ny wos rd 8 2 rs os 25 5 v2 zéOXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS (Great Clarendon Strect, Oxford, OX2 6DP, United Kingdom. (Oxford University Press s a department of the University of (Oxford. I furthers the University’s objective of excellence in research, scholarship, and education By publishing worldwide Onxtord isa registered trademarie of Oxford University Press in the UX and in certain other countries, (© Oxford University Press 2016 ‘The moral rights of the authors have been asserted rst published in 2016 All rights reserved. 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Led Acknowledgements “The publishers would like to thank the following for permissions {ouse their photographs: Cover photograph: Simeoue Huber; Advian Wc: 7.19; amy: 1.10 (David Hodes), 4.20 (M Timothy O'Keefe, 5.30 (lmagestate, 641 Brandon Cole Marine Photography, 6.14 images & tories), 6.15 Juniors Bildarchiv, 86 (geophotos). 8:17 (Stockfollo), 9.4 (Bemis), 9.5 [Robert Harding Pitare Library). 115 (Jim West) 118 (David &.Frazicr Photoibrary); 12.19 (John Sylvester), 14.20 (Clynt Garnham); Alison Rae: 26; Artdivetors: 98, 811, 8.22, 9.23, 924, 1113, 11.15; Assodated Press: 11.19; Carl Anthony Bailey: 5.22; Civil Engin coring Deparunent Hong Kong: 2.21: (Covbis: 1:20 (Michael S. Yamashita, 2.8 (Robert Holmes). 2.17 (ann Arthus - Bertrand), 13.14 (Mike Theiss; Dick Sevones: 11.35; Digital Globe: 14:34; DK Images: 822; Dr Earle Kirby: 125, 1.53: FPA: 618 Phil MeL can} Fotosearch: 835: Garrett Nagle 138,138,411, 420, 428,52, 64,65, 66,6.12,7.2,7.11,7.12, 744,719, 7.26, 81, 109, 11.14, 121, 123, 123, 126, 1210, 12.12, 12.17, p207 Big. 1, p207 Big, 213.4, 12.2, 134, 13.13, 15:15, 13.16, 13.17, 15.5, 13.27. 15.28, 144; Georg Geoscience: ‘86 (D. Bayliss Gerster: 115: Gent Lnages: 6.7 (Caroline von Tuempling), 831 James Warwick) 9.10 (Nancy Honey) 11.3; CGreenshoots Communications: 14.19; Heine Pedersen: 829; Iwokrama Canopy Walkway: 14.30; Judy Rocke: 8.25; Karen Austin: 14.22; Katherine James: 2.12,2.23,225, 34, 318, S19, 51, 10-21, 1022, 1023, 10.25, 1027, 1028, 147 Leanne Hinton: 6.19; Masaimara 8.30; Michael S. Yamashita: 1.20; Mike van der Wolk: 9.28, 102; NASA: 1.12, 3.38, 6.12, 7.18; National Geographic: 63 Michael S. Lewis) Nature Picture Library: 3.22 (Pete Oxford); Nell Sealey: 131, 21. 210,32. 37, 3.24,3.26,3.28,330, 41,47, 4.10, 4.18, 5.17, 527, 820, 8.24, 26, 835, 11.19, 112, 117. 11.35, 1217, 1518, 142, 1425, 1426, 1428; Oliver Thornton: 14, 5.26, 11.15, 14; Ordnance Survey: 1431; Paul Guinness: p18 Fig. 1.20, pI9 Fig 1.24 28 Fig. 1.40, p29 Fig. 1-41, p36 Fig 3.2, p37 Fig. 3.3, p37 Fig 3.4 6? Fig. 5.27, po8 Fig. 3.29, po8 Fig 3.31, p70 Fig. 3.34 p71 Fig. 3.36, pats Fig. 10.2, p217 Fy. 16; Pbase: 8.27 Photographers Direct 2.18 (Ramon lepage}. 6.4 [Philip Game) 14.18 Dominic Sanson): Rex Features: 2.16; Richard Anson: 4.21; Robert Ulich) Destination Jamaica: 10.17; Saleen Oliphant: 3.4, 3.18, 3.18, 3021, 10.22, 10.23, 10.25, 1027, 10.28, 147; Shawn Banton: 115; Simon Ross: 5.12; SON Productions: 11.28; South American Pictures: 14.27 Gason Howe): Sul Pictures: 11.27; Terrametrics, Ine: 1433; ropix: 11.4 [lynn Seldon}: UPPA: 11.25; Wigton: Wikipedia: 831; wwvevisitjamaica com: 11.38, Windfarm: 1421 “The map extract on page 91 with permission of the Surveys Department of the National Land Agency of Jamies; p2 with permission from the Goverment of Montserrat; Pp108 and 117 with permission from IMB Publishing; pp238 and 329 ‘with permission from the Government of St Lucia. We are also grateful for assistance from Professor David Barker and Kevon Rhiney ftom the Departnent of Geology and Geography, UWE, and Dr Patrick Evans from the School of Environmental and Earth Sciences, University of Guyana, Iystrations: Richard Morris and David Russell Although we have made every effort to trace and contact all copyright holders before publication this has not been possible Inall cases noted, the publisher will rectify any errors or ‘omissions atthe eatiest opportunity, Links to ted party websites are provided by Oxford in ‘good faith and for information only. Oxford disclaims any responsibility for the materials contained in any third party ‘website referenced inthis work.Paul Guinness Garrett Nagle Knola Oliphant Alison Rae Judy Rocke Simon Ross John Rutter Adrian Wyllie d Unive Nelson ThCSEC Geography Links to Syllabus The main purpose of this book is to prepare students for the CXC examinations in CSEC Geography. ‘The book has been written by a team of experienced authors and examiners and builds on the success of the popular first edition. It presents the CSEC Geography syllabus content in a clear, concise and student friendly manner and contains many opportunities for the development of geographical skills and exam practice, The book is revised and updated to reflect the changes in the new syllabus and to meet the changing needs of Caribbean Geography students as well as those who might take an interest in this diverse subject area. It covers the major geographical issues facing the Caribbean region and the wider world such as climate change, environmental degradation and disaster management. Section 1 Practical skills and field study Practical skills are integrated throughout the book Section 2 ‘Natural systems Structure of the lithosphere, plate | Chapter 1: Structure of the lithosphere, plate [7-33 tectonics and rock formations tectonics and rock formations Chapter 6: Limestone 107-125 Weathering and mass movement _| Chapter 2: Weathering and mass movement _ [34-54 ‘Weather, climate, vegetation and soils | Chapter 7: Weather and climate 126-158 Chapter 8: Ecosystems 159-181 Fluvial and coastal processes Chapter 3: Fluvial processes 55-77 Chapter 4: Coastal processes 78-93 Chapter 5: Coral reefs and mangrove wetlands | 94-106 Natural hazards and natural disasters | Chapter 13: Natural hazards 309-336 Section 3 Human systems Population Chapter 9: Population 182-211 Chapter 10: Urbanisation 212-243 Economic systems Chapter 11: Economic activity 244-281 Agricultural systems Chapter 12: Agriculture 282-308 Environmental degradation and Chapter 14: Environmental degradation 337-352 sustainable development School-Based Assessment 353.358Contents 1) Structure of the Lithosphere, Plate Tectonics and Rock Formation Theory of plate tect: 5 ‘Types of plate boundary 9 ‘The Caribbean plate and adjacent plate boundaries 12 Formation and distribution of earthquakes, volcanoes and fold Intrusive volcanic features 19 Extrusive volcanic features. 20 ‘Changes in intrusive and extrusive volcanic features 2 Case Studies: St Lucia, St Vincent, Montserrat 2 )Weathering and Mass Movement 32 Some key definitions 32 ‘Types of weathering 34 Mass movement 39 Case Studies: Tobago, Hong Kong, Jamaica 3 )Fluvial processes 53 The hydrological cycle 53 The drainage basin system s4 Rivers: energy and processes 59 The upper 2 The middle and lower courses 65 Case Study: Guyana 4 Coastal processes 76 The Caribbean coast 76 Waves 16 Wave processes: erosion, transportation and deposition B Landforms of coastal erosion 81 Landforms of coastal deposition 3 Case Study: Jamaica 5 Coral Reefs and Mangrove Wetlands 92 Formation of coral reefs 94 Types of coral reef 96 Case Study: Belize 6 )Limestone 105 The characteristics of limestone 105 Features of tropical karst 109 Caribbean karst Mm Case Studies: Bahamas, Jamaica, Puerto Rico 7 Weather and Climate 124 Caribbean weather systems 138 Case Studies: St Lucia, Grenada, Barbados_) Contents 8) Ecosystems 157 12)Agriculture 280 ‘What is an ecosystem? 157 Large-scale and small-scale How does an ecosystem function? 158 commercial farming: Agricultural Case Studies: Jamaica, Nigeria systems in Jamaica 288 and Brazil ‘Trends in commercial arable farming in the Caribbean 296 - Case Study: Jamaica 9 ) Population 180 Population facts and figures iso —-13)Natural Hazards 307 World population distribution and density 180 Hurricanes 314 Population trends 185 Volcanoes, 319 Population structure 194 Landslides 323 Case Studies: China, Montserrat, Managing natural hazards 327 Jamaica, Trinidad & Tobago Managing the risk of hurricanes 329 Case Studies: Haiti, Grenada, 10) Urbanisation 210 ase The — and problems. aos 14) Environmental Urban probiems in Kingston, Degradation 335 Jamaica 226 — a . Our threatened planet 335 wheats 29 ‘The destruction of the Forests 342 Case Study: Jamaica, China Case Studies: Jamaica, Guyana ‘School-Based Assessments Classification of industry 242 Economic development 246 The importance of economic activity in the Caribbean 248 Factors influencing industrial location 254 Economie activity in the primary and secondary sectors 257 Other types of economic activity 266 Challenges to the economies of the Caribbean 2 Case Studies: Jamaica, Trinidad and Tobago, SingaporeStructure of the Lithosphere, Plate Tectonics and Rock Formation In this chapter you will stud: © the theory of plate tectonics * types of plate boundary © the Caribbean plate and adjacent plate boundaries © the formation and tribution of earthquakes, volcanoes and fold mountains © intrusive and extrusive volcanic features © changes to voleanie features © the rock eyele, Your will also learn: * how to locate a place using Latitude and longitude © about time zones © how to use a line scale. Theory of plate tectonics The layers of the Earth ‘The Earth is made up of three main layers: the core, the mantle and the erust (Figure I). These layers become more dense toward the centre of the Earth. Density is the degree of compactness, which increases with depth asa result of higher temperature and greater pressure. Crust Mante Plate bouncary Pats (huge slabs of tects core Foie LL Cesta te Eat shovit nat © The core is the innermost layer of the Earth. It is very dense and extremely hot. At the centre of the Earth the temperature rises to about $500 degrees Celsius (°C). The centre of the Earth is 6400 km below the surface. © The mantle is between the crust and the core. It makes up 82 percent of the volume of the Earth. It extends to a depth of 2900 km. © There are two types of crust: continental crust and oceanic crust (Figure 1.2). On the continents silica (si) and aluminium (al) are very common. When combined with ‘oxygen they make up the most common rock, granite. Below the oceans the crust is made up mainly of basalt where silica (si) and magnesium (ma) are dominant. Thus continental crust is called sial, and oceanic crust is called sima. Oceanic crust is continuous around the Earth’ surface.Continents occur where continental crust rests on top of oceanic crust. Oceanic crust is between 6 and 10 km thick. Continental rust can be up to 70 km thick. The crust is very thin compared with the diameter of the Earth as a whole. If a guava represented the Earth, the skin of the guava would be about the thickness of the crust. However, the crust is not a continuous layer like the skin of a guava, Instead it is broken up into a number of large and small segments known as plates. The word rectonies comes from Greek; it means ‘building’. So plate tectonics means ‘plate building’. History of theories For most of human history people had no idea that the positions of the continents had slowly ‘2 Pangaea: the supercantinent of 200 million years ago © Tomorrow's world -50 milion yearshence L) Structure of the Lithosphere, Plate Tectonics and Rock Formation ‘Oceaniccrusta hinayerofsma Figs 1.2 irl rot dg laa changed over time. However, in 1912, Alfred Wegener published his theory of continental drift. He said that the continents had slowly drifted apart from one super-continent called Pangaea which existed 200 million years ago (Figure 1.3). The evidence for this included: bb Sub-oceanic forces send the landmasses wandering Direction of plate movementStructure of the Lithosphere, Plate Tectonics and Rock Formation 1) © the fit of continents — the ‘jigsaw’ effect similar plant (India and Antarctica) and animal (South Africa and Brazil) fossils found in then neighbouring continents now separated by water @ rocks of similar type and age found at the edges of continents that could have once fitted together. ‘The American Harry Hess then suggested that deep convection currents would force molten rock to well up just under the crust. Eventually the increasing pressure would crack the crust and force it apart (Figure 1.4). Research on rocks on the bed of the Atlantic Ocean in the 1960s supported Hess's ideas. It became clear that the newest rocks were in the centre of the ocean at the underwater mountain range known as the Mid-Atlantic Ridge, which is made up of voleanic rocks. The age of the Continental crust ho Fgwe 15 ceractin crete the Earth's male rocks steadily increases with distance from the Mid-Atlantic Ridge. In 1965 the Canadian geologist John Wilson linked the ideas of continental drift and sea- floor spreading. He introduced the idea of moving belts and rigid plates which formed the basis of the theory of plate tectonics. Why plates move Plates move because of what happens in the mantle below. The intense heat coming from the Earth’s core causes the magma in the mantle to move very slowly in giant convection currents (Figure 1.5). These movements of magma are in places © upward toward the crust © sideways or horizontal to the crust © downward toward the core. These very powerful convection currents cause the plates of the Earth's crust to move. Where the movement is upward, plates are forced apart and new crust is formed. Where the movement is, downward, plates are brought together and plate material may be destroyed. Plate movement is usually no more than a few centimetres per year. The movement is usually continuous and. causes no problems on the surface of the Earth. However, sometimes movement can be very sudden, causing earthquakes. Most earthquakes are small and have little effect on people. However, some are of great magnitude and have terrible consequences. Global distribution of plate boundaries Figure 1.6 shows the plates and the boundaries between them, There are seven very large plates: © Pacific © North American © South American Eurasian © African © Indo-Australian © Antarctic.L) Structure of the Lithosphere, Plate Tectonics and Rock Formation Smale plates Ada Aegean Turkish ‘sie% Earthquake fod — Collision zones Juan deFuca ‘sein 7 Divergent plate margins — spreading Cocos ee oe cm 7% fidge offset by transform faults Garibbean ® Rate of movement (cm per year) ALL Convergent margins ~ subduction zone. iil? "> Uncertain plate boundary “rAvE Transform plate margins Arabian | Figure 1 Plate buns ard atv 20m fhe Earths erst The smaller plates include the Nazea, Cocos and Caribbean plates (Figure 1.6). Where plates are brought together by convection currents, either one plate is forced down into the mantle and destroyed or they are both pushed upward to form mountains. The sima which forms oceanic crust is more dense than the sial of continental crust. Where the two come together the heavier oceanic crust sinks into the mantle beneath the lighter continental crust. The continental crust is permanent. In contrast, oceanic crust is always being formed in some places and destroyed in others. Oceanic crust is therefore younger than continental crust. In Greenland the continental crust is more than 3500 million years old but oceanic crust is nowhere older than 250 million years, The formation of new oceanic crust and the destruction of old oceanic crust is in balance as the Earth is neither shrinking nor expanding in size. ES 1 a What does the term plate tectonics mean? b Draw a simple diagram to show the layers of the Earth and label the core, mantle and crust. Explain the difference between oceanic crust and continental crust. 2. a Describe the movement of the continents shown in Figure 1.3. b Draw a labelled diagram to show why plates move. ‘© Which type of plate boundary can be found between the following plates: i Nazea and South American ii North American and Eurasian iii North American and Pacific?