The Circulatory System | Physiology A Characteristics of different types of blood vessels

1st Year – 1st Semester – Finals – 1st Week (Olivar, M.D.)

▪ Aorta & large arteries
Learning objectives (a checklist) o Description – very elastic structure (contains large amounts of elastin)
✓ Systemic/peripheral/greater circulation with low muscular component
✓ Pulmonary circulation ▪ Elasticity – allows for distention upon receiving blood & recoils,
✓ Characteristics of the different types of blood vessels which allows for blood to continuously move forward even at
✓ Review of the components of the vascular wall diastole; hence, blood flow does not stop due to recoil
✓ Distribution of blood volume ▪ Note: Upon old age, elasticity is lowered or lost causing stasis in
✓ Hemodynamics blood flow in diastole
✓ Laplace equation ▪ Arterioles
✓ Blood flow (Ohm’s law) o Description – very muscular structure (contains large amounts of
✓ Poiseuille’s equation smooth muscles) with low elastic component
✓ Bernoulli’s equation ▪ Sphincters – regulates the amount of blood flow into capillaries
✓ Reynold’s number • Sphincter contraction → decreased blood flow
✓ Turbulent flow • Sphincter dilatation → increased blood flow
✓ Laminar flow ▪ Note: Called ‘resistance vessels’ due to their property to regulate
✓ Venous return blood flow via changing the diameter of the blood vessel
✓ Arterial blood pressure ▪ Capillaries
✓ Microcirculation o Description – single layer of endothelium (allows for nutrient exchange)
✓ Blood flow ▪ Arteriolar end – filtration of nutrients and gases
✓ Neural reflexes ▪ Venular end – reabsorption of wastes
▪ Note: Called ‘exchange vessels’ due to their property of exchange
of chemicals & materials
▪ Veins
o Description – thinner walls than their corresponding arteries
▪ Thinner walls → larger diameter (due to higher distensibility)
▪ Note: Called ‘capacitance vessels’ due to their property of
containing more blood volume (3x) than their corresponding arteries
o Not very elastic – what allows for blood to go back to the heart?
▪ Smooth muscles → contract to push blood back to the heart
▪ One-way valves → prevent backflow of blood
Distribution of blood volume
▪ Systemic circulation – 84% of total blood volume
o Definition – blood circulation after the left side of the heart until before
reentering the right side of the heart
o Veins – 64% of total blood volume
Overview o Arteries – 13% of total blood volume
▪ Primary determinant of blood flow – tissues’ need for nutrients o Capillaries – 7% of total blood volume
o Increased need/metabolism → vasodilation ▪ Pulmonary circulation – 9% of total blood volume
o Decreased need/metabolism → vasoconstriction ▪ Heart – 7% of total blood volume
o Note: Higher centers of regulation may still affect the circulatory system Series vs parallel arrangement of blood vessels
in order to provide the necessary cardiac output for blood flow SERIES VS PARALLEL ARRANGEMENT OF BLOOD VESSELS
Arrangement SERIES PARALLEL
▪ Functions of the circulatory system: Blood flow Same flow of blood for all in the series Separate regulation of blood flow
o Nutrient delivery – distributes needed materials Resistance More total vascular resistance Less total vascular resistance
o Waste drainage – brings away waste products Blood flow & Less blood flow (only one pathway for More blood flow (each parallel
o Homeostasis – maintains appropriate environment for cell function conductance the blood to flow) vessel provides another pathway)
▪ Questions for answering… Layers & structures of blood vessels
o Does the blood stop at diastole? ▪ Three layers except for capillaries
o Do changes in vascular diameter affect blood flow? o Tunica intima (inner layer)
o How does the blood go back to the right side of the heart? ▪ Composition – single layer of endothelial cells
Review of the circulatory system o Tunica media (middle layer)
TWO CIRCUITS OF THE CIRCULATORY SYSTEM ▪ Composition – circular layer of smooth muscle
Circuit SYSTEMIC CIRCULATION PULMONARY CIRCULATION o Tunica adventitia (outer layer)
Pump Left side of the heart Right side of the heart ▪ Composition – connective supporting structure
AV valve Mitral valve Tricuspid valve
Artery Aorta Pulmonary arteries ▪ Capillaries – only composed of a single-layer of endothelial cells
Vein Superior & inferior vena cava Pulmonary veins Summary of all blood vessels

▪ Notes on capillaries:
✓ Most number of blood vessel in the body → greatest cross-section area
✓ Smallest blood vessel in the body
✓ Greatest cross-sectional area → slowest velocity (inverse proportion)
▪ Notes on veins:
✓ Thin walls → greater diameter/radius
▪ Notes on aorta:
✓ Highest transmural pressure (due to receiving blood from ventricle)
✓ Lowest cross-sectional area → greater velocity (inverse proportion)
Hemodynamics ▪ Conductance – measure of blood flow through a vessel for a given pressure
▪ Definition – study of the physical variables affecting the movement of blood o Reciprocal of resistance – indirectly-proportional to resistance
▪ Terms to be differentiated: ▪ Hence, it is the complete opposite of resistance
o Blood flow vs. velocity o Diameter – changes conductance tremendously
o Resistance vs. conductance ▪ Poiseuille’s law – explains increase
o Distensibility vs. compliance • Conductance – directly-proportional
o Law of Laplace to diameter to the fourth power
o Venous return
o Blood pressure
▪ Larger diameter → less friction at the center
Blood flow vs. velocity
o Vasodilation – caused by lack of sympathetic simulation
▪ Blood flow – quantity or volume of blood passing through a specific point in
o Note: The Poiseuille’s law also states that viscosity of blood is indirectly-
the circulatory system per minute
proportional to the flow of blood; and that a increased pressure
o Normal value – 5,000 mL/min
difference also increases flow by increasing the diameter of the vessel
▪ Note: Same with the cardiac output (CO = stroke volume x heart
Distensibility vs. compliance
rate), as its definition is the blood flow at the aorta
▪ Distensibility – ability of the blood vessel to increase its volume whenever
o Ohm’s law – represents factors affecting blood flow
pressure is increased (expressed in %)
▪ Where, F = blood flow
o Artery → stronger but less distensible
▪ ∆P = pressure difference
▪ Note: Due to its high collagen content decreasing its distensibility
▪ R = vascular resistance
o Vein → weaker but more distensible (8x more distensible)
o Factors affecting blood flow:
▪ Note: Increased distensibility allows for the vein to contain 3x more
▪ Pressure difference between two points
blood than its corresponding artery
▪ Vascular resistance
▪ Compliance – total quantity of blood which can be stored in a given portion
• Friction – caused by flowing blood against the vascular wall
of circulation for each increase in pressure
o Vasoconstriction → greater resistance
o Note: Different from distensibility
o Vasodilation → lesser resistance
o Since, the vein is 8x more distensible & 3x more in volume
▪ Veins → 24x more compliant than their corresponding arteries
▪ Clinical correlation:
o Old age → decreased elasticity leading to decreased distensibility &
decreased compliance
▪ Cause – due to decreased levels of elastin component in the vessel
o Laminar vs. turbulent flow:
LAMINAR VS TURBULENT FLOW
▪ Result – lack of recoil in the aorta causing momentary stasis of
Flow LAMINAR TURBULENT blood upon diastole
Fastest Center layer Random • Also, decreased compliance results in decreased diameter
Slowest Outer layer (due to friction) Random resulting in increased blood pressure (hypertension)
Vessel Long & smooth Sharp turn or rough
Law of Laplace
Shape Parabolic profile Random
Sound None Heart → murmur ▪ Definition – ability of a blood vessel to withstand the pressure inside
produced Elsewhere → bruit ▪ Tunica adventitia – prevents the rupture of the blood vessels by providing
Examples Most blood vessels Carotid artery & aorta proximal opposing tension to the vascular wall
▪ Reynold’s number – represents factors which affect turbulence o Law of Laplace equation, where:
• Note: Higher Reynold’s number signifies a greater tendency for ▪ T = tension
turbulence to occur in the vessel ▪ P = pressure
• Increased velocity → turbulence ▪ R = radius
o Note: Hence, blood in the aorta is turbulent o Higher tension → greater tendency to rupture
• Increased diameter → turbulence o Application of Laplace equation:
• Increased viscosity → laminar ▪ At the aorta
o Note: Best exemplified in cases of anemia & polycythemia • Pressure – high
where the viscosity of the blood is greatly affected • Radius – high
▪ Velocity – distance travelled by the blood • Tension – high → more likely to rupture
o Note: Velocity → indirectly-proportional to Xs area ▪ At the capillary
o At the aorta • Pressure – low
▪ Xs area – low • Radius – low
▪ Velocity – high • Tension – low → less likely to rupture
o At the capillaries o Note: Hence, capillaries can withstand surprisingly high
▪ Xs area – high pressures due to their small radius
▪ Velocity – low Venous return
• Note: Low velocity allows for the ▪ Definition – volume of blood going back to the right atrium per minute
exchange of chemicals to occur; this is ▪ Normal value – 5,000 mL/min (same with cardiac output)
also aided by having the largest Xs area of all vessels o Note: Due to the closed nature of the circulatory system, since what is
Resistance vs. conductance pumped by the heart must come back to the right side of the heart
▪ Resistance – expressed by the Ohm’s law ▪ Parameters which influence the venous return:
o Peripheral resistance unit (PRU) – unit for resistance o MCSFP – mean circulatory static filling pressure
o Systemic circulation ▪ Definition – pressure created by the blood when the heart is at
▪ Pressure difference (artery vs. vein) – 100 mmHg diastole (stopped)
• Note: Pressure is greater due to the high resistance ▪ Venous return – directly-proportional to the MCSFP
▪ Blood flow – 100 mL/sec ▪ Total blood volume – directly-proportional to the MCSFP
▪ Normal PRU → 1 (more resistance) ▪ Venous compliance – indirectly-proportional to the MCSFP
• Upon vasoconstriction → 4 PRU (more friction) • Vasoconstriction → lower compliance → increased MCSFP
• Upon vasodilation → 0.2 PRU (less friction) • Vasodilatation → higher compliance → decreased MCSFP
• Note: Hence, changing the diameter also changes resistance • Note: Since compliance, veins will just contain the blood
▪ Note: Higher pressure/resistance results in a greater tendency for without exerting its pressure → decreasing the MCSFP
left heart failure to occur due to the increased workload o CVP – central venous pressure/right atrium pressure
o Pulmonary circulation ▪ Normal value – 0 mmHg
▪ Pressure difference (artery vs. vein) – 14 mmHg ▪ Venous return – indirectly-proportional to the CVP
• Note: Pressure is lesser due to the low resistance ▪ >0 mmHg CVP/RAP → prevents blood from flowing back to the
▪ Blood flow – 100 mL/sec right atrium → decreased venous return
▪ Normal PRU → 0.14 o Note: Increased central venous pressure may be due to heart failure
 Microcirculation
▪ Capillaries – blood vessel involved in microcirculation & exchange
o Arteriolar end – where filtration occurs
o Venular end – where reabsorption occurs
o Functions of the endothelium:
▪ Physical lining of the blood vessel
▪ Permeability barrier & transport regulator
▪ Secrete paracrine substances acting on smooth muscles
▪ Mediates angiogenesis
▪ Produce growth factors in response to damage
▪ Secrete substances that regulate platelet clumping, clotting, and
anti-clotting
▪ Secretes cytokines in immune response
▪ Four Starling forces which determine capillary fluid movement:
o Capillary hydrostatic pressure
Blood pressure ▪ Action – promotes filtration of plasma
▪ Definition – pressure exerted on the walls of the vessels by the blood ▪ Determinant – blood pressure
▪ Systolic blood pressure – highest pressure in the artery at contraction o Plasma colloid osmotic pressure
▪ Diastolic blood pressure – lowest pressure in the artery at relaxation ▪ Action – prevents filtration of plasma
▪ Pulse pressure – difference between systolic & diastolic blood pressure ▪ Determinant – plasma proteins
o Formula for pulse pressure: ▪ Note: Normally, due to the negative nature of the interstitial fluid
Pulse pressure = systolic pressure – diastolic pressure pressure, only the plasma colloid osmotic pressure prevents the
continuous filtration of plasma
▪ Note: The second formula is an approximation as when stroke o Interstitial fluid pressure
volume is increased → systolic pressure tends to increase; and ▪ Action – opposes the capillary hydrostatic pressure
when arterial compliance is decreased → decrease in arterial ▪ Normal value – negative (acts as a suction promoting filtration)
diameter → increase in arterial pressure o Interstitial fluid colloid osmotic pressure
▪ Arterial blood pressure – measure of the blood pressure in the arteries ▪ Action – promotes filtration of plasma
o Formula for arterial blood pressure: ▪ Determinant – small amount of proteins in the interstitial fluid
o Note: In summation of forces, if net filtration pressure is positive →
Arterial BP = cardiac output x total peripheral resistance
filtration occurs; while if net filtration pressure is negative →
▪ Note: From the formula, vasoconstriction – which increases total
reabsorption occurs
peripheral resistance – causes an increase in arterial pressure
▪ Examples of Starling forces at capillary ends:
▪ Mean arterial pressure – average arterial pressure over a period of time
o Arteriolar ends – positive net filtration pressure → filtration
o Formula for mean arterial pressure:
Mean arterial pressure = diastolic pressure + 1/3 (SP – DP)
▪ Note: From the formula, mean arterial pressure must be closer to
the diastolic pressure – this is due to the diastole being longer than
the systole in actuality
▪ Note: Veins usually lack any blood pressure due to being very compliant
Factors which can affect the blood pressure
▪ Increased blood volume → causes an increase in MCSFP → causes an
increase in venous return (VR) → causes an increase in blood pressure
▪ Decreased compliance of the arteries → decreased diameter of the arteries
→ causes an increase in blood pressure
▪ Increased cardiac output → increase in blood pressure
▪ Increased total peripheral resistance → increase in blood pressure

o Venular ends – negative net filtration pressure → reabsorption

Different blood vessels & their respective pressures

▪ Aorta
▪ Action of lymphatics:
o Pressure – highest
o Importance – excess fluid filtered (0.3) will be filtered by the lymphatics
o Reason – due to receiving blood directly from the left ventricle
▪ Terminal arterioles
o Pressure – sudden drop
o Reason – due to ability of the arterioles to constrict & dilate
▪ Venous system
▪ Clinical correlation:
o Pressure – none
o Hypertension → increased capillary hydrostatic pressure → edema
o Reason – due to their extreme compliance the pressure in this veins are
o Hypoproteinemia → decreased plasma oncotic pressure → edema
non-existent or zero
o Blockage of lymphatics → lack of drainage of the excess filtered fluid in
▪ Pulmonary circulation
the interstitial space → edema
o Pressure – low (compared to systemic circulation)
The past cannot be changed. The future is yet in your power.
o Reason – due to their low total peripheral resistance Unknown

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