SIMPLE DIGITAL SECURITY SYSTEM

SIMPLE DIGITAL SECURITY SYSTEM
4511 BCD to seven-segment decoder

The 4511 IC is a 16-pin CMOS BCD to seven-segment decoder from the 4000 series. It takes
the binary-coded decimal from a binary counter and decodes it to drive a seven-segment
display.
Pinout
Pin
Name Purpose
number
1 2s Input for the 2s bit from the binary counter
3 LT Lamp test - when low, the chip takes all the segments on the display high (to test
connections, etc.)
4 BI Blanking input - when low, the chip does not output to the display - to conserve
battery life, for instance
5 LE Latch enable - latches on the current output when high (i.e. the inputs change the
output when LE is low)
8 0 V, VDD The connection to the 0 V rail
9 E Output for the seven-segment's E input
10 D Output for the seven-segment's D input
11 C Output for the seven-segment's C input
12 B Output for the seven-segment's B input
13 A Output for the seven-segment's A input
14 G Output for the seven-segment's G input
15 F Output for the seven-segment's F input
16 +9 V, The connection to the +9 V rail
VCC
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Seven-segment display
A typical 7-segment LED display component, with decimal point.
A seven-segment display, or seven-segment indicator, is a form of

electronic display device for displaying decimal numerals that is an alternative to the
more complex dot-matrix displays. Seven-segment displays are widely used in digital
clocks, electronic meters, and other electronic devices for displaying numerical
information.
Concept and visual structure
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The individual segments of a seven-segment display.
A seven segment display, as its name indicates, is composed of seven

elements. Individually on or off, they can be combined to produce simplified
representations of the arabic numerals. Often the seven segments are arranged in an
oblique (slanted) arrangement, which aids readability. In most applications, the seven
segments are of nearly uniform shape and size (usually elongated hexagons, though
trapezoids and rectangles can also be used), though in the case of adding machines,
the vertical segments are longer and more oddly shaped at the ends in an effort to
further enhance readability.
Each of the numbers 0, 6, 7 and 9 may be represented by two or more different

glyphs on seven-segment displays.
LED-based 7-segment display showing the 16 hex digits.
The seven segments are arranged as a rectangle of two vertical segments on

each side with one horizontal segment on the top, middle, and bottom. Additionally,
the seventh segment bisects the rectangle horizontally. There are also fourteen-
segment displays and sixteen-segment displays (for full alphanumerics); however,
these have mostly been replaced by dot-matrix displays.
The segments of a 7-segment display are referred to by the letters A to G, as

shown to the right, where the optional DP decimal point (an "eighth segment") is used
for the display of non-integer numbers.
The animation to the left cycles through the common glyphs of the ten decimal
numerals and the six hexadecimal "letter digits" (A–F). It is an image sequence of a
"LED" display, which is described technology-wise in the following section. Notice
the variation between uppercase and lowercase letters for A–F; this is done to obtain a
unique, unambiguous shape for each letter (otherwise, a capital D would look
identical to an 0 (or less likely O) and a capital B would look identical to an 8).
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Implementations
An incandescent light type early seven-segment display.
A mechanical seven-segment display for displaying automotive fuel prices.
Seven-segment displays may use a liquid crystal display (LCD), arrays of

light-emitting diodes (LEDs), or other light-generating or controlling techniques such
as cold cathode gas discharge, vacuum fluorescent, incandescent filaments, and
others. For gasoline price totems and other large signs, vane displays made up of
electromagnetically flipped light-reflecting segments (or "vanes") are still commonly
used. An alternative to the 7-segment display in the 1950s through the 1970s was the
cold-cathode, neon-lamp-like nixie tube. Starting in 1970, RCA sold a display device
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known as the Numitron that used incandescent filaments arranged into a seven-
segment display
In a simple LED package, typically all of the cathodes (negative terminals) or

all of the anodes (positive terminals) of the segment LEDs are connected together and
brought out to a common pin; this is referred to as a "common cathode" or "common
anode" device. Hence a 7 segment plus decimal
l point package will only require nine pins (though commercial products
typically contain more pins, and/or spaces where pins would go, in order to match
industry standard pinouts).
Integrated displays also exist, with single or multiple digits. Some of these
integrated displays incorporate their own internal decoder, though most do not – each
individual LED is brought out to a connecting pin as described. Multiple-digit LED
displays as used in pocket calculators and similar devices used multiplexed displays to
reduce the number of IC pins required to control the display. For example, all the
anodes of the A segments of each digit position would be connected together and to a
driver pin, while the cathodes of all segments for each digit would be connected. To
operate any particular segment of any digit, the controlling integrated circuit would
turn on the cathode driver for the selected digit, and the anode drivers for the desired
segments; then after a short blanking interval the next digit would be selected and new
segments lit, in a sequential fashion. In this manner an eight digit display with seven
segments and a decimal point would require only 8 cathode drivers and 8 anode
drivers, instead of sixty-four drivers and IC pins. Often in pocket calculators the digit
drive lines would be used to scan the keyboard as well, providing further savings;
however, pressing multiple keys at once would produce odd results on the
multiplexed display.
Seven segment displays can be found in patents as early as 1908 (in U.S.
Patent 974,943, F W Wood invented an 8-segment display, which displayed the
number 4 using a diagonal bar), but did not achieve widespread use until the advent of
LEDs in the 1970s. They are sometimes even used in unsophisticated displays like
cardboard "For sale" signs, where the user either applies color to pre-printed
segments, or (spray)paints color through a seven-segment digit template, to compose
figures such as product prices or telephone numbers.
For many applications, dot-matrix LCDs have largely superseded LED

displays, though even in LCDs 7-segment displays are very common. Unlike LEDs,
the shapes of elements in an LCD panel are arbitrary since they are formed on the
display by a kind of printing process. In contrast, the shapes of LED segments tend to
be simple rectangles, reflecting the fact that they have to be physically moulded to
shape, which makes it difficult to form more complex shapes than the segments of 7-
segment displays. However, the high common recognition factor of 7-segment
displays, and the comparatively high visual contrast obtained by such displays relative
to dot-matrix digits, makes seven-segment multiple-digit LCD screens very common
on basic calculators.
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Alphabetic display
Main article: Seven-segment display character representations
In addition to the ten numerals, seven segment displays can be used to show
letters of the latin, cyrillic and greek alphabets including punctuation, but only few
representations are unambiguous and intuitive at the same time. It is possible to
represent hexadecimal unambiguously by using a mixture of letter cases (AbCdEF is
typical) and using a representation of 6 that has the top segment illuminated. This is
frequently used to output hexadecimal codes for troubleshooting purposes. Short
messages giving status information (e.g. "no disc" on a CD player) are also commonly
represented on 7-segment displays. In the case of such messages it is not necessary for
every letter to be unambiguous, merely for the words as a whole to be readable
Similar displays with fourteen or sixteen segments are available allowing

decent representations of the alphabet.
Using a restricted range of letters that look like (upside-down) digits, seven-
segment displays are commonly used by school children to form words and phrases
using a technique known as "calculator spelling".
Numbers to 7-segment-code
A single byte can encode the full state of a 7-segment-display. The most
popular bit encodings are gfedcba and abcdefg - both usually assume 0 is off and 1 is
on. This table gives the hexadecimal encodings for displaying the digits 0 to F:
Digit gfedcba abcdefg a b c d e f g

0 0x3F 0x7E on on on on on on off
1 0x06 0x30 off on on off off off off
2 0x5B 0x6D on on off on on off on
3 0x4F 0x79 on on on on off off on
4 0x66 0x33 off on on off off on on
5 0x6D 0x5B on off on on off on on
6 0x7D 0x5F on off on on on on on
7 0x07 0x70 on on on off off off off
8 0x7F 0x7F on on on on on on on
9 0x6F 0x7B on on on on off on on
A 0x77 0x77 on on on off on on on
b 0x7C 0x1F off off on on on on on
C 0x39 0x4E on off off on on on off
d 0x5E 0x3D off on on on on off on
E 0x79 0x4F on off off on on on on
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Integrated circuits
An integrated circuit or monolithic integrated circuit (also referred to as

IC, chip, and microchip) is an electronic circuit manufactured by diffusion of trace
elements into the surface of a thin substrate of semiconductor material.
Integrated circuits are used in virtually all electronic equipment today and
have revolutionized the world of electronics. Computers, cellular phones, and other
digital appliances are now inextricable parts of the structure of modern societies,
made possible by the low cost of production of integrated circuits
Introduction
Synthetic detail of an integrated circuit through four layers of planarized

copper interconnect, down to the polysilicon (pink), wells (greyish), and substrate
(green).
Integrated circuits were made possible by experimental discoveries which

showed that semiconductor devices could perform the functions of vacuum tubes and
by mid-20th-century technology advancements in semiconductor device fabrication.
The integration of large numbers of tiny transistors into a small chip was an enormous
improvement over the manual assembly of circuits using electronic components. The
integrated circuit's mass production capability, reliability, and building-block
approach to circuit design ensured the rapid adoption of standardized ICs in place of
designs using discrete transistors.
There are two main advantages of ICs over discrete circuits: cost and
performance. Cost is low because the chips, with all their components, are printed as a
unit by photolithography rather than being constructed one transistor at a time.
Furthermore, much less material is used to construct a packaged IC die than a discrete
circuit. Performance is high since the components switch quickly and consume little
power (compared to their discrete counterparts) because the components are small and
positioned close together. As of 2006, chip areas range from a few square millimeters
to around 350 mm2, with up to 1 million transistors per mm2.[citation needed]
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Terminology
Integrated circuit originally referred to a miniaturized electronic circuit

consisting of semiconductor devices, as well as passive components bonded to a
substrate or circuit board, This configuration is now commonly referred to as a hybrid
integrated circuit. Integrated circuit has since come to refer to the single-piece circuit
construction originally known as a monolithic integrated circuit.
Invention
Early developments of the integrated circuit go back to 1949, when the

German engineer Werner Jacobi (Siemens AG) filed a patent for an integrated-circuit-
like semiconductor amplifying device ] showing five transistors on a common
substrate arranged in a 2-stage amplifier arrangement. Jacobi discloses small and
cheap hearing aids as typical industrial applications of his patent. A

commercial use of his patent has not been reported.
The idea of the integrated circuit was conceived by a radar scientist working
for the Royal Radar Establishment of the British Ministry of Defence, Geoffrey W.A.
Dummer (1909–2002), who published it at the Symposium on Progress in Quality
Electronic Components in Washington, D.C. on May 7, 1952. He gave many
symposia publicly to propagate his ideas. Dummer unsuccessfully attempted to build
such a circuit in 1956.
A precursor idea to the IC was to create small ceramic squares (wafers), each
one containing a single miniaturized component. Components could then be
integrated and wired into a bidimensional or tridimensional compact grid. This idea,
which looked very promising in 1957, was proposed to the US Army by Jack Kilby,
and led to the short-lived Micromodule Program (similar to 1951's Project Tinkertoy).
[5]
However, as the project was gaining momentum, Kilby came up with a new,
revolutionary design: the IC.
Robert Noyce credited Kurt Lehovec of Sprague Electric for the principle of
p-n junction isolation caused by the action of a biased p-n junction (the diode) as a
key concept behind the IC.[6]
Jack Kilby's original integrated circuit
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Jack Kilby recorded his initial ideas concerning the integrated circuit in July
1958 and successfully demonstrated the first working integrated circuit on September
12, 1958 In his patent application of February 6, 1959, Kilby described his new
device as “a body of semiconductor material ... wherein all the components of the
electronic circuit are completely integrated Kilby won the 2000 Nobel Prize in
Physics for his part of the invention of the integrated circuit
Robert Noyce also came up with his own idea of an integrated circuit half a
year later than Kilby. Noyce's chip solved many practical problems that Kilby's had
not. Noyce's chip, made at Fairchild Semiconductor, was made of silicon, whereas
Kilby's chip was made of germanium.
Generations
In the early days of integrated circuits, only a few transistors could be placed
on a chip, as the scale used was large because of the contemporary technology. As the
degree of integration was small, the design was done easily. Later on, millions, and
today billions,[10] of transistors could be placed on one chip, and to make a good
design became a task to be planned thoroughly. This gave rise to new design methods.
SSI, MSI and LSI
The first integrated circuits contained only a few transistors. Called "Small-
Scale Integration" (SSI), digital circuits containing transistors numbering in the tens
provided a few logic gates for example, while early linear ICs such as the Plessey
SL201 or the Philips TAA320 had as few as two transistors. The term Large Scale
Integration was first used by IBM scientist Rolf Landauer when describing the
theoretical concept], from there came the terms for SSI, MSI, VLSI, and ULSI.
SSI circuits were crucial to early aerospace projects, and vice-versa. Both the
Minuteman missile and Apollo program needed lightweight digital computers for
their inertial guidance systems; the Apollo guidance computer led and motivated the
integrated-circuit technology,[11] while the Minuteman missile forced it into mass-
production. The Minuteman missile program and various other Navy programs
accounted for the total $4 million integrated circuit market in 1962, and by 1968, U.S.
Government space and defense spending still accounted for 37% of the $312 million
total production. The demand by the U.S. Government supported the nascent
integrated circuit market until costs fell enough to allow firms to penetrate the
industrial and eventually the consumer markets. The average price per integrated
circuit dropped from $50.00 in 1962 to $2.33 in 1968.[12] Integrated Circuits began to
appear in consumer products by the turn of the decade, a typical application being FM
inter-carrier sound processing in television receivers.
The next step in the development of integrated circuits, taken in the late 1960s,
introduced devices which contained hundreds of transistors on each chip, called
"Medium-Scale Integration" (MSI).
They were attractive economically because while they cost little more to
produce than SSI devices, they allowed more complex systems to be produced using
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smaller circuit boards, less assembly work (because of fewer separate components),
and a number of other advantages.
Further development, driven by the same economic factors, led to "Large-

Scale Integration" (LSI) in the mid 1970s, with tens of thousands of transistors per
chip.
Integrated circuits such as 1K-bit RAMs, calculator chips, and the first
microprocessors, that began to be manufactured in moderate quantities in the early
1970s, had under 4000 transistors. True LSI circuits, approaching 10000 transistors,
began to be produced around 1974, for computer main memories and

second-generation microprocessors.
VLSI
Main article: Very-large-scale integration
Upper interconnect layers on an Intel 80486DX2 microprocessor die.
The final step in the development process, starting in the 1980s and continuing
through the present, was "very large-scale integration" (VLSI). The development
started with hundreds of thousands of transistors in the early 1980s, and continues
beyond several billion transistors as of 2009.
Multiple developments were required to achieve this increased density.

Manufacturers moved to smaller rules and cleaner fabs, so that they could make chips
with more transistors and maintain adequate yield. The path of process improvements
was summarized by the International Technology Roadmap for Semiconductors
(ITRS). Design tools improved enough to make it practical to finish these designs in a
reasonable time. The more energy efficient CMOS replaced NMOS and PMOS,
avoiding a prohibitive increase in power consumption. Better texts such as the
landmark textbook by Mead and Conway helped schools educate more designers,
among other factors.
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In 1986 the first one megabit RAM chips were introduced, which contained
more than one million transistors. Microprocessor chips passed the million transistor
mark in 1989 and the billion transistor mark in 2005. The trend continues largely
unabated, with chips introduced in 2007 containing tens of billions of memory
transistors
ULSI, WSI, SOC and 3D-IC
To reflect further growth of the complexity, the term ULSI that stands for
"ultra-large-scale integration" was proposed for chips of complexity of more than 1
million transistors.
Wafer-scale integration (WSI) is a system of building very-large integrated

circuits that uses an entire silicon wafer to produce a single "super-chip". Through a
combination of large size and reduced packaging, WSI could lead to dramatically
reduced costs for some systems, notably massively parallel supercomputers. The
name is taken from the term Very-Large-Scale Integration, the current state of the art
when WSI was being developed.
A system-on-a-chip (SoC or SOC) is an integrated circuit in which all the

components needed for a computer or other system are included on a single chip. The
design of such a device can be complex and costly, and building disparate
components on a single piece of silicon may compromise the efficiency of some
elements. However, these drawbacks are offset by lower manufacturing and assembly
costs and by a greatly reduced power budget: because signals among the components
are kept on-die, much less power is required (see Packaging).
A three-dimensional integrated circuit (3D-IC) has two or more layers of

active electronic components that are integrated both vertically and horizontally into a
single circuit. Communication between layers uses on-die signaling, so power
consumption is much lower than in equivalent separate circuits. Judicious use of short
vertical wires can substantially reduce overall wire length for faster operation.
Advances in integrated circuits
The die from an Intel 8742, an 8-bit microcontroller that includes a CPU
running at 12 MHz, 128 bytes of RAM, 2048 bytes of EPROM, and I/O in the same
chip.
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Among the most advanced integrated circuits are the microprocessors or

"cores", which control everything from computers and cellular phones to digital
microwave ovens. Digital memory chips and ASICs are examples of other families of
integrated circuits that are important to the modern information society. While the
cost of designing and developing a complex integrated circuit is quite high, when
spread across typically millions of production units the individual IC cost is
minimized. The performance of ICs is high because the small size allows short traces
which in turn allows low power logic (such as CMOS) to be used at fast switching
speeds.
ICs have consistently migrated to smaller feature sizes over the years,
allowing more circuitry to be packed on each chip. This increased capacity per unit
area can be used to decrease cost and/or increase functionality—see Moore's law
which, in its modern interpretation, states that the number of transistors in an
integrated circuit doubles every two years. In general, as the feature size shrinks,
almost everything improves—the cost per unit and the switching power consumption
go down, and the speed goes up. However, ICs with nanometer-scale devices are not
without their problems, principal among which is leakage current (see subthreshold
leakage for a discussion of this), although these problems are not insurmountable and
will likely be solved or at least ameliorated by the introduction of high-k dielectrics.
Since these speed and power consumption gains are apparent to the end user, there is
fierce competition among the manufacturers to use finer geometries. This process, and
the expected progress over the next few years, is well described by the International
Technology Roadmap for Semiconductors (ITRS).
In current research projects, integrated circuits are also developed for sensoric
applications in medical implants or other bioelectronic devices. Particular sealing
strategies have to be taken in such biogenic environments to avoid corrosion or
biodegradation of the exposed semiconductor materials. As one of the few materials
well established in CMOS technology, titanium nitride TiN turned out as
exceptionally stable and well suited for electrode applications in medical implants.
Classification
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A CMOS 4000 IC in a DIP
Integrated circuits can be classified into analog, digital and mixed signal (both
analog and digital on the same chip).
Digital integrated circuits can contain anything from one to millions of logic
gates, flip-flops, multiplexers, and other circuits in a few square millimeters. The
small size of these circuits allows high speed, low power dissipation, and reduced
manufacturing cost compared with board-level integration. These digital ICs,
typically microprocessors, DSPs, and micro controllers work using binary
mathematics to process "one" and "zero" signals.
Analog ICs, such as sensors, power management circuits, and operational

amplifiers, work by processing continuous signals. They perform functions like
amplification, active filtering, demodulation, mixing, etc. Analog ICs ease the burden
on circuit designers by having expertly designed analog circuits available instead of
designing a difficult analog circuit from scratch.
ICs can also combine analog and digital circuits on a single chip to create
functions such as A/D converters and D/A converters. Such circuits offer smaller size
and lower cost, but must carefully account for signal interference.
Manufacturing
Fabrication
Main article: Semiconductor fabrication
Rendering of a small standard cell with three metal layers (dielectric has been
removed). The sand-colored structures are metal interconnect, with the vertical pillars
being contacts, typically plugs of tungsten. The reddish structures are polysilicon
gates, and the solid at the bottom is the crystalline silicon bulk.
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Schematic structure of a CMOS chip, as built in the early 2000s. The graphic
shows LDD-MISFET's on an SOI substrate with five metallization layers and solder
bump for flip-chip bonding. It also shows the section for FEOL (front-end of line),
BEOL (back-end of line) and first parts of back-end process.
The semiconductors of the periodic table of the chemical elements were

identified as the most likely materials for a solid state vacuum tube. Starting with
copper oxide, proceeding to germanium, then silicon, the materials were
systematically studied in the 1940s and 1950s. Today, silicon monocrystals are the
main substrate used for integrated circuits (ICs) although some III-V compounds of
the periodic table such as gallium arsenide are used for specialized applications like
LEDs, lasers, solar cells and the highest-speed integrated circuits. It took decades to
perfect methods of creating crystals without defects in the crystalline structure of the
semiconducting material.
Semiconductor ICs are fabricated in a layer process which includes these key
process steps:
• Imaging
• Deposition
• Etching
The main process steps are supplemented by doping and cleaning.
Mono-crystal silicon wafers (or for special applications, silicon on sapphire or

gallium arsenide wafers) are used as the substrate. Photolithography is used to mark
different areas of the substrate to be doped or to have polysilicon, insulators or metal
(typically aluminium) tracks deposited on them.
• Integrated circuits are composed of many overlapping layers, each

defined by photolithography, and normally shown in different colors. Some layers
~ 14 ~
mark where various dopants are diffused into the substrate (called diffusion layers),
some define where additional ions are implanted (implant layers), some define the
conductors (polysilicon or metal layers), and some define the connections between the
conducting layers (via or contact layers). All components are constructed from a
specific combination of these layers.
• In a self-aligned CMOS process, a transistor is formed wherever the

gate layer (polysilicon or metal) crosses a diffusion layer.
• Capacitive structures, in form very much like the parallel conducting

plates of a traditional electrical capacitor, are formed according to the area of the
"plates", with insulating material between the plates. Capacitors of a wide range of
sizes are common on ICs.
• Meandering stripes of varying lengths are sometimes used to form on-

chip resistors, though most logic circuits do not need any resistors. The ratio of the
length of the resistive structure to its width, combined with its sheet resistivity,
determines the resistance.
• More rarely, inductive structures can be built as tiny on-chip coils, or

simulated by gyrators.
Since a CMOS device only draws current on the transition between logic
states, CMOS devices consume much less current than bipolar devices.
A random access memory is the most regular type of integrated circuit; the
highest density devices are thus memories; but even a microprocessor will have
memory on the chip. (See the regular array structure at the bottom of the first image.)
Although the structures are intricate – with widths which have been shrinking for
decades – the layers remain much thinner than the device widths. The layers of
material are fabricated much like a photographic process, although light waves in the
visible spectrum cannot be used to "expose" a layer of material, as they would be too
large for the features. Thus photons of higher frequencies (typically ultraviolet) are
used to create the patterns for each layer. Because each feature is so small, electron
microscopes are essential tools for a process engineer who might be debugging a
fabrication process.
Each device is tested before packaging using automated test equipment (ATE),
in a process known as wafer testing, or wafer probing. The wafer is then cut into
rectangular blocks, each of which is called a die. Each good die (plural dice, dies, or
die) is then connected into a package using aluminium (or gold) bond wires which are
welded and/or Thermosonic Bonded to pads, usually found around the edge of the
die. After packaging, the devices go through final testing on the same or similar ATE
used during wafer probing. Test cost can account for over 25% of the cost of
fabrication on lower cost products, but can be negligible on low yielding, larger,
and/or higher cost devices.
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As of 2005, a fabrication facility (commonly known as a semiconductor fab)

costs over $1 billion to construct because much of the operation is automated. The
most advanced processes employ the following techniques:
• The wafers are up to 300 mm in diameter (wider than a common

dinner plate).
• Use of 65 nanometer or smaller chip manufacturing process. Intel,
IBM, NEC, and AMD are using 45 nanometers for their CPU chips. IBM and AMD
are in development of a 45 nm process using immersion lithography.
• Copper interconnects where copper wiring replaces aluminium for
interconnects.
• Low-K dielectric insulators.
• Silicon on insulator (SOI)
• Strained silicon in a process used by IBM known as strained silicon
directly on insulator (SSDOI)
Packaging
Main article: Integrated circuit packaging
Early USSR-made integrated circuit
The earliest integrated circuits were packaged in ceramic flat packs, which
continued to be used by the military for their reliability and small size for many years.
Commercial circuit packaging quickly moved to the dual in-line package (DIP), first
in ceramic and later in plastic. In the 1980s pin counts of VLSI circuits exceeded the
practical limit for DIP packaging, leading to pin grid array (PGA) and leadless chip
carrier (LCC) packages. Surface mount packaging appeared in the early 1980s and
became popular in the late 1980s, using finer lead pitch with leads formed as either
gull-wing or J-lead, as exemplified by small-outline integrated circuit -- a carrier
which occupies an area about 30–50% less than an equivalent DIP, with a typical
thickness that is 70% less. This package has "gull wing" leads protruding from the
two long sides and a lead spacing of 0.050 inches.
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In the late 1990s, plastic quad flat pack (PQFP) and thin small-outline package
(TSOP) packages became the most common for high pin count devices, though PGA
packages are still often used for high-end microprocessors. Intel and AMD are
currently transitioning from PGA packages on high-end microprocessors to land grid
array (LGA) packages.
Ball grid array (BGA) packages have existed since the 1970s. Flip-chip Ball
Grid Array packages, which allow for much higher pin count than other package
types, were developed in the 1990s. In an FCBGA package the die is mounted upside-
down (flipped) and connects to the package balls via a package substrate that is
similar to a printed-circuit board rather than by wires. FCBGA packages allow an
array of input-output signals (called Area-I/O) to be distributed over the entire die
rather than being confined to the die periphery.
Traces out of the die, through the package, and into the printed circuit board
have very different electrical properties, compared to on-chip signals. They require
special design techniques and need much more electric power than signals confined to
the chip itself.
When multiple dies are put in one package, it is called SiP, for System In
Package. When multiple dies are combined on a small substrate, often ceramic, it's
called an MCM, or Multi-Chip Module. The boundary between a big MCM and a
small printed circuit board is sometimes fuzzy.
Chip labeling and manufacture date
Most integrated circuits large enough to include identifying information

include four common sections: the manufacturer's name or logo, the part number, a
part production batch number and/or serial number, and a four-digit code that
identifies when the chip was manufactured. Extremely small surface mount
technology parts often bear only a number used in a manufacturer's lookup table to
find the chip characteristics.
The manufacturing date is commonly represented as a two-digit year followed

by a two-digit week code, such that a part bearing the code 8341 was manufactured in
week 41 of 1983, or approximately in October 1983.
Legal protection of semiconductor chip layouts
Main article: Integrated circuit layout design protection
Like most of the other forms of intellectual property, IC layout designs are
creations of the human mind. They are usually the result of an enormous investment,
both in terms of the time of highly qualified experts, and financially. There is a
continuing need for the creation of new layout-designs which reduce the dimensions
of existing integrated circuits and simultaneously increase their functions. The smaller
an integrated circuit, the less the material needed for its manufacture, and
the smaller the space needed to accommodate it. Integrated circuits are utilized in a
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large range of products, including articles of everyday use, such as watches, television
sets, washing machines, automobiles, etc., as well as sophisticated data processing
equipment.
The possibility of copying by photographing each layer of an integrated circuit

and preparing photomasks for its production on the basis of the photographs obtained
is the main reason for the introduction of legislation for the protection of layout-
designs.
A diplomatic conference was held at Washington, D.C., in 1989, which

adopted a Treaty on Intellectual Property in Respect of Integrated Circuits (IPIC
Treaty). The Treaty on Intellectual Property in respect of Integrated Circuits, also
called Washington Treaty or IPIC Treaty (signed at Washington on May 26, 1989) is
currently not in force, but was partially integrated into the TRIPs agreement.
National laws protecting IC layout designs have been adopted in a number of

countries.
Other developments
In the 1980s, programmable integrated circuits were developed. These devices

contain circuits whose logical function and connectivity can be programmed by the
user, rather than being fixed by the integrated circuit manufacturer. This allows a
single chip to be programmed to implement different LSI-type functions such as logic
gates, adders and registers. Current devices named FPGAs (Field Programmable Gate
Arrays) can now implement tens of thousands of LSI circuits in parallel and operate
up to 1.5 GHz (Achronix holding the speed record).
The techniques perfected by the integrated circuits industry over the last three
decades have been used to create microscopic machines, known as MEMS. These
devices are used in a variety of commercial and military applications. Example
commercial applications include DLP projectors, inkjet printers, and accelerometers
used to deploy automobile airbags.
In the past, radios could not be fabricated in the same low-cost processes as
microprocessors. But since 1998, a large number of radio chips have been developed
using CMOS processes. Examples include Intel's DECT cordless phone, or Atheros's
802.11 card.
Future developments seem to follow the multi-core multi-microprocessor

paradigm, already used by the Intel and AMD dual-core processors. Intel recently
unveiled a prototype, "not for commercial sale" chip that bears 80 microprocessors.
Each core is capable of handling its own task independently of the others. This is in
response to the heat-versus-speed limit that is about to be reached using existing
~ 18 ~
transistor technology. This design provides a new challenge to chip

programming. Parallel programming languages such as the open-source X10
programming language are designed to assist with this task.
A piezoelectric sensor is a device that uses the piezoelectric effect to measure

pressure, acceleration, strain or force by converting them to an electrical signal.
Applications
Piezoelectric disk used as a guitar pickup
Piezoelectric sensors have proven to be versatile tools for the measurement of

various processes. They are used for quality assurance, process control and for
research and development in many different industries. Although the piezoelectric
effect was discovered by Curie in 1880, it was only in the 1950s that the piezoelectric
effect started to be used for industrial sensing applications. Since then, this measuring
principle has been increasingly used and can be regarded as a mature technology with
an outstanding inherent reliability. It has been successfully used in various
applications, such as in medical, aerospace, nuclear instrumentation, and as a pressure
sensor in the touch pads of mobile phones. In the automotive industry, piezoelectric
elements are used to monitor combustion when developing internal combustion
engines. The sensors are either directly mounted into additional holes into the cylinder
head or the spark/glow plug is equipped with a built in miniature piezoelectric sensor
Piezoelectric sensors have proven to be versatile tools for the measurement of

various processes. They are used for quality assurance, process control and for
research and development in many different industries. Although the piezoelectric
effect was discovered by Curie in 1880, it was only in the 1950s that the piezoelectric
effect started to be used for industrial sensing applications. Since then, this measuring
principle has been increasingly used and can be regarded as a mature technology with
an outstanding inherent reliability. It has been successfully used in various
applications, such as in medical, aerospace, nuclear instrumentation, and as a pressure
sensor in the touch pads of mobile phones. In the automotive industry, piezoelectric
elements are used to monitor combustion when developing internal combustion
engines. The sensors are either directly mounted into additional holes into the cylinder
head or the spark/glow plug is equipped with a built in miniature piezoelectric sensor
~ 19 ~
The rise of piezoelectric technology is directly related to a set of

inherent advantages. The high modulus of elasticity of many piezoelectric materials is
comparable to that of many metals and goes up to 10e6 N/m². Even though
piezoelectric sensors are electromechanical systems that react to compression,

the sensing elements show almost zero deflection. This is the reason why
piezoelectric sensors are so rugged, have an extremely high natural frequency and an
excellent linearity over a wide amplitude range. Additionally, piezoelectric
technology is insensitive to electromagnetic fields and radiation, enabling
measurements under harsh conditions. Some materials used (especially gallium
phosphate [2] or tourmaline) have an extreme stability even at high temperature,
enabling sensors to have a working range of up to 1000°C. Tourmaline shows
pyroelectricity in addition to the piezoelectric effect; this is the ability to generate an
electrical signal when the temperature of the crystal changes. This effect is also
common to piezoceramic materials.
Principle Strain Sensitivity [V/µ*] Threshold [µ*] Span to threshold ratio

Piezoelectric 5.0 0.00001 100,000,000
Piezoresistive 0.0001 0.0001 2,500,000
Inductive 0.001 0.0005 2,000,000
Capacitive 0.005 0.0001 750,000
One disadvantage of piezoelectric sensors is that they cannot be used for truly
static measurements. A static force will result in a fixed amount of charges on the
piezoelectric material. While working with conventional readout electronics,
imperfect insulating materials, and reduction in internal sensor resistance will result in
a constant loss of electrons, and yield a decreasing signal. Elevated temperatures
cause an additional drop in internal resistance and sensitivity. The main effect on the
piezoelectric effect is that with increasing pressure loads and temperature, the
sensitivity is reduced due to twin-formation. While quartz sensors need to be cooled
during measurements at temperatures above 300°C, special types of crystals like
GaPO4 gallium phosphate do not show any twin formation up to the melting point of
the material itself.
However, it is not true that piezoelectric sensors can only be used for very fast
processes or at ambient conditions. In fact, there are numerous applications that show
quasi-static measurements, while there are other applications with temperatures higher
than 500°C.
Piezoelectric sensors are also seen in nature. Dry bone is piezoelectric, and is
thought by some to act as a biological force sensor.
Principle of operation
Depending on how a piezoelectric material is cut, three main modes of

operation can be distinguished: transverse, longitudinal, and shear.
~ 20 ~
Transverse effect
A force is applied along a neutral axis (y) and the charges are
generated along the (x) direction, perpendicular to the line of force. The
amount of charge depends on the geometrical dimensions of the respective
piezoelectric element. When dimensions a,b,c apply,
Cx = dxyFyb / a,
where a is the dimension in line with the neutral axis, b is in line with
the charge generating axis and d is the corresponding piezoelectric coefficient.
Longitudinal effect
The amount of charge produced is strictly proportional to the applied

force and is independent of size and shape of the piezoelectric element. Using
several elements that are mechanically in series and electrically in parallel is
the only way to increase the charge output. The resulting charge is
Cx = dxxFxn,
where dxx is the piezoelectric coefficient for a charge in x-direction

released by forces applied along x-direction (in pC/N). Fx is the applied Force
in x-direction [N] and n corresponds to the number of stacked elements .
Shear effect
Again, the charges produced are strictly proportional to the applied

forces and are independent of the element’s size and shape. For n elements
mechanically in series and electrically in parallel the charge is
Cx = 2dxxFxn.
In contrast to the longitudinal and shear effects, the transverse effect opens the
possibility to fine-tune sensitivity on the force applied and the element dimension.
Electrical properties
~ 21 ~
Schematic symbol and electronic model of a piezoelectric sensor
A piezoelectric transducer has very high DC output impedance and can be

modeled as a proportional voltage source and filter network. The voltage V at the
source is directly proportional to the applied force, pressure, or strain. The output
signal is then related to this mechanical force as if it had passed through the
equivalent circuit.
Frequency response of a piezoelectric sensor; output voltage vs applied force
A detailed model includes the effects of the sensor's mechanical construction

and other non-idealities The inductance Lm is due to the seismic mass and inertia of
the sensor itself. Ce is inversely proportional to the mechanical elasticity of the sensor.
C0 represents the static capacitance of the transducer, resulting from an inertial mass
of infinite size. Ri is the insulation leakage resistance of the transducer element. If the
sensor is connected to a load resistance, this also acts in parallel with the insulation
resistance, both increasing the high-pass cutoff frequency.
In the flat region, the sensor can be modeled as a voltage source in series with
the sensor's capacitance or a charge source in parallel with the capacitance
~ 22 ~
For use as a sensor, the flat region of the frequency response plot is typically
used, between the high-pass cutoff and the resonant peak. The load and leakage
resistance need to be large enough that low frequencies of interest are not lost. A
simplified equivalent circuit model can be used in this region, in which Cs represents
the capacitance of the sensor surface itself, determined by the standard formula for
capacitance of parallel plates It can also be modeled as a charge source in parallel
with the source capacitance, with the charge directly proportional to the applied force,
as above
Sensor design
Metal disks with piezo material, used in buzzers or as contact microphones
Based on piezoelectric technology various physical quantities can be

measured; the most common are pressure and acceleration. For pressure sensors, a
thin membrane and a massive base is used, ensuring that an applied pressure
specifically loads the elements in one direction. For accelerometers, a seismic mass is
attached to the crystal elements. When the accelerometer experiences a motion, the
invariant seismic mass loads the elements according to Newton’s second law of
motion F = ma.
The main difference in the working principle between these two cases is the
way forces are applied to the sensing elements. In a pressure sensor a thin membrane
is used to transfer the force to the elements, while in accelerometers the forces are
applied by an attached seismic mass.
Sensors often tend to be sensitive to more than one physical quantity. Pressure
sensors show false signal when they are exposed to vibrations. Sophisticated pressure
sensors therefore use acceleration compensation elements in addition to the pressure
sensing elements. By carefully matching those elements, the acceleration signal
(released from the compensation element) is subtracted from the combined signal of
pressure and acceleration to derive the true pressure information.
~ 23 ~
Vibration sensors can also be used to harvest otherwise wasted energy from
mechanical vibrations. This is accomplished by using piezoelectric materials to
convert mechanical strain into usable electrical energy
Sensing materials
Two main groups of materials are used for piezoelectric sensors: piezoelectric
ceramics and single crystal materials. The ceramic materials (such as PZT ceramic)
have a piezoelectric constant / sensitivity that is roughly two orders of magnitude
higher than those of single crystal materials and can be produced by inexpensive
sintering processes. The piezoeffect in piezoceramics is "trained", so unfortunately
their high sensitivity degrades over time. The degradation is highly correlated with
temperature. The less sensitive crystal materials (gallium phosphate, quartz,
tourmaline) have a much higher – when carefully handled, almost infinite – long term
stability.
How to read Resistor Color Codes

First the code
B B R O Y G B V G W
lack rown ed range ellow reen lue iolet rey hite
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
The mnemonic
Bad Boys Ravish Only Young Girls But Violet Gives Willingly PC_fascists
Black is also easy to remember as zero because of the nothingness common to

both.
(Please don't add or change the mnemonic - it will only get reverted -admin)
How to read the code
• First find the tolerance band, it will typically be gold ( 5%) and
sometimes silver (10%).
• Starting from the other end, identify the first band - write down the
number associated with that color; in this case Blue is 6.
• Now 'read' the next color, here it is red so write down a '2' next to the
six. (you should have '62' so far.)
~ 24 ~
• Now read the third or 'multiplier exponent' band and write down that
as the number of zeros.
• In this example it is two so we get '6200' or '6,200'. If the 'multiplier

exponent' band is Black (for zero) don't write any zeros down.
• If the 'multiplier exponent' band is Gold move the decimal point one to
the left. If the 'multiplier exponent' band is Silver move the decimal point two places
to the left. If the resistor has one more band past the tolerance band it is a quality
band.
• Read the number as the '% Failure rate per 1000 hour' This is rated
assuming full wattage being applied to the resistors. (To get better failure rates,
resistors are typically specified to have twice the needed wattage dissipation that the
circuit produces). Some resistors use this band for temco information. 1% resistors
have three bands to read digits to the left of the multiplier. They have a different
temperature coefficient in order to provide the 1% tolerance.
• At 1% the temperature coefficient starts to become an important factor.

at +/-200 ppm a change in temperature of 25 Deg C causes a value change of up to
1%
BS 1852 Coding for resistor values
BS 1852(British Standard 1852). The letter R is used for Ohms and K for
Kohms M for Megohms and placed where the decimal point would go.
At the end is a letter that represents tolerance Where M=20%, K=10%, J=5%,
G=2%, and F=1% D=.5% C=.25 B=.1%
BS 1852 coding
examples
R
0.33 ohms
33
2
2.2 ohms
R2
4
470 Ohms
70R
1
1.2K ohms
K2
2
22K ohms
2K
2 22.2K
~ 25 ~
2K2 ohms
4
4.7M ohms
M7
5 5.6K ohms
K6G 2%
3 33k Ohms
3KK 10%
4 47.3 K
7K3F Ohms 1%
Common surface mount coding
The third or fourth digit is the multiplier
Thus 103 is a 10K resistor
475 is a 4.7M resistor
Measure resistors with our M300 Volt Ohm meter
We now have a program that calculates the minimum error on resistor dividers
of up to 4 values. Download Resistor picker for details. (Password is "kelvin" )
Books on Resistor technology
Sadly, there are no new books on passives. The following are the best I've
found.
• A Users Guide to Selecting Electronic Components
n operational amplifier ("op-amp") is a DC-coupled high-gain electronic

voltage amplifier with a differential input and, usually, a single-ended output An op-
amp produces an output voltage that is typically hundreds of thousands times larger
than the voltage difference between its input terminals. Operational amplifiers are
important building blocks for a wide range of electronic circuits. They had their
origins in analog computers where they were used in many linear, non-linear and
frequency-dependent circuits. Their popularity in circuit design largely stems from the
fact that characteristics of the final elements (such as their gain) are set by external
components with little dependence on temperature changes and manufacturing
variations in the op-amp itself.
Op-amps are among the most widely used electronic devices today, being used
in a vast array of consumer, industrial, and scientific devices. Many standard IC op-
~ 26 ~
amps cost only a few cents in moderate production volume; however some integrated
or hybrid operational amplifiers with special performance specifications may cost
over $100 US in small quantities. Op-amps may be packaged as components, or used
as elements of more complex integrated circuits.
erational amplifier inputs remain virtually constant (near ground) in the

inverting configuration. The constant operating potential typically results in distortion
levels that are lower than those attainable with the non-inverting topology.
Positive feedback configurations
Another typical configuration of op-amps is with positive feedback, which

takes a fraction of the output signal back to the non-inverting input. An important
application of it is the comparator with hysteresis, the Schmitt trigger.
Positive voltage level detector
A positive reference voltage Vref is applied to one of the op-amp's inputs. This
means that the op-amp is set up as a comparator to detect a positive voltage. If the
voltage to be sensed, Ei, is applied to op amp's (+) input, the result is a noninverting
positive-level detector. When Ei is above Vref, VO equals +Vsat. When Ei is below Vref,
VO equals -Vsat.
If Ei, is applied to the inverting input, the circuit is an inverting positive-level

detector: When Ei is above Vref, VO equals -Vsat.
Other applications
• audio- and video-frequency pre-amplifiers and buffers

• voltage comparators
• differential amplifiers
• differentiators and integrators
• filters
• precision rectifiers
• precision peak detectors
• voltage and current regulators
• analog calculators
• analog-to-digital converters
• digital-to-analog converter
• voltage clamps
• oscillators and waveform generators
Most single, dual and quad op-amps available have a standardized pin-out
which permits one type to be substituted for another without wiring changes. A
specific op-amp may be chosen for its open loop gain, bandwidth, noise performance,
input impedance, power consumption, or a compromise between any of these factors.
~ 27 ~
Limitations of real op-amps
Real op-amps differ from the ideal model in various respects.
IC op-amps as implemented in practice are moderately complex integrated

circuits; see the internal circuitry for the relatively simple 741 op-amp below, for
example.
DC imperfections
Real operational amplifiers suffer from several non-ideal effects:
Finite gain
Open-loop gain is infinite in the ideal operational amplifier but finite in

real operational amplifiers. Typical devices exhibit open-loop DC gain ranging
from 100,000 to over 1 million. So long as the loop gain (i.e., the product of
open-loop and feedback gains) is very large, the circuit gain will be
determined entirely by the amount of negative feedback (i.e., it will be
independent of open-loop gain). In cases where closed-loop gain must be very
high, the feedback gain will be very low, and the low feedback gain causes
low loop gain; in these cases, the operational amplifier will cease to
behave ideally.
Finite input impedances
The differential input impedance of the operational amplifier is defined

as the impedance between its two inputs; the common-mode input impedance
is the impedance from each input to ground. MOSFET-input operational
amplifiers often have protection circuits that effectively short circuit any input
differences greater than a small threshold, so the input impedance can appear
to be very low in some tests. However, as long as these operational amplifiers
are used in a typical high-gain negative feedback application, these protection
circuits will be inactive. The input bias and leakage currents described below
are a more important design parameter for typical operational amplifier
applications.
Non-zero output impedance
Low output impedance is important for low-impedance loads; for these

loads, the voltage drop across the output impedance of the amplifier will be
significant. Hence, the output impedance of the amplifier limits the maximum
power that can be provided. In a negative-feedback configuration, the output
impedance of the amplifier is effectively lowered; thus, in linear applications,
op-amps usually exhibit a very low output impedance indeed. Negative
feedback can not, however, reduce the limitations that Rload in conjunction with
Rout place on the maximum and minimum possible output voltages; it can only
reduce output errors within that range.
~ 28 ~
Low-impedance outputs typically require high quiescent (i.e., idle)

current in the output stage and will dissipate more power, so low-power
designs may purposely sacrifice low output impedance.
Input current
Due to biasing requirements or leakage, a small amount of current

(typically ~10 nanoamperes for bipolar op-amps, tens of picoamperes for
JFET input stages, and only a few pA for MOSFET input stages) flows into
the inputs. When large resistors or sources with high output impedances are
used in the circuit, these small currents can produce large unmodeled voltage
drops. If the input currents are matched, and the impedance looking out of
both inputs are matched, then the voltages produced at each input will be
equal. Because the operational amplifier operates on the difference between its
inputs, these matched voltages will have no effect (unless the operational
amplifier has poor CMRR, which is described below). It is more common for
the input currents (or the impedances looking out of each input) to be slightly
mismatched, and so a small offset voltage can be produced. This offset voltage
can create offsets or drifting in the operational amplifier. It can often be nulled
externally; however, many operational amplifiers include offset null or
balance pins and some procedure for using them to remove this offset.
Some operational amplifiers attempt to nullify this offset automatically.
Input offset voltage
This voltage, which is what is required across the op-amp's input

terminals to drive the output voltage to zero, is related to the mismatches in
input bias current. In the perfect amplifier, there would be no input offset
voltage. However, it exists in actual op-amps because of imperfections in the
differential amplifier that constitutes the input stage of the vast majority of
these devices. Input offset voltage creates two problems: First, due to the
amplifier's high voltage gain, it virtually assures that the amplifier output will
go into saturation if it is operated without negative feedback, even when the
input terminals are wired together. Second, in a closed loop, negative feedback
configuration, the input offset voltage is amplified along with the signal and
this may pose a problem if high precision DC amplification is required or if
the input signal is very small.
Common mode gain
A perfect operational amplifier amplifies only the voltage difference

between its two inputs, completely rejecting all voltages that are common to
both. However, the differential input stage of an operational amplifier is never
perfect, leading to the amplification of these identical voltages to some degree.
The standard measure of this defect is called the common-mode rejection ratio
(denoted CMRR). Minimization of common mode gain is usually important in
non-inverting amplifiers (described below) that operate at high amplification.
Temperature effects
~ 29 ~
All parameters change with temperature. Temperature drift of the input

offset voltage is especially important.
Power-supply rejection
The output of a perfect operational amplifier will be completely

independent from ripples that arrive on its power supply inputs. Every real
operational amplifier has a specified power supply rejection ratio (PSRR) that
reflects how well the op-amp can reject changes in its supply voltage. Copious
use of bypass capacitors can improve the PSRR of many devices, including
the operational amplifier.
Drift
Real op-amp parameters are subject to slow change over time and with
changes in temperature, input conditions, etc.
Noise
Amplifiers generate random voltage at the output even when there is

no signal applied. This can be due to thermal noise and flicker noise of the
devices. For applications with high gain or high bandwidth, noise becomes a
very important consideration.
AC imperfections
The op-amp gain calculated at DC does not apply at higher frequencies. To a

first approximation, the gain of a typical op-amp is inversely proportional to
frequency. This means that an op-amp is characterized by its gain-bandwidth product.
For example, an op-amp with a gain bandwidth product of 1 MHz would have a gain
of 5 at 200 kHz, and a gain of 1 at 1 MHz. This low-pass characteristic is introduced
deliberately, because it tends to stabilize the circuit by introducing a dominant pole.
This is known as frequency compensation.
Typical low cost, general purpose op-amps exhibit a gain bandwidth product
of a few megahertz. Specialty and high speed op-amps can achieve gain bandwidth
products of hundreds of megahertz. For very high-frequency circuits, a completely
different form of op-amp called the current-feedback operational amplifier is often
used.
Other imperfections include:
Finite bandwidth
All amplifiers have a finite bandwidth. This creates several problems

for op amps. First, associated with the bandwidth limitation is a phase
difference between the input signal and the amplifier output that can lead to
oscillation in some feedback circuits. The internal frequency compensation
used in some op amps to increase the gain or phase margin intentionally
~ 30 ~
reduces the bandwidth even further to maintain output stability when using a
wide variety of feedback networks. Second, reduced bandwidth results in
lower amounts of feedback at higher frequencies, producing higher distortion,
noise, and output impedance and also reduced output phase linearity as
the frequency increases.
Input capacitance
Most important for high frequency operation because it further reduces

the open loop bandwidth of the amplifier.
Common mode gain
A printed circuit board, or PCB, is used to mechanically support and

electrically connect electronic components using conductive pathways, or
traces, etched from copper sheets laminated onto a non-conductive substrate.
It is also referred to as printed wiring board (PWB) or etched wiring
board. A PCB populated with electronic components is a printed circuit
assembly (PCA), also known as a printed circuit board assembly (PCBA).
PCBs are rugged, inexpensive, and can be highly reliable. They

require much more layout effort and higher initial cost than either wire-
wrapped or point-to-point constructed circuits, but are much cheaper and
faster for high-volume production. Much of the electronics industry's
~ 31 ~
PCB design, assembly, and quality control needs are set by

standards that are published by the IPC organization.
The inventor of the printed circuit was the Austrian engineer Paul
Eisler (1907–1995) who, while working in England, made one circa 1936
as part of a radio set. Around 1943 the USA began to use the technology
on a large scale to make rugged radios for use in World War II.
MANUFACTURING MATERIALS-
Conducting layers are typically made of thin copper foil. Insulating layers
dielectric are typically laminated together with epoxy resin prepreg. The board is
typically coated with a solder mask that is green in color. Other colors that are
normally available are blue, and red. There are quite a few different dielectrics that
can be chosen to provide different insulating values depending on the requirements of
the circuit. Some of these dielectrics are polytetrafluoroethylene, FR-4, FR-1, CEM-1
or CEM-3. Well known prepreg materials used in the PCB industry are FR-2
(Phenolic cotton paper), FR-3 (Cotton paper and epoxy), FR-4 (Woven glass and
epoxy), FR-5 (Woven glass and epoxy), FR-6 (Matte glass and polyester), G-10
(Woven glass and epoxy), CEM-1 (Cotton paper and epoxy), CEM-2 (Cotton paper
and epoxy), CEM-3 (Woven glass and epoxy), CEM-4 (Woven glass and epoxy),
CEM-5 (Woven glass and polyester).
A PCB as a design on a computer (left) and realized as a board assembly with

populated components (right). The board is double sided, with through-hole plating,
green solder resist, and white silkscreen printing. Both surface mount and through-
hole components have been used.
Typical density of a raw PCB (an average amount of traces, holes, and via's,
with no components) is 2.15g / cm3.
~ 32 ~
PATTERNING (ETCHING)-
The vast majority of printed circuit boards are made by bonding a layer of
copper over the entire substrate, sometimes on both sides, (creating a "blank PCB")
then removing unwanted copper after applying a temporary mask (eg. by etching),
leaving only the desired copper traces. A few PCBs are made by adding traces to the
bare substrate (or a substrate with a very thin layer of copper) usually by a complex
process of multiple electroplating steps.
There are three common "subtractive" methods (methods that remove

copper) used for the production of printed circuit boards:
1. Silk screen printing uses etch-resistant inks to protect the copper foil.
Subsequent etching removes the unwanted copper. Alternatively, the ink may be
conductive, printed on a blank (non-conductive) board. The latter technique is also
used in the manufacture of hybrid circuits.
2. Photoengraving uses a photomask and chemical etching to remove the
copper foil from the substrate. The photomask is usually prepared with a photoplotter
from data produced by a technician using CAM, or computer-aided manufacturing
software. Laser-printed transparencies are typically employed for phototools;
however, direct laser imaging techniques are being employed to replace phototools for
high-resolution requirements.
3. PCB milling uses a two or three-axis mechanical milling system to mill
away the copper foil from the substrate. A PCB milling machine (referred to as a
'PCB Prototyper') operates in a similar way to a plotter, receiving commands from the
host software that control the position of the milling head in the x, y, and (if relevant)
z axis. Data to drive the Prototyper is extracted from files generated in PCB design
software and stored in HPGL or Gerber file format.
LAMINATION-
Some PCBs have trace layers inside the PCB and are called multi-layer PCBs.
These are formed by bonding together separately etched thin boards.
~ 33 ~
DRILLING-
Holes through a PCB are typically drilled with tiny drill bits made of solid
tungsten carbide. The drilling is performed by automated drilling machines with
placement controlled by a drill tape or drill file. These computer-generated files are
also called numerically controlled drill (NBD) files or "Excellon files". The drill file
describes the location and size of each drilled hole. These holes are often filled with
annular rings to create vias. Vias allow the electrical and thermal
connection of conductors on opposite sides of the PCB.
When very small vias are required, drilling with mechanical bits is costly
because of high rates of wear and breakage. In this case, the vias may be evaporated
by lasers. Laser-drilled vias typically have an inferior surface finish inside the hole.
These holes are called micro vias.
It is also possible with controlled-depth drilling, laser drilling, or by pre-

drilling the individual sheets of the PCB before lamination, to produce holes that
connect only some of the copper layers, rather than passing through the entire board.
These holes are called blind vias when they connect an internal copper layer to an
outer layer, or buried vias when they connect two or more internal copper layers and
no outer layers.
The walls of the holes, for boards with 2 or more layers, are plated with
copper to form plated-through holes that electrically connect the conducting layers of
the PCB. For multilayer boards, those with 4 layers or more, drilling typically
produces a smear comprised of the bonding agent in the laminate system. Before the
holes can be plated through, this smear must be removed by a chemical de-smear
process, or by plasma-etch.
~ 34 ~
EXPOSED CONDUCTOR PLATING AND COATING-
The places to which components will be mounted are typically plated, because
bare copper oxidizes quickly, and therefore is not readily solderable. Traditionally,
any exposed copper was plated with solder by hot air solder levelling (HASL). This
solder was a tin-lead alloy, however new solder compounds are now used to achieve
compliance with the RoHS directive in the EU, which restricts the use of lead. One of
these lead-free compounds is SN100CL, made up of 99.3% tin, 0.7% copper, 0.05%
nickel, and a nominal of 60ppm germanium.
Other platings used are OSP (organic surface protectant), immersion silver
(IAg), immersion tin, electroless nickel with immersion gold coating (ENIG), and
direct gold. Edge connectors, placed along one edge of some boards, are often gold
plated.
Electrochemical migration (ECM) is the growth of conductive metal filaments

on or in a printed circuit board (PCB) under the influence of a DC voltage bias.[1][2]
SOLDER RESIST-
Areas that should not be soldered to may be covered with a polymer solder
resist (solder mask) coating. The solder resist prevents solder from bridging between
conductors and thereby creating short circuits. Solder resist also provides some
protection from the environment.
SCREEN PRINTING-
Line art and text may be printed onto the outer surfaces of a PCB by screen
printing. When space permits, the screen print text can indicate component
designators, switch setting requirements, test points, and other features helpful in
assembling, testing, and servicing the circuit board.
~ 35 ~
Screen print is also known as the silk screen, or, in one sided PCBs, the
red print.
Lately some digital printing solutions have been developed to substitute the
traditional screen printing process. This technology allows printing variable data onto
the PCB, including serialization and barcode information for traceability purposes.
TEST-
Unpopulated boards may be subjected to a bare-board test where each circuit

connection (as defined in a netlist) is verified as correct on the finished board. For
high-volume production, a Bed of nails tester, a fixture or a Rigid needle

adapter is used to make contact with copper lands or holes on one or both sides of the
board to facilitate testing. A computer will instruct the electrical test unit to apply a
small voltage to each contact point on the bed-of-nails as required, and verify that
such voltage appears at other appropriate contact points. A "short" on a board would
be a connection where there should not be one; an "open" is between two points that
should be connected but are not. For small- or medium-volume boards, flying-probe
and flying-grid testers use moving test heads to make contact with the
copper/silver/gold/solder lands or holes to verify the electrical connectivity of the
board under test.
PRINTED CIRCUIT ASSEMBLY-
After the printed circuit board (PCB) is completed, electronic components

must be attached to form a functional printed circuit assembly, or PCA (sometimes
called a "printed circuit board assembly" PCBA). In through-hole construction,
component leads are inserted in holes. In surface-mount construction, the components
are placed on pads or lands on the outer surfaces of the PCB. In both kinds of
construction, component leads are electrically and mechanically fixed to the board
with a molten metal solder.
~ 36 ~
There are a variety of soldering techniques used to attach components to a

PCB. High volume production is usually done with machine placement and bulk wave
soldering or reflow ovens, but skilled technicians are able to solder very tiny parts (for
instance 0201 packages which are 0.02" by 0.01") by hand under a microscope, using
tweezers and a fine tip soldering iron for small volume prototypes. Some parts are
impossible to solder by hand, such as ball grid array (BGA) packages.
Often, through-hole and surface-mount construction must be combined in a

single PCA because some required components are available only in surface-mount
packages, while others are available only in through-hole packages. Another reason to
use both methods is that through-hole mounting can provide needed strength for
components likely to endure physical stress, while components that are

expected to go untouched will take up less space using surface-mount techniques.
After the board has been populated it may be tested in a variety of ways:
• While the power is off, visual inspection, automated optical inspection.

JEDEC guidelines for PCB component placement, soldering, and inspection are
commonly used to maintain quality control in this stage of PCB manufacturing.
• While the power is off, analog signature analysis, power-off testing.
• While the power is on, in-circuit test, where physical measurements (i.e.
voltage, frequency) can be done.
• While the power is on, functional test, just checking if the PCB does what
it had been designed for.
To facilitate these tests, PCBs may be designed with extra pads to make
temporary connections. Sometimes these pads must be isolated with resistors. The in-
circuit test may also exercise boundary scan test features of some components. In-
circuit test systems may also be used to program nonvolatile memory components on
the board.
~ 37 ~
In boundary scan testing, test circuits integrated into various ICs on the
board form temporary connections between the PCB traces to test that the ICs are
mounted correctly. Boundary scan testing requires that all the ICs to be tested use a
standard test configuration procedure, the most common one being the Joint Test
Action Group (JTAG) standard.
When boards fail the test, technicians may desolder and replace failed
components, a task known as "rework".
PROTECTION AND PACKAGING-
PCBs intended for extreme environments often have a conformal coating,

which is applied by dipping or spraying after the components have been soldered. The
coat prevents corrosion and leakage currents or shorting due to condensation. The
earliest conformal coats were wax. Modern conformal coats are usually dips of dilute
solutions of silicone rubber, polyurethane, acrylic, or epoxy. Some are engineering
plastics sputtered onto the PCB in a vacuum chamber.
Many assembled PCBs are static sensitive, and therefore must be placed in
antistatic bags during transport. When handling these boards, the user must be
earthed; failure to do this might transmit an accumulated static charge through the
board, damaging or destroying it. Even bare boards are sometimes static sensitive.
Traces have become so fine that it's quite possible to blow an etch off the board (or
change its characteristics) with a static charge.
INDUCTOR
~ 38 ~
An inductor or a reactor is a passive electrical component that can store energy

in a magnetic field created by the electric current passing through it. An inductor's
ability to store magnetic energy is measured by its inductance, in units of

henries. Typically an inductor is a conducting wire shaped as a coil, the loops helping
to create a strong magnetic field inside the coil due to Faraday's Law of Induction.
Inductors are one of the basic electronic components used in electronics where current
and voltage change with time, due to the ability of inductors to delay and reshape
alternating currents.
Overview
Inductance (L) (measured in henries) is an effect resulting from the magnetic

field that forms around a current-carrying conductor which tends to resist changes in
the current. Electric current through the conductor creates a magnetic flux
proportional to the current, and a change in this current creates a corresponding
change in magnetic flux which, in turn, by Faraday's Law generates an electromotive
force (EMF) that opposes this change in current. Inductance is a measure of the
amount of EMF generated per unit change in current. For example, an inductor with
an inductance of 1 henry produces an EMF of 1 volt when the current through the
inductor changes at the rate of 1 ampere per second. The number of loops, the size of
each loop, and the material it is wrapped around all affect the inductance. For
~ 39 ~
example, the magnetic flux linking these turns can be increased by

coiling the conductor around a material with a high permeability such as iron. This
can increase the inductance by 2000 times, although less so at high frequencies.
Hydraulic model
Electric current can be modeled by the hydraulic analogy. An inductor can be

modeled by the flywheel effect of a heavy turbine rotated by the flow. When water
first starts to flow (current), the stationary turbine will cause an obstruction in the
flow and high pressure (voltage) opposing the flow until it gets turning. Once it is
turning, if there is a sudden interruption of water flow the turbine will continue to turn
by inertia, generating a high pressure to keep the flow moving.
Ideal and real inductors
An "ideal inductor" has inductance, but no resistance or capacitance, and does

not dissipate or radiate energy. A real inductor may be partially modeled by a
combination of inductance, resistance (due to the resistivity of the wire and losses in
core material), and capacitance. At some frequency, usually higher than the working
frequency, some real inductors behave as resonant circuits (due to their self
capacitance). At some frequency the capacitive component of impedance becomes
dominant. In addition to dissipating energy in the resistance of the wire, magnetic
core inductors may dissipate energy in the core due to hysteresis, and at high currents
(bias currents) show gradual departure from ideal behavior due to nonlinearity caused
by magnetic saturation. At higher frequencies, resistance and resistive losses in
inductors grow due to skin effect in the inductor's winding wires. Core losses also
contribute to inductor losses at higher frequencies. Additionally, real-world inductors
work as antennas, radiating a part of energy processed into surrounding space and
circuits, and accepting electromagnetic emissions from other circuits, taking part in
electromagnetic interference. Real-world inductor applications deal heavily with
"parasitic" parameters, while the "inductance" may be of minor significance.
~ 40 ~
Applications
An inductor with two 47mH windings, as may be found in a power supply.
Inductors are used extensively in analog circuits and signal processing.

Inductors in conjunction with capacitors and other components form tuned circuits
which can emphasize or filter out specific signal frequencies. Applications range from
the use of large inductors in power supplies, which in conjunction with filter
capacitors remove residual hums known as the Mains hum or other fluctuations from
the direct current output, to the small inductance of the ferrite bead or torus installed
around a cable to prevent radio frequency interference from being transmitted down
the wire. Smaller inductor/capacitor combinations provide tuned circuits used in radio
reception and broadcasting, for instance.
Two (or more) inductors which have coupled magnetic flux form a
transformer, which is a fundamental component of every electric utility power grid.
The efficiency of a transformer may decrease as the frequency increases due to eddy
currents in the core material and skin effect on the windings. Size of the core can be
decreased at higher frequencies and, for this reason, aircraft use 400 hertz alternating
current rather than the usual 50 or 60 hertz, allowing a great saving in weight from the
use of smaller transformers
~ 41 ~
Transistors
A transistor is a semiconductor device used to amplify and switch electronic

signals. It is made of a solid piece of semiconductor material, with at least three
terminals for connection to an external circuit. A voltage or current applied to one pair
of the transistor's terminals changes the current flowing through another pair of
terminals. Because the controlled (output) power can be much more than the
controlling (input) power, the transistor provides amplification of a signal. Some
transistors are packaged individually but many more are found embedded in
integrated circuits.
The transistor is the fundamental building block of modern electronic devices,

and its presence is ubiquitous in modern electronic systems.
Simplified operation
Simple circuit to show the labels of a bipolar transistor.
The essential usefulness of a transistor comes from its ability to use a small
signal applied between one pair of its terminals to control a much larger signal at
another pair of terminals. This property is called gain. A transistor can control its
output in proportion to the input signal, that is, can act as an amplifier. Or, the
transistor can be used to turn current on or off in a circuit as an electrically controlled
switch, where the amount of current is determined by other circuit elements.
~ 42 ~
The two types of transistors have slight differences in how they are used
in a circuit. A bipolar transistor has terminals labeled base, collector, and emitter. A
small current at the base terminal (that is, flowing from the base to the emitter) can
control or switch a much larger current between the collector and emitter terminals.
For a field-effect transistor, the terminals are labeled gate, source, and drain, and a
voltage at the gate can control a current between source and drain.
The image to the right represents a typical bipolar transistor in a circuit.

Charge will flow between emitter and collector terminals depending on the current in
the base. Since internally the base and emitter connections behave like a
semiconductor diode, a voltage drop develops between base and emitter while the
base current exists. The amount of this voltage depends on the material the transistor
is made from, and is referred to as VBE.
Transistor as a switch
BJT used as an electronic switch, in grounded-emitter configuration.
Transistors are commonly used as electronic switches, for both high power
applications including switched-mode power supplies and low power applications
such as logic gates.
In a grounded-emitter transistor circuit, such as the light-switch circuit shown,

as the base voltage rises the base and collector current rise exponentially, and the
collector voltage drops because of the collector load resistor. The relevant equations:
~ 43 ~
VRC = ICE × RC, the voltage across the load (the lamp with resistance
RC )
VRC + VCE = VCC, the supply voltage shown as 6V
If VCE could fall to 0 (perfect closed switch) then Ic could go no higher than
VCC / RC, even with higher base voltage and current. The transistor is then said to be
saturated. Hence, values of input voltage can be chosen such that the output is either
completely off,[12] or completely on. The transistor is acting as a switch, and this type
of operation is common in digital circuits where only "on" and "off" values are
relevant.
Transistor as an amplifier
Amplifier circuit, standard common-emitter configuration.
The common-emitter amplifier is designed so that a small change in voltage in

(Vin) changes the small current through the base of the transistor and the transistor's
current amplification combined with the properties of the circuit mean that small
swings in Vin produce large changes in Vout.
Various configurations of single transistor amplifier are possible, with some

providing current gain, some voltage gain, and some both.
From mobile phones to televisions, vast numbers of products include

amplifiers for sound reproduction, radio transmission, and signal processing. The first
~ 44 ~
discrete transistor audio amplifiers barely supplied a few hundred

milliwatts, but power and audio fidelity gradually increased as better transistors
became available and amplifier architecture evolved.
Modern transistor audio amplifiers of up to a few hundred watts are common

and relatively inexpensive.
Comparison with vacuum tubes
Prior to the development of transistors, vacuum (electron) tubes (or in the UK

"thermionic valves" or just "valves") were the main active components in electronic
equipment.
Advantages
The key advantages that have allowed transistors to replace their vacuum tube
predecessors in most applications are
• Small size and minimal weight, allowing the development of

miniaturized electronic devices.
• Highly automated manufacturing processes, resulting in low per-unit
cost.
• Lower possible operating voltages, making transistors suitable for
small, battery-powered applications.
• No warm-up period for cathode heaters required after power
application.
• Lower power dissipation and generally greater energy efficiency.
• Higher reliability and greater physical ruggedness.
• Extremely long life. Some transistorized devices have been in service
for more than 30 years.
• Complementary devices available, facilitating the design of
complementary-symmetry circuits, something not possible with vacuum tubes.
• Insensitivity to mechanical shock and vibration, thus avoiding the
problem of microphonics in audio applications.
~ 45 ~
Limitations
• Silicon transistors do not operate at voltages higher than about 1,000

volts (SiC devices can be operated as high as 3,000 volts). In contrast, electron tubes
have been developed that can be operated at tens of thousands of volts.
• High power, high frequency operation, such as that used in over-the-air
television broadcasting, is better achieved in electron tubes due to improved electron
mobility in a vacuum.
• Silicon transistors are much more sensitive than electron tubes to an
electromagnetic pulse, such as generated by an atmospheric nuclear explosion.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
~ 46 ~
www.datasheetcataloge.com
www.electronics4you.com
www.wikipedia.org
Microelectronic Circuits ( Sedra And Smith )
Integrated Electronics ( Millimans And Halkias )
~ 47 ~

SIMPLE DIGITAL SECURITY SYSTEM

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4511 BCD to seven-segment decoder

A typical 7-segment LED display component, with decimal point.

A seven-segment display, or seven-segment indicator, is a form of

Concept and visual structure

The individual segments of a seven-segment display.

A seven segment display, as its name indicates, is composed of seven

Each of the numbers 0, 6, 7 and 9 may be represented by two or more different

LED-based 7-segment display showing the 16 hex digits.

The seven segments are arranged as a rectangle of two vertical segments on

The segments of a 7-segment display are referred to by the letters A to G, as

An incandescent light type early seven-segment display.

A mechanical seven-segment display for displaying automotive fuel prices.

Seven-segment displays may use a liquid crystal display (LCD), arrays of

In a simple LED package, typically all of the cathodes (negative terminals) or

For many applications, dot-matrix LCDs have largely superseded LED

Main article: Seven-segment display character representations

Similar displays with fourteen or sixteen segments are available allowing

Digit gfedcba abcdefg a b c d e f g

An integrated circuit or monolithic integrated circuit (also referred to as

Synthetic detail of an integrated circuit through four layers of planarized

Integrated circuits were made possible by experimental discoveries which

Integrated circuit originally referred to a miniaturized electronic circuit

Early developments of the integrated circuit go back to 1949, when the

cheap hearing aids as typical industrial applications of his patent. A

Jack Kilby's original integrated circuit

SSI, MSI and LSI

Further development, driven by the same economic factors, led to "Large-

began to be produced around 1974, for computer main memories and

Main article: Very-large-scale integration

Upper interconnect layers on an Intel 80486DX2 microprocessor die.

Multiple developments were required to achieve this increased density.

ULSI, WSI, SOC and 3D-IC

Wafer-scale integration (WSI) is a system of building very-large integrated

A system-on-a-chip (SoC or SOC) is an integrated circuit in which all the

A three-dimensional integrated circuit (3D-IC) has two or more layers of

Advances in integrated circuits

Among the most advanced integrated circuits are the microprocessors or

A CMOS 4000 IC in a DIP

Analog ICs, such as sensors, power management circuits, and operational

Main article: Semiconductor fabrication

The semiconductors of the periodic table of the chemical elements were

The main process steps are supplemented by doping and cleaning.

Mono-crystal silicon wafers (or for special applications, silicon on sapphire or

• Integrated circuits are composed of many overlapping layers, each

• In a self-aligned CMOS process, a transistor is formed wherever the

• Capacitive structures, in form very much like the parallel conducting

• Meandering stripes of varying lengths are sometimes used to form on-

• More rarely, inductive structures can be built as tiny on-chip coils, or

As of 2005, a fabrication facility (commonly known as a semiconductor fab)

• The wafers are up to 300 mm in diameter (wider than a common

Main article: Integrated circuit packaging

Early USSR-made integrated circuit

Chip labeling and manufacture date

Most integrated circuits large enough to include identifying information

The manufacturing date is commonly represented as a two-digit year followed

Legal protection of semiconductor chip layouts

Main article: Integrated circuit layout design protection

The possibility of copying by photographing each layer of an integrated circuit

A diplomatic conference was held at Washington, D.C., in 1989, which

National laws protecting IC layout designs have been adopted in a number of

In the 1980s, programmable integrated circuits were developed. These devices

Principle Strain Sensitivity [V/µ] Threshold [µ] Span to threshold ratio