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    The Natural Approach

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    Ying Hsi Chu

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    The Natural Approach Language Acquisition inthe Classroom STEPHEN D. KRASHEN University of Southern California TRACY D, TERRELL University of California at irvine PRENTICE HALL ELT LONDON NEWYORK TORONTO SYDNEY TOKYO SINGAPORE Published 1998 by Prentice Hall Europe Campus 400, Spring Way ‘Maylands Avenue, Hemel Hempstead, Hertfordshire HP2 7EZ ADivision of imon & Schoster International Growp First published 1983 by Alemany Press Published 1988 by Prentice Hall International © Prentice Hall Europe All rights reserved. No reproduction, copy or transmission of this publication may be made save with writen permission or in accordance with the provisions of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988, oc unde the term of any ieence permitting Timited copying issued by the Copyright Licensing Agency, 90 Tottenham Coust Road, Landon WP SHE, Printed and bound in Great Britain by ‘TJ. Intemational Ltd, Padstow, Comwall. Publication Data Library of Congress Cataloguing. Kerashen, Stephen, ‘The natural approach. Includes index: 1. Language arts, I. Terrell. Tracy D. Title. LB1S758K73 1982 428007 82-12193 ISBN 0-13-609934-3 TBridah Lirary Cataloguing in Publication Data Kashen, Stephen ‘The natural approach. 1. Modem languages ~ Study and teaching LTitle, 1. Terrell, Tracy 418°.07'1 PBS ISBN 0-13-609934-3, 1999 98, TABLE of CONTENTS Preface Chapter One Introduction Traditional and Non-Traditional Approaches to Language Teaching ‘An Overview: Theory and Natural Approach Chapter Two Second Language Acquisition Theory ‘The Theoretical Model: Five Hypotheses Factors Which Influence Second Language Acquisition Chapter Three Implications of Second Language Acquisition Theory for the Classroom Implications of Second Language Acquistion Theory Tho Natural Approach: Guidelines “The Natural Approach and Language Acquisition Theory Chapter Four Getting Started With The Natural Approach Curriculam Organization Classroom Activities in Early Stages Managing Classroom Activities Chapter Five Oral Communication Development Through Acquisition Activities Afjective-Hamaniste Activities Problem-Solving Activites Games Content Activites Grouping Techniques for Acquisition Activities 23 26 39 53 55 57 59 63 6 6 86 95 100 108 121 123 124 Chapter Six Additional Sources of Input for Acquisition and Learning The Place of Readingin The Natural Approach How Should Reading Be Taught? ‘A\Non-Interventionist Reading Program Intervention Teaching for Monitor Use Writing Television and Radio as Input Sources Homework Vocabulary Chapter Seven Testing and Classroom Management Testing Order of Grammar Rules Eno: Corection Modification for Age Differences Modification for Second Language Instruction Bibliography vf 129 131 131 136 138 M42 149 153 154, 155 163 165 174 177 178 179 185 PREFACE “This fsnot the fst attempt to presenta new approach tothe teaching of second ‘and foreign languages based on anew theory of language. Earlier attemps, most notably audiotingual approaches, have not met with great success. We think that this has happened for several reasons. A major problem was thatthe theories ‘werent actually theories of nguage acquisition, but theodes of something els; for example, the structure of language. Also, the application of the theory, the methodology, was not always adequately fieki-tested. What looked reasonable. to the university professor on paper did not always work out in the classroom, ‘The Natural Approach, we hope, does not have these weaknesses. Itis based fon an empirically grounded theory of second language acauisiion, which has ‘been supported by a large number of scientific studies in a wide varicty of lan- ‘guage acquisition and leaming contexts. In addition, ithas been used by many ‘classroom teachersin different circumstances teaching various languages and this ‘experience has helped to shape the Approzch over the last seven years. “The central hypothesis ofthe theory is that language acquiston occurs in only ‘one way: by understanding messages. We acquire language when we obtain ‘comprehensible input, when we understand what we hear or read in another language. This means that acquisition is based primarily on what we hear and. understand, not what we say. The goal then, of elementary language classes, according ths view, isto supply comprehensible input, the crucial ingredient in language acquisition, and to bring the student to the point where he or she can understand language outside the classroom. When this happens, the acquiter can utilize the real world, as well as the classroom, for progress ‘The Natural Approach, then, is a way to do this. Its for beginners and is designed to help them becorne intermediates. We do not pretend thal the Natural Approach ts the only approach to language instruction which is capable of accomplishing this goal; there are other fine approaches wich provide com- prehensible input in a variety of innovative ways and which have been dermon- strated to be effective. The Natural Approach, however, istelatvely simple touse and itis easly adapted to a variety of situations (e.g. foreign language, second Janguage, public school, aduit education, bilingual programs, ec.) and can be. easily modified to deal wit different types of students (e.g, adults, children) with different cognitive styles. The Natural Approach, untlke some newer ap- proaches, need not be adopted in whole; we are encouraged by instructors who have initiated Natural Approzch in part within theic regular programs and who report dramatic improvernentin their students’ abilities use thet new language for communication and in their attitudes toward language study in general. ‘tthe time this book was written, our confidence in the Natural Approach was based primarily on underlying theory {itself supported by considerable empirical evidence) and the enthusiastic reactions of students and instructors. Since the completion of the manuscript, a direct test of the Natural Approach has been carried out, Professor Wilfried Voge, ina study reported at the International Con- 1 2 The Natural Approach gress of Applied Linguistics in 1981, compared colleye level German taught ‘according to the Natural Approach with a “contextualized grammar” approach (similar to the “direct method!” in which all teacher-talk isin the second lan- guage, but directed towards explicit teaching of grammar). Voge reported that Natural Approach students, after one semester, outperformed controls on tests of speaking and writing, producing a wider range of vocabulary, transmitting more information, more language, and greater accuracy in ther syntax. On a disctete- point grammar test, the two groups performed equally. This study suagesis that wwe do not necessarily sacrifice accuracy for fluency with a communicative approach; the Natural Approach students did as well onthe gremmay tes, even though they studied grammar significantly less than the controls had, Their supe- rity in measures of communication, moreover, suggests that they have a better chance of continuing to Improve: better communication ability means more communication and more comprehensible input outside the class. “There are many people we wish to thank for their contributions tothe develop- ment of Natural Approach, Ken Fish, Spanish teacher at Corona Del Mat High ‘School in Newport Beach, Califomia, was the fist to “dare” to use such a radically different approach to language instruction, Richard Bamutia then Chair Of the Department of Spanish and Portuguese, at the University of Caltfomia, Irvine, was our first defender and allowed usto use Natural Approach on alarge scale with the students of Spanish and their graduate student instructors. Wiliied Voge, Department of German, University of Califomia, Irvine, and Ramon Araluce, Department of Spanish and Portuguese, University of Soutien Cal- fomia, Los Angeles, were the fist io try to implement Natural Approach with a large number of untrained instructors and college students. Now, of course, the ‘number ofinstrictors using Natural Approach sin the hundreds andit would be impossible to thank those who have mace suagestions for improvements and {even new techniques over the years As wil be apparent, Natural Approach has been influenced by the splendid work of James Asher (Total Physical Response), bby Ben Clay Christensen (Affective Activites), by Beverly Galyean (Confluent Education) and by Gertrude Moscowitz (Humanistic Learning). Also, several ESL instnictors have produced materials for classroom use based on Natural ‘Approach principles. We will mention only a few names and hope that those whose names are not included wil not fee! offended: Sandra Anderson, Irvine Unified School District, vine, California, who frst used Natural Approach in a Bilingual-ESL Program, Guillermo Lopez, of the Ofice of Bilingual Bicultural Eucation of the State of Calfomia, who included principles of Natural Approach inthe “Theoretical Framework” for Bilingual Programs in the State of Clifomia, Mernill Swain and Michael Canale, of the Ontario Insitute for Studies in Educa- tion, Toronto, for theirinput regarding the connection between Natural Approach and Immersion Programs in Canada, Jeanne Egasse, Instructor of Spanish and Linguistics, Saddleback Community College, North Campus, lvine, Califomia, for her dedication to Natural Approach in the form of workshops and for “ac- {quiting” Hebrew via Natural Approach instruction in order to demonstrate that Preface 3 [Natural Approach also “works” with non Indo-European languages. We would ‘alo like to thank Judy Winn-Bell Olsen, Roger Olsen, Sharon Bassano, Philip Hauptman, and Robin Scarcella for thelr cornments on an earler version ofthe ‘manuscript ‘And we thank ourstudents, whohave shown usthat normal human beingscar indeed acquire another language inthe classtoom. Chapter One Introduction ‘TRADITIONAL AND NON-TRADITIONAL APPROACHES TO LANGUAGE TEACHING Early Viewpoints Traditional Direct Methods The Reading Method The Audiolingual Method ‘Communicative Approaches and Methodologies AN OVERVIEW: THEORY AND NATURAL APPROACH Acquisition and Learning How Acquisition Takes Place ‘The Natural Approach and Language Acquisition TRADITIONAL AND NON-TRADITIONAL APPROACHES TO LANGUAGE TEACHING “The study of other languages is probably recentin terms ofthe history of man- kind, The acquisition of other languages through using them for purposes of com: ‘mumicationis, onthe otherhand, sold as language itself. Throughouthishistory, rman has leamed to use languages other than his native tongue for commun. cating with members of other language groups and other cultures, Its unilkely that much use was made of formal grammar studies to aid in this task since itis cloubiful that such studies or even such knowedge existed. Even today with the ‘vast amount of linguistic knowledge available about the languages ofthe world, it is tikely that most ability to communicate in another language is acquired in what ‘we wil call “traditional” ways, ie, through communicative practice in real situa tions using the language for specific functions. Thisls as true in the marketplace of underdeveloped regions of Africaas itis in the case ofthe so-called guestworkers, in various industrialized countries of Europe. ‘We will refer to this method of acquiring the ablity to communicate in another language directly without instruction in its grammar es the traditional approach because the evidence seems clear that in fact this is how most people have tra- ltionally aequired languages. Normally when we think of traditional methods of teaching and leaming other anguages, we think of the methods and approaches ‘most often used in academic situations. The word “traditional” brings to mind a picture of the old schoolmaster with his dreaded ruler, ready to pounce on unwary students who make a mistake in their Latin deciensions, We think of “new” methods asa revolt against these traditional and staid practices; and iftra- dition isto be defined in terms of American education, thisis not an unjust view. Our viewpoint, on the other hand, is thet tradition in European and American ‘education is not representative ofthe normal way mankind has dealt with com- rmunicating with speakers of other languages. Is, in our opinion, an aberration ‘which may have had its roots in the period between the Renaissance and the ‘eatty nineteenth century. We will examine in some detail this development inceit forms the backdrop forall that is to come in this book. Early Viewpoints After the gradual acceptance of the modem vemacular tongues of Westem Europe and with the loss of universal uency in Latin as a medium of communi- cation across cultures, the value of acquiring communicative competence in other languages was more acutely recognized. Although we cannotimagine that ‘masses of literate peasants travelled enough to need fuency in languages other than their native tongues, it was certainly the case, then as now, that in border areas those who had need to communicate in other languages acquired the ability to do so directly from participation in these communicative experiences. 8 The Natural Approach ‘The upper classes, on the other hand, cultivated language skils usually by ‘sending their sons or daughters tothe regions in which the desired language was spoken or by bringing a native speaker fo the household to allow for opportunl- tes for natural interchange in the new tongue. ltis during the 1600's that texts aimed at aiding the leamers in thelr progress in the new language appeared. The common underiing characteristic of these early texts is that they made litle orno use ofthe leamer’snative language. Thus, they were what we would later call “direct method” texs since they advocated learning a language much in the same way we leam our first language. In fact Titone points out that even Latin, which was certainly no longer widely used for ‘oral communication, was taught by oral methods. He mentions conversational handbooks, the famous Diolog! or Collogui, compiled by such authorities as Heyden, Cordier, Fr. Van Tomme, and so forth!" ‘Along with this long triton of laming language in a dect fashion, Le, by engaging in oral communication without reference to ether grammar or one's native language, the study of grammar per se must have existed for many years. Both Romans and Greeks were skilled grammarians and the study of grammar ‘was highly valued by members of the upper classes. What is not obvious is whether they used the study of grammar as a means for leaming another language or simply as a goal, worthy in and of itself, ater one had acquired flueney and competency in the new tongue. During the Middle Ages itis certain that much time wes spent studying Latin grammarin the monasteries of Europe. However, Latin was also used as a medium of daily communication, Thus, although grammar was studied, itis not clear at all that this s the way in which ‘competence in Latin was acquired, Itis more probable thatthe major portion of language ability was acquired through dally use of Latin for real communicative needs; the study of grammar was considered to be more valuable in the analysis of texts and in copying. It's clear, however, that the study of Latin grammar was highly valued and affected both the stucy ofthe grammar of one’snative tongue as wellas the more formalized stady of other languages. Translation between Latin and the veracu- lar became commonplace and indeed, a knowledge of arammat was “considered an essential tool inthe task of resaton." In these years the use of \nterlinear translations became common and many saw learning another lan- ‘guage as equatable with leaming to translate from one language to another. Roger Ascham (1515-68), for example, used translation extensively in his The ‘Scholemaster to teach Latin, ® ‘We cannot be sure why a more formal approach o language teaching became so popular. The publication of texts which purported to teach languages based on paradigms, declensions, conjugations and rules of sentence constuction mult- plied extensively inthis period, Mallson speculates thatit wes due to the fact that Latin, pethaps the language most studied by the intelligentsia and upper classes, had ceased to be a normal vehicle for daly communication. He continues: Introduction 9 itbecame a mental aymnesi, the supremely dead language, a dsipined ‘and systematic study of which wes held to be indispensable asa bass forall forms of higher education, Classical studies were then intended and made to produce an excelent mental discipline, a foritude of spit and a broad humane understanding of Me. They succeeded tumphantly forthe tesin their objective. 9 Whatever the reason, grammar-based approaches swept the western world Titone reports that by the nineteenth century, textbook compilers “were mainly determined to codify the foreign language into frozen rules of moxphology and syntax to be explained and eventually memorized. Oral work was reduced to a ‘minimum, whilea handful of written exercises, constructed at random, cameasa sort of appendix of the rules."* Bahisen describes the process and method in peinful detail, He described the ‘method he used in studying French as: a barren waste of insipid sentence translation, Committing words to ‘memory translating sentences, dilingiegulr verbs, later memordngre- eating, and appling grammatical rules with their exceptions —that was and remained our main occupation, for not unl the last years ofthe high schools withthe nine-year cuniculum dd French reading come to anything like prominence and that was the dine when free compositions ofthe foreign language were to be wnten ® [tis certainly not the case that such methods produced then, or for that matter have ever produced, communication skills. Fluency in spoken French for "chisen hed to come then just as today by real experience in natural communi- cative situations ‘According to Buchanan and MacPhee, exercises for the purposes of drill in teaching a foreign language were developed around the beginning of the eighteenth century to illustrate rules and exceptions. They comment that such sentences prepared to illustrate the rules were dificult and often absurd. ° So much has been written on the formal grammar-based approaches to the Teaming of other languages that tis not necessary to repeat this information. Any reader of this book will no doubt have experienced grammar-based language teaching since these sorts of methodologies and approaches have dominated and ‘continue to dominate North American education to the present We do want 10 ‘point out that even in the period of domination of grammar-based approaches from, say the 1700's to the present, there were always those who accepted the importance of grammar and grammatical analyses, and sill opposed grammar. ‘based approaches, opting for more “natural” or “direct” approaches? Traditional Direct Methods The reaction to grammar-based approaches and the subsequent call to use ‘more treditional ways of leaming other languages came from diverse sources and in diferent ways with various labels. The approaches have been called natural, ‘psychological, phonetic, new, reform, direc, analyte imitative and so forth. 10 The Natural Approach ‘What they have in common is that they refer to traditional ways of learning based con the use of language in communicative situations usually without recourse to the native language.* ‘The first trend to establish itself with a name was the natural method. The report of the Committee of Twelve in 1901 originated by the Modern Language Association describes it as follows: Inits extreme form the method consisted ofa series of monologues by the teacher intorporsed with exchanges of question and answer betweon the insouctor and the pupil —~ alin the foreign language... A great deal of pan- tomime accompanied the tk, With the aid of ths gesteulation, by atentive listening, and by dint of much repettion the leamer came to associate cet- tain acts and objects with cerain combinations of the sounds and finaly reached the point of reproducing the foreign words of phrases. Not una considerable famiiaty withthe spoken word was attained was the scholar allowed to see the foreign language in print. The study of grammar was reserved fra sil later period. ? ‘The so-called psychological method was sila is basic characteristic was, that the instructor attempted to make the association of ideas elther with each cther or with something concrete. Frequently used were objects, diagrams, charts and "pantomime was a frequent device.” ‘Thesertes method advocatedby FrancoisGouin wasperhapsthebestknown technique used by the psychological methodologis. The technique is simple: it consists of relating activities ina series relatingto specifc activi. Forexample, i Wwe wished to talk about washing the car we could describe the sequence with a series of statements such as: First we get a bucket, then we fil t with water and soap. We must have ether a sponge ora rag. We use the soap and waterto scrub the entire car, etc. Gouin developed this technique afte a ong struggle tying to lear to speak and understand German through formal grammar-based methods. If these methods could have produced communicative competence, they should have ‘with Gouin since he had been trained in languages and language study. How- ever, their total failure and his tuming to observations of how chiren lear a second language ts one of the most impressive personal testimonials in the re- ‘corded annals of language fearing," The phonetic method belongs also in this group because of ts sistence on ‘oral expression. It is mostly associated with the name of Vietor in Germany but was popular with practitioners of the newiy developed phonetic science, The students were dried first in the discrimination and production ofthe sounds of the new language using short idiomatic phrases and making liberal use of phonetic symbols. The normal script was not used at fst. These phrases wore fumed into dialogs and stories, All grammar was studied inductively, that is, students had to discover rules through a problem-solving approach, rather than ‘being told what they were. (This was true ofall ofthe methods inthis group). ‘These traditional ideas had the most effect on language teaching in France. Introduction 11 ‘The term méthode directe reiersto the teaching of languages without resorting {o translation and without using the native language. The term originated froma publication of the French Minister of Public Instruction in 1901." The direct method wes also very popular in certain circles in the United ‘States at the beginning of the 20th century. The professional literature in this period is full of debates between grammar method adherents and direct method followers." Itis, with minor modification, the method preferred by academies and specialized schools whose sole purposes o tran persons in skis in another language. The Berlitz Schools are the most famous, but also the various foreign language schools such as the Alliance Frangaise and the Goethe Institute, spor: sored by the French and German governments respectively, have strongly ad. hered to such methods, We suspect this Is because such institutions cannot, by their very existence, tolerate failure — thelr students must learn to.communicate ‘orthey will have no students. The massive failure of public school instruction cant be lamented, but itis, in a sense, tolerable since the students are @ captive audience, ‘This is not to say thatthe direct method was not applied in public institutions. ‘Since the tur of the century up tothe present day. therehave always been those individuals who have adhered more or fess to direct method techniques. This ‘seems to have especially been true with French classes as opposed to Gennan ‘and Spanish instruction, which for the most part seem fo have remained tied to grarnmar-based methodologies The Reading Method ‘There was one early attempt at reforming and unifying language methodology ‘early this century. This attempt was derived from a study of foreign language methodology and an extensive poll ofthe foreign language profession on gen- erally accepted goals for language study in the United States. The study was published as the Modern Foreign Language Study and was produced by a com- mittee under the direction of Algemon Coleman and sponsored by the Carnegie Corporation. The most important single volume produced by the study was Coleman's The Teaching of Modern Foreign Languages in the United States. ‘This report found that of the generally recognized four skills — listening compre. hension, spealking, reading, and writing — only the reacting sll was acceptable as the primary goal to all of the members ofthe profession. Consequenty the Committee looked at the relevant research to determine what methods would produce students with reading skis in the standard two-year secondary school sequence. The report stated that ‘experience and statistical evidence in teaching the vernacular indicate that the ammount of reading that the pupils do is directly celated to achievement both in ate of silent reading and in comprehension. Furthermote. exper rents show conchisively that inereasing the amount of reading that i ‘ited results in rapld progress rate and comprehension, ‘Thus. the report recommended that the amount of reading in foreign language 12 The Natural Approach lasses be drastically inceased.* One cannot simply inctease the amount of reading, however, without con- comitant changes in how the reading is done. At the ime this report was issued, It would be safe to say that most classes were aught using a grammar-based ‘method with heavy emphasts on translation as a geal. Other clases using direct, ‘methods would have emphasized orl skills with litle emphasis on reading, and, ‘of course, none on translation, When recommending an inerease in the amount of reading, the committee specifally defined reading: ‘They wil practice reading deny, bothin and outof class, endeavoring detb- rately to understand complete sentences and longer pestages without ans- lation into English, © ‘Thus, the report opted for extensive reading, ic, reading for content rather than, intensive reading, Le., detailed grammatical analysis of smaller passages, ll ac- tivities in the class were fo converge on developing extensive reading, In the ‘two-year course the student was to have read (for content oniy) almost 1000 pages of foreign language text ‘The detals of the method are not of interest here. The emphasis on exten- sive reading and the relection of translation was, however, a retum to “tradi tional” approaches, although the focus on a single skill as the goal of foreign language study would seem rather extreme today. We must remember, however, that opportunites for the average American student to travel to Europe to use French or German oto South America or Mexico to use Spanish ‘were very few compared to the opportunities of students today. ‘The report was influential in increasing interes in graded readers which used frequency counts for selection of both vocabulary and structure, In order to train the student to read extensively, the material needed to be atthe correct, level, Although these abridgements of classic works of literature based on fre quency counts later fell out of fashion, most ate still available and useful fr the language student, as we shall seein later sections ofthis book. ‘The report did not really have the desired impact on instruction. Those who strongly disagreed with the Committee in tems of goals for language instruc- tion continued to emphasize the oral sks or the grammar skils they deemed ‘most important. Especially those trained in translation methods attempted to increase the amount of transiaion to the further detriment of oral skis. It pretty safe to say that by the period of World War Il and its aftermath, the language profession in the United States had settled back into formal gremmar- bbased methods which stressed conscious knowledge of grammar rules and ability o do sight translations. Traditional direct methods survived only sporad- ically in places in which individuals had developed especially good programs, One particularly famous example is De Sauzé's Cleveland Plan.” This plan has ‘been described (Titone, 1968:81) asa “multiple intogralad approach, in whichall the four basic skis are taught simultaneously on the besisof the students'reallfe experiences.” Introduction 13 The Audiolingual Method ‘What did have a significant Impact was the Second World War, The impact twas felt fom two directons. ist, the public became painfully aware of the failure of the language teaching profession to tain students in communicative abies. The soldiers and others who found themselves In foreign language areas were unprepared to deal with simple communication; the pube wanted to know why, The answer's ofcourse simple: methods in which students never engoge in rel communication cannot be expected to produce students able to communicate using the language they study ‘The other source of influence which was to have a profound effect was the United States Amy language programs. With the advent of World War Il the military complex ofthe United States suddely found tse in need of personnel trained in a large number and wide verety of languages. They had a special need for persons who could leam languages of certain indigenous groups of southeast Asia and the islands of the Pacific, some of whose languages had not yet been studied or even codified in writen form. They turned tothe only group ‘of persons who could have provided this sort of expertise: the American de- Scrptive ingusts who had worked extensively wth American indian languages. ‘These linguists were called on to organize language classes, write materials and in-gencral provide experts In these areas The schools were informaly reported to be a great success: students leamed to communicate in a wide vari- ‘ety of languages and the goals of the military with regard to language training were met ‘Since these courses were apparently so successful, itis worth our time to look at least briely at the components of an Amy language course during ths period. It consisted typically of two sessions — one in which situational-based Gialogs were practiced and memorzed,folewed by orl dis conssting of sen- tences illustrating the major syntactic pattems and form classes ofthe language “These iil sessions were conducted ether by a linguist familar with the language or by a native speaker trained by a linguist. The dialog sessions user then followed by conversation sessions with a native speaker, these were tually constructed around real He situations, offen those ofthe dtalogs. The classes were smal usually under 10 persons, allowing for ample opportunity to engage in communication experiences In retrospect, it was probably due to these intensive communicative sessions that these courses were so successful Tiss somewhat nic, since these com- ‘munication sossions were not to be inlided in the Auciolingval Method which trould be derived, for the most part, from the techniques used inthe “dil” sessions ‘The success of these classes added to the general public's recognition of the failure of the language teaching profession. For example, a survey of secondary enrollments showed that in 1949 and 1955 only about 14% of the secondary Population enrolled in language courses and as late as 1957, 56% of the Eecondary schools in the United States offered no foreign language courses. ” 14 The Natural Approach ‘The Soviet Union's launching of Sputnik, the frst earth satelite, n 1957, was beneficial by 1958 the Congress of the United States had passed the National Defense Education Act in which the study of modem foreign languages was, defined and seen as an important goal in the security and defence of the United States. The next 10 years provided the seting for intense activity in the development of methods and materials for language instruction using the Army ‘methods asa partial model. This new methodooay came to be known as audfo- Hingualism because of its emphasis on the teaching of oral skill (Iistening and speaking) before reading and writing. ‘Auciclingualsm swept the country ina wave of reaction against the

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