of the cylinder, and 1D = inside diameter of the cylinder. Reference A Reference B Reference C Permanent Magnets Permanent magnets are rarely used because the eld cannot he wrned off and on. This makes ult vo properly place and remove, especialy when high strength magnets are used. Also, to obtain the cquivalent field strength of an electromagnet, the ct would be very heavy and awkward to hn The placement and use of permanent magnets is the same as that for altemating curent or direct curent yokes Alternating Current Alternating current is used primarily to detect surface Aliscontinuities because the depth of penciation of the netic field is very shallow as illustrated in Figures 44 and 4.5. Alternating cure power is excellent fo locating fatigue cracks because they are lays open to the metals surface. Note that in Figures 444 and 4S the field atthe contr of the solid conductor and at the inside surface of the hollow conductor is very arp nonlinearly, frm the inside of the metal 10 near the surface. Near the surface the field rises very rapidly. The field strength at the outer surface of the maductor (hollow oF solid) is about the sam ‘There is no field inside oF dhe Rollow conductor. The external magnetic field i greatest at the outer surface and decays with distance from the surface low and rises Direct Current Direct current is used in stationary units, large portable units and most yokes, and is used for applica nps leeches, coils, ete. AS noted in Chapt i can be half wave rectified, full wave rectified or three phase full wave rectified. Solid and Hollow Cylinders When passing curren through a part to be netic field will be a 90 degrees to the direction of the current path, The length ofthe part dlocs not afect the strength of the circular fel, but a larzer diameter will decrease the field strength a the therefore to miintain the seme Tux density at fr current must Be used a8 the diameter or wed. The current density in a conductor is equal tothe amperage / divided by the eross ons with prods, cl 3, direct cu magnetized, the ide: Magnetic Particle Testing Field distribution in and around a solid magnetic conductor carrying direct current 8 where: R =Radus B= Field strength at surface Bye= Feld strength al 2R, etc “Then 2R trom the center of s the tod wil be Oct: 3 | 2k oR R MR) Detanes ——e | Figure 4.7: Field distribution in and around a hollow magnetic conductor carrying direct current where: R=Radus B= Fiold atthe surface ‘When 2R trom the conte of fell wile 8/2Chapter 4 — Field Strength and Distribution / 21 field-concentrating effect 1d strength is much greater withi sectional area of the part (section being magnetized). If Because of t the cross sectional area is increased, current density permeability. the nt flux density, the amperage must be nonmagnetic conductor. Figures 4.6 and 4.7 represent th ased, field strength in solid and hollow magnetic conductors increased as the eross sectional area is in ‘carrying direct current. Remember that the field strength ‘outside the conductor is the same for both solid and ollow cylinders, and it will also he the same as the field Figure 4.8: Field distribution in and around 2 Solid nonmagnetic conductor carrying strength outside nonmagnetic conductors. The field direct current strength will be 0 at the center of the solid conductor and atthe inside surface of the hotlow conductor. There is no 8 field inside the hollow area of the conductor Nonmagnetic Material Figures 4.8 and 49 represent the field distribution Field strength at surface (B) rs ind around solid and hollow nonmagnetic condue Nonmi 6 of primary importance. The external field will be the 3 ame for both solid and hollow conductors. but in both 3 |/ eases the field mus ated from the center of th } | £) SF) Slik the i Watt 2A oA surface is B, then the rom the where Ro = Radius Figure 4.10: Field distribution in and around 8 _ = Feld strongth at surtoce a hollow magnetic cylinder with central B,/2= Field strength at 2A, etc Conductor earrying direct current of) Figure 4.9: Field distribution in and around a hollow nonmagnetic conductor carrying direct current : Field strength at surace (8) {2 A S et /\a Deetan Ee tTroN% - 7 | . | Ron 4 vore; R= Rach Y Feld at 2 )) b= ta 4) = Radius EX JB =Fiela strength at surtace . ” / B= Field sirength al 2R. etc ateeee nn eee 22/ ASNT Level IIL Study Gi Figure 4.11: Field distribution in and around a solid magnetic conductor carrying alternating current Peak tux density at bar surface + || Direct current thx distribution _—— inside sold bar Alternating current fx i strbution inside coli bar Ls Distance from center of bar = _- Stee! bar Figure 4.12: Field distribution in and around ‘a hollow magnetic conductor carrying alternating current Peak flux density | at bar surface Direct current fux density —— inside hollow bar B| /I\ Alternating current flux % + | AX -— distrioution inside hollow bar oll7, 4, ,__, Lh Distanco from cantor of bar =r ide: Magnetic Particle Testing Central Conductor Carrying Direct Current As shown in Figure 4.10, a central conductor will rise fr ugnetie Field in the Oat the center on the conductor to a maximum, a, atthe outer surface of the central conductor. It will drop slightly in the space between the central conductor and the part b. Ifthe part were not present, the field of the central conductor ‘would follow the path b, c, d. However, with a part surrounding the central conductor, the field will rise sharply to a maximum ate, at the inside surface of the part, The field will then drop through the part to an intensity of f. Immediately outside the part surface the intensity will drop sharply to c. From this point the field external to the part will follow the same path of the central conductor field if the part were not present, ¢ d. In comparing this figure with Figure 4.8, the pa 0. a 4. is similar to the path outside the part in Figure 46. Field Distribution for Alternating Current Conductors Upto this point, all field strength and distribution curves shown have been for either alternating current or direct current, Most of these rules will not ho both types of magnetizing current. Alternating current tends fo flow near the surface of « conductor, which is Figure 4.13: Field strength versus current Field strength at conter Field strength at of each face = 8 Field strength on entre curved curace = Bphenomenon known as the skin effect. The field distribution curves for solid and hollow magnetic conductors carrying bot ing current and direct current are shown in Figures 4.11 and 4.12. Alternating 3 provides a much greater field density in the outer xs of the conductor, but the field strength outside the cconducior is exactly the sane as when direct current is used as the magnetizing force. The difference is that the surrent is constantly varying, both in strength and direction. Reference A Reference B Other Symmetrical Shapes The dir et Field is quite predictable as long a the item being magnetized is constant and Symmetrical in eross section, such asa square a ring oF ask, When magnetizing shapes otber than soli or hollow round objects configuration and cross section must be considered. For example, a magnetic purticle testing inspection on a square bar will require more amperage than the same test on around bar. The mugnstic field in the square bar is greatest along the center of the face and drops to about half that value on the lo \d distribution is uniform on the carved surface ofthe round bar. Because of this, the iameter ofthe partis taken asthe greatest distance any two points on the outside circumference of the part, as shown in Figure 4.13, Also, as shapes become more complex, it may be extremely dificult or impossible to predict the field intensity in spesific areas, For complex shaped pars, measuring devices are used to determine the magnetic Field intensity in specific are If the square bar in Figure 4.13 is SO mm (2 i.) per side, the diagonal dimension 4s TL mm (2.82 im.) Ifthe square bar is circularly magnetized with direct current, the 2540.A per millimeter diameter (1000 A per inch diameter) rule would require 2820 A to magnetize a 50 mm (2 in.) square bar. 880 mm (2 in.) round bar would require only 2000 A for magnetization beeause its diagonal is 50 mm (2 in) Another approach to determining the curent needed tizng iegularly shaped bars requires the comparison of the perimeter of the cross section of the bar with a bar having the sume diameter. Ifthe coss sectional perimeter of the bar in Figure 4.13 is 483 mm (19 in.) the diameter of a ound bar with a 483 mm (19 in.) cireumterence is 483(19 in.y/3, 1416 = 154:mm (6 in), This suggests that a 5000 A current is adequate Using the perimeter approach, the equivalent diameter fora SI mm (2 in.) square bar would be 2032/3141 6.47 (2.5 in), which is quite close to the 72 mm (28 in.) tion of a mi Chapter 4 ~ Field Strength and Distribution / 23 diagonal, A flat bar having the same area of 102 mm? (4 in2) could be 13 mm x 203 mm (0.5 in. x 8 in). The perimeter of this bar is 432 mm (17 in.). The diameter of a round bar with a 432 mm (17 in.) circumference is 432 mm (17 in./3.1416 = 137 mm (St in.). Thus, 0 magn 102m sectional arca Would require about 2500. 4 in.) cross wherea flat bar with the same cross sectional area could require more than twice that current. This approach is the fact that magnetism is a surface-ori as Figures 4.4 through 4.12 show; therefore, if the surface for the sume cross sectional area is doubled. the surface magnetic field (and hence the magnetizing current) should be in the same ratio. ‘The study that y flux density measurements that closely approximated the expected flux. Using this approoch, Equation 12 gives an ‘approximation of the current requi magnetization of oddly shaped uniform cross sections ea Square bar with sed on ented condition, clded this approach included surface sd for direct contact P =x 1000 n Equation 12 where: ' amperes direct current, Pp perimeter of cross section, centimeters, ® 31416, A single part with multiple sections of different diameters requires that dif levels be selected for each section. The section requiring the least amperage should be magnetized and evaluat first The section requiring the next hi © sho Id be magnetized and evaluated next and so on. If the highest amperage section is magnetized and ‘evaluated first, all smaller sections requir e would be overmagnetized, resulting in jons and other problems. Ifthe largest seetion must be magnetized first, the part must be demagnetized between magnetizing operations. This can be very time ‘consuming and can cause problems in other areas. Reference A Reference B Rings Ang is another symmetrical shape that can be magnetized both in the circular direction and i the longitadinal direction. The di reflet a different concept than fora bu: Concepiually. i is a bar bent into a circle, The longitudinal flux ections of flux for rings