Design Data Handbook for Mechanical Engineers in SI and Metric Units K. Mahadevan B. K. Balaveera Reddy Cn] Scratch Code on Inside Front Cover ersten pry rete for Accessing Casicentral App i BS Dedicated fo Educatior feta T aes Distributors ate}Design Data Handbook for Mechanical Engineers in Sland Metric Units Fourth Edition Compiled by K. Mahadevan Former Principal Karnataka Regional Engineering College (NIT-K), Surathkal, Kemataka K. Balaveera Reddy Former Vice Chancellor Visvesvaraya Technological University Belgaum, Karnataka x Professor, Department of Mechanical Engineering Kammataka Regional Engineering College, Surathkal CBS CBS Publishers & Distributors Pvt Ltd New Delhi © Bengaluru © Chennai @ Kochi © Kolkata © Mumbai thopal © huboneswar @ Hydérabod © Jharkhand © Nagpur © Poina © Pune © Uitorakhend © Dhoka(Bancjadesh)Design Data Handbook Disoiaimer Science and Technology are constonty changing fllts. New research and expenence broaden the 6098 of information and knowledge, The authors have ed thor bestin gving information avalable {0 them while preparing the mater fr this Book. Alnough. oll forts nave been made to ensure ‘optimum accuracy of the materi yet If auto possible some errors might have boon toft Uncorrected. The publehot pinor ona the authors wal not be held responsible for any inadvertent tos oF naceuractos, for Mechanical Engineers ISBN: 978-81-239-2315-4 Copyright © Authors and Publisher Fourth Edition: 2013 Reprint: 2014, 2018, 2016, 2017, 2018, 2019 Thitd Edition: 1987 eps: 1989, 1998, 1998, 1999, 2000, 2001, 2002, 2003, 2008, 2008, 2008, 2007, 2008, 2009, 2010, 2011, 2012 AAI rights reserved. 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Nac re 49) 26080420, 28st 2ee Fox +91 abazoanns ‘not ctarns@cepa.on + Kochi: 42/1325, 1326, Power House Road, Opp KSEB Power Howse, Eimalasarn 682018, Kochi, Kerala. Pv 491454405004 a2 e485 Fe +9144 4059085 ra bocunctind com * Kolkata: 6/8, Ground Floor, Rammeswar shaw Road, Kolkate-700 014, West Bengal 4913090001196, 22601127, 20401128 ‘omot tatlegenc.con * Mumbal: 83-C, Dr E Moses Road, Worl, Mumbai-400018, Maharastra fs so aa. 2evanoiay Fox +91-zaaso2342 9mok: munbal@eesod.com Recveseniatves Bhopal ——«OASIOSICEED ~~ ‘Bhubaneswar O9VII0W7A72 > fiydevabod ‘O57 ‘anarkhand 9611541405 + Nagpur osaaip4ssis + Poino ‘onaaarsna + Puno: ‘onsoussi9e4 + Uarakhand 08716442889 + Dhaka ongladesh) —_oveT2an3885 Printed at: Swastk Packagings, 596 Patpargany industrial Atea, Delhi IndiaContents Foreword Preface Acknowledgements Note on use of Data Hand Book Stress Analysis Simple Stresses and Strains-General bending and torsion equations. Combined Stresses-Maxi- mum normal stress and shear stress theories. Compound Stresses-Uniaxial, Biaxial and Plane stress system-Moht’s circle diagram. Superposition (Eccentric loading). Biaxial and Triaxial deformations-stresses in terms of strains, Hertz contact stresses-Spherical and cylindrical sur- faces. Thermal stresses. Columns-Euler’s, Parabolic, Straight line, Rankine and Ritter’s column formulae. Working Stresses Stress concentration-Direct, Bending and Torsional stresses, notch sensitivity index. Theo- ries of failure-Maximum normal stress (Rankine), Maximum strain (Saint-Vanant’s), Ma mum shear stress (Guest’s), Shear energy (Henky-Von mises) and Total strain energy (Haigh’s) theories. Design for strength-Size factor, Reliability factor, static and fatigue loads, Relation between tensile strength and endurance limit, static plus alternating simple loads. Fatigue failure equations-Gerber's, good man’s and Soderberg relations-equivalent stresses. Inertia stresses and centrifugal loads. Impact Energy-General equations for the stress and deformation (deflection) under impact. Resilience-without impact and with impact. Design of Shafts Torsion of Circular Shafts-Solid and hollow shafts, Torque transmitted. ASME code for design of transmission shafting-maximum normal and shear stress theories, Fluctuating loads, Axial oad in addition to torsional and bending loads. Crank Shafts-over hung crank shafts, forged and cast iron crank shafts, Torsion of rectangular bars. Keys, Pins, Cotter and Knuckle Joints ‘Square and Rectangular keys-Strength of keys. Taper keys and keyways-Forces acting on taper key cross-section and length of key. Feather keys-one and two feather keys, Forees acting on feather keys. Round taper pin keys-Mean diameter. Parallel side splines/straight sided splines- Torque transmitted. Tnvolute Splines-Torque capacity. Cotter Joint-Design of rod, socket and cotter. Knucklet Joint-Design of eye and forked end and pin. ix 19 49 6110 u Contents Riveted Joints p Thickness of shell-thickness of cover plates according to Indian Boiler Code-Strength of riveted Joints, efficiency of riveted joint, Multirow riveted joint-Failure of plates and rivets, plate efficiency, Rivet efficiency, Rivet size, pitch and transverse pitch according to IBR. Eecen- tric loads on structural connections-Primary, secondary and resultant forces. Welded Joints 89 Butt and Lap weld joints-Normal and shear str Normal stress, length of Welds. Eccentric loads-Primary, weld joints. Unsymmetrical sections- secondary and resultant shear stresses. Cylinders, Pipes and ‘Tubes 9” ‘Thin cylinders-Circumferential and longitudinal stresses. Long thin tubes with internal pressure- ASME Boiler Code. Engine and press cylinders-Openings in cylindrical drums. Thin tubes with external pressure-Prof. A.P. Carman’s formula, Short tubes with external pressure-Sir William Fairbairn formula for collapsing pressure. Thick cylinders-Lame’s equations, Clavarino’s equa- tions for closed cylinders, Birnie’s equations for open cylinders, Barlow’s equations, tangential and radial stresses, changes in cylinder diameter due to pressure. Compound cylinders-Press and shrink fits, radial pressure between the cylinders, forces resulting in interference fits, stress due to force and shrink fits Shells, Flat Plates and Cylinder Heads 109 Shells subjected to internal pressure-thickness of shell. Shells subjected to external pressure- thickness of shell. Unstayed flat heads and covers-thickness; spherically dished covers-thickne: Stayed and braced plates-thickness of circular plate, uniformly and centrally loaded, rectangular and elliptical plates, Threaded Fasteners and Power Screws 127 Set screws-diameter, safe holding force, initial tension load. Effect of applied loads on bolt- stresses in tension bolts and unstressed bolt. Eccentric loading-Rectangluar base, circular base, rectangular plates, Effeciency of triangular threads-Torque, resisting load, efficiency. Power screws-Tangential force, frictional torque, efficiency, square threads, number of threads and length of nut. Curved Beams 159 General equation for the stresses at Inner and outer fibers. Chain Links-Bending moment at different sections. Closed rings-Bending moment at different sections. Springs 167 Cylindrical compression springs-Round section, rectangular section, torsional stress, shear stress, wire diameter, Wahl factor, deflection, number of coils, spring scale, resilience, reliability factor, repeated loading, mean load, variable load, length of spring and buckling. Concentric springs- Relation between sizes, loads on inner and outer springs. Vibration of cylindrical springs-Natural frequency. Conical springs-Round and rectangular sections, deflection. Torsional springs-Round and Rectangular sections, stress and deflection. Leaf Springs-Flat springs-stress, deflection, thickness, width, different sections. Multileaf springs-Number of spring leaves, width, stress, deflection. Laminated leaf springs-Bending stress in full length and graduated leaves and deflection. Laminated semi-elliptic springs-Stress in full length, and graduated leavesContents xi 12 13 14 deflection, initial gap with pre-stress load on clip bolts, Disc springs or Belleville Springs- Relation between load and axial deflection, stress at the inner and outer edge. Rubber Springs- Rubber in compression, shear, torsional shear and deflection. Spur, Helical, Bevel and Worm Gears 201 Spur Gears-circular and diametral pitches, module, diameter, number of teeth, power transmit- ting capacity, Lewis equation, form factors, velocity factors, Bach’s formula, Forces, dynamic load (Dobrovolsky and Buckingham), wear load, beam strength, margin of safety and dynamic strength. Cast teeth-Tooth load, face width, proportions for gear arms-stalling load, section mod- ules and proportionate dimensions. Helical gears-Circular and normal circular pitch, diametral and normal diametral pitch, normal module, number of teeth, pitch circle diameter, center dis- tance, axial thrust, virtual number of teeth, helix angle and face width, strength of helical gears, Lewis equation, velocity factors, dynamic load (Buckingham), dynamic strength, wear load, surface and beam strength (Dobrovolsky). Bevel Gears-Angle relations, acute, obtuse and right angle bevel gears, pitch and mean diameters, equivalent spear gears, face width, strength of cut teeth-Lewis equation, form factors, velocity factors, dynamic load (Buckingham), surface and beam strength (Dobrovolsky), bearing loads. Worm gears-Linear or axial pitch of worm, normal circular pitch, normal load, lead angle, module, pitch diameters, centre distance, pitch line velocities, velocity ratio, face angle, strength of worm gear teeth, Lewis equation, dynamic strength, forces acting between worm thread and worm gear teeth, efficiency, wear load and heat dissipation. Beating loads-Worm gear shaft and worm shaft. Couplings, Clutches and Brakes 251 Cast Iron Flange and Pulley Couplings, Muff coupling, Marine or solid flange coupling-Number of bolts, diameter of bolts, proportionate dimensions, power capacity, check allowable stresses. Flexible couplings-Bush and Disc type couplings, allowable load ratings, torque capacity, check allowable stresses, pin dimensions. Hydraulic Couplings-Torque transmitted, percent slip. Clutches- sitive clutch (Jaw clutch), proportionate dimensions, check shear stress. Friction clutches- plate friction or disc clutches, uniform pressure distribution, uniform wear, axial force torque ‘Transmitted. Cone clutches-Axial and tangential forces, power Transmitted, cone angle, propor: tionate dimensions. Rim clutches-block or grooved rim clutch, torque transmitted. Expansion ring or Slip ring clutches-power transmitted. Band clutches-Ratio of tensions, torque transmit- ted, maximum normal pressure, Roller clutches-crushing force, torque transmitted. Single block clutch-Torque transmitted, frictional Force. Brakes-Energy equations, tangential force, torque absorbed. Block brakes-Single-lever block brake, torque absorbed, area of brake shoes and fric- tional force. Simple and differential band brakes-Ratio of tensions, average pressure, design braking torque. Cone Brakes-Forces, braking torque and area of contact surfaces. Disk brakes- Uniform wear, axial force, torque transmitted. Heat dissipation-Energy absorbed, capacity of brake to dissipate heat of friction and area of radiating surface. Flexible Machine Elements 289 Flat Belts-open and closed belt drive, Angle of contact, length of Belts, centre distance, belt tensions, centrifugal force, effective pull, power transmitted, relation between initial and power tensions, Cast-Iron pulley-Saverin’s empirical formula, face width, number and cross-section of arms and proportionate dimensions. Mild steel pulleys-proportionate dimensions. Short-centre Drives-Pivoted motor drive or Rock wood drive, tensions of the belt and pivot arm length. V- belts cross-sections and symbols, transmitting capacities, number of belts, correction Factors,xii Contents centre distance, pitch length, tensions and power ratings. Strength of Manila rope-diameter, ‘maximum and effective tension and power transmitted. Hoisting Tackle-Single sheave, Effort and load, Two Blocks and efficiency of the hoist. Differential Chain Block-Effort and toad, efficiency. Wire Rope-Bending stress and load, service load, construction of wire ropes. Hoisting and power chains-working load, sheve diameter, speed of chain, pitch, allowable working load, number of strands, centre distance, chain length and check for actual factor of safety. Precision Roller chains, Bush chains, and Leaf chains-proportionate dimensions. 15 Journal Bearings 349 Viscosity, specific gravity, shearing stress, force and torque, Petroff’s relation, coefficient of friction, bearing modulus, bearing pressure, sommerfeld number, friction variable, power loss, minimum film thickness variable, flow variable and temperatures, Pressure-fed Bearings-oil flow, coefficient of friction. Heat Dissipation of Bearings-Heat generated, heat dissipating ca- pacity and temperature rise of the bearing wall. Bearing Shells-Thickness of bearing shells and bearing caps. 16 Rolling Bearings 371 ‘Tooth load, shaft load in a belt drive. Radial Ball Bearings, Radial Roller Bearings and Taper Roller Bearings-Relation between load and life, rating life in millions of revolutions and working hours, basic load rating, radial and Trust loads, equivalent load, fluctuating bearing load, static load rating of rolling bearings, life factors. 17 Fly-Wheel 397 Kinetic energy, change in (excess) Energy, weight of flywheel rim, flywheel effect. Engine Fly- wheels- Average energy, change in energy, weight of flywheel rim, stresses in fly-wheel rim and arms, proportionate dimensions, check for maximum tensile stress in the arms and cross-section of arms, 18 Cylinders and Pistons of Steam and Internal Combustion Engines 403 Steam engine cylinder, thickness of cylinder (Lame’s, Grashof’s and Clavarino’s equation), Internal combustion engine cylinder-Diameter, thickness, water space, thickness of cylinder heads and bolts. Steam engine pistons-proportionate dimensions of cast iron and cast steel pistons, diameter of piston rod, inertia forces. Trunk Pistons-Thicknesses, length, stroke, diameter of piston pin, check the strength of piston pin, proportionate dimensions of piston rings. 19 Connecting Rod 41s Inertia force, bending moment, bending stress, stress due to axial load (Rankine-Gordon for- mula), connecting rod sections, Reciprocating motion, Inertia force, small and big end propor- tionate dimensions and cap thickness, Common strap and fixed strap end connecting rods, solid or Box end type, Marine type of connecting rod end-proportionate dimensions. 20 Vibrations 421 ‘Undamped free vibrations - rectilinear and torsional systems, equations of motion, natural fre- quency, Rayleigh’s method and beam vibrations, Damped free vibrations - viscous damping, equations of motion, damping ratio, critical damping, logarithmic decrement. Forced vibration ~ Harmonic excitation-Steady state solution with viscous damping, equations of motion, mag- nification factor and phase angle. Recriprocating and rotating unbalance - equations of motion.Contents xiii Base Excitation-Equation of motion, amplitude ratio and phase angle. Vibration Isolation-Force through springs and damper, transmissibility. Whirling of Rotating Shafts-dynamic deflection, critical speed of multi-rotor shaft system (Dunkerley’s equation). Trosional Vibrations-Two disc semi definite system, principle mode of vibration, equations of motion and frequency equations. ‘Three-disk semi definite system-Fquations of motion, frequency equations, natural frequencies and amplitude ratios. Geared systems-Equivalent system, equivalent inertia, equivalent spring constant and natural frequencies. 21 Packings and Seals 433 Gaskets - Forces on the gasket and bolt, proportionate dimensions of stuffing boxes, Packings- stuffing boxes, elastic packings, self-sealing packings, Rotary motion and friction. Packingless seals-leakage of the fluid. 22 Rotating Disks of Uniform Thickness 441 ‘Thin solid disk-tangential and radial stresses, displacement. Thin solid disk-tangential and radial stresses, displacement. Thin circular disk with a hole-tangential and radial stresses, displace- ment. Rotating cylinders-tangential, radial and axial stresses. Solid cylinder-tangential, radial and axial stresses. 23 Metal Fits and Tolerances 445 Fundamental Tolerances, commonly used classification of types of fits and tolerances. 24 Preferred Numbers 451 Basic series of preferred numbers and preferred numbers of R80 series. I Appendix 453, Designation and properties of Materials-Designation of steels based on letter symbols and chem- ical composition, Designation of Ferrous castings. Properties of Materials-carbon steel, Iron, Grey Cast Iron castings, Mechanical properties - uses of carbon and alloy steels, chemical com- positon, properties and uses of cast Iron, carbon and alloy steels. IL Appendix 416 Moments of Inertia and Modules of various cross-sections. UII Appendix 477 Recommended values of Factor of Safety. Design stress - elastic ratio, shock and real margin of safety factors. IV Appendix 478 International System (SI) Units. System International-Basic units, Derived units with special and complex names, multiple and sub-multiple factors, physical quantities in mechanical and thermal sciences. V Appendix 484 Conversion factors and conversion tables. Index 493‘Compression ,mma/romt (Cast ieon, brite materials Strain Wacyst® [pore =, fam (sally 0.001 oF 0.002 num /min) noe Leather, soft ruber (b) Heat-tcented or co-drawn sel —'Ideal" Brittle Material “NS Typical Brittle | Material Ductile and brittle materialsStress Analysis Description and Units A cross sectional area, mm? Ay area under shear, mm? c distance from neutral axis to the extreme fibre, mm E modulus of elasticity or young’s modulus, MN/m*(kgf/mm?) e eccentricity, as of force application, mm F force, Nékgf) Fy direct shear force, N(kgf) Fe ctitical load that will cause rupture, N(kgf) G modulus of rigidity, MN/m? (kgf/mm?) J.J rectangular and polar moment of inertia respectively, mm* k radius of gyration of cross-section, mm M bending moment, N-mm(kgf-mm) R radius of curvature, mm. T torque or torsional moment, N-mm(kgf-mm) ZLp rectangular and polar section modulus respectively, mm? @ the coefficient of linear expansion, mm/mm/K(mm/mm/*C) Y shearing Strain, rad/mm. 6 axial deformation or total elongation, mm 6s angular deformation, rad « strain or deformation per unit length, mn/mm €: 6» € strain due only to stresses in the x, y, z directions respectively, mm/mm H poisson’s ratio op stress, direct or normal, tensile or compression, MN/m? (kgf/mm?) o stress, MN/m? (kgf/mm?) Tx, Ty.7z normal stresses in x, y, z directions respectively, MN/m? (kgf/mm?) 1,02 maximum and minimum normal stresses respectively, MN/m? (kgf/mm?)Stress Analysis Symbols Description and Units tensile stress at yield point, MN/ni (kgf/mm?) om oe stress at the elastic limit, MN/m?(kgffmm?) Tr shear stress, MN/m?(kgf/mm?) Try shear stress, x and y direction, MN/m? (kgf/mm?) Typ shear stress at yield point, MN/m? (kgf/mm?) tD direct shear stress, MN/m? (kgf/mm?) Particular Equation Eqn. No. Simple Stresses and Strains: The direct stress in simple tension or op=o= ca 1.1@) compression. Fig. 1.1(a) | Maximum Bending stress at point P. | = ¥ = 1.10) Fig. 1.106) Direct shear stress. Fig. 1.1(¢) | 11), Maximum Torsional shear stress. Fig. 1.1(@)_ | r= a = A 1g 11@ Strain or deformation per unit length dueto | €= g 1.2(a) direct axial load Y = a Fig. 1.1(¢): Direct shear stress Fig. 1.1(b): Bending stress Fig. 1.1(@): Torsional shear stressStress Analysis, Particular Deformation or Total elongation of a member due to direct axial load Equation oh FL E AE where ‘L’ is the length of the bar, mm. Shear strain due to direct shear force (radians) 1.2) ‘The general bending equation TR C 1.3(a) ‘The general torsion equation z = = z 1.30) oa TL ‘The angle of twist in a shaft subjected to a = 1.3(¢) JG torque (radians) Combined Stresses: (@ Combined axial and Bending loads [Fig. 1.20] The maximum normal stress due to combined 14 axial and bending loads (super position) (ii) Combined axial, bending and torsional loads (Fig. 1.2(b), 1.2(c) and 1.2(@)] According to maximum normal stress theory 15(@) oy According to maximum shear stess theory | thax = (5) +72 1.5(b) _ Fig. 1.2(a): Combined axial and bending Fig. 1.2(b): Combined axial and loads (T = 0) torsional loads (F; 0) Fe 1.2(c): Combined torsional and Fig. 1.2(@): Combined axial, bending bending loads (Fy = 0) and torsional loadsStress Analysis Particular Equation Eqn. No. Compound Stresse () Uniaxial stress system (Big. 1.3(a)] The normal stress in the plane at any desired | a, = 0, cos” 6 = 7; cos? 1.6(a) angle 6 os a ‘The shear stress at any desized angle sin 29 = D sin2g 1.6(b) ‘The principal stresses (0 = 04) and (72 = 0) 1.6(¢) Ditection of principal stresses =o 1.6(4) Maximum shear stress at 45° tae = = 1.6(e) Direction of maximum shear stress ds, = 45° 1.6) (li) Biaxial stress system (Big. 1.3(b)] Oxy) , [0x0 ‘The normal stress in the plane at any di on ( } + ( eos 2 17a) 2 2 angle ¢ The shear stress at any desired angle ¢ 1.706) ‘The principal stresses 1.16) Direction of principal stresses (1 = 0°) and (2 = 90°) 1.1@) Maximum shear stress at 6 = 45° Tmax = (2) = ( cee 1.1) Direction of maximum shear stress ° and gs, = 135° 1710) Resultant stress (Fig. 1.3(b)) L7(@) Direction of resultant stress (Fig. 1.3(b)) L.70h) B ae RB XK lox = 01 \" SON es asa} % A Fig. 1.3(a): Uniaxial stress system Fig. 1.3(b): Biaxial stress systemStress Analysis Particular Equation Eqn. No. (ii) Plane stress system (Fig. 1.4(a)] Ox- Oy eos 2 et ‘The normal stress in the plane at any desired | o (2 * 2) + CS angle $ +r, sin 26 1.8(a) ox- oy ‘The shear stress at any desired angle & m= 5 ) sina = ty 008 26 1.8(b) cae ‘Maximum principal stress a= =(%)s é (= ) +7 180 at oy Minimum principal stress a= (= : )- Ayan 180 2ty Direction of principal stress [Fig. 1.4(b)] tan 29, -( - = ) 1.8) on-F where ¢) and @2 are 90° apart. 5 - Maximum shear stress Tas = (= oy += 2 1.8(6) ox= 0 Direction of shear stress (Fig. 1.4(0)] tan(29,) -( = ) 18(@) Direction of maximum shear stress @smax = 1 + 45° Direction of minimum shear stress $snin = G1 + 135° °, y r — ry —— ny =F SJ oy 4, Fig. 1.4(a): Plane stress system Fig. 1.4(b): Direction of principal stress.__ Fig, 1.4(): Direction of shear stressStress Analysis Particular | Equation Eqn. No. Mohr’s circle diagram: Fig, 1.5(a) and 1.5(b) Equation for the Mohr’s circle diagram Equation for the Mohr’s circle diagram 2 ) Hert 9@ (.- (on-CP +P = RP 1.9(b) which is the equation of a circle orto, Where C 1.910) 2a and R= (FS) 4 ry)? 1.9(@) oy os | ¢, or | on or 0, Fig. 1.5(a): Plane stress system OA = os, Stress in x-direction OB = oy, Stress in y-direction AD = BE = Ty, Shear stress OF = 7, Maximum principal stress OG = o>, Minimum principal stress CH = Timex, Maximum shear stress Fig. 1.5(b): Mohr’s circle diagram for plane stress 0Q = oy, Normal stress PQ =r, Tangential stress OP = o, Resultant Stress 32DCF = 1, Direction of Max principal stress }4DCB = 62 = $1 + 90°, directing Min principal stress }4HCF = $s,, Direction of Maximum shear stressStress Analysis Particular Equation Eqn. No. Superposition: (Eccentric loading) (Fig, 1.6) F 5 Maximum normal stress due to direet tension | or = 5 ie f s & 1.10 or compression combined with bending Biaxial deformation:- (Fig. 1.3(b)) Poisson's ratio L1@) Resultant unit deformation or strain in the 1.11(b) X-direction Resultant unit deformation or strain in the 111@ Y-direction Stresses in terms of strains: ‘The normal stress in the X-direction 1u@ The normal stress in the Y-direction 1.11(@) Triaxial deformations: (Fig. 1.7(b)) Resultant unit deformation or strain in the Ge E [o.- Hey +0] 1.12(a) X-direction 1 Resultant strain in the Y-direction 6=E [ey-ue@z+e0)| 1.12() 1 Resultant strain in the Z-direction @= 5 [7-Keor+ey)] 1.12(¢) E Relation between the constants E, G and p for | G = 1,12) “ +0 a given material | ¥, i ey 4 oy | byl fire | Tayi Ox \ ys 1 Feo} | Tex + o oe | 4 , ry i > (a) With no shear stress (b) With shear stress Fig. 1.6: Eccentric load Fig. 1.7: Triaxial stress systemStress Analysis Particular Equation Eqn. No. Hertz contact stresses: 4a) Spherical surfaces: aE, 5 ‘When two solid spheres are pressed together | a= |= ee 1.13¢@) with a force, the radius of the area of contact (id; + Lez) (Fig. 1.8(@)) \ 2 e ‘When a solid sphere of diameter d, and a [= a He ai | 1.13(b) plane surface are pressed together with a diay force, the radius of the area of contact 3F (1 42)0/Ey + WE; ‘When a solid sphere of diameter dy is pressed z ee ee 1.13(@) against an internal spherical surface of (Ufdy ~ Vida) diameter dp, the radius of the area of contact ‘The maximum pressure at the centre of 1.13) contact area 4) Cylindrical surfaces: When two cylinders are pressed together the half width of the rectangular area of contact (Fig. 1.8(b)) where a is the radius of the contact area 2F = 12 X1/E + 1/8) |t aL (fds + 1]da) 1.14(a) where L is the length of the contacting surfaces IF 1.8(a): Pressure distribution between two Spheres Fig. 1.8(b): Pressure distribution between two CylindersStress Analysis 9 Particular Equation Eqn. No. 1 af When a cylinder of diameter d) is pressed os 1-H a vente) | 1.140) against a plane surface, the half width of the a (/a) rectangular area of contact 2F (= 2) /E, + VE: When a cylinder of diameter dj is pressed b [F toe ho) 1.140) against an internal cylinder surface of aL (fay ~ Ade) diameter dy the half width of the rectangular area of contact 26 ‘The maximum pressure atthe centre of Poa = Li4@) contact area Thermal stresses: ‘Thermal expansion The total length at a temperature 1, K(°C) Stress set up in the bar due to change in the temperature Columns: Buler’s column formula for the critical load where L is the length of the column, mm n=constant depending on the condition of the restraint of column ends (coefficient of end conditions) (Fig. 1.9) 0.25 for one fixed end and one free end =1.00 for both ends free, ie. both ends are guided or hinged =4 for both ends fixed rigidly = 1 to 4 for both ends flat where b is the half width of the rectangular area of contact 6: = aLo(t~ f0) 1.15(@) where Lo is the length of the bar at the initial tem- perature fo, KCC) (t= to) = change in temp, K. °C) L= Lol +att~t)] 1.15(b) o = Eatt-) 1.15() 2 BAR E v@EI _nm@EAR _ nav EA L16(a) po BP (Lik ' Li le ae @ (b) ©) (a) () Fig. 1.9: End conditions of columns10 Stress Analysis Particular | Equation Eqn. No. | Parabolic column formula to determine the | Fy, = Ae9[ yer 1.16(6) critical load oie L Straight Hine column formula to determine the | Fe, =A (%» = cz) L.16(e) critical load where C= (20p/3n) J5p/3nE = aconstant Rankine formula to determine the induced stress in a column 1+a(L/k?| 1.16) where F is the external force on the column, N(kgf) ais the constant in Rankine formula from Table 1.2 F 7 Ritter’s formula, which is a modification of [cmt | 1.16(@) the Gordon-Rankine formula, for determining the induced stress, «in a short column Eccentrically loaded columns (Fig. 1.9(¢)) FP oe ‘To determine the maximum combined stress. | @, = © {0 + (L/kp Ze + al L.16(f) A Rn * B by Ritter's formula Where e is the distance between the load and the centroid and is the distance from the centre of gravity to the outer most fiber References [1] Singer, F. L., “Strength of Materials”, Happer and Rom, New York, Evanston and London and John Weatherhill, Inc., Tokyo, 1962. [2] Morley, A., “Strength of Materials", Longmans, Green and Co. Ltd., London, 1953. [3] Spotts, M. F,, “Design of Machine Elements", 3rd edition, Prentice Hall, Inc., Maruzen Co. Ltd, [4] Shigley, J. E., “Machine Design”, 9" edition, McGraw Hill Education Private Ltd., New Delhi, 2011.Stress Analysis Table 1.1 Physical constants of some common materials Modulus of | ‘Modulus of it . et Poisson’s | Density, Material Elasticity, x 10°? | rigidity, G x 10 | MN/m? (kgf/mm?) | MN/m? (kgf/mm?) | "1 ‘em? ‘Aluminium (alloys) 71.0 (7.24) 262 2.67) | 0334 2730 Beryllium 287.1(29.28) : = 1820 Beryllium copper 124.2(12.66) 48.3 (4.92) | 0.285 8230 Brass 95.1 (9.70) 34.3 (3.50) | 0.30-0.40 8450 Bronze 109.0(11.10) : : 8730 Carbon steel 202.0(20.60) 78.5 (8.00) | 0.292 7820 Cast Iron, gray 100.0(10.20) 41.4 422) | 0.211 7200 Copper 120.6(12.30) 383 (3.90) | 0.260 8960 Inconel 214.0(21.80) 76.0 (7.15) | 0.290 8960 Lead 15.7 (1.60) 75 (0.76) | 0.450 11340 Megnesium 448 (4.57) 166 (1.69) | 0350 1800 Molybdenum 331.0(33.75) 11721195) | 0.307 10200 Monel metal 179.3(18.28) 65.6 (6.68) | 0.320 8830 Nickel steel 196.1(20.00) 75.6 (7.80) | 0.291 7750 Phosphor bronze 111.011.32) 41.4 (422) | 0349 8160 Stainless steel (18-8) 190.3(19.40) 73.1 (7.45) | 0.305 7750 Titanium 103.5(10.55) e et 4480 Tungsten 43734153) | 173.6(17.70) | 0.170 19300 Zireonium 68.4 (691) - - 6500 Table 1.2 The Values of Constant ‘a’ in equation 1.16(d) Both ends | Both ends | One end round, round | fixed one fixed Steel a | mw = Cast Iron m | ww a Wrought Iron aw wn = ‘Timber w = =Stress Analysis % fi boys p-=4 = H+ GoHe+rd poe wasn _,, € P a PO (HP 20+ M9 Pa 7 (qd ~ HTL HO a __ at > 4 Hd 14> Ha H Ha-Ha H9 z zr oe _ z (a- wet (a a H 1G 4 9 z zu 5 oO z a > Y687'0 ag i aa () ) © @ @. oe zzz wonesin snmmpoy 2 quyog wompeg Tepsouy Jo supey won129g 03 s0ueysIq Jo quawtoyy, uopoag adky 12 suoyaas sso snoring fo saysodosg (0) €°T 1481,13 Stress Analysis r ae z 59 : 4 age ¥ qe z zy + typ pe at ay lace we é (a wy = y @q-lpe a fami Ga- oe fa+iq| ae yo = eee pines 8 a ea28600= “Gy wea a ge ¥ (94 + 4€)C1 (04 + QE (09 + @Z)9E L it (24 + 9999 + 249) yg + 98) A+ HA a+ HE H d+ HE 9) © ) © @ (pntog)-suonaag sso1g snoung fo soysodoig (0) £1 G81,g z s eat = g zt vee fal i é + - zt & at AR OO TG 6. At Dig by 4A | q<4 ’ (a+ ay dtd y SL me ere cas tah yccoe 8 ‘aot ig- ig ja+tah seo +l w-lo* Gao, _ 3h 9 ze. ase = a ae ° ssaxyead8 Jo snmpexaejog | samnpoy uona0g repo (£) epsouy 4 ale="z Jo ywaumoyy seo won2ag adit, suoyaag ssos snoring fo saysadosg (4) €°1 148, 14¥ z w1gt+ = Wx af-sasong - ge FE 8__ vey aera? = WEN i A wat z z e oo pateewigag die aasgoy 13 8h 1 T ie is) (ey-xt0 2 sc gay | z zig i ¥ al tats AT Oy ape wate FE eo] 1aus0‘syroddns put 13-8 4—7 BL save Ze ¥ ZT - eA T ws GwTNE= = HON sLina IZ x Ti. =f (1e+ 8 gy- U2 = aap A= aT peo] uZoynn ‘asaqnUe) “E 19.9 | 2 129A = 600 (@- TFT IN | pwog- = wx g-=Aro0g (re + @- re - (4-*)] | =2g-= W190 =A:9o ioe eee @-Dd-= W908 o=Acgoy | at | o=wigay ate 149 pe - T0¢ + p22 =k: gay pe Tw PITT @ ae ve B= cow aw Td~ = WON I-=A 179 _¢ | nue=W aeaty exye- 22-6 (T+ XQTE OTT vor pus ‘roxomue) “T uoppayap wnumpceur pue < woRDayeC quowiow Suypueq umMUILEUT ‘4 wrowout 31 od “A AeOYS [ONION Sty pow ty suoraKay equinu aouas9jar pure ‘yzoddns ‘Suypeoy Stress Analysis: _suinag 10f spjnuuiog uoysayfoq pun juawoyy ‘vos TAAL,a = aa 7 g getul on (-3ja=a 2 scocxe en 1 xe § asievo=xe +2 ys000-= Kew |, a : 3 <= 9 voy IW = WON y=atday TP ty 42 a a | gwoty+Ly-=y+ ww eee LO+POITE cog | INPUT ptm = 4 oS ae dt a ‘a xy+ Sewing @-455 = (a9¢ ~~ 1) + 98)] 2 a WI 3 26:50 xy+ Eyes waay gent aly peat 98 a ad M9. (ame xg 4x09 TA CIO roy ayexpounronuy ~ “paxy spue Hog “OT opm viers® =~ xO wesacoog g 1 y are FE ~ csoyy awh = w+ Ow ghs=acaay y a dt 1 an oW 5° (ev - eT Bcc aay e104 =Wigag wa nna = 2 ¥ u Lil al Stress Analysis a -at BW G Oy z z Zo tysye =n ap wat = eo] 4999 “Paxy spUua WOE “6 (pmo) ,suevag 40f soynuioy uonsoyfog pun juawoyy ‘mays $T P14RL.stresses betwee ‘gw holes af Fo= FD-Oh eee STRESSES 2a (3) Mitigation ofWorking Stresses Symbols Description and Units A correction factor for the type of loading B size factor c surface correction factor Fm average or mean load, N(kgf) F, variable or alternating load, N¢kgf) K, theoretical stress concentration factor for normal stress (tension or bending) K, theoretical stress concentration factor for shear stress K’ theoretical combined stress concentration factor Kis _ estimated fatigue stress concentration factor for normal stress K’, estimated combined fatigue factor for normal stres K.y _ estimated fatigue stress concentration factor for shear stress Kn stress concentration factor in the tranverse direction n factor of safety q notch sensitivity factor for cyclic loading R reliability factor U internal elastic energy, mJ (mm-kgf) 6 Static deformation under the action of the weight W, mm ° Deformation under impact action, mm o static stress, MN/m? (kgf/mm?) oD bending stress, MN/m? (kgf/mm?) o4 design stress, MN/m? (kgf/mm?) Gx, %y direct stresses in x and y directions respectively, MN/m? (kgf/mm?) 7,02 — maximum and minimum principal stresses respectively, MN/m? (kgf/mm?) Gem —_ endurance limit stress of the material in reversed bending, MN/m? (kgf/mm?) eae endurance limit stress of the material in reversed axial loading, MN/m? (kgf/mm?) Typ yield point stress, MN/m? (kgf/mm?) st)20 Working Stresses Symbols Description and Units @m average or mean normal stress, MN/m? (kgf/mm?) oe variable normal stress, MN/m? (kgf/mm?) Car design stress for completely reversed loads, MN/m? (kgf/mm?) aa design stress for alternating loads, MN/m? (kgf/mm?) Oy ultimate stress, MN/m?(kgf/mm?) o impact stress, MN/m?(kgf/mm2) T shear stress, MN/m?(kgf/mm?) Ten endurance limit stress of the material in cyclic torsion, MN/m? (kgf/mm?) T™ average or mean shear stress, MN/m? (kgf/mm?) Ta variable shear stress, MN/m? (kgf/mm?) Typ yield strength of the material in shear, MN/m? (kgf/mm?) rv the impact stress due to torsion, MN/m? (kgf/mm2) a static angular deflection, rad o angular deflection under impact loading, rad Particular Equation Eqn. No. Stress concentration in members: ‘The maximum stresses at the discontinuity i) Fora direct stress: (Fig. 2.1(a)) Cmax = OK, = —K, 21a) A Mc ii) For bending: (Fig. 2.1(b)) Fnax = 70K = 2.1(b) Fe iii) For torsion: (Fig. 2.1(¢)) Tax = TK, = Ks =zk 210) ip Fig. 2.1(a): Tensile Stress Saat = (dK Conn = 00K, j Tm = Fig. 2.1(c): Shear Stress2 Working Stresses Particular Equation Eqn. No. F ‘Transverse stress induced around the hole in a | cnx = Ky = — Ky 22 plate of infinite width (Fig. 2.2) A When a plate with a hole is subjected to Cmax = Koy + Knory = Kyory + Kyra 23 biaxial stresses o, and ory acting at right angles, then the combined maximum stress induced (super position) ‘The notch sensitivity index: 24 Estimated fatigue stress concentration factor | Ky = 1 + q(K, — 1) 25 for normal stress Estimated combined fatigue factor for normal | K’, = 1+ q(K/—1) 26 stress Estimated fatigue stress concentration factor | Kyy = 1+ q(K,~ 1) 27 for shear stress Theories of failure: +0, Tea Oy Stress according to the maximum normal oe ( : ye ( y ) +72, 2.8) stress theory or Rankine theory =o}, maximum principle stress 3.0 26 pep 18 14 Ratio «/B —= Fig. 2.2: Form Stress Factor due to hole in a plateWorking Stresses Particular Equation Eqn. No. ‘Stress according to the maximum strain theory or Saint-Va onto; a= =m (F5% 2.8(b) Stress according to the maximum shear stress theory or Guest’s theory =e an =2y (FS) +8, = [oro 448, = 1-0) 2.8(6) -ording to shear energy theory or the Hencky-von Mises theory Ge = IOP - oy + OF + 31) = op +o} - 192 28a) Maximum total strain energy theory or oe = Jo} +03 ~ yore 2.8(€) Haigh’s theory Design for strength: Influence of size: eli (e-oe)h— 12.5) ‘The elastic limit «7 for any thickness ht a2 = 0,- eh = 0,8 2.910) ‘between 12.5 mm and 75 mm (Fig. 2.3 and ~ 24) where B is the size factor 250 = UB 500= aie wale oan = 30) ) value of the ratio (cr, /o-.) for a few materials are given in Table. 2.5 a ( ¢ % (100) 1000 ee] 2 d La pass E3140 on 2 ~ (20) 200 go) > h | a @ 0 atu 4 pi 0 25 50 75 100 125 19 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 Size of section, mm Size of section, mm Fig, 2.3: Influence of Size on Elastic Limit Fig. 2.4: Change of Elastic Limit with Size of SectionWorking Stresses 2B Particular Equation - Eqn. No. Static loads: ‘The design stress for a static load oa = 2B 2.10 RK, where R is the reliability factor, Table. 2.7 The bearing stress oy = 18loe 2 Design for fatigue: Endurance or fatigue stress concentration Ky = 2% =q{K,- 141 2.12(a) factor cent where oy is the Endurance limit without discontinuity rong is the fatigue strength with discontinuity ConB Design stress for completely reversed loads | ow = Re 2.1200) if Relation between tensile strength and endurance limit: for steel Fen = (1/2 to 5/8) ou 2.13 (a) for cast iron en = 0404 2.13(0) for nonferrous metals and alloys, om = (1/4 t0 1/3) 2.13(€) Direct stress endurance limit in terms of Oen and Oy For steel For cast iron For non-ferrous metals and alloys Cyelic torsion endurance limit in terms of and Oy For steel, For east iron For non-ferrous metals and alloys Static plus alternating simple load: (Fig. 2.5) ‘The average or mean stress The variable stress component Cera = (0.7 10 1.0)oen = (0.35 to 5/8), 2.14(@) Fema = (0.7 10 1.0)oren = (0.28 t0 0.4), 2.14(0) Cena = (0.7 10 1.0)oren = (0.175 to 1/3) 42.14(0) Ton = (0.5 10 0.6)orey = (0.25 10 0.3)oy 2.15(a) Ton = 0804 2.15(b) Ten = 0.2074 2.15(6) On = mE > =) 2.16(a) = nin 2.16(b)4 Working Stresses - T " 7, Particular Equation Eqn. No. ‘The design stress for alternating loads aa = Zin t Fa) 2.17(a) | oa Fn +(Z4)r, Tar ax + Finin where Fry : average or mean load Fa , alternating load Fox _ Fm + The required cross-sectional area of the = Fine z 2.1700) member for alternating loads ae) ee) The equivalent static load for a cyclic load | FY, = Fy + (al oa)Fa 2.18(a) Fn + Fa ‘The equivalent static load for a bending load | M, = My + (ou/orup)Ma 2.18(b) My & Me ‘The equivalent static load for a torsional load | 7%, = Ty, + (aloa)Te 2.18(c) Tm Ta Fatigue Failure Equations (Fig. 2.6) Gerber’s parabolic relationship for fluctuating | og = Gen{1—(Cn/o4)2]_ or 2.19(a) stress Goodman’s relation for fluctuating stress Soderberg’s relation for fluctuating stress af) - 2.19(b) = 2.19(6) Stress, 7 > Time, t —> Fig, 2.5: Fluctuating Stress 8 ? Variable stress —» of Average Stress —> Fig. 2.6: Fatigue Failure EquationsWorking Stresses Particular Goodman's relation for fluctuating torsional stress Soderberg’s relation for fluctuating tosional stress The maximum eyelic stress in terms of the endurance limit: According to Goodman relation According to Soderberg relation In the case of cyclic torsion the maximum stress according to Soderberg relation, Taking the correction factors into account: ‘The Goodman's relationship a) for ductile materials b) for brittle materials ‘The Soderberg relationship a) for ductile materials b) for brittle materials ©) for ductile materials in shear 25 Equation Eqn. 2.19(@) 2.19(@) 2.20(a) Cmax = 2 + om (1 = c=) 2.20(b) 7 Op Tax = +m ( - z=) 2.20(¢) a Tp Kya 2 ABCT on oe KyFa Faton Ga 2.2106) Kye ae 2. ABCO ey nS) Kyte 221) ABCoe, « Kyte Titon 2.21) where A = 1.0 for reversed bending, 7 t0 1.0 for reversed axial loading 15 to 0.6 for reversed torsional loading B is the size correction factor (Eqn. 2.9(b)) C is the surface correction factor (Table 2.2) 1 is the factor of safety (Table Ill-1)26 Working Stresses Particular Equation Eqn. No. The equivalent maximum shear and normal stresses: ‘The equivalent normal stress Cegen = On + (222) Kua 2.22(a) ~ a NG en} ABC typ) Kepte ‘The equivalent shear stress eq = tm + (22) Se 2.22(0) Gm) ABC ‘The equivalent maximum shear stress Teg(tnax) = f($oeq-n) + Gag)? = Typln 2.23¢@) The equivalent maximum normal stress to be used when designing with brittle materials Feq-n(MAX) = Inertia stresses and Centrifugal loads: The general expression for the centrifugal force where, v= velocity, m/s R= radius of curvature W=weight, N¢kgf) g=acceleration due to ‘The centrifugal force per unit volume In the case of a coupling rod (Fig. 2.7), @ The centrifugal force (ii) Bending component of the centrifugal force 2.23(b) 2.24(a) of the path of the motion of the mass, m, gravity, m/s?, 2 wy ea 224 A Kb) where w = the specific weight of the material, N/mm? (kgf/mm?) 2.24(c) where, h~ height of coupling rod, mm 1's thickness of coupling rod, mm and L = length of coupling rod, mm wy Ww Fp cance eens 2.24(d) BR gr where, a= crank angle, degrees W = total weight of the coupling rod, N¢kg0).Working Stresses a Particular Equation Eqn. No. we wy ii) ‘The maximum bending component of | Fa (max) =~ phil = —— 2.24(e) the centrifugal force (when a = 0°, ie, at b) 8 8 wi, Gv) The maximum bending moment (when | Mya = EFe(maxyb = nr? = WE 9 24¢5 a@ = 0°, ie. at) . 85k 89K (v) The axial component of the centrifugal 2.248) force (vi) The maximum axial component of the 2.24) centrifugal force (when a = 90°, ie. at a’) Impact Energy: Kinetic Energy 2.25(a) Impact energy of a body falling from a 2.25(b) height, ‘The internal elastic energy 2.25(0) wy} If the velocity has a random direction, then | U = —"! + Wo" sina 2.25(d) if 2 the internal elastic energy 8 where v; is the velocity of the moving body, mm/sec is the acceleration due to gravity, mm/s Impact stress ‘The general equation for the impact stress w — a = o(1 + yI¥2h/8) = [+ VIF IREATWE) 2.26(a) The general equation for the deformation 6’ = 61 + V+ 2h]6) 2.26(b) under impact action ‘The impact stress due to bending of =o + yTF2h)) 2.26(¢) Fig. 2.7: Locomotive Coupling Rod28 Working Stresses Particular Equation Eqn. No. Deflection under impact action due to bending | y’ = y(1 + 1+ 2h/y) 2.26(d) The impact stress due to torsion v= 11+ yI=2h]r0) 2.26(€) The angular deformation due to impact Of = O1+ Vis 2h] 2.26(f) loading (torsion) Tmpact stress due to sudden load Deformation under impact action due to sudden load ‘When a body having a wieght W strikes another body that has a wieght W’ according to the laws of collision of two perfectly inelastic bodies, the impact energy Wh is reduced nWh. The value of n may be found by the formula Resilience: The resilience of a body where F where r is the moment arm of the load W (o" = 20), (0), = 2a») and (7’ = 2r) 2.26(g) (6 = 25), 0 = 25) and (@ = 26) 2.26(h) n= _Ltam 2.26(i) ~ (ebm ” where m = W'/W aand b are coefficients (Table 2.8) 1 U= 5F6 2.27(a) erage applied force = W when load is applied without impact y Wo’ 2 = <2, when load is applied with impact \ wae (a) Axial load MW (b) Bending load Fig, 2.8: Impact StressesWorking Stresses 29 Particular Equation Eqn. No. qi ev Resilience in tension or compression ua 2.27b) where V = AL, Volume of the body, mm? K(k o2 Resilience in bending Ae \(ky eae 2270) 2K, |\e where (k/c) 1/3), for rectangular sections 1/4), for circular sections K, is the constant in the deflection equation (y = FL*/K,E) corresponding to the type of loading Kp is the constant in the maximum moment equation (M = FL/K3) corresponding to the type of loading kk is the radius of gyration saad Resilience in shear Usa 2.27(a) 2G ky? PAL Resilience in torsion u,=(2) 2 2.27) ce) 2G where ky is the polar radius of gyration References [1] Siegel M.J., Malev V, L., Hartman J. B., “Mechnaical Design of Machines”, th edition, Interna- tional Text Book Company, 1965. [2] Vallance A., Doughtie V. L., “Design of Machine Members", 3rd edition, McGraw-Hill Book Co., 1951. [3] Spots M. E., “Design of Machine Elements”, 3rd edition, Prentice Hall, Inc., Maruzen Co. Ltd. [4] Black P. H., “Machine Deisgn", 3rd edition, McGraaw Hill Book Company, Inc. [5] Faires V. M., “Design of Machine Elements”, 2nd Edition, The Macmillan Company, 1941 {6] Shigley J. E., “Machine Design”, McGraw Hill Book Company, Inc. (7] Hyland P. H., Kommers, J. B., “Machine Design”, McGraw Hill Book Company, 1943. [8] Hall A. S., HoloWenko, A. R., Laughlin H, Machine Design”, Schaum Publishing Co., 1961 “Schaum's Outline of Theory and Problems of (9] Slaymaker R. R., “Mechanical Design and Analysis”, Jo Wiley and Son, Inc., 1958. [10] Roark R. J., “Formulas for stress and strain”, McGraw Hill Book Company 1954.30 Working Stresses Table 2.1 Stress Concentration Factors ‘Type of form irregularity or | Manner of | Equation for the stress | Experimental stress riser loading concentration factor value of | the factor K, or N or Kis 1. A Round hole in a plate of Tension 24 ($ K.=3 infinite width (Fig. 2.9) a 2. Round filled hole Tension 3. The pin in a hole transmits Tension the load 4. For a small V-noteh at the Tension K,=1+2VhyF edge of the place Fig. 2,10 where h = depth of the notch r=radius at the notch comer | b 5. An Elliptical hole in a plate | Tension K,=142- with major axis normal to the e load Fig. 2.11) 2 6. An Elliptical hole in a plate, Tension | K,=1+ F the major axis along the load = semi major axis and c semi minor axis oof TSS a tor} —J 7 oa] 0 K,=2 (ii) Thin Ring 1 en . 4C-1 | 0.615 11. Helical spring Shear “= Gegt ne where C is the spring index 12. Crane hook K,= 1.56 13. Gear teeth (i) At the root fillet of 143° Bending involute te py J048 (ii) At the root fillet of 20° Bending k,=0.18[] al involute ae 4. C1 od bes di 10+B a i 14, Curved beam Bending o+8[ S| where B= 1.05 for circular of elliptical sections =0.5 for other sections c is distance of the extreme fiber from the centroidal axis, ris the radius of curvatureWorking Stresses Table 2.2 The average values of the surface correction factor C "Ultimate | Cfor Machine | Cfor Ultimate | C for Machine | C for stress surface | hot rolled || stress surface | hot rolled %.MN/m? | (Cold drawn) | surface |! 7,MN/m? | (Cold drawn) | surface (Kegffmm?) (Kgffmm?) 410 42) 091 072 760 77) 0.84 0.52 480 (49) 0.90 0.68 820 (84) 082 0.48 550 (56) 0.88 0.62 |} 1030 (105) 0.78 0.38 620 (63) 0.86 0.58 || 1370 440) 0.72 030 690 (70) 0.85 0.55 7 - Table 2.3 Chart for Guidance in Selecting Stress-Concentration Factors for Various Types of Loading and Materials Loadin; - : Shear Static Neglect Cyclic Ky Table 2.4 Index of Sensitivity for Repeated Stresses Average Index of Sensitivity, q [ Heat treated | Heat treated Annealed] and drawn | and drawn Material or soft at 920K at 750K (650°C) (480°C) ‘Armeo iron, 0.02% C 0.15-0.20 Carbon steel : 0.10%C 0.05-0.10 0.20%C (also cast steel) 0.10 ; . 0.30% 0.18 0.35 0.45 0.50%C 0.26 0.40 0.50 0.85%C 0.45 0.57 Spring stecl, 0.56%C, 2.3 Si, rolled 2 0.38 SAE 3140, 0.37% C; 0.6% Cr; 1.3% Ni 0.25 0.45 . Cr=Ni steel, 0.8% Cr; 3.5% Ni 0.25 0.70 Stainless steel, 0.3% C; 8.3% Cr; 19.7% Ni 0.16 Cast iron 0-0.05 Copper, electro 0.07 Duraluminium 0.05-0.13Working Stresses Table 2.8 Coefficients in the Equation for Inertia, Equation 2.26(i) Type of impact Longitudinal impact on bar Centre impact on simple beam Centre impact on beam with fixed ends End impact on cantilever beam 13 12 17/35 5/8 13/35 12 4yi7 3/8 Table 2.9 Maximum Resilience Per Unit Volume Type of loading Modulus of Resilience mJ" (mm-kgf) per cubic mm. ‘Tension or compression Shear, simple transverse Bending in beams with rectangular-sections: (For circular sections, multiply given values by 3/4): Cantilever, end load Cantilever, uniform load Simply supported, concentrated load Simply supported, uniform load Fixed at both ends, concentrated load Fixed at both ends, uniform load Uniform strength beam, concentrated load Torsion Solid round bar Hollow round bar with D greater then Dy Springs Laminated with flat leaves of uniform strength Flat spiral with rectangular section Helical with round section and axial load Helical with round section and axial twist Helical with rectangular section and axial twist 2 /2E 2/26 o2/18E 02/30E o/18E (4/43) (02/B) 2 /18E 02 /30E 2 /6E a/4G [1+ @./DP] 2/46) O/6E o2/24E aise o2/8E oR /6E *mJ refers to milli Joules.Working Stresses 33 Table 2.5 Strength Ratios for Various Materials Values of 003/06 Natural Drawn [ Drawn | Drawn Material Annealed | at 923K | at 813K | at 703K State (650°C) | (40°C) | (430°C) ‘Aluminiium, strong, wrought 093 | = oa Tobin bronze 0.90 Monel metal, forged. . 0.80 7 Du iron 0.80 0.98 | Low-carbon steel, C< 0.20% 0.84 e | Medium-carbon steel, 0.30 to 0.50%C .. 0.85 | 0.72 0.59 0.53 Nickel steel, SAE 2340 0.86 0.80 0.74 . Cr-Ni steel, SAE 3140 7 | 080 | O75 0.70 0.65 Cast iron, Class No. 20 0.55 Cast iron, Class No. 25 «= 0.73 Cast iron, Class No. 35 0.60 7 Wrought iron 0.55 pu is Table 2.6 Comparision of Theories of Failure __ Theories of failure Rankine | Saint-Venant’s | Guest's | Hencky von Type of load Theory Theory Theory | Mises theory T. For pure tension =o O26 o=0, | o=e ie. oy = 0.0, =0,7=0 2. For pure shear reo, | 120710. 050. | 0 = 0.580% ie o=0,0)=Oand ty =7 Table 2.7 Reliability Factor Ss. . Reliability Nae Particular factor R 1. When close dimensional control is exercised in production, and materials have — 1.0 been purchased to close tolerance specifications such as in the design of air craft and space vehicles. 2. For reliable high grade materials, when loads and stresses can be determined 1.1 to 1.5 very accurately and a low weight is desired. 3. For the same above condition 2, when a low weight is not important or critical. 1.5 to 2.0 For ordinary materials, where over load is possible and reliability is important. 2.0 to 3.0 5. For cast iron and similar materials, where loading is uncertain in design appli. 3 and over cations and where the stresses cannot be determined accurately. 6. In mechanical design of steel and aluminium elements. 1.25 to 1.50 7. If the material (steel or aluminium) is not of best quality, or if there is no 2.00 definite information about its quality.Working Stresses 35 Table 2.10 Resilience in Tension Elastic Modulus of | Modulus of | Impact Limit Elasticity Resilience | Strength Material oF Ex10 u (od MN/m? MN/m? mJ/mm* number) (kgf/mm?) (kgfmm?) | (mm kgf/mm?) CAST IRON - | Class 20 (ordinary) 43,2° (4.40) | 68.7(7.00) | 0.215 (0.022) Class 25 68.7° (7.00) | 89.2(9.10) | 0.430 (0.044) Nickel, Grade II 118.0" (12.00) | 124.5 (12.70) | 0.905 (0.092) Malleable 138.3 (14.10) | 172.6 (17.60) | 0.905 (0.092) 19 Aluminium alloy, SAE 33 48.1 (4.90) 66.7 (6.80) | 0.280 (0.029) Brass, SAE 40 or SAE 41 68.7 (7.00) 82.4(8.40) | 0.452 (0.046) 29 Bronze, SAE 43 193,219.70) | 110.8.(11.30) | 2.770 (0.282) MONEL METAL Hot-rolied 206.0 (21.10) | 176.5 (18.00) | 2.000 (0.203) 120 Cold-rolled, normalized 482.5 (49.20) | 176.5 (18.00) | 10.850 (1.106) 110 STEI SAE 1010 207.0 (21.10) | 207.0 (21.10) | 1.695 (0.173) SAE 1030 252.0 (25.70) | 207.0 (21.10) | 2.490 (0.254) 20 SAE 1050, annealed 334.4 (34.10) | 206.0 (21.00) | 4.290 (0.438) SAE 1095, annealed 414.0 (42.20) } 206.00 (21.00) | 6.780 (0.691) SAE 1095, tempered 516.8 (52.70) | 216.0 (21.00) | 10.620 (1.083) . SAE 2320, annealed 310.0 (31.60) | 206.0 (21.00) | 3.840 (0.392) 52 SAE 2320, tempered 690.0 (70.30) | 206.0 (21.00) | 18,870 (1.924) 40 SAE 3250, annealed 352.0 (56.25) | 214.0 (21.80) | 21.810 2.224) . SAE 3250, tempered 1383.0 (141.00) | 214.0 (21.80) | 72.880 (7.431) 30 SAE 6150, annealed 427.6 (43.60) | 214,0(21.00) | 7.005 (0.714) SAE 6150, tempered 1100.0 (112.50) | 214.0 (21.80) | 52.650 (5.369) Rubber 2.1 (0.21) 10x10} 33.900 6.456) (11 x10") | “Cast iron has no well defined elastic limit, but, for all practical purposes, the values given may be safely used.36 Working Stresses 5 oreo Stress Concentration Factor, K, > Fig. 2.11: Stress Concentration at the Edge of an El ical Hole in a Plate 30 29 28 27 26 ft! | ! | a 24 23 ss concentration factor, K, —» > i s & 22 210" Oi 0203 oa 08 0807 Fig, 2.12: Stress Concentration Factor K, for a plate with hole in tension37 Working Stresses Pee Lm 2 18 16 uoryessta9H09 sson3g, 0.70 0.60 0.40 0.50 0 lB 0.3 0.20 10 0. Fig. 2.13: Stress concentration factor for a flat bar with a transverse hole in bending <— *¥ ‘YOLOVA NOLLVULNEONOO SSAULS a0 018 0200.25 00 005 rb — Stress concentration Factor K, for a notched Flat bar in tension 14: Fig. 2.Working Stresses 38 uoysua) Suypuag ur ur 404 wo}f paddars 40f 'Y sojony uoywssuaouUE) ssang oT ZB 44 TE payrjou D 40f 'y 40190 uoYAUIDUOD ssaatg :ST°Z “BLY —W <— a cco seo sro 00 o_o sto 9 64 ~~ '¥ HOLOVA NOLLVULNSONOD SSHULS ~<— "¥ ‘YOLOVa NOLLVULNSONOO SSHALs39 Working Stresses uojsuat Suppuag un ¢foys pasoou8 v softy s0}any uoyMsgUadUED sseng *BLT BLE —_ uy ag mmyf paddarg sof 'y Loan UoUDsUIO>UOD ssauS LTT BA —pl <— 4s soo store cco woe sro oro soo 8 ot <— 'y ‘YOLOVa NOLLVYINAO: <— *¥ ‘YOLOVA NOLLVHLNAONOD SSTULSWorking Stresses Burpuag uy afrys pasos v sof 'y 40janJ uoyD.juosUOD ssang OC BLA <— pl woysuay ui foys pasoods v 4of ‘x Lo1nf pourquog :6r't “BA — pl = 'y ‘10,08 woHPerHMOHOD-SaNg =< 2Y ‘OVW AROUO-WoYS puE HOFMAWHDKOD-ssoNNS poUTEMOD,41 Working Stresses uoyssi0} uy yoys pasoos8 v 40f °y s0}2n4 uoyPyUaoUOD ssa4ug *~CT BA <—plt Sunpuag ur yfoys paroosd v tof 'y sopovf paurquioy =17% “BA *y Gojoe woe uasOD-sENIg ssoyoey R100 WAYS pure TOHIIUEIUOD-ss9N38 poULGUWOD —7Working Stresses 42 uossuat un sfoys paddass v sof ‘y 2ojanf paurquiod :y¢"z “BL uo}suay uy xfoys paddoys v s0f 'y sozo0f uoynsuasuos-ssaug :¢c'C BA Ly Hor99y ABrota-two4s puw HoswaynaoHOD-sOUNE PorNqUIOD or TT er er PL |e ot nM BT 61 oz ve <— 2y 20728) uoRENHIOUOD-sONg43 Working Stresses ‘Suypuaq Sunpuag mi yfoys paddays » sof }y s0}90f paunquioy :97°¢ B14 un sfoys paddoys » 40f'y so19nf uowsuasuos-ssang ‘STZ BA

Fig, 2.28: Stress-concentration factor K, for a shaft with transverse holeWorking Stresses 3.6 3.3 3.0 Stress concentration factor K, —> 0.15 0.20 0.25 0.30 ajD— Fig. 2.29: Stress concentration factor for a shaft with transverse hole in torsion 38 a4 30 26 22 18. Stress concentration factor, K, —> M4 ao Lt 10 12 14 16 18 20 re Fig. 2.30: Theoretical stress-concentration factor K; for a curved bar in bending 4546 Working Stresses 06 oa 02 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 Notch Radius, rin mm Fig. 2.31: Average notch sensitivity 24 From Stress Factor, K; 42 ro LL ool 0208 Ratio r/t (a) (b) Fig, 2.32: Influence of fillet on stress concentration at root of gear tooth 10 09 os 07 06 05 o4 os 02 Surface coefficient sr tension and bending 1.00 Surface coefficient sr torsion 400-600-800 :1000-—«1200~—«1400 (40) (60) (80) (100). (120) (140) Ultimate tensile strength static, MN/m2{(kef/mn2)} Fig, 2.33: Reciprocals of Stress Concentration Factors Caused by Surface Conditionsa7 Working Stresses ssong ‘Mean stress prrereg Modified Goodman DiagramDesign of Shafts Symbols Description and Units © Cn, Cr distance from neutral axis to outer most fiber, mm the numerical combined shock and fatigue factors to be applied to the computed bending moment and torsional moment respectively (Table 3.1) diameter of solid shaft, mm (Table 3.5) inside and outside diameters of the hollow shaft respectively, mm Force on the connecting rod, N (kgf) Force on the piston, NV (kgf) radial force along the crank, N (kgf) tangential force perpendicular to the crank, N (kgf) polar moment of inertia of cross-sectional area about axis of rotation, mm* ratio of inside to outside diameter of hollow shaft length of the shaft, mm bending moment, V mm (kgf-mm) speed of the shaft, rpm power, KW allowable crank pin bearing pressure, MN/m? (kgf/mm?) (Table 3.6) main bearing pressure, MN/m? (kgf/mm?) (Table 3.6) torsional moment, N’ mm (kgf-mm) stress due to bending, MN/m? (kgf/mm?) design stress, MN/m? (kef/mm?) (Table 3.5(b)) stress at the elastic limit, MN/m? (kgf/mm?) torsional shear stress, MN/m? (kgf/mm?) design shear stress, MN/m? (kgf/mm?) (Table 3.5(b)) shear stress at the elastic limit, MN/m? (kgf/mm?) angular velocity, rad/s angle of twist, deg 4950 Design of Shafts Particular Equation Eqn. No. Torsion of circular shafts: ‘The maximum torsional shear stress due to 3.1 torsional loading x) for hollow shafts , TL ,_S847L . ‘The angular deformation FE itd = Gar Ae for solid shaft 3.2 ATL = eB deg,, for hollow shafts ‘The torque to be transmitted by the shaft nO . 3.3(a) Nemm o ST Units 55 x 10°(P) a ‘The torque transmitted by the shaft, kgf¢mm | T= ee 3.30) 7.16 x 10°(MHP) Metric Units ~ n 74 x 10°(P) Hollow shaft:* 1 5 ‘The outside diameter of hollow shaft =e (all 3.4(@) subjected to simple torsion Rte \p— 1 5 Out side diameter of hollow shaft subjected to 2M (_t 3.4(b) ; nog \1—K* simple bending where ty = ‘The outside diameter of hollow shaft Ris reliability factor Table 2.7 subjected to combined bending and Bis the size factor (Eqn. 2.9(b)) torsion. a) According to maximum normal stress 3.5(@) theory »b) According to maximum shear stress theory 3.5(b) *For solid shafts, substitute K = 0 and dy = d inthe above equaitons.Design of Shafts 51 Particular Equation Eqn. No. ASME Code for design of transmission shafting: (a) According to maximum normal stress theory 1 16 = 1 3 do (Cut + VCudd? + (CTY, «(; = ral 3.6(a) KO max (b) According to maximum shear stress theory 1 16 I 3 =a } 3.6(b) Fey (VCni + (CTF ( For fluctuating loads: (a) According to maximum normal stress theory t=] aS [tue Been) te Seen ose Be 3.7(a) (b) According to maximum shear stress theory a 4, | = ( (114+ “2200,) +(e Tina Ton 7 (©) According to Mises Hencky theory Ke 4, | i ( yanenraTy + Se ane are) x zi 3.1(b) 3.1(0) RO wax ‘The out side diameter of hollow shaft subjected to an axial load F in addition to the torsional and bending loads. (a) According to the maximum normal stress theory oT 16 (enw 280g=4). (ca OB) sel (5) 1 3 3.8(a) TO max 8 (b) According to maximum shear stress theory { [cam offal +) enr| x (; +a) 3.800)52 Design of Shafts Particular Equation Eqn. No. where a= ratio of the maximum intensity of stress resulting from the axial load, to the average axial stress from Table 3.2 1 = 0.0044(L71) = 2 (o/b? when L/k > 115 (Euler's formula) when L/k < 115 where Lis the length between supporting bearings, mm ks the radius of gyration of the shaft, mm ‘yp is the yield stress in compression, MN/m? (kgf/mm?) Eis the modulus of elasticity, MN/m? (kgf/mm?) n= constant for the type of column end support, = 1.0, for free end supports or hinged ends = 2.25, for fixed ends = 1.60, for both ends pinned, guided and partly restrained ‘The relation between the diameter of a solid | 3 39 shaft to a hollow shaft if their torsional strengths are equal Effect of keyways: om tin LE. Moore’s formula for determining the 1.0- a 7 3.10 shaft strength factor or the ratio of strength of shaft with keyway to the same shaft without keyway » A Moore’s formula for determining the ratio of K.=1.0+ O45 +0. 19 3.11 the angular twist of the shaft with the key way to the same shaft without keyway where b and h are width and depth of keyway, mm Crank Shaft: Forces on erank arm: (Fig. 3.1) Ff ‘The force on the connecting rod Fos 3.12(a) cosg | ‘The tangential force or the rotative effort on | F, =F, sin(@+ 9) = F, O*+® 3.12(b) the erank cosg (o ‘The radial force along the erank F, = Fecos(0 +6) = Ae 3.126) a{ 16F2 ‘The diameter of the crank pin at the root dy 3.13(a) (Fig. 3.2) eT ‘The diameter of the crank pin or journal dy = (dpi) to (dp + 6.5mm) 3.13(b)Design of Shafts 53 Particular Equation Eqn. No. ‘The length of the crank pin pe 3.14 Py. ‘The diameter of the crank shaft at the root, 3f16Fer 3.15(a) Vo ‘The diameter of the crank shaft or journal (dy) = dy t0 (d, + 6.5mm) 3.15(b) ; 12K, ‘The length of the main bearing I, 3.15(6) Py, 3|Depe ‘The diameter of the crank pin according to ay 3.16 ‘American Bureau of shipping method ou (Fig. 3.3) where ais the coefficient from Table 3.8 Dis the diameter of cylinder bore, mm pis the maximum gas pressure, MN/m? (kgf/mm?) cis the distance over the crank web plus 25 mm (Fig. 3.3) aa is the allowable stress, MN/m? (kgf/mm?) F Ord a SoH FR — Fig, 3.1: Forces on crank arm Fig. 3.2: Typical Built-up Over Hung Crank Shaft54 Design of Shatts Particular Equation Eqn. No. Torsion of rectangular bars: T be —4 Shear stress at the point A, (Fig. 3.4) T= 3.17(@) abe T t T | : = | ‘Shear stress at the point Ap (Fig. 3.4) 2 bfapen ty, 217 Tr ' The angle of twist, # radians per mm of length eb | ' 3.17%) where a1, a and B are constants, from fe a Table 3.7 ao Fig. 3.4 25mm—|— ie 5 mm Fig. 3. merican Bureau of Shipping Method Forged Over Hung Crank Shaft (0.8 to 1.8) dy Ld dy dy (Hub Diameter) Fig. 3.5: Built-up Over Hung Crank ShaftDesign of Shafts 55 (0.6 to 0.75) dy 1.1 to 1.2) dp 4 48 dy 40 dy 0 d FILLET RADIUS r > 02d a co i =H A= 089 ds T OF ds t0 ds o 025 da dy to 12 dy = 04 du nm Fad, E Wad to154 7 L = dy 101.25 day Fig. 3.8: Cast Iron Crank Dise References [1] Vallance A., Doughtie V. L., “Design of Machine Members”, 3rd edition, McGraw Hill Book Co. 1951 [2] Spotts M. E., “Design of Machine Elements”, 3rd edition, Prentice Hall, Inc., Maruzen Co., Ltd. [3] Bhattacharya S. C., Basu Mallik, J.R., “Machine Design”, basu Mallik & Co., Calcutta, 1966 “A Pocket Book for Mechanical Engineers", Longmans, Freen & Co., Ltd., London, [4] Low D. A., 1955. [5] Siegel M. J., Malev V. L., Hartman J. B., “Mechanical Design of Machines”, 4th edition, Inter- national Text Book Company, 1965.Table 3.1 Constants for ASME Code (Shock and Endurance Factors) Table 3.2 Value of « to use in Equation 3.8(a) and 3.8(b) Nature of'Loeding Ge vautfer G ‘Slenderness Factor, ‘Stationary Shafts : ratio (L/k) « Gradually applied load 10 10 0 1.00 Suddenly applied load 151020 | 1.51020 25 112 Rotating Shafts : 30, 2k Steady or gradually applied loads LS 1.0 15 149 Suddenly applied loads, minor shocks only 1.5t02.0 | 1.0t01.5 100 178 Suddenly applied loads, heavy shocks 2.01030 | 1,503.0 1s 2.02 Table 3.3 Properties of Shafting Materials Material Percentage | Ultimate strength, MN/m? (kgf/mm*) Elastic limit, MN/m? (kgf/mm?) Percentage carbon | ‘Tension | Compression | Shear | Tension Compression | Shear | Elongation Commercial Cold rolled 0.10-0.25 | 482 (49.2) 482 (49.2) 241 (24.6) | 241 (24.6) 241 (24.6) 122 (12.5) 35 Commercial turned 0.10-0.25 | 412 (42.0) 412 (42.0) 206 (21.0) | 206 (21.0) 206 (21.0) 103 (10.5) 35 0.15-0.25 | 451 (46.0) 451 (46.0) 225 (23.0) | 245 (25.0) 245 (25.0) 113 (11.5) 26 Hot rolled or forged 0.25-0.35 | 482 (49.2) 482 (49.2) 241 (24.6) | 275 (28.0) 275 (28.0) 121 (12.3) a 0.35-0.45 | 520 (53.0) 520 (53.0) 260 (26.5) | 314 (32.0) 314 (32.0) 130 (13.2) 22 0.45-0.55 | 553 (56.4) ‘553 (56.4) 276 (28.2) | 345 (35.2) 345 (35.2) 138 (14.1) 20 34% Nickel 0.15-0.25 | 588 (60.0) 588 (60.0) 294 (30.0) | 392 (39.0) 382 (39.0) 147 (15.0) 26 Chrome Vandium 0.25-0.35. | 620 (63.2) 620 (63.2) 310 (31.6) | 414 (42.2) 414 (42.2) 155 (15.8) 25 os syfoys fo udisaqDesign of Shafts 87 ‘Table 3.4 Fatigue Stress concentration Factors in bending for shafts with keyways based on section modulus of full area Tensile | Yield strength Chrome Nikel [Medium Carbon strength,| (Plastic defor-| 5. reversed Heat treated | normalised Steel MN? |mation 0.2%) nenaing st Ten Ton (ety | MN/m? | POREIMESECSS | Maj? | Ky] MN/m™ | Kip mm’) |_ (kgf/mm?) (kgf/mm?) (kgf/mm?) 714.0 482.5 [No Keyway 400.0 255.0 (72.8) (49.2) ‘ordinary tapered} (40.0) (26.0) Carbon Nickel specimen (about SAE 3 140) Sledrunner 248.0_|TeI| 1930 [1.32 ~ ~ keyway (25.3) (19.7) Profiled keyway 193.0 |2.07) 159.0 1.61 - - 9.7) (16.2) Medium Carbon Profiled Keyway, (about SAE 1045) | 552.0 310.0 |6.25mm = |—| so |3.06 (56.3) | _G1.6) _|transverse hole (8.5) Table 3.5 (a) Standard shaft sizes in mm 6 8 0 2 4 6 i 2 22 25 28 32 36 40 «45° «50 56 BTL BO 9H 10010125 140 160 180 200 220 240 260 280 300 320 340 360 380 400 420 440 450 480 500530 560600, ‘Table 3.5 (b) Maximum Permissible Working Stresses for Shafts ‘Simple bending Simple torsion | Combined stress Grade of shafting | {N/m* ‘etimm’) MN/m? (kgf/mm?) | MN/m? (kgf/mm?) “Commercial Steel™ 110 1.2) 35(5.6) 35(5.6) shafting without allowance for keyways “Commercial Steel” 83 (8.5) 41 (4.2) 41(4.2) shafting with allowance for keyways Steel purchased under definite specification (without keyways)" 60% of the elastic | 30% of the clastic limit but not over | limit but not over 36% of the ultimate | 18% of the ultimate in tension. in tension, in tension. 30% of the elastic limit but not over 18% of the ultimate “The values are to be reduced by 25% if keyways are present.