INSTITUTE OF ADULT EDUCATION

AET 05208: FUNDAMENTALS OF PSYCHOLOGY OF ADULT LEARNING

TABLE OF CONTENTS
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LECTURE ONE....................................................................................................................................4

THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ADULT LEARNING..................................................................................4

1.1 Introduction.................................................................................................................................4

1.2 The Concept of Psychology.........................................................................................................4

1.1.1 Science..................................................................................................................................5

1.1.2 Behaviour.............................................................................................................................6

1.3 Branches of Psychology..............................................................................................................7

1.4 Educational Psychology...............................................................................................................8

1.4.1 Principal functions of educational psychology......................................................................9

1.4.2 Scope of Educational Psychology.......................................................................................10

References...........................................................................................................................................12

LECTURE TWO.....................................................................................Error! Bookmark not defined.

THE LEARNING PROCESS..............................................................................................................13

2.1 Introduction...............................................................................................................................13

2.2 The Learning Process................................................................................................................13

2.3 Characteristics of Learning........................................................................................................14

2.3.1 Potential change in Behaviour............................................................................................14

2.3.2 Disposition..........................................................................................................................14

2.3.3 Capability...........................................................................................................................15

2.3.4 Performance........................................................................................................................15

2.4 Learning Theories......................................................................................................................15

2.4.1 Behavioural Theory............................................................................................................16

2.4.2 Cognitive theory of Learning..............................................................................................26

References...........................................................................................................................................28

LECTURE THREE.............................................................................................................................29

SPECIAL AND INCLUSIVE ADULT EDUCATION.......................................................................29

3.1 Introduction...............................................................................................................................29

3.2 Definition of Concepts...............................................................................................................29

3.2.1 Impairment.........................................................................................................................29

3.2.2 Disability............................................................................................................................30

3.2.3 Handicap.............................................................................................................................30

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 3.2.4 Special needs......................................................................................................................30

3.2.5 Special educational needs...................................................................................................31

3.2.6 Special education (segregation)..........................................................................................31

3.2.7 Inclusive education.............................................................................................................31

3.2.8 Mainstreaming....................................................................................................................33

3.2.9 Integration...........................................................................................................................33

3.2.10 Gifted and talented students..............................................................................................33

3.3 Types of Disabilities..................................................................................................................34

3.3.1 Learning difficulties............................................................................................................34

3.3.2 Intellectual Disability..........................................................................................................35

3.3.3 Physical Disabilities............................................................................................................38

3.3.4 Hearing impairment............................................................................................................38

3.3.5 Visual impairment..............................................................................................................39

3.4 Need and Importance of Inclusive Education............................................................................40

References...........................................................................................................................................40

LECTURE FOUR...............................................................................................................................41

MEASUREMENT AND EVALUATION IN ADULT EDUCATION...............................................41

4.1 Introduction...............................................................................................................................41

4.2 Test and Testing.........................................................................................................................41

4.2.1 Introduction........................................................................................................................41

4.2.2 Defining a test.....................................................................................................................41

4.3 Factors that may affect the quality of your test or examination.................................................43

4.4 Assessment................................................................................................................................43

4.4.1 Meaning of assessment.......................................................................................................43

4.4.2 General principles of assessment........................................................................................45

4.5 Measurement.............................................................................................................................45

4.6 Evaluation..................................................................................................................................46

4.6.1 The meaning of evaluation..................................................................................................46

4.6.2 Types of evaluation.............................................................................................................47

4.7 The Purpose of Measurement and Evaluation............................................................................48

References...........................................................................................................................................49

LECTURE ONE

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 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ADULT LEARNING

1.1 Introduction

This is our first lecture in this module titled Fundamental of Psychology of Adult Learning. In
this section, you will be exposed to the importance and contribution of educational
psychology on the theory and practice of adult education. Understanding psychology is
important in adult education setting because every facilitator is confronted with the problem
of individual differences in the learning contexts such as adult education centres or
classrooms. Probably you might have heard about the term ‘Psychology’ on several occasions
in your life but you have not studied it scholarly. If you do not study Educational Psychology,
you will lack some valuable knowledge as a professional teacher.

The purpose of this section is to introduce to you the concept of psychology, its branches, and
a more discussion will be done on Educational Psychology, by focusing on its meaning
characteristics.

Specific unit objectives

After careful reading of this unit you should be able to:
1. Define psychology
2. Describe the main branches of psychology
3. Explain the functions of educational psychology
4. Explain the focal areas of educational psychology

1.2 The Concept of Psychology

Although there have been various conceptions of the term psychology, the term has been
basically conceived as the science that studies human behaviour and thinking. In order to
understand human behaviour and thinking, psychologists concentrate on how experience
affects thought and action, and the roles of biology and heredity. In terms of biology, it traces
how people develop from infants into adults, and the social influences to that development.
Basically, psychology tries to explain why people think, act and feel as they do.

By critically looking on the above definition, you will notice that it contains two important
concepts that need explanation. The concepts are “science” and “behaviour”. The meanings
of these two key concepts are explained below:

1.1.1 Science

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Science may be defined as a systematic body of knowledge which may be verified by any
number of individuals under given conditions. Psychology as a field of study has evolved
considerably over last few years with different perspectives, approaches and research
interests of psychologists and researchers. But they all have one thing in common and that is
relying on the usage of scientific methods.

The field of psychology as a scientific area of study is important for both practitioners, like
adult educators and teachers, as well as researchers. The psychologists engaged in research
activities focus on unleashing newer perspectives on the causes of human behaviour by using
scientific methods. On the other hand, the practitioner psychologists such as clinical
psychologists, counsellors, industrial-organizational psychologists and school psychologists
utilize the existing research knowledge in enhancing or improving the life of people.

Just like other social sciences, psychology is also a science as it attempts to predict the causes
of human behaviour by relying on data collection, empirical evidences and provide
interpretations by analyzing facts and evidences related to different behavioural tenets. Much
of the research work on psychology is based on a scientific examination of day to day human
behaviour. By applying the scientific methods, the psychologists systematically and
objectively explain the cause of variations in human behaviour.

As a science, psychology is concerned with discovering those conditions and factors that
determine, or cause the occurrence of, a particular event using the scientific method of
experimentation and observation.

1.1.1.1 The characteristics of a science

In order to understand if psychology is a science, let us consider the general characteristics of

a science.

1. Science relies on empirical observation: The scientific method is empirical. That is, it
relies on direct observation of the world, and disdains hypotheses that run counter to
observable fact. This contrasts with methods that rely on pure reason and with methods
that rely on emotional or other subjective factors.

2. Replicable Experiments: Scientific experiments are replicable. That is, if another person
duplicates the experiment, he or she will get the same results. Scientists are supposed to
publish enough of their method so that another person, with appropriate training, could
replicate the results. This contrasts with methods that rely on experiences that are unique
to a particular individual or a small group of individuals.
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3. Provisional Results: Results obtained through the scientific method are provisional; they
are (or ought to be) open to question and debate. If new data arise that contradict a theory,
that theory must be modified. For example, the phlogiston theory of fire and combustion
was rejected when evidence against it arose.

4. Objective Approach: The scientific method is objective. It relies on facts and on the
world as it is, rather than on beliefs, wishes or desires. Scientists attempt (with varying
degrees of success) to remove their biases when making observations.

5. Systematic Observation: Strictly speaking, the scientific method is systematic; that is, it
relies on carefully planned studies rather than on random or haphazard observation.
Nevertheless, science can begin from some random observation.

1.1.1.2 Psychology as a science

Thus, we need to understand how psychology as a science fulfils these characteristics.

(i) Psychology uses scientific methods to collect data

(ii) Psychology attempts to find new truths about human behaviour

(iii) Psychology deals with observable behaviour and establish facts by objective
evidences

(iv)Psychology as a science helps understand, control, and predict behaviour.

(v) Psychological research findings are applicable to future researches and practical life.

1.1.2 Behaviour
In the above definition of psychology, it was argued that it is the science of behaviour. The
term “behaviour” was popularized by J.B. Watson, an American psychologist, who defined it
as “an action which can be seen and observed in an objective way” and this involves both
external and internal responses to stimulation, observed, and measured in an objective way.

It may also be defined as the actions and mannerisms made by individuals, organisms,
systems or artificial entities in conjunction with themselves or their environment, which
includes the other systems or organisms around as well as the (inanimate) physical
environment. It is the computed response of the system or organism to various stimuli or
inputs, whether internal or external, conscious or subconscious, overt or covert, and voluntary
or involuntary.

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1.3 Branches of Psychology

Psychology touches almost every aspect of human life and is increasingly assuming an
important role in solving human problems in the changing society.

Psychologists are concerned with both broad problems and specific day to day problems in
our society. As psychology affects so many aspects of our life, it is important that even those
who do not intend to specialize in this field know something about its basic facts and research
method.

A study of psychology provides a better understanding of why people behave as they do and
also provides insights into one’s own attitudes and action. Nevertheless, there are different
ways of explaining human actions.

The important branches of psychology include:

i. General psychology
ii. Animal psychology
iii. Educational psychology
iv. Developmental psychology
v. Abnormal psychology
vi. Social psychology
vii. Experimental psychology
viii. Military psychology
ix. Industrial psychology
x. Personality psychology
xi. Clinical psychology
xii. Guidance and counselling psychology
Subfield Major concerns and activities
1 Clinical Psychology It deals with diagnosing and treating emotional
illnesses and disturbance, often in a hospital or clinical
setting.
2 Guidance and Counselling Is concerned with evaluating and counselling clients
Psychology with behavioural, emotional, and other problems that
are not serious enough to require hospital or clinical
treatment. It is also concerned with assisting
individuals making important decisions such as career
choice, marriage, business decisions, and so on.
3 Developmental Psychology It deals with changes in human that define growth,
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4 Educational Psychology
5 Industrial and Personnel Is an application of psychology in business and
Psychology
6 Personality Psychology
7 School Psychology
8 Social Psychology
maturation and learning from birth to death; applying
findings in education programs.
It is concerned with researching learning, thinking,
remembering, instructing and related topics in
education settings; developing and applying learning
programs for students.
industry by developing and administering tests to
evaluate aptitudes, conducting workshops and
programs dealing with motivation, management,
interpersonal relations and related areas.
It is concerned with identifying and describing
important, stable characteristics of individuals,
developing classification schemes for personality
characteristics and methods for identifying and
assessing these characteristics.
It deals with identification of individual aptitudes and
skills among learners in a school setting; developing
and administering tests pertinent to school related
abilities.
It is concerned with doing research and consulting on
the relationship between individual and groups.

However, in this module you will be exposed only to educational psychology due to the
reason that it deals with teaching and learning and all teachers are required to have
knowledge of educational psychology. In the next section, you will cover its meaning,
principal functions, and scope.

1.4 Educational Psychology

Educational psychology is the branch of psychology that deals with the scientific study of
human learning. The study of learning processes, from both cognitive and behavioral
perspectives, allows researchers to understand individual differences in intelligence,
cognitive development, affect, motivation, self-regulation, and self-concept, as well as their
role in learning. The field of educational psychology relies heavily on quantitative methods,
including testing and measurement, to enhance educational activities related to instructional
design, classroom management, and assessment, which serve to facilitate learning processes
in various educational settings across the lifespan.

Therefore, educational psychology deals with how people learn, including topics such as
student outcomes, the instructional process, individual differences in learning, gifted learners,

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and learning disabilities. It deals with such problems as: How do children or adult people
acquire skills? When is learning more effective? What are the factors that influence the
learning process? How do we measure the amount of learning? Why do we forget? Can
memory be improved?

Educational psychology helps the teacher to get answers to above questions. It tells us that
learning becomes more effective if factors like motivation and interest are taken into
consideration by every teacher. The knowledge of psychology has helped the teacher in
modifying her approach to the teaching learning process.

Educational psychology has been defined in several ways: some of the common definitions
include:

i. The application of psychological findings to the field of education

ii. An area of applied psychology whose primary concern is to apply psychological

knowledge to problems solving teaching/learning process

iii. The systematic study of the development of the individual within educational settings

iv. The study of the human mind and behaviour with relation to teaching/learning process

1.4.1 Principal functions of educational psychology

Educational psychology is concerned with the application of psychological knowledge to
problems that affect teaching or the learning process. Its principal functions are to:

i. develop and evaluate theories of human motivation, development, learning and

instruction

ii. examine and propose modifications of educational practices

iii. evaluate teaching methodology in the light of psychological theory

iv. provide scientific approaches to research with regard to psychological aspects of

education

1.4.2 Scope of Educational Psychology

By looking on the above definition, you will learn that Educational Psychology deals the
following major elements:

 The learner

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  The learning process

 The learning situation

 The teaching situation

 Evaluation of learning performance

 The teacher

The interrelationships between these elements that make up the scope of educational
psychology are presented in Figure 1.

Learner Teacher

Learning process Learning content (curriculum)

Teaching strategies Evaluation of learning outcome

Figure 1: The Interrelationships of the Elements That Make Up the Scope of Educational
Psychology

14.2.1 The Leaner

Educational Psychology acquaints us with the knowledge of the learner and deals with the
techniques of knowing him or her well. The following are the topics studied included in it:
the innate abilities and capabilities of the individual, individual differences and their
measurements, the overt, convert, conscious as well as unconscious behaviour of the learner,
the characteristics of his or her growth and development at each stage beginning from
childhood to adulthood.

14.2.2 The learning process

After knowing the learner and deciding what learning experiences are to be provided, the
emerging problem is to help the learner in acquiring these learning experiences with ease and
confidence.

Thus, educational psychology deals with the nature of learning and how learning takes place
in different contexts. Understanding the nature of learning process you need to cover topics
such as laws, principles and theories of learning, remembering and forgetting, perceiving,

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concept formation, thinking, reasoning process, problem solving, transfer of training, ways
and means of effective learning, etc.

14.2.3 The learning situation

Educational psychology also deals with the environment factors and learning situation which
come midway between the learner and the teacher. Topics like classroom climate and group
dynamics techniques and aids which facilitate learning, evaluation techniques, and practices,
guidance and counselling etc. which help in the smooth functioning of the teaching learning
process.

14.2.4 Teaching Situation

It suggests the techniques of teaching. It also helps in deciding what learning situation should
be provided by teacher to learner according to his mental and physical age, his previous
knowledge and interest level. By describing the learner’s characteristics, what teaching aids
are appropriate for the particular subject.

14.2.5 Evaluation of Learning Performance

The main objective of education revolves around the development of the learner. It includes
cognitive, affective, and psychomotor aspects of personality. Educational Psychology
suggests various tool and techniques for assessment and evaluation such as performance test,
oral test and written test. It does not stop at measurement only, after the testing results of the
test are anyslysed causes for poor performance, backwardness in any aspect of development
is corrected by maladjustment are helped by guidance and counselling study habit,
examination techniques and learning styles are analysed and helped the learner so that he can
overcome the difficulties.

14.2.6 The teacher

Educational psychology emphasizes the need of knowing the self to enable the teacher to play
his or her role properly in the process of education. It throws light on the essential personality
traits, interests, aptitudes, the characteristics of effective teaching etc., so as to inspire and
help the teacher to handle the stress and conflict by giving insight in their own personality.

Practical activity
 In your words, what do you understand by the term ‘Psychology’?
 Briefly describe the main branches11of psychology.
 How important is educational psychology to adult education facilitators?
References
Santrock, W. J. (2011). Educational psychology. New York, NY: The McGraw-Hill.
Bernstein, A. D. (1988). Psychology. Dallas, TX: Houghton Company.
Campbell, C.Y. (2002). Psychology. Chicago, IL: Rand McNally.
Lahey, B. (1998). Psychology: An introduction. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill.
Lema, V. I. (2004). General psychology. Dar es Salaam, Tanzania: The Open University of
Tanzania.
Perrin, L. (1986). Understanding psychology (4th ed.). New York, NY: McGraw Hill.

LECTURE TWO

THE LEARNING PROCESS

2.1 Introduction

This unit exposes you to the learning process. A brief discussion of the meaning of learning,
its characteristics, and theories will be made. Understanding the learning process is important
for adult educators because learning is a complex process that is guided by theories and
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principles. These theories and principles are therefore important for teachers to understand
and apply them in their daily work.

Unit specific objectives

After covering this unit, you should be able to:

1. Define learning

2. Identify factors affecting learning

3. Describe learning theories

4. Describe the major learning theories, and

5. Evaluate the application of learning theory in adult learning

2.2 The Learning Process

Learning is considered to be the primary reason for the existence of schools and a means by
which socialization takes place. It is difficult to separate a man from learning, for the two are
inseparable. Think for a moment, the state a man would be if there were no learning or man
lacked capacity to learn. It would mean that without learning, people would not know their
names, their parents, where they live, etc. For better or worse, man is a creature of learning.

Learning is a continuous process lasting from the moment at person is born to the end of his
life on this planet. It occurs both as a result of deliberate and conscious effort and
subconsciously. It occurs not only at school through the teacher’s conscious effort to transmit
information, but also at home as parents interact with each other and their children.

You should know that there are several definitions of learning. The most commonly held
view of definition of learning is that of a change of behaviour as a result of what one has
experienced, and this may be shown in the way a person thinks (cognitive), acts
(psychomotor) or feels (affective). More specifically, Hilgard and Bower (1975:17) define
learning as:

…the change in a subject’s behaviour as a result of what one has experiences in

that situation, provided that the behaviour change cannot be explained on the basis
of native response tendencies, maturation, or temporary state of the subject
(fatigue, drugs etc.).
This definition claims that there are certain behaviours that may not be the result of learning,
but that of the normal and natural or biological development of a person, for example seeing
or walking. Other scholars consider learning as a change in performance due to experience
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and that it is a process whereby a person’s behaviour changes as a result of experience.
Moreover, others consider learning as a relatively permanent change in behaviour following
practice or experience of some kind.

Therefore, learning involves acquiring and modifying knowledge, skills, strategies, beliefs,
attitudes, and behaviors. People learn cognitive, linguistic, motor, and social skills, and these
can take many forms.

2.3 Characteristics of Learning

In spite of numerous theories and contrasting views, psychologists generally agree that there
are many characteristics of learning. Knowledge of the general characteristics of learning
help adult educators to use them in a learning situation. If learning is a change in behaviour as
a result of experience, then instruction must include a careful and systematic creation of those
experiences that promote learning. This process can be quite complex because, among other
things, an individual’s background strongly influences the way that person learns. To be
effective, the learning situation also should be purposeful, based on experience, multifaceted,
and involve an active process. Learning has the following characteristics.

2.3.1 Potential change in Behaviour

Evidence of learning is found not only in actual, but also in potential changes in behaviour.
However, not all changes involved in learning are obvious and observable. There may also be
other important changes that are not apparent but are still a fundamental part of learning.

2.3.2 Disposition

A disposition is a quality of character, a habit, a preparation, a state of readiness, or a

tendency to act in a specific way that may be learned. For example, there may be an
unfortunate change (a reduction) in a learner’s eagerness to participate in the class activities
following his or her teacher’s refusal to allow him/her to do so and also the loud scolding
he/she received for the “may I-can I” grammatical error. This change is also example of
learning, but in this case, it involves changes in the learner’s disposition. That is, a person’s
inclination to do or not to do something, rather than immediately observable changes in
actual behaviour.

2.3.3 Capability

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A capability is the ability to perform or achieve certain actions or outcomes. As it applies to
human capital, capability represents performing or achieving certain actions/outcomes in
terms of the intersection of capacity and ability. Learning involves not only changes in
disposition but also changes in capability. That is, changes in the skills or knowledge
required to do something. To determine whether students’ capabilities have changed
following an instruction, teachers need to give them an opportunity to engage in the relevant
behaviour.

2.3.4 Performance

Performance is how effective something or someone is at doing a good job. Performance is

defined in terms of acting, singing, playing an instrument or otherwise showing a craft to a
group of people. Thus, performance refers to actual behaviour. A teacher’s instruction affects
learners if their behaviour in terms of performance after instruction is observably different
from that before instruction. Thus, we can conclude that learning has occurred.

2.4 Learning Theories

You should understand that the roots of contemporary learning theories extend far into the
past. Many of the issues addressed and questions asked by modern researchers are not new
but rather reflect a desire for people to understand themselves, others, and the world about
them.

Before discussing the theories of learning, it is important to know what a theory is. Generally,
a theory is a scientifically acceptable set of principles offered to explain a phenomenon.
Theories provide frameworks for interpreting what we observe in the environment and they
serve as bridges between research and education. Research findings can be organized and
systematically linked to theories. Without theories, people could view research findings as
disorganized collections of data, because researchers and practitioners would have no
overarching frameworks to which the data could be linked. Even when researchers obtain
findings that do not seem to be directly linked to theories, they still must attempt to make
sense of data and determine whether the data support theoretical predictions.

A learning theory is therefore, an attempt to describe how people and animals learn, thereby,
helping us understands the inherently complex process of learning. According to Hill (2002),
learning theories have two main values. First, it provides us with vocabulary and a conceptual
framework for interpreting the examples of learning that we observe. Second, the theories
empower adult educators with strategies to find solutions for practical problems they face in
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the learning contexts. The theories do not give us solutions, but they do direct our attention to
those variables that are crucial in finding solutions.

Learning theories explain how learning takes place. Although the discipline of educational
psychology includes numerous theories, many experts identify five main schools of thought:
behaviorism, cognitivism, constructivism, experientialism, and social or contextual learning
theories.

For the purpose of this module, we will to concentrate on two main learning theories.
However, it is important as an adult educator, to read and understand more theories from the
references listed at the end of this lecture. The summary of these two theories is provided
below and consists of an outline of the key theorists, definition, history, principles, and
applications for each.

2.4.1 Behavioural Theory

Behavioral theories view learning as a change in the rate, frequency of occurrence, or form of
behaviour or response, which occurs primarily as a function of environmental factors.
Behavioural theories contend that learning involves the formation of associations between
stimuli and responses (S-R). In Skinner’s (1953) view, a response to a stimulus is more likely
to occur in the future as a function of the consequences of prior responding: Reinforcing
consequences make the response more likely to occur, whereas punishing consequences make
it less likely. Behaviorism was a powerful force in psychology in the first half of the
twentieth century, and most older theories of learning are behavioUral. These theories explain
learning in terms of observable phenomena. Behavioral theorists contend that explanations
for learning need not include internal events (such as thoughts, beliefs, feelings), not because
these processes do not exist, but rather because the causes of learning are observable
environmental events.

The behavioural view of learning is based on a model of a stimulus and response (S-R) which
advocates that learning occurs on the basis of association made between the stimulus and the
response made to such a stimulus as well as the presence of some form of reinforcement. We
will discuss four behaviourist theories in this subsection, namely classical conditioning,
operant conditioning, connectionism and social learning theory.

We will discuss the behavioural theories under two broad categories: S-R theories.

 S-R (Stimulus-Response) theory without reinforcement (Pavlov- Classical

Conditioning)
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  S-R (Stimulus-Response) theory with reinforcement:
 E.L Thorndike- Trial and Error theory
 B.F Skinner- Operant Conditioning

2.4.1.1 S-R (Stimulus-Response) theory without reinforcement

This is also referred to as Classical Conditioning. Classical conditioning was discovered by

accident by Ivan Pavlov (1849-1936), a Russian physiologist, when he noticed that animals
often salivated before food actually was placed in their mouths. He was carrying out studies
of digestion in animals. The word ‘classical’ means of the first type, and seeing that Pavlov’s
theory is one of the first theories of learning, it is referred to as classical. “Conditioning”
means learning or modification of behaviour.

Classical conditioning may also be referred to as stimulus substitution because a new

stimulus which originally was totally neutral can take the place of a stimulus which elicits a
response. For example, in Pavlov’s experiment, the dog salivated in response to food, but as
result of substitution salivated in response to an originally neutral stimulus-the footsteps or
sight of experimenter. In the absence of food, the footsteps became the new stimulus with
effect similar to food on the behaviour of the dog, namely salivating.

It is important to explain some of the technical terms used in classical conditioning. The food
presented to the dog is referred to as the Unconditioned Stimulus (US), and the salivation
which occurs in response to the presentation of the food is called the Unconditioned
Response (UR). The food is referred to as an Unconditioned Stimulus because the dog does
not have to learn to respond to food by salivating, salivating is a natural or instinctive
behaviour of dog. The neutral stimulus (sound of the bell) which lost its neutrality after
conditioning is referred to as the Conditioned Stimulus (CS) and the salivation is response to
the sound of the bell is called the Conditioned Response (CR).

This theory can be summarized diagrammatically as shown in Figure 2.

Unconditioned Stimulus (US) Stimulus with inherent biological important to animal

Unconditioned Response (UR)
Conditioned Stimulus (CS)
Conditioned Response (CR)
(e.g, food or pain)
Response automatically elicited by US
(eg, consumption and salivation or withdrawal)
Iinitially neutral cue (eg, noise) that acquires
significance through conditioning
Response elicited by CS following conditioning

Figure 1: Technical terms used in classical conditioning theory

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a Before conditioning

US (Unconditioned stimulus) UR (Unconditioned response)

Meat powder in dog’s mouth Salivation, chewing, swallowing etc

b During conditioning

CS (Conditioning stimulus) US (Unconditioned stimulus)

Bell and Meat powder Salivation

c After conditioning

CS CR
Bell Salivation

Figure 2: Pavlovian classical conditioning

2.4.1.2 Learning principles according to classical conditioning

2.4.1.2.1 Stimulus Generalisation

Involves reacting to a stimulus that is similar to the one you have learned to react. For
example, Pavlov did not stop with the positive results of his experiment, but proceeded to test
other aspects of the dog’s behaviour. For example, he wanted to know whether what the dog
had learned could be applied to a similar situation, or if the dog’s learning was restricted to
what it had gone through during conditioning process. To determine the extent to which the
dog was able to generalise, Pavlov used the sound of a buzzer. Whenever the sound of the
buzzer was presented, the dog salivated. It salivated because it associated the sound of the
buzzer with the sound of the bell, which in turn it associated with the presentation of food.
Thus it was clear to Pavlov that the dog had not only acquired a new behaviour but was also
capable of transferring the newly learned behaviour to a similar situation.

2.4.1.2.2 Discrimination
While it is important to generalise what has been learned, it is perhaps equally important to
draw a distinction between the situations that are similar and yet are different. Pavlov wished
to determine whether the dog was able to detect the difference between the sound of a bell
and the sound of any other object. Pavlov presented the dog with a sound, let us say that of a
horn, and the dog immediate response was to salivate. Then the dog was presented with the
sound of a bell followed by the presentation of food while the presentation of the sound of the
horn was not followed by the presentation of food. This was done repeatedly and the end
result was that the dog realised that the sound of the bell was accompanied by the
presentation of food, while the sound of the horn was not. This led to the dog salivating in
response to the sound of the bell only. The only reason it salivated in response to the sound of
the bell was that the sound was followed by the presentation of food, which served as a
reinforcement.

2.4.1.2.3 Extinction
Extinction may be defined as the weakening or total disappearance if a particular behaviour
due to lack of reinforcement. In classical conditioning, this happens when a conditioned
stimulus is no longer paired with an unconditioned stimulus.

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For example, if the smell of food (the unconditioned stimulus) had been paired with the
sound of a whistle (the conditioned stimulus), it would eventually come to evoke the
conditioned response of hunger. However, if the unconditioned stimulus (food) were no
longer paired with the conditioned stimulus (the bell), eventually the conditioned response
(salivating) would disappear.

2.4.1.2.4 Spontaneous Recovery

Sometimes a learned response can suddenly re-emerge even after a period of extinction.
Spontaneous Recovery is the reappearance of the conditioned response after a rest period or
period of lessened response. For example, imagine that after training a dog to salivate to the
sound of a bell, you stop reinforcing the behaviour and the response eventually becomes
extinct. After a rest period during which the conditioned stimulus is not presented, you
suddenly ring the bell and the animal spontaneously recovers the previously learned response.

2.4.1.3 Educational implications

If the teacher’s initial encounter with his pupils is characterized on his part by smiles,
greetings, and identifying pupils by name, they will interested to go to school each day. This
will further enhance their relationship with their teachers and assist in developing a positive
attitude towards the school curriculum, thus improving their chances of performing
successfully.
Lindgren and Suter (1985:139) see a great deal of potential for learning through classical
conditioning in schools.
Because stimuli in the school environment are associated with many emotional response
(unconditioned) ranging from fear, anxiety and discomfort to pleasure, joy and
exhilaration, the potential for learning through classical conditioning is great.
There are numerous reasons why children absent themselves from school and drop out of
school, but it is evident that some of them are the kind of association children make between
school and the effect is has on them. To some children, school is associated with hostility,
cruelty and indifference, and for this reason many pupils would rather not go to school. On
the other hand, if the children associate school as a friendly place where they are treated with
kindness, love, warmth, there should be no reason why they should not want to be at school as
long as it is necessary.
The same principle of association could be related to the various subjects offered, some of
which are hated and others liked. For every effect there is a cause and therefore, pupils’
attitudes toward school subjects are not inexplicable. How often does pupil pass test and
examination in a given subject? How does teacher relate to pupils in the process of teaching?
The answers to these questions will determine whether pupils like a given subject.
One of the factors that was not mentioned when the conditioning of the dog was discussed
was that the dog had been deprived of food and therefore hunger was the motive for
subsequent behaviour. Therefore, it is important to find a way of motivating pupils if the
learning is to occur. Motivation can be brought about treating pupils with due respect and
ensuring that they always enjoy a certain amount of success in whatever they do in school so
that they have a reason continue their education.
One of the reasons the dog learned a new behaviour was the reinforcement it received for its
behaviour. Reinforcement in the classroom can facilitate learning. Pupils can be reinforced by
praise for good work, bringing their work to the attention of others, or giving them token
awards. Pupils can be also reinforced by testing, since this will motivate them to study hard in
order to pass.
19
In Pavlov’s experiment, the dog was trained to generalize that it had learned in one situation
to a related but different situation. Similarly, the purpose of education is to facilitate the
transfer of learning. A teacher should ensure that his pupils are able to transfer what they learn
to similar situations within the classroom or in real life.

2.4.1.2 Stimulus-Response (S-R) theory with reinforcement

There are two theories in this category. Those proposed by Edward L. Thorndike and B. F.
Skinner.

a. Edward L. Thorndike’s theory.

Thorndike proposed by a theory that is also called Trial and Error Theory of
Learning.Thorndike was one of the early American psychologists and is credited with having
written the first book on educational psychology, the psychology of learning (1913). He is
also referred to as the “father of educational psychology”. His ambition was to find an
accurate, precise and quantifiable method of investigating and resolving problems related to
learning. In his book Animal Intelligence (1911), discuss experiments he carried out in which
he examined how animals went about solving problems. Some animals used for research
were cuts, dogs and chickens, which were put in cages within sight of food after having been
deprived of food for a while.

Thorndike is associated with the theory of connectionism, or stimulus response (SR), which
argues that learning means establishing links or bonds between two or more events. For
example, turning off the lights at night means that it is time to go to bed.

In one of his many laboratory experiments, Thorndike placed a cat which had been deprived
of food in a cage. Outside the cage was a piece of fish. It was possible for the cat to open the
cage by pulling a loop of string hanging in the cage, but the cat was not aware of this. The cat
moved about in the cage and engaged in all sorts of behaviour such as trying to squeeze
through the bars and pushing its paws through the bars and trying to reach the fish. Then the
cat began to manipulate the string and after a couple of attempts it managed to open the cage
and got out. Thorndike therefore argued that animals learn by trial and error rather than by
establishing an understanding of the relationship between different objects in a given
situation. This argument was extended to human learning, which Thorndike said is governed
by reward and punishment. According to Thorndike, learning and remembering involve the
stamping in of bonds or connections, while forgetting involves stamping out connections.
Thorndike proposed three laws of learning as described below:

1. The Law of Readiness

20
The Law of Readiness states that learning takes place only when the learner is prepared to
learn. No amount of efforts can make the child learn if the child is not ready to learn. The
dictum that ‘you can lead a horse to the pond but you can’t make it drink water unless it feels
thirsty’ goes very well with this law. In other words, if the child is ready to learn, he/she
learns more quickly, effectively and with greater satisfaction than if he/she is not ready to
learn. The law is indicative of the learner's state to participate in the learning process.
According to Thorndike, readiness is preparation for action. Readiness does not come
automatically with maturation. It is a law of preparatory adjustment, not a law about growth.

Educational Implications
The law draws the attention of teacher to the motivation of the child. The teacher must
consider the psycho-biological readiness of the students to ensure successful learning
experiences. Curriculumm/Learning experiences should be according to the mental level of
maturity of the child. If this is not so, there will be poor comprehension and readiness may
vanish.

2. The Law of Effect

The law states, of several responses made to the same situation, those which are accompanied
or closely followed by satisfaction to the animal will, other things being equal, be more
firmly connected with the situation, so that, when it recurs, they will be more likely to recur,
those which are accompanied or closely followed by discomfort to the animal, will, other
things being equal, have their connections with that situation weakened, so that, when it
recurs, they will be less likely to occur. The greater the satisfaction or discomfort, the greater
the strengthening or weakening of the bond.

Educational Implications
The following are the educational implications of the Law of Effect in adult educational
settings

 A pleasing environment should be created in the classroom. This means that the teacher
should be sympathetic but firm. He or she should enjoy his work.

 Experiences should be provided to the students should be satisfying and meaningful.

 The subject matter content should be organised in the order of increasing difficulty.

 Material should be provided in a number of interesting ways including the use of audio-
visual aids.

21
 3. The Law of Exercise or Repetition
This law explains the role of practice in learning. According to this law, learning becomes
efficient through practice or exercise. The dictum ‘Practice makes a man perfect’ goes very
well with this law. This law is further split into two parts-Law of use and Law of disuse. The
law of use means that a connection between a stimulus and response is strengthened by its
occurrence, its exercise or its use. In other words, the use of any response strengthens it, and
makes it more prompt, easy and certain. Regarding the law of disuse, it is said that when a
modifiable connection is not made between a stimulus and a response over a length of time,
the strength of that connection is decreased. This means that any act that is not practised for
some time gradually decays. Anything that is not used exercised or practised for a certain
period tends to be forgotten or becomes weak in strength, efficiency and promptness.

Educational Implications

More and more opportunities should be provided to the students to use and repeat the
experiences they get in the classroom. Drill strengthens the bonds of S-R. Review of the
lesson maintains connections.

B. Operant (instrumental) conditioning theory (B.F. Skinner, 1904-1990

You should recall that in classical conditioning, the primary concern is with responses that
are elicited by stimuli which are both specific and identifiable. Skinner (1938) went along
with classical conditioning as a plausible theory of learning, but went a step further by
arguing that not all learning can be explained on the basis of identifiable stimuli. In his views,
there are other forms of learning which occur independently of any identifiable stimulus. This
led him to develop new theory called operant conditioning, which is the focus of our
discussion today.

The term operant refers to the fact that an organism, which may be either a person or an
animal, works on its given environment, and that as it does so it is responsible for generating
consequence. These may be in terms of a good mark in a given course, a good crop for a
peasant, a promotion at work or simply a positive and happy relationship with parents,
children, peers, teachers or spouse.

Skinner’s Experiment

In developing his theory, Skinner carried out many experiments using animals such as rats
and pigeons. In one experiment, a rat is placed in what is called a Skinner Box, shown in
Figure 3.

22
Figure 3: A Skinnerian Box

The box can be equated with an environment such as a school, a home or a town in human
terms. Within the box is a food delivery mechanism with a press bar and some food pellets.
However, the rat does not know this. The rat is free to move in any direction it pleases in the
box, and as it does it comes across the food delivery mechanism. Out of curiosity, it presses
the bar, the rat makes several more attempts to see whether it will be rewarded, and indeed it
is. Therefore, the frequency of bar-pressing increased. The rat continues to roam its
environment, and every time it feels the need to eat, it returns to the food delivery mechanism
and is rewarded for its bar-pressing.

Figure 4: Process of operant conditioning

Stimulus Response Reinforcement
S R1 R 2
Unknown Bar-press Food

Explanation
S- Represents the unknown stimulus condition which made the rate press the bar

R1- stands for the behaviour (response) of pressing the bar which led to the availability of the
food. The response occurs while the organism is busy in its environment, and since no known
stimulus can be identified it occurs spontaneously rather than being elicited as is the case in
classical conditioning,

23
R2- represents the food that dropped out of the food delivery mechanism. Food is a
reinforcement element and therefore prompts the rat to engage in frequent bar-pressing.

According to Skinner, what stimulated the bar-pressing behaviour of the rat is not very
important. What is significant is that the rat pressed the bar and as a result received
reinforcement. Whether or not the rat will repeat the behaviour is determined by the
consequences of the behaviour. If the consequences are negative the chances are that
behaviour will be avoided. On the other hand, if the consequences are pleasant, the behaviour
will be repeated and sustained for as long as it is reinforced.

Schedule of reinforcement
From our discussion regarding operant conditioning, a person’s behaviour can be controlled
through reinforcement. In order to sustain a particular desirable behaviour, the frequency of
reinforcement must be increased, whereas to suppress undesirable behaviour reinforcement
must be decreased and finally eliminated altogether.

A reinforcement may be defined as a stimulus which increases the probability of a response

recurring. The process whereby behaviour is reinforced is referred to as a schedule of
reinforcement.

There are two major forms of reinforcement, namely continuous and intermittent or partial
reinforcement. Continuous reinforcement involves rewarding an organism in every time it
makes a correct response. This is recommended as being quite effective when an organism is
learning new behaviour. Continuously reinforcement facilitate the mastery of behaviour fairly
quickly.

Intermitted reinforcement involves rewarding the organism after it has made more than one
correct response. It may be divided into four schedules of reinforcement, namely fixed ratio
and variable ratio. Fixed interval and variable interval. Fixed ratio and variable ratio refers to
the amount of work completed before reinforcement is administered, whereas fixed interval
and variable interval schedules refer to the time which elapses before reinforcement is
supplied.

Reinforcement and Punishment in the classroom

In summary, there are two types of reinforcement: positive reinforcement which involves
presenting a pleasant stimulus (e.g. reward), the other is negative reinforcement which
involves removing an aversive stimulus following desirable behaviour.

24
Positive reinforcement: Example of positive reinforcement in the classroom are so
numerous and so obvious as to make citing any one appears platitudinous. Whenever a
teacher smiles at students, says something pleasant to them, commends them for their work,
assign high grades, the teaching is using positive reinforcement.

Negative reinforcement: failure, detention, ridicule, humiliation and other unpleasant

eventualities make up the bulk of the modern, well equipped teacher’s arsenal of aversive
stimuli that can be used either as negative reinforcers or as one kind of punishment. When
these threats follow unruly, undisciplined, or otherwise unacceptable behaviours, they
illustrate presentation of punishment. But when the threat of any of these possibilities is
removed following the acceptable behaviour, this provides an example of negative
reinforcement. Hence negative reinforcement is the removal of unpleasant stimulus following
the desirable behaviour.

Educational implication

From Skinner’s operant conditioning theory, reinforcement is one of the key factors
underlying learning. In school, children are likely to learn effectively when their responses
are rewarded in some way.

There are numerous reasons why children go to school, some of these being that they want to
prepare for a career or their parents have sent them to school or simply that everyone they
know seems to think it is wonderful to be at school. According to Skinner, the stimulus is
unknown and therefore we need not to concern ourselves with it. However, we are very
concerned with the response they make, which is coming to school. What will determine
whether they will sustain their interest at school is the way in which they are treated.

How does teacher relate to them? How does other children, especially older ones, relate to
them? Do they bully the young ones, or does no one seem to care about them? What is their
works look like? Are their marks so low that they are constantly told that they are not capable
of handling school work?

2.4.2 Cognitive theory of Learning

In contrast to behavioural theories, cognitive theories stress the acquisition of knowledge and
skills, the formation of mental structures, and the processing of information and beliefs. From
a cognitive perspective, learning is an internal mental phenomenon inferred from what people
say and do. A central theme is the mental processing of information: Its construction,
acquisition, organization, coding, rehearsal, storage in memory, and retrieval or nonretrieval
25
from memory. Although cognitive theorists stress the importance of mental processes in
learning, they disagree over which processes are important.

The cognitive view maintains that a learner is capable of controlling his learning activity and
organising his field of operation, and has an inherent capacity to learn. This section discusses
some of these concepts as presented by cognitive psychologists such as Jerome Brunner and
David Ausubel.

2.4.2.1 Discovery learning (by J. Brunner (1966,1971).

According to Brunner, discovery learning involves a pupil’s discovery of what he is capable
of doing and thinking for himself. Discovery does not necessarily mean coming up with
knowledge that is unknown to anyone else, but coming up with the knowledge by oneself. In
Brunner’s view, a child is capable of discovering new information independently. For
example, a child may be given the following sentence: ‘the teacher taught a good lesson’. On
the basis of this statement and knowledge, the child will make a similar statement as a
discovery. Brunner points out further that a simple object can be presented to children and
used to elicit a number of responses from them. A hummer is an example: Ask children what
it is used for? Beating in nails. Wy-so that the nails will hold the boards together. Why-to
make a building steady. Is there any other way?-Yes strings.

To encourage discovery learning, Brunner proposes that is vital to provide learners with
opportunities to engage in thinking, insights and problem solving as an integral part of their
education. This can be done by exposing them to inductive process which will ultimately lead
to the discovery of the principles and concepts underlying whatever they may be studying or
investigating.

Instead of revealing to pupils the major concepts and principles they are expected to learn
from the lesson, a teacher should give pupils the opportunity of discovering them by
themselves, as was illustrated in the case of the hammer.

To start with, the teacher presents the pupils with a problem, and having done do plays the
role of facilitator of an inductive inquiry process starting with information and continuing
with step-by-step discovery. This enables the pupils to arrive at concepts, learn the process
involved in gathering data and make inferences from such data. Discovery learning calls for
active participation on the part of the pupils. It is beneficial approach because pupils are able
to retain information for a considerable period of time and will be able to transfer it.

26
2.4.2.2 Reception learning (by D. Ausubel (1978)
Ausubel was one of the first modern cognitive psychologists to concentrate on meaningful
learning. His theory is of vital importance in so far it controls the frequency with which rote
learning is used by pupils, not only at the primary school and secondary levels, but also at the
tertiary level.

Let us define some of the key words so far.

Reception learning means that pupils are presented with all possible information on a given
topic in its final form. Ausubel refers to his theory as verbal learning because most of what is
learned in the classroom is based on the use of language as a means of communication.
Learning is seen as meaningful because what is being learned based on what students already
know.

For meaningful learning to occur, two criteria must be met. First, there should be a
meaningful learning set within the learner, in other words the learner must be not only ready,
but also willing to relate new experience to his existing experience. This can be brought about
by drawing the learner’s attention to known related information and telling him that the new
information should be learned with this in mind. Second, if meaningful learning is to occur,
the new material must be potentially meaningful, which means it should have the potential to
be related to what the learner already knows.

2.4.2.2 Teaching based on meaningful learning

Teaching in terms of Ausubel’s theory would necessitate the following strategies:

Assessing readiness: all that can be known about pupils with regard to their age, level of
capability, etc. pupils can be assessed by observation, by listening to the types of response
they give in class discussion, on their written assignments, by observation on their
performance on test and examination.

Selecting material: when preparing a lesson based on what he knows about the class, the
teacher should concentrate on major points and present them as clearly as possible. As an
introduction, he should start with what is concrete and part of the pupil’s experience, making
it as interesting and stimulating as possible.

Identifying organizers principles: the major concepts to be presented must be determined,

since will serve as the foundation upon which detailed information which will be

27
remembered can be built. Once the major principles of the lesson have been identified, they
should be given special emphasis in the introduction, body and conclusion of the lesson.

Advance organizers: Organizers are previews or introductions (usually brief written

passages) which the student reads before studying the main body of the new material. Hence,
before new information is taught, the teacher should implement advance organizers linking
new and the old.

Practical activity
 Try to imagine the possibility that even the animals like dogs can learn just like
human beings. What is your opinion?
 Provide as many as you can different meanings of the term ‘learning’, as you can

References

Dweck, C.K. (2002). Social learning: A psychological perspective. San Diego, CA: McGraw-
Hill.
Twining, K. (2001). Success in psychology. London, England: John Murray Publishers.

LECTURE THREE

SPECIAL AND INCLUSIVE ADULT EDUCATION

3.1 Introduction

Over the past few decades, there has been a special attention on special and inclusive
education all around the world focusing all levels, including adult education. This attention
has led teacher education curricular around the world to accommodate the concepts,
approaches, and techniques for teaching and helping students and or adult learners with
special needs. Thus, to include, effectively, all learners with special educational needs in
schools and other learning contexts requires teachers’ understanding of concepts, approaches,
and techniques.

Special education is the design and delivery of teaching and learning strategies for
individuals with disabilities or learning difficulties. In most cases, students with disabilities

28
do not require an individual (or separate) learning curriculum. Rather, most students simply
need some adaptations to be made to the regular school curriculum that other students
receive.

Unit specific objectives

After going through this unit, you should be able to:
1. Define the concepts of inclusive education, special education, special needs,
mainstreaming, etc,
2. Identify principles of inclusive education,
3. Describe major categories of learners with special needs,
4. Describe screening procedures to identify learning needs for learners with special needs
and
5. Identify relevant teaching and learning strategies suitable for learners with special needs

3.2 Definition of Concepts

3.2.1 Impairment

WHO (1980), defines an impairment as “any loss or abnormality of psychological,

physiological, or anatomical structure or function” (p. 47). For others, it is an abnormality in
the way organs or systems function e.g., a medical condition, eye disease, a heart problem.

3.2.2 Disability

The term disability is derived from the Latin prefix dis- , meaning negation, separation, lack
of, or opposite of; and the Latin habilitas, meaning fitness, and habere, indicating to have or
to be easily handled. Disability today indicates the lack of power or ability to do something. It
is usually regarded as a negative attribute.

According to WHO (1980), disability denoted the “consequences of impairment in terms of functional
performance and activity by the individual” (p. 14).

Disability is the partial or complete loss of the use of a certain body part or organ. This leads
to a reduction or loss of function of that body part or organ. This reduced or lost function is
what is called a disability. It is the functional consequence of impairment e.g., an intellectual
disability due to brain impairment; low vision; deafness.

3.2.3 Handicap

29
WHO (1980), defined handicap as “a disadvantage for a given individual, resulting from an
impairment or a disability, that limits or prevents the fulfillment of a role that is normal (depending on
age, sex, and social and cultural factors) for that individual” (p. 183).

Refers to the problems a person with a disability or other limitation faces when interacting
with the environment. Thus, a handicap is an environment-related concept. A handicapping
condition in one environment may not necessarily be handicapping in another environment.
Or

The social or environmental consequence of a disability e.g., a person with a wheelchair is

not handicapped when paths and buildings are wheelchair accessible.

3.2.4 Special needs

In clinical diagnostic and functional development, special needs refers to individuals who
require assistance for disabilities that may be medical, mental, or psychological. Thus, any
person who is experiencing difficulties in learning may have special needs. For example,
children who often experience difficulties, and are having special needs are girls, ethnic
minority children, children with disabilities, very poor children (orphans, street children),
gifted children (children who are extremely clever), children affected by HIV/Aids, children
with social and emotional problems.

3.2.5 Special educational needs

Special educational needs are defined in relation to a person, a restriction in the capacity of
the person to participate in and benefit from education on account of an enduring physical,
sensory, mental health or learning disability, or any other condition which results in a person
learning differently from a person without that condition and cognate words shall be
construed accordingly.

Special educational needs are also defined as ‘the educational needs of students who have a
disability and the educational needs of exceptionally able students’.

Individuals have different abilities and potentials in performing various functions. In

education, there are individuals who do not perform like the rest of other learners but could
perform if they get the right help. These learners have learning or educational needs, which
are not the same as those of others. We refer to this when applying to children with special
educational needs e.g. learners who cannot hear well, see well and understand well, usually
have social emotional/health problems that may develop to permanency.
30
3.2.6 Special education (segregation)

Special education is a separate system of education for disabled children, outside the ordinary
school. Special schools are for children who have the same problem, where there are “expert”
special educators.

Special education represents the specialized educational services delivery offered to children
and adults who are unable to cope with the regular school/class organization and methods.
Many governments and educational institutions have developed curricular on special needs
education. The aim is to provide adequate education for all categories of children and adults
who require special education services as well as to provide a diversified and appropriate
curriculum for each category of disability.

3.2.7 Inclusive education

Inclusive Education (IE) is defined as a process of addressing the diverse needs of all learners
by reducing barriers to, and within the learning environment. It means attending the age
appropriate class of the child’s local school, with individually tailored support. Inclusive
education is a process of strengthening the capacity of the education system to reach out to all
learners.

Inclusion is an educational approach and philosophy that provides all students greater
opportunities for academic and social achievement. This includes opportunities to participate
in the full range of social, recreational, arts, sports, music, day care and afterschool care,
extra-curricular, faith based, and all other activities.

In some countries, inclusive education is thought of as an approach to serving children with

disabilities within general-education settings. Internationally, however, it is increasingly seen
more broadly as a reform that supports and welcomes diversity among all learners. The
argument developed here adopts this broader formulation. It presumes that the aim of
inclusive education is to eliminate social exclusion that is a consequence of attitudes and
responses to diversity in race, social class, ethnicity, religion, gender, and ability. As such, it
starts from the belief that education is a basic human right and the foundation for a more just
society.

In 1994, UNESCO’s World Conference on Special Needs Education, held in Salamanca,

endorsed the idea of inclusive education. Arguably, the most significant international
document that has ever appeared in the special needs field, the Salamanca Statement argues

31
that regular schools with an inclusive orientation are the most effective means of combating
discriminatory attitudes, building an inclusive society and achieving education for all.
Furthermore, it suggests that such schools can “provide an effective education for the
majority of children and improve the efficiency and ultimately the cost-effectiveness of the
entire education system” (p. ix).

During the subsequent years, there has been considerable activity in many countries to move
educational policy and practice in a more inclusive direction but there is still considerable
uncertainty as to how best to proceed. The confusion that exists arises, at least in part, from
the fact that inclusion can be defined in a variety of ways. It is also important to remember
that there is no one perspective on inclusion within a single country or school.

Given the confusion and uncertainties that exist as policymakers and practitioners seek to
make sense of different perspectives, advancing toward the implementation of inclusive
education is far from easy. Moreover, it must not be assumed that there is full acceptance of
the inclusive philosophy. Consequently, as we consider ways of developing schools that are
effective in reaching all children, it is necessary to recognize that the field itself is riddled
with uncertainties, disputes, and contradictions. However, what can be said is that throughout
the world, attempts are being made to provide more effective educational responses for all
children, whatever their characteristics, and that, encouraged by the Salamanca Statement, the
overall trend is toward making these responses within the context of general-educational
provision.

3.2.8 Mainstreaming

Mainstreaming refers to the inclusion of learners in the general education process. It involves
selectively placing these learners in mainstream classes.

3.2.9 Integration

Integration is distinguished according to its aims and how it is organised in to locational,

social and functional integration. Integration implies that the children with ‘special needs’
spend time alongside their peers in the mainstream classroom, as well as attending ‘special’
units within or outside the mainstream schools, in order to receive extra support.

3.2.10 Gifted and talented students

32
Gifted and talented children are those who, by virtue of outstanding abilities, are capable of
high performance. They require different educational programmes or services beyond those
normally provided by the regular programme so as to realise their contribution to self and
society.

The major purpose of identification of children for gifted programs or educational services is,
or should be, to determine if they need a special regimen beyond the services of a regular
classroom program and what particular services or resources might be needed. Decisions
about a child’s special education needs can best be made through the assessment of the
child’s special aptitudes and talents or areas of high achievement. Then, if both aptitude and
achievement tests reveal high mathematical ability and the need for higher level mathematics
instruction, a decision may be made to place the child in the next higher grade level for
mathematics instruction or in a special mathematics enrichment program.

In some schools or communities, gifted or precocious children are grouped together in special
classes or even in special schools for gifted children only. Teachers of such classes often have
received special training and certification for work with gifted children and youth and use
curricula designed especially for gifted and precocious children.

3.3 Types of Disabilities

There are eight major areas of special needs that teachers are likely to come across in Adult
education programmes in Tanzania:

i. Learning difficulties

ii. Intellectual disability

iii. Physical disability

iv. Hearing impairment

v. Speech impairment

vi. Visual impairment

Practical activity
vii. Behavioural and emotional disorders
In groups of four or five students, pick one area of disability identified above and use
library resources to answer the following questions:
 What are the characteristics of this disability?
 What different types of this disability are there?
 What are the known causes of this disability What traditional beliefs are there
about this disability? 33

 How can this disability be prevented?

 How can teachers help their community prevent this disability?
 i. Learning Difficulties

3.3.1 Learning difficulties

The students with special educational needs that teachers are most likely to come across in
their classes are students with learning difficulties. These are students who do not necessarily
have any disability but, for some reason, have difficulty with learning. Usually, these students
have difficulty in only some areas of their learning, such as literacy, mathematics, and
receptive language (understanding instructions or directions, following stories, and so on).
Put simply, students with learning difficulties are students who are experiencing significant
difficulties with at least one area of their learning at school.

3.3.1.1 Causes of learning difficulties

There are a very large number of possible causes of learning difficulties and there are many
different theories. In the case of individual students, it is very difficult to pinpoint the actual
reason why that student is struggling at school. However, it is often more productive for
teachers to focus on possible causes that can be `treated’, such as:

i. Quality and type of instruction given

ii. Teacher’s expectations

iii. Relevance of the schoolwork to the student

iv. Classroom environment

v. Manner in which the teacher treats the student;

vi. Ways in which the student is treated by other students and

vii. Appropriateness of the curriculum

3.3.1.2 Teaching strategies for students with learning difficulties

34
Major considerations for teaching students with learning difficulties are:

i. Use direct, explicit teaching to teach reading, writing, spelling and mathematics

ii. Build up the confidence of students by starting with easy tasks that they can already
do, move ahead gradually, introducing harder material very carefully.

iii. Monitor students’ work regularly and carefully so that you know when students are
experiencing difficulties and you can respond quickly.

iv. Teach skills in practical, meaningful ways, and use concrete materials frequently.

3.3.2 Intellectual Disability

Intellectual disability is a substantial limitation in cognitive functioning (i.e., thinking skills).

People with intellectual disability usually have:

 limited communication skills,

 limited self-care skills,

 poor social skills, and

 very limited academic skills.

Most importantly, people with intellectual disabilities have great difficulty with learning and
usually require special teaching methods to learn efficiently.

A person with mild intellectual disability usually has severe learning difficulties, limited or
poor conversational skills and would usually have a history of slow personal development.
Most people with mild intellectual disability learn independent living skills and are usually
involved in productive work at home, in the community or in a workplace.

A person with moderate intellectual disability usually has very severe learning difficulties,
very poor communication skills and very slow personal development. For example, it may
take a student with moderate intellectual disability up to several years to learn very simple
academic skills such as writing their own name, counting and counting objects, and
performing simple arithmetic operations. People with moderate intellectual disabilities do not
usually learn all the living skills they need to live independently, without the support of
family or other carers. However, people with moderate intellectual disabilities often learn
some productive role in their home or village and some have been able to gain limited
employment.

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A person with a severe intellectual disability is usually not able to perform academic tasks, is
unlikely to develop or learn self-care skills and may not learn or develop ordinary
communication skills. Pictorial communication systems (using pictures to communicate)
have been successful, in some cases, in teaching students with severe intellectual disabilities
to communicate choices and needs. People with severe intellectual disabilities do not learn to
live independently and require ongoing support for their survival.

3.3.2.1 Causes of intellectual disability

Causes of intellectual disability Intellectual disability are the result of damage to the brain.
Damage to the brain can be a result of a developmental or genetic disorder (such as Down
syndrome, a disease before or after birth, or a trauma before or after birth.

3.3.2.2 Teaching strategies

The most important thing for teachers to understand about students with mild or moderate
intellectual disabilities is that they will have serious learning difficulties and will not be able
to access the whole school curriculum. The following are the strategies for teaching students
with intellectual disability.

a) Partial participation
Students with intellectual disability cannot cover an entire curriculum so teachers, in
collaboration with the student’s parents, have to decide which curriculum outcomes to
concentrate on and then focus on those ones only.

While other students might be working on many curriculum outcomes at a time, a student
with an intellectual disability will probably only be working towards three or four curriculum
outcomes in a school term, and may only be working on one or two objectives on each school
day. Students with intellectual disability, like all other students, need to be involved in
regular school activities with other students but, unless the teacher has access to specialist
assistance, the teacher will only be able to provide a limited amount of instruction to the
student. Effective teachers make sure that students with intellectual disabilities are included
in as many regular school activities as possible but they can only provide instruction on one
or two objectives for each student with a disability each day.

b) Functional curriculum
Because students with intellectual disability learn very slowly, what they learn should be
functional (i.e., useful in their daily lives). Functional skills are usually basic communication

36
skills, self-care skills, personal safety, money management, survival reading skills, social
skills and practical skills for making a living. Teachers should use real, practical materials for
teaching functional skills, and, if possible, ensure that students practice their skills in real
contexts.

c) Task Analysis

Breaking simple tasks into smaller, teachable steps, is a very important and useful teaching
strategy for students with intellectual disability. While a task may be too difficult for a
student to learn, if it’s broken down into smaller steps, the student may learn to do all of it or
some of it gradually. Most tasks can be broken down in this way. Students with intellectual
disability need lots of repetition and practice before steps are truly learned and they also need
to perform their learning tasks with different materials and in different contexts to generalize
their skills. Teachers should always reinforce students’ attempts and successes.

3.3.3 Physical Disabilities

Physical disabilities place some limitation on a person’s ability to move about, use their
limbs or hands or control their own movement. Physical disabilities are the most obvious
disabilities, as a rule, although there are some conditions that limit movement and mobility in
less obvious or inconsistent ways (e.g., epilepsy, cystic fibrosis, diabetes). Students with
more severe physical disabilities often have related health problems and, of course, physical
disabilities are often a symptom of health problems.

3.3.3.1 Teaching strategies

Curriculum does not usually need to be adapted much for students with physical disabilities,
however, some adaptations need to be made in some cases. Teachers should use common
sense in this. For example, it is inappropriate to expect a student to perform tasks that they
simply cannot physically perform, so the teacher must select a different task that it is possible
for the student to do. There have been cases where students with physical disabilities have
been denied passing grades at school because of their inability to perform physical tasks in
subjects such as physical education. This approach is discriminatory and ridiculous. Effective
teachers find ways to accommodate special needs so that the student can learn and achieve
positive educational outcomes.

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3.3.4 Hearing impairment

Some children are born with hearing loss while others develop hearing loss at some time.
Many children have a mild hearing loss while some have severe or profound hearing loss.
Severe or profound hearing loss is known as deafness.

Children who are deaf before they learn language (2 to 3 years old) are known as prelingually
deaf. Deafness is an uncommon disability in children but many children have a mild or
moderate hearing loss.

3.3.4.1 Teaching strategies

Students with mild hearing loss might not be able to hear soft sounds (such as whispering) or
they might not be able to hear certain types of sound. Hence, teacher should:

Use visual cues and demonstration:

 Face the student directly when you talk

 Use natural gestures

 Use modelling to demonstrate how to do different procedures and tasks

 Do not try to talk to students while writing on the chalkboard and

 Use pictures, diagrams and graphs

 Use experiential learning strategies

Use cooperative learning strategies:

 Use peer tutors to assist the student

 Choose clear speakers for class discussions

Monitor the student’s understanding by:

 Asking the student to repeat important information and directions,

 Rewording information to make it clearer and

 Providing written information as often as possible

3.3.5 Visual impairment

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Vision plays a vital role in school learning and it is essential that teachers understand the
visual abilities of their students. In Tanzanian many students who have mild to moderate
vision impairments are not identified as such, so teachers have an important role in detecting
vision impairment.

3.3.5.1 Causes of visual impairments

The major causes of blindness and other visual impairment include:

 Hereditary problems (e.g. cataracts, optic nerve deficiency, albinism).

 Infectious diseases (e.g. venereal diseases, rubella)

 Accidents, injuries and poisoning

 Pre-natal influences

Teaching strategies

 Use concrete objects that can be touched and manipulated.

 Learning by doing is very necessary if the visually impaired person is to initiate

his/her activities.

3.4 Need and Importance of Inclusive Education

In order to achieve truly inclusive education, we need to think about and incorporate learners
with special needs into regular schools. Especially, because these learners face some sort of
barriers to learning and participation in the classroom. As general education classrooms
include more and more diverse students, teachers realize the value of accepting each student
as unique.

In effective inclusive programs, teachers adapt activities to include all students, even though
their individual goals may be different. We have learned that inclusive education is a better
way to help all students succeed.

Some of the benefits include: friendships, social skills, personal principles, comfort level with
people who have special needs, and caring classroom environments.

The most important function of friendships is to make people feel cared for, loved, and safe.
In an inclusive educational setting, low-achieving students are able to get extra help even
though they did not qualify for special education.

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Classmates of students with disabilities also experience growth in social cognition, often can
become more aware of the needs of others in inclusive classrooms. An interesting side effect
is that these parents report that they also feel more comfortable with people with special
needs because of their children’s experiences.

Students with disabilities can create long-lasting friendships that would not be otherwise
possible, and these friendships can give them the skills to navigate social relationships later
on in life.

References

Foreman, P. (2000). Disability, integration and inclusion: Introductory concepts. In P.

Foreman (Ed.), Integration and inclusion in action. Sydney, Australia: Harcourt.
Salend, S., & Duhaney, G. (1999). The impact of inclusion on students with and without
disabilities and their educators. Remedial and Special Education, 20(2).
World Health Organization (1980). International classification of impairments, disabilities
and handicaps. Geneva, Switzerland: WHO.

LECTURE FOUR

MEASUREMENT AND EVALUATION IN ADULT EDUCATION

4.1 Introduction

This is the last lecture in this module. The purpose of this lecture is to introduce to you the
fundamental principles of educational measurement and evaluation which you will need to
apply as an adult education facilitator.

One of the roles of teachers in the instructional process is to make decisions about what and
how they teach based on the information gathered from their students. In other words,
teachers first find out what their students know and what they do not know, and then
determine how best to bridge that gap. In this unit, you will learn the basic elements that will
enable you to function as an effective facilitator, especially in the area of students assessment.

Unit specific objectives

After reading this unit you should be able to:
i. Define concepts (test, testing, assessment, measurement, evaluation)
ii. Describe types of assessment
iii. Identify methods suitable for assessing adult learners
iv. Prepare assessment tools for assessing adult learners
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v. Explain advantage and disadvantage of assessment tools

4.2 Test and Testing

4.2.1 Introduction

In the context of education, the terms test, measurement, evaluation, and assessment are
occasionally used interchangeably, but most users make distinctions among them. Test is
usually considered the narrowest of the four terms; it connotes the presentation of a standard
set of questions to be answered. As a result of a person's answers to such a series of
questions, we obtain a measure of a characteristic of that person. We will discuss test and
testing later.

4.2.2 Defining a test

A test may be simply understood as a measuring tool or instrument in education. More

specifically, a test is considered to be a kind or class of measurement device typically used to
find out something about a person. Most of the times, when you finish a lesson or lessons in a
week, your teacher gives you a test. This test is an instrument given to you by the teacher in
order to obtain data on which you are judged. It is an educational common type of device
which an individual completes himself or herself to determine changes or gains resulting
from such instruments as inventory, questionnaire, scale.

Miller, Linn, and Gronlund (2009) define test as “an instrument or systematic procedure for
measuring a sample of behaviour by posing a set of questions in a uniform manner.” (p. 28).
asurement and assessment in teaching (10th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Merrill.

Testing on the other hand, is the process of administering the test on the pupils. In other
words the process of making you or letting you take the test in order to obtain a quantitative
representation of the cognitive or non-cognitive traits you possess is called testing. So, a test
is the instrument or tool and testing is the process of administering the test.

4.2.2.1 Classification of tests

Based on the nature of responses sought from the learner, tests may be generally classified
into objective and subjective test items as described below:

4.2.2.1 Objective tests

Tests that include item response formats that can be scored consistently and objectively are
referred to as objective tests. They are those items which are asked in such a way that for
each of them, there is only one predetermined correct answer. These kinds of tests are also
41
called selection-type tests because students select the correct response. For example, the True
false items, matching items, and multiple choice items are all selection type tests.

4.2.2.2 Subjective tests

These are those tests in which students must formulate their own answers. Examples of
subjective tests are short answer items, completion items, and essay type items. A popular
example of subjective test is essay type whose responses vary in length from a single
paragraph to several pages. For this reason, they are more difficult to score consistently and
objectively. However, enabling students to respond in flexible and creative ways can make
essay items well suited to measure analytic, composition, and higher-order thinking skills. A
third item response format is the completion item. These items may require the test taker to
supply a word or phrase.

Therefore, subjective tests are characterized by the following general features:

 There is no predetermined correct answer.

 The examinee supplies the answer.
 What is to be accepted correct answer is matter of opinion of the scorer/marker.

4.3 Factors that may affect the quality of your test or examination

It is argued that the quality of a test can be affected by some of the following factors:

 Unclear direction provided to the one being tested,

 Reading vocabulary and sentence structure,

 Poorly constructed test items,

 Ambiguity of the test items,

 Overemphasis of easy-to-assess aspects of domain at the expense of important but

difficult-to-assess aspects (construct underrepresentation),

 Test items inappropriate for the outcomes being measured (Validity),

 Inadequate time limit,

 Test being too short,

 Improper arrangement of items,

 Identifiable pattern of answers.

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4.4 Assessment
Now that you have learnt the difference between test and testing, let us move on to the next
concept which is assessment. As a facilitator, you will be inevitably involved in assessing
learners; therefore you should have a clear knowledge and the meaning of assessment.

One of the primary measurement tools in education is the assessment. Teachers gather
information by giving tests, conducting interviews and monitoring behavior. The assessment
should be carefully prepared and administered to ensure its reliability and validity. In other
words, an assessment must provide consistent results and it must measure what it claims to
measure.

4.4.1 Meaning of assessment

The term assessment is also used in a variety of ways. Much of the time the word is used
broadly, like evaluation; or it is often used to indicate the use of both formal and informal
data-gathering procedures and the combining of the data in a global fashion to reach an
overall judgment. At times, assessment is used more particularly to refer to the clinical
diagnosis of an individual's problems. It is important to point out that we never measure or
evaluate people. We measure or evaluate characteristics or properties of people: their
scholastic potential, knowledge of algebra, honesty, perseverance, ability to teach, and so
forth. This should not be confused with evaluating the worth of a person. Teachers, parents,
and students do not always seem to keep this distinction clearly in mind.

The term assess is derived from a Latin word “asoidere” meaning “to sit by” in judgment.
There are many definitions and explanations of assessment in education. Let us look at few of
them:

According to Freeman and Lewis (1998), to assess is to judge the extent of students’
learning.

Similarly, for Rowntree (1977), assessment in education can be thought of as occurring

whenever one person, in some kind of interaction, direct or indirect, with another, is
conscious of obtaining and interpreting information about the knowledge and understanding,
of abilities and attitudes of that other person. To some extent or other, it is an attempt to know
the person.

Erwin, in Brown and Knight, (1994), define assessment as a systematic basis for making
inference about the learning and development of students… the process of defining, selecting,

43
designing, collecting, analyzing, interpreting and using information to increase students’
learning and development.

Generally, assessment is any of a variety of procedures used to obtain information about

leaner’s performance: It includes: quizzes; interviews; teacher observations; student self-
report; portfolio; rubric and projects, paper-and-pencil tests/exams.

You will have to note from these definitions that:

 Assessment is a human activity.

 Assessment involves interaction, which aims at seeking to understand what the

learners have achieved.

 Assessment can be formal or informal. Assessment may be descriptive rather than

judgment in nature.

 Its role is to increase students’ learning and development

 It helps learners to diagnose their problems and to improve the quality of their
subsequent learning.

4.4.2 General principles of assessment

Assessment of adult learners is guided by the following general principles:

i. Clearly specifying what is to be assessed has priority in the assessment process.

ii. An assessment procedure or technique should be selected in terms of its relevance to

the characteristics or performance to be measured.

iii. Assessment procedure should be fair for every candidate

iv. Comprehensive assessment requires a variety of assessment procedures or

techniques.

v. Proper use of assessment procedure requires an awareness of their limitations.

vi. Assessment is a means to an end, not an end in itself.

vii. Assessment is best viewed as a process of obtaining information on which to base

decisions

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4.5 Measurement

The word measurement, as it applies to adult education, is not substantially different from
when it is used in any other field. It simply means determining the attributes or dimensions of
an object, skill or knowledge. We use common objects in the physical world to measure, such
as tape measures, scales and meters. These measurement tools are held to standards and can
be used to obtain reliable results. When used properly, they accurately gather data for
educators and administrators. Some standard measurements in education are raw scores,
percentile ranks and standard scores.

Measurement is a broad term that refers to the systematic determination of outcomes or

characteristics by means of some sort of assessment device. It is a systematic process of
obtaining the quantified degree to which a trait or an attribute is present in an individual or
object.

Miller, Linn, and Gronlund (2009) define measurement as “the process of obtaining a
numerical description of the degree to which an individual possesses a particular
characteristic.” (p. 28). It is interested in answering the question “how much?”

Therefore, measurement involves a systematic assignment of numerical values or figures to a

trait or an attribute in a person or object. For instance what is the height of Uche? What is the
weight of the meat? What is the length of the classroom?

In education, the numerical value of scholastics ability, aptitude, achievement can be

measured and obtained using instruments such as paper and pencil test. It means that the
values of the attribute are translated into numbers by measurement.

4.6 Evaluation

Another useful concept for adult educators to understand the progress of their learners is
evaluation. Creating valid and reliable assessments is critical to accurately measuring educational
data. Evaluating the information gathered, however, is equally important to the effective use of the
information for instruction.

4.6.1 The meaning of evaluation

According to Tuckman (1975), evaluation is a process wherein the parts, processes, or

outcomes of a programme are examined to see whether they are satisfactory, particularly with

45
reference to the stated objectives of the programme, our own expectations, or our own
standards of excellence.

Similarly, according to Cronbach et al (1980), evaluation means the systematic examination

of events occurring in and consequent on a contemporary programme. It is an examination
conducted to assist in improving this programme and other programmes having the same
general purpose.

Generally, evaluation is the process of using the measurements gathered in the assessments.
Teachers use this information to judge the relationship between what was intended by the
instruction and what was learned. They evaluate the information gathered to determine what
students know and understand, how far they have progressed and how fast, and how their
scores and progress compare to those of other students.  

By studying the above definitions, you will realize that evaluation is an integral part of the
instructional process and involves three steps:

 Identifying and defining the intended outcomes.

 Constructing or selecting tests and other evaluation tools relevant to the specified
outcomes, and
 Using the evaluation results to improve learning and teaching.

Self-Check Exercise
 What is the major difference between test and testing?
 In your own words define Assessment.
 Give an example of a test.
 Explain the difference between measurement and evaluation, assessment
and testing

4.6.2 Types of evaluation

The different types of evaluation are: placement, formative, diagnostic and summative
evaluations. Each of these is described in the following sections.

4.6.2.1 Placement evaluation

This is a type of evaluations carried out in order to fix the students in the appropriate group or
class. In some schools for instance, students are assigned to classes according to their subject
combinations, such as science, Technical, arts, Commercial etc. before this is done an
examination will be carried out. This is in form of pre-test or aptitude test. It can also be a

46
type of evaluation made by the teacher to find out the entry behaviour of his students before
he starts teaching. This may help the teacher to adjust his lesson plan. Tests like readiness
tests, ability tests, aptitude tests and achievement tests can be used.

4.6.2.2 Formative evaluation

This is a type of evaluation designed to help both the student and teacher to pinpoint areas
where the student has failed to learn so that this failure may be rectified. It provides a
feedback to the teacher and the student and thus estimating teaching success e.g. weekly tests,
terminal examinations etc.

4.6.2.3 Diagnostic evaluation

This type of evaluation is carried out most of the time as a follow up evaluation to formative
evaluation. As a teacher, you have used formative evaluation to identify some weaknesses in
your students. You have also applied some corrective measures which have not showed
success. What you will now do is to design a type of diagnostic test, which is applied during
instruction to find out the underlying cause of students persistent learning difficulties. These
diagnostic tests can be in the form of achievement tests, performance test, self-rating,
interviews observations, etc.

4.6.2.4 Summative evaluation

This is the type of evaluation carried out at the end of the course of instruction to determine
the extent to which the objectives have been achieved. It is called a summarizing evaluation
because it looks at the entire course of instruction or programme and can pass judgment on
both the teacher and students, the curriculum and the entire system. It is used for certification.

4.7 The Purpose of Measurement and Evaluation

Measurement and evaluation serves the following purpose in adult education contexts:

i. Placement of student, which involves bringing students appropriately in the learning

sequence and classification or streaming of students according to ability or subjects.

ii. Selecting the students for courses:-general, professional, technical, commercial etc.
Certification: This helps to certify that a student has achieved a particular level of
performance.

iii. Stimulating learning:- this can be motivation of the student or teacher, providing
feedback, suggesting suitable practice etc.

47
 iv. Improving teaching:- by helping to review the effectiveness of teaching arrangements.
For research purposes.

v. For guidance and counseling services.

vi. For modification of the curriculum purposes and teaching methods.

vii. For the purposes of promotions to the student.

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE
 What are the major differences and similarities between formative
evaluation and diagnostic evaluation?
 What are the types of evaluation?
 List 5 purposes of measurement and evaluation in adult education
programmes

References

Njabili, A. F. (1999). Practical guide for classroom measurement and testing. The basic
essentials. Dares Salaam, Tanzania: Mture Publishers.
Njabili, A. F. (1987). Continuous assessment: The Tanzania experience. A paper presented at
a seminar. Institute of Development Studies, University of Sussex.
Obimba, F. U. (1989). Fundamental of measurement and evaluation in education and
psychology. Owerri, Nigeria: Totan Publications Ltd.
Ohuche, R. O., & Akeju, S. A. (1977). Testing and evaluation in education. Lagos, Nigeria:
African Educational Resources (AER).
Omari, I. M. (2011). Concepts and techniques in educational assessments and evaluation.
(Volume 1 & 2). Dar es Salaam, Tanzania: Oxford University Press.

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