1965 - A. Róna-Tas - Some Notes On The Terminology of Mongolian Writing

SOME NOTES ON THE TERMINOLOGY OF MONGOLIAN WRITING
Author(s): A. RÓNA-TAS
Source: Acta Orientalia Academiae Scientiarum Hungaricae , 1965, Vol. 18, No. 1/2 (1965),
pp. 119-147
Published by: Akadémiai Kiadó
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SOME NOTES
ON THE TERMINOLOGY OF MONGOLIAN WRITING
BY
A. RONA-TAS
There are many unsolved problems in the history of Mongolian

We know almost not hing about the writing of the early Mongolian
we do not know the conditions under which writing developed at
1 In this paper I use the word «writing» in a broader sense than usual.
here also to refer to the technical requisites of any writting or printing, s
the Instruments of writing, the letters, punctuation and diacritic marks, o
the types and styles, the kinds and forms of script, the book, its production
and internal division etc., in brief, everything that makes possible or résulte f
In its most général sense «writing» dénotés in this paper all technical, econom
conditions of the effort to render information by the use of writing. The G
Schriftwesen or Schrifttum, the Russian expression rzHCBMeiiHOCTb seem to
what I mean. Sir Gerard Clauson in one of his last papers (The diffusion of w
Altaic world: Aspect of Altaic Civilization, Bloomington 1963, pp. 139 — 144
the question in a narrower context, meaning by writing only the diffusion
The aim of my paper is no more than to raise some of the unsolved problèm
particular field of Mongolian philology.
2 It seems very probable that the Turks taking over the governing Syst
Juan-juans reoeived from them also the practice of runic script. It is an op
whether the Juan-juans were of Mongolian stock, or did Mongolian tri
the Juan-juans. (This question was treated by Professor Ligeti in a paper ad
Hungarian Academy of Sciences in 1946 (unpublished)). We know about t
T'u-yü-huns — an early Mongolian tribe of the 3rd — 8th Century — that th
letters (Cf. Th. D. Carrol, Account of the T'u-yü-hun in the history of the G
Berkeley and Los Angeles 1953, p. 4), they used writing and notched s
Chinese sources reported: their letters were like those of the Wei dynasty (C
p. 22) It is a debated question whether the T'o-pa or Tabgach, the people
dynasty, were Turks or Mongols, but we know that they had some kind of
and from their language we know the first occurrence of the word hiti- «to
form hitik6in «scribe» (cf. Pelliot: JA 1925, pp. 254—255, Boodberg: H
p. 170, Bazin: TP XXXIX (1950), pp. 300-301, Ligeti: KGsA I (1924), pp.
Eberhard, Das Toba-Reich Nordchinas, Leiden 1949, p. 360).
3 The so-called «small Kitai letters» were of Uigur origin and its first use
from 925, the «large Kitai script» was of Chinese origin and constructe
Chinese sources mention also the use of runic script or tallies. It is very diff
Acta Orient. Hung. Tomus XVIII. 1965

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120 A. RÖXA-TAS
and it is obscure whether

of Chingis khan and if so i
the script based on the C
languages of the Kitais, J
triad had antécédents or fo
of Chingis and his tribesme
origin and ultimately goes
not know what rôle the Chinese, Indian, Tibetan, Iranian and Mediterranean
cultures played in the formation of the Uigur literary culture. We miss a
comparative study of the two most important Turkish Systems of writing
the Ru nie and the Uigur though there a great deal has already been cleared
up.5 It seems also to be obscure which of the two main Uigur centres of the
Mongolian period had an effect on the development of Mongolian writing,
or more precisely: what was the exact rôle of the two.6 Neither has it been
clarified through what Channels writing came from the Uigurs to the Mongols,
what was the rôle of the Naimans, Kereits, Kitais and perhaps other peoples
renciate between the reflexes of the two in the Chinese sources. (Cf. Ligeti L., A kitaj nép
és nyelv [The Kitai people and language]: Magyar Nyelv XXIII (1927), pp. 301 — 310,
Feng Chia-sheng, The Ch'i-tan Script: JAOS LXVIII (1948), pp. 14 — 18 with further
references).
4There lived a Kitai minister in the court of Chingis: Ye-liii Ch'u-tsai. According
to the Hei-ta shih-liieh he was in charge of the correspondence in Chinese of the chancel
lary (cf. Lin Chiun-yi and N. Mungkuev's translation in Проблемы Востоковедения
1960 : 5 p. 142. Recently L. L. Viktorova pointed out the importance of the Kara-Kitai
in forming the Mongolian writing (cf. К вопросу о найманской теории происхождения
монгольского литературного языка и письменности (XII—XIII вв.): Ученые Записки
Ленинг. Гос. унив. им. А. А. Жданова N°305. Восточной факультет. Сер. востоковедческих
наук. Вып. 12 (1961) pp. 137, 155. Cf. also L. Ligeti: Acta Orient. Hung. XVII (1964)
p. 281.
5 On this question see Klaproth, J.: Sprache und Schrift der Uiguren in: Reise in
den Kaukasus und nach Géorgien . . . I—II, Halle und Berlin 1812 —1819, vol. II, pp.
481—576, the basic work of F. W. K. Millier (WZKM V (1891), pp. 182 — 184) and the
recent summary of A. von Gabain (Sitzungsberichte der Akademie der Wissenschaften
Phil-hist. Kl. 1948: III, Berlin 1950, pp. 1 — 24) with further bibliography.
6 The two centres were Turfan and Kan-su (the vicinity of Su-chou and Lan-chou).
The former is better known since the great excavations in Turkestan. On the rôle of the
Uigurs in Kan-su cf. Kotwicz in RO XVI (1930), pp. 435 — 440 and the works cited in
Acta Orient. Hung. XV (1962), pp. 259 — 260. The Uigurs of Turfan came under Mongolian
rule in the middle of the first decade of the 13th century (cf. Secret History par. 238),
the Uigurs of Kansu in 1227 (cf. Kotwicz, op. cit., p. 437. Schram, The Monguors of the
Kansu-Tibetian Frontière III, 1961, p. 21a). The Uigur centre of Kansu was given impor
tance in the Mongolian Empire only after 1241 when Godan settled there, while the
Uigurs of the Turfan area maintained close contacts with the Kara-Kitai, Kereit, Naiman,
Jurchen and Mongolian tribes much earlier.
Acta Orient. Hung. Tomas XVIII. 1965

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TERMINOLOGY OF MONGOLIAN WRITING 121
or whether we cari speak of a direct Uigur—Mongolian contact in

Although it was already discussed by some authors we have n
solution of the question : what was the respective part of the seve
groups in forming the Mongolian literary culture in the 12th and 13
It seems to be clear that in the évolution of the early Mongolian w
' Pelliothaspointedout (AM 11(1925),pp. 284—289) that theUigur T

who was ehanoellor of the Naiman Tayang khan and came into the court of
the defeat of his former lord in 1204, was an important figure in the format
writing. According to Professor Ligeti we have good reasons to supp
t'ung-a was not the only lettered person who came over from the Naima
Chingis. At the same time it is known that the first edicts of Chingis w
Uigur and sealed with the Naiman Impérial Seal (Ligeti L., A mongolok ti
[The Secret History of Mongols], Budapest 1962, pp. 207 — 208). The rôle
was discussed by Viktorova in her paper quoted above (cf. also L. Lige
Hung. XVII (1964), p. 281). The Naimans were Mongolized Turks (cf.
Histoire des campagnes de Oengis khan I, Leiden 1951, pp. 214—222, Liget
titkos tôrténete, pp. 158 —159, 167 with further bibl.). In 1206 Sigi-qutuqu
origin, was charged with the compilation of the К оке debter the first M
of Law (Secret History par. 203). From the itinerary of Ch'ang ch'un, a T
monk, we know that when he was in 1223 in the court of Chingis Chingqai,
origin wrote his words in Uigur script. Chingqai was a leader of the chan
Ôgôdei and Guyiik, he met also Piano Carpini (cf. Pelliot: TP XV (1914), p
A. Waley, The Travels of an Alchemist. The Journey of the Taoist Ch'ang
China to the Hindukush at the Summons of Chingiz khan etc., London 193
One or two years later (1224/1225) is dated the first Mongolian monume
Uigur script which was preserved till the 20th century, the so-called «St
(the most recent édition and a bibliography can be found in Ligeti L
Emlékek 1., XIII—XIV szd.: Mongol Nyelvemléktdr I [Preclassical Monument
centuries: Corpus of Mongolian Linguistic Monuments I] Budapest 196
That the outlook of the script on the stone diffère slightly from the cont
ment in Uigur language was stressed by Professor Ligeti / A 'phags-pa irdso
Emlékkônyv Melich Jânos szuletésnapjàra [The Linguistic monument
script: Mémorial volume presented to J. Melich on his 70th birthday], Bp
The following information of Mongolian writing is dated from 1233 whe
officiai P'eng Ta-ya visited the Mongols and reeorded the use of the Uigu
Hei-ta shih-lueh (edited in 1237). Thus we find Naimans, Kereits, Kitais, T
the craddle of Mongolian writing.
8It was Kozin, who stressed the rôle of the Western Mongols in
Mongolian literary language (Джангариада. Героическая поэма кальмы
Leningrad 1940, p. 25). Vladimircov has dealt with the question earlie
литературные языки: Записки Института Востоковедения 1(1932), pp. 5
has recently pointed out the arguments in favour of the Oirat origin of
literary language are not convineing (Старописьменный монгольский
1964, pp. 7—8). However this question is not only a linguistic or dia
origin of the literary culture, «writing» in the broader sense is in no way
origin of the dialect of the Mongolian literary language.

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122 A. RÔXA-TAS
12th—14th centuries we h
not hing about the pecularit
formed a superstratum ov
and Turkestan, and the Mon
of the Mongolian literary p
Empire in the local usage
only medium for writing
of writing, among them t
used for rendering Mongo
the linguistic side of thes
many times, we know only
means and usage of writin
9 The first period began aft

period the Uigur script was use
for Mongolian purposes, or in M
The second period began with
slight but conscious reform of t
which the system of writing h
instrument of the new dynasty
there was no significant chang
writing in a broader sense deve
14th Century, when the Jirüke
codex was compiled. The autho
was Chos-kyi 'od-zer. At the p
tolta, the Jirüken-ü tolta-yin t
P. B. Baldanzapov (Jirüken-ü to
HHH XVIII. neKa. Ulan Udê 196
tant data on the writing of t
commentator of the Bodhicary
down to us. On his activity and
in H JAS XVII (1954), pp. 1—42
dynasty in 1368. The main figu
Naimans, Kereits, Uigurs. The
and the increasing rôle of the
According to the introductio
Catalogue du Kanjur Mongole im
thinks that he was a Tibetan
10 The importance of the dif
Mongolian Empire will be cle
linguistic history in the group
11 The bibliography of the m
cription can be found in Profes
kinai dtirdsban. Mongol nyelve
doeuments in Chinese transcr
12 The enumeration of the M
dealing with them can be foun
Acta Orient. Hang. Tomus XVIII. 1965

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TEfiMINOLOGY OF MONGOLIAN WBITING 123
by the médiation of the Uigurs to the Mongols,13 but the antécéde

graphy in the Yüan period, the évolution of the printing-techn
lOth—14th centuries deserve serious study as the question at w
under what circumstances did the direct influence of Tibetan b
begin on the Mongolian also awaits settlement.14 The written c
Mongolian period was heterogeneous not only in respect of ethnica
13 Xylography came from the Chinese to the Uigurs (cf. Carter, The
Printing in China and its Spread Westward2, New York 1955, pp. 144—145
has pointed out the form of the Uigur books reflects the différent influen
at work in those times. The pothï-form is a survival of the old Indian pal
the printing and the page numbers are of Chinese origin, the script came from
Carter has not dealt with the Tibetian influence on the Uigur writing, but w
to mention it. Though the excavations in Turkestan brought to light a lot
books, their chronology has not yet been fixed. It seems, however, very
the majority of them can be dated between the 12th and the 14th ce
printing was known earlier, under the Kitai and the Jurchen dynasties (c
Feng, History of Chinese Society : The Liao (907—1125), Philadelphia 1949,
and K. T. Wu: HJAS XIII (1950), pp. 447 — 459). The first Mongolian
served is dated from 1312, and was printed in Peking in 1000 copies. We kn
the Yuan dynasty there was a state office for publishing printed books (C
p. 88, Wu, op. cit., p. 460 — 461). I had no accès to the work of К. K. Flug
книгопечатания в Китае (Χ—XII вв.): Сов. Востоковед. I (1940), pp. 78
the seal-impression played an important rôle in the history of printing i
interesting to write a monograph on the Mongolian seals and tamgas
Studia Sino-Altaica, Wiesbaden 1961, pp. 12 — 20, Acta Orientalia Havn
137 —148, G. Siikhbatar, Studia Ethnographica I. fasc. 6., Ulan Bator 1960
14 The history of Tibetan printing is — if possible — less worked out
the Uigur-Mongolian (cf. the unpublished dissertation of Nebesky-Wojkow
wesen, Papierherstellung und Buchdruck bei den Tibetern, Wien 1949). Rece
(JAOS LXXX (1960), pp. 328 — 329), W. Simon (BSOAS XXV (1963),
C. L. Goodrich (JAOS LXXXII (1962) pp. 556 — 557) dealt with the b
Tibetan printing. Since I wish to return to this discussion in another place I
here only that though the term for printing block: dpar (spar and par ar
undoubtedly of Tibetan origin and has nothing to do with Chinese pa
blockprinting is of Chinese origin. The first dated Chinese printed book is o
BSOS (1937), pp. 1030 —1031 and P. Pelliot, Les débuts de l'imprimerie en
1953, pp. 47 — 48) the first printed book of the world is known from Ja
from 770 (cf. V. S. Grabin: Народы Азии и Африки 1964 : 1, p. 129)
blockprinting is of Chinese origin. Though it is difficult to give an exact
beginning of Chinese printing because the transition from seal-impressio
inscription to printing was graduai, the Chinese book-printing can be tra
end of the 7th century. This fact alone makes it very improbable that the
Shafer supposes — would be of Tibetian origin. It is a debated question (cf
IX (1946), pp. 53 — 63 and Tucci: HJAS XII (1949), pp. 477 — 481) whe
édition of the Tibetan Kanjur, the first Snar-than-edition, was manuscrip
Anyhow the Tibetan printing is older than the Mongolian and its in
Mongolian printing calls for further élucidât ion.

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124 Α. KÖXA-TAS
also in respect of the so

Principally it can be assu
ween the writing in the ch
of the high and petty of
the half-learned lower p
these assumed différences
and even within the rul
calamus. But there were
literate and illiterate wand
a few magic formulae and
but also the letters of priv
to protect them from th
interested in reading th
written debenture. We h
know almost nothing abo
of the Middle Ages. The M
more under Tibetan infl
of literature is now unde
question, the centres and w
in the studies hitherto p
writing in the Manchu p
are also questions waiting
In the same period the s
the Khalkhas, South Mon
culture through changin
15 On a chancellary praetiee of the Mongols in the 13th century see Cleaves:

HJAS XIV (1951), pp. 493 — 526.
161 would mention here for instance the task of making a study of the colophons
of the Mongolian Kanjur andTanjur in respect of the literary culture of the period. Impor
tant material can be found in the works of W. Heissig, especially in his book: Die Pekinger
lamaistische Blockdrucke in Mongolischer S proche. Wiesbaden 1954. An interesting paper
on the outlook of the Mongolian-Tibetan book was published by K. Sagaster (Zum
tibetischen-mongolischen Buch- und Bibliothekswesen : Aspects of Altaic Givilization,
Bloomington 1963, pp. 123 —136). I have used this instructive work in compiling the
list of terme below. On later Mongolian xylography see also Nordstand's paper in CAJ
III (1958), pp. 256—266. On the history of Tibetan paper there are two works by Meisezahl
(Papiergeschichte VIII (1958), pp. 17 — 28 and Libri X (1960), pp. 292 — 306). Another
question is which of the Mongolian ethnical groupe played a rôle in forming the literary
centres of the Manchu period. In my forthcoming book (Tibeto-Mongolica, Budapest
1965) I deal with the rôle of the Mongours in this respect.
17 Cf. Vladimircov, Сравнительная грамматика, pp. 27—32, Sanzeev, Старопись
.менный монгольский язык, pp. 9—11.

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TERMINOLOGY OF MO Ν"GO LI ΑΧ WRITIXG 125
Mongolian prototype was formed the Manchu18 and Oirat

two offshoots, of the Sogdian—Uigurian—Mongolian bran
alphabet. Parallel to this there came into existence a Mon
written in Tibetan, later in Mongolian but with Tibetan l
them has been made up tili now the object of a detailed in
Old Mongolian writing got a new content after the revolu
the Mongolian society and then gave its place to the Cyr
neither this change nor the surviving old elements were disc
I have only touched upon some of the questions of the his
writing — they could be and have to be multiplied. But this
to show that here is an important field for philology and an
of Mongolian history which calls for a monograph or perh
Towards this goal I wish to offer, as preliminary work, a
classical terminology of Mongolian writing. I shall try to sum
of earlier studies without however any pretension of comple
We have to distinguish between two groups of terms. To
belong the primary terms, those which dénoté or denoted prim
of writing. The rest of the terms are secondary, i.e. those w
meaning, connected with writing, through the development
(extension, narrowing, specialization, analogy etc.). It will
is a différence between the origin of the primary and second
is also a différence between the simple terms and the composi
Since my aim was etymological I quote the composites, phrase
usually under the stem in the notes also in the cases when, ac
meaning, they would have to be mentioned in another section
make the basic meaning of the stem clearer.22
18 On the Manchu script and the relevant literature cf. Ligeti: A

II (1962), pp. 235 — 298.
19 The best summary on Oirat is A. Bobrovnikov's Грамматика монгольского
кальмыцкого языка published in Kazan 1849 !
20 Already Vladimircov called the attention to this question (Сравнительная
грамматика, pp. 27 — 28) and Professor Ligeti dealt with it (Rapport préliminaire d'un
voyage d'exploration fait en Mongolie Chinoise 1928 —1931, Budapest—Leipzig 1933, p. 40).
The first Mongolian text with Tibetan letters published by Europeans can be found in
Witsen's Nord en Oost Tartarye I, 1695, p. 220, Table 2. K. Ceremisov and V. D. Jachimov
discussed a Mongolian journal published in Mongolian but with Tibetan letters (Совре
менный восток, 1940, pp. 256—261) and recently Grpnbech (Studia Orientalia XIX
(1952) : 6) and Bawden (ibid XXV (1960) : 3) have contributed to this question. On a
late adaptation of the Tibetan script to Mongolian cf. G. Kara's paper in Acta Orient.
Hung. IX (1959), pp. 1 — 38.
21 See the introductions to Todaeva's Грамматика современного монгольского
языка, Moscow 1951, and Sanzeev's Современный монгольский язык, Moscow 1960.
22 Abbreviations: Ch: Chinese; K: Kowalewski, J. E., Dictionnaire mongol—russe
français I—III, Kazan 1846; K(5: Kelen-u &imeg, ed. M. Taube: Wissenschaftliche Zeit
Acta Orient. Hung. Tomas XVIII. 1965

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126 A. EÔXA-TAS
1. To write
The basic word for writing in Mongolian is bici-23. This word is présent in
the earliest documents of the Mongolian language and in ail the dialects. It is a
development of a form *biti-, which can be found in Turkish. The earliest évid
ence of the existence of the word is Tabgach bitilccin and Hungarian betû <
bitiy (cf. Note 2). We find the word in Manchu in the form bitxe «letter, script».
The word bici- is used as the word for writing the Uigur script and secondarily
for other scripts. It is a productive word-stem. We corne across such derivatives
as bicig2i «anything written (as letters of the alphabet or characters), System
schrift der Karl-Marx-ZJniversitât, Leipzig X (1961), Gesellschafts- und Sprachwissen

schaftliche Reihe H. 1., pp. 147—155, cf. also A. И. Воробьева, Монгольское, граммати
ческое сочинение «Kelen-ii cimeg»: Пробл. Вост. 1959 : 6, pp. 148 — 151.; L: Lessing,
Г. D., Mongolian—English Dictionary, Berkeley and Los Angeles 1960; M: Mongolian;
Ma: Manchu; MMo: Middle Mongolian; OM: Oytaryui-yin mani or Jiruken-ii tolta-yin
t.ayilburi, ed. P. B. Baldanzapov: Монгольское грамматическое сочинение XVIII
века, Ulan Udê 1962.; Sag: Sagaster, K., Zum tibetisch-mongolischen Buch- und Biblio
thekswesen : Uralic and Altaic SeriesVol. 23, pp. 123 —136.; SD: Sumatiratna, Bod-hor-ky
brda-yig min chig don gsum gsal-bar byed-pa mun-sél sgron-me I—II, Ulan Bator 1959.;
Skr: Sanskrit; T: Tibetan; Uig: Uigur; WT: Yu chih wu t'i Ch'ing wen chien 1-/1/, Peking
1957; YD: Ye-ses Rdo-rje, Bod-skad-kyi brda' gsar rûiri dka'-ba etc. Ulan Bator 1959.
The Mongolian, Turkish and Manchu-Tunguzian languages and dialects have the abbre
viations usual in the Aeta Orientalia Hungarica.
23 K, L, WT 768, 773 — Τ 'bri-, Ma ara- ; biëijù ab- (K, L) «to write down»; qayul)u
bici- (L) «to eopy», bayulyan bici- (L) «id.», bayulyan biciku ayil (SD II 826) «office for the
copies» = Τ yig bsus grva ; guilgen biài- (SD II 1108) «to write in cursive style» = Τ bsar ;
nige nige-ber jiysayan bici- (L) «to enumerate one by one in writing»; tegudege ugei bici
(L, WT 777) «to write or сору without hésitation, to write quickly» = Τ mgyogs yig,
Ma fir semen ara- ; darun biëi- (WT 773) «to write current script» = Τ gzab-ma bsar,
Ma gidame ara- ; naribcilan bici- (L) «to write well, with précision».
24 K, L, WT 729, 776, SD II 824 = Τ yi-ge, yig, bskur-yig, Ma bitxe, Ma iisiig ;
bicig biciku cayasu (L) «stationary, note paper»; bicig-йп kele (L) «literary language»;
bicig-йп uge (L) «id.»; bicig-йп keregsel (L) «writing utensils»; bicig-un sirege (L) «writing
desk»; bicig usug (L) «writing, literacy»; ЪоЦиу-а bicig (K, L) «contract, agreement»;
yuyulta bicig (K, L) «written request, pétition»; ger-e bicig (K, L) «treaty, treatise, agree
ment»; mongyol bicig (L, WT 730) «Mongolian script, book, letter»; kitad bicig (WT 730)
«Chinese script»; temdegtu bicig (L) «certificate, patent»; unemleku bi&ig (L) «id.»; jam-un
bicig (K, L) «passport, travel permit» = Τ lam-yig; jarlal bicig (L) «manifesto, décoration»;
ЫМд-йп talbiyur (L) book-case»; bicig jokiyal (L) «literary work»; bicimel bicig (L) «written
book, book in manuseript»; siguku cayajan-u qauli bicig (L) «criminal code»; bicig-un
tïisimel (K, L) «civil servant» = Τ yig-blon, Ma bitxei ■/afan ; bicig-йп кйтйп (К, L)
«educated man, scholar, writer, author, scribe, copist»; adali bicig (K) «facsimile»; eke
bicig (K, SD II 826) «original letter, the original of a script, authograph» = Τ ma yig,
yig-dan; toya bicig (K) «index, register» = Τ dkar-chag, M karciy, yarciy ; ilegeku, bicig
(K) «letter» = Τ 'phrin-yig ; bicig-йп ed (K, WT 816) «utensils for writing» = Τ yi-ge
spyad-ma, Ma su-i belxeku ; bicig-йп erkin sayid (K, SD 827) «minister of State» = Τ
Acta Orient. Hung. Tomm XVIII. 1965

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TEIÎMINOLOGY OF MOXGOLIAN WRITING 127
of writing, script, inscription, letter, written book etc.»,

copyist, secretary', bicigesü26 «inscription», bicigle-27 «to
action of writing», bicimel29 «written manuscript, in
ter» etc.
There is also another word in Mongolian which has connections with th

action of writing and this is )\iru-. Its basic meaning in the classical languag
and the dialects is «to draw (as a line or a picture), to Scratch»30 but the wor
dénotés also «to write» in Kalmuck, Western Buriat and Monguor. The v
j\iru- has the meaning «to put one's signature on a document, to sign, to
scribe» in the expression: yar-un üsüg Jim-. The basic idea expressed by
word was «to draw a line» hence «to carve a line in wood, to eut incisions».
In the Zirni MS we find furu- (< firu-) with the only meaning «to eut»,31 it is
jiruy, a deverbal form of firu- which dénotés «tally»,32 the man who cuts
yig-blon gco-bo, M dayaysan bicig-ün daruya ; bicig-ün tusalan ungsiyci sayid (SD II 827)
«an officiai who reads during the cérémonies» = Τ yig-blon tha-chun ; bicig ungsiqu
tüsimel (Κ) «id.»; bicig-ün tusalan kelelegci sayid (SD II 827) «an officiai» = Τ yig-blon
tha-sal ; bicig-ün uduridqal (K) «introduction, préfacé»; bicig-ün udqaci (K) «doctor, Ch.
han-lini) ; ehe bi6ig (L) «original text, draft or document»; biöig-ün noyan (K) «writer,
author»; bicig-ün sayid (K) «mandarin of literature» = Τ yig-blon, Ma bitxei amban ;
bicig-ün temdeg (K, WT 821, SD I 937) «personal seal, private seal» = Τ the'u ce, Ma
su-i temgetu ; bicig-ün yamun (K) «academy»; medege bicig (K) «copy, commentary»;
onuly-a bicig (SD II 826) «written accounts, books of history» = Τ yig-iha, M nomlal ;
qar-a bi&ig (SD II 826) «Chinese script» = Τ yig rgya ; yaryaqu bicig «copy» = Τ yig sus ;
tulyur bicig (L) «primary source»; bi6ig-ün keb-ün küi (WT 4694) «Imperial printing house»
= Τ yig spar gsags, Ma bit·,ve suwaselara falya ; qara üges-ün bicig (KÖ6v) «spoken lan
guage»; nom-un bicig (Kö 6r) «literary language»; toyan-u bicig (KÖ 6v) «calendar»;
jakiy-a bicig (SD II 161) «letter» = Τ 'phrin-yig, M medege bicig ; ilegegsen bicig, bicig-ün
qariyu (SD II 16D) «answer by letter» = Τ 'phrin-lan.
25 K, L = T yi-ge-pa, yig-mkhan. Also bicigci (K), bici/yeci (L), bicigeëi siyubing
(SD II 826) «id.» = Τ yig-dan pa.
26 L, 6ilayun-u bicigesü (L) «id.»
27 L, K, in L «to put to writing, to correspond, to do something according to the
books».
28 K, üsüg-ün qoyar )üil bicilge (K) «double manner of writting letters».

29 K, L, bifimel sudur debter (Sag 131) «written manuscript book» = Τ bris
glegs-bam.
30 K, L, SD I 1142, II 911, WT 774 = Τ ri-mo 'bri-, 'phred thig, thig 'dri-, Ma jtfu-,
M bici- (SD II 256); tamaya jiru- (K) «to seal»; yar-un üsüg jiru- (L) «to sign, put one's
signature on a document»; yajar orun-u jiruqu ger (SD I 1142) «place for map-drawing» =
Τ Ideb-ris khan.
31Iwamura, Sh. and others, The Zirni Manuscript, Kyoto 1961, we find t
meaning also in the dialects: Kalm zur- «ritzen» Bur zura- '6op03gHTh, pa3pe3aTb',
diare, 'pe3aTb'.
32 The common meaning of the word is «drawing, painting, picture» K, L, WT
SD I 212, II 255 = Τ ri-mo, 'bris, bkra-ba, Ma niruyan ; jiruy-un ü)üg (SD II 255) «pe
ar jiruy cf. ar ; süm-e-yin kerim-ün jiruy (SD I 1142) «wall-painting on the wa

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128 A. RÔXA-TAS
the printing blocks is called

«drawing» but also the pat
«to seal with a seal of golden
times broken (Chinese) sea
with Chuvash sir- «to writ
yäz-. It is a Mongolian loanw
«to draw» and «to write»,
into the Manchu—Tunguz
and jiju- (< jiryu-) «to draw
at différent times and diffé
ing» of the i (jiru- > jur
(Barguzin, Nercinsk) dzuru-
On the strength of these
original word used for wr
was jiru- while bici- is an U
in the written language and
biti- is a loanword in Turkish.37
For the action of writing we have some other words, too. These word
dénoté some aspects of writing and not writing in général, and ail are seconda
monastery». But we find also jiruy modun (K, L), firuytu modun (SD I 212) «tally stick»
Τ khram-sin, M kerëimel modun, cayajilaqui modun. Kerëimel is a noun formed from the
verb kerci- «to eut, to make incisions» hence «the eut wood, the wood with incisions, tally
cayafila- «to outlaw, to execute», hence «the wooden tally-stick, according to which on
is executed». The sentence (SDI 212) jiruytu modun-i bel-dür qabôiyuluysan = Τ khram-iin
sked-la gzer-ba «the tally is sticked into the belt» refers to Lha-mo who wears the tall
stick in her belt. The tally-stick of Lha-mo is the «score of the sins», originally a notche
stick with incisions of debts from the time before writing was introduced. (cf. my pape
Tally-stick and Divination-dice in the Iconography of Lha-mo : Acta Orient. Hung. VI
(1956), pp. 163 — 179). What is important here is that firuy is used for notch, incision
If the Mongols had ever a runic script, firu- was the verb for making runes, score
notches, to write.
33 SD II 17 = Τ par g-yog, M barci, kebei.
34 vvp 4623 = Τ yi-ge dgu 'khyogs, Ma uyun mudangga jijun.
35 As Professor Ligeti pointed out (A propos des éléments «altaïques» de la langue
hongroise : Acta Linguist. Hung. XI (1961), p. 30), the Hungarian word ir «to write» was
borrowed with a vocalic initial ( < ir-) and the disappearence of the initial y- occurred
in Old Bulgarian. Chuvash éïr- is a development of Old Chuvash yïr- cf. Turkish yâz-.
36 Cf. S. Kaluzyhski, Mongolische Elemente in der Jakutischen Sprache, Warsaw
1961, pp. 23, 47.
37 According to von Gabain (Alttürkische Grammatik, Leipzig 1950, p. 303)
Turkish biti- would be the same Chinese pi ( < pjfit) as bir «writing brush». Anyhow the
disyllabic form does not look like Turkish, but is common in Mongolian. We can not
exclude the possibility that Turkish biti- is a loanword from an early Mongolian language.

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TERMIXOLOOY OF MONGOLIAN WRITIXG 129
dérivations. Here are some of them: bayulya-36 «to w

«to cause to come down», bayu- «to corne down»), balala-
(with graphite)» (< bala «graphite»), ekele-i0 «to (writ
make a duplicate», cf. e&e«mother» ehe bicig «original te
cuyul-i2 «to write a note» (< «to tear, rip, split»),43 küriy
out letters by encircling» (< «to encircle»), nayirayul-15
(< «to edit, to compile, to harmonize cf. nayira- «to
«harmony»), niruyubci-46 «to write a draft» (< nir
qayul-4? «to copy» (< «to break in two (of long objects)»),
to make a fair, clean copy» (< «to make thin, to make f
thin»), siyumda-, siyumla-*9 «to line» (siyum «line»), tem
38 Κ, L = Τ bsus 'beb·; bayulyala- (WT 771) «id.» = Τ bsus-'bebs, Ma doola-;

bayulyaysan jiruy (L) «reproduced print»; bayulyan bi6i- (L) «to copy»; sudur bayulya- (L)
«to copy a sacred book»; bayulyal (K) «copy» = Τ bsus yig; bayulyaburi (L) «copy of a
manuscript, printed matter etc.», bayulyamal (L) «copied, transcribed»; bayulyamal bicig
(L), bayulyatu biiig (K) «copy» = Τ do bsus.
39 L, WT 770 = Τ gsub, Ma rnayôla-; balada- (L) «to draw a line with graphite»;
balara- (L) «to become illegible».
40 K, L, WT 769 = Τ ma yig 'bri-, Ma fijele-,
41 K, L = Τ ma-yig cf. also eke sudur (L) «original text»; töbed ehe (L) «the Tibetan
original text» and köbegün bicig «copy».
42 K, L. K has «servire du pinceau pour noter les papiers, pour mettre la date à
(des papiers) ou pour faire les notes à la marge»; ayiladqaqu bicig-i cuyulqu yajar (K)
«office where the papers are given for handing over to the officiai».
43 The basic idea which underlies this word is to make marginal notes, marks,
perhaps originally by tearing the paper. This word has nothing to do with éoyul- (cf. note
115) which is used for carving the blocke and is transcribed sometimes wrongly as Suyul-,
44 WT 770 = Τ snog, Ma kôwara-.
45 K, L nayirayulun qolbu- (L) «id.», nayirayulun joki- (L) «to compose, to write»;
töbed üge-lüge nayirayul- «to adapt to or compare with the Tibetan language»; nayira
yuluySi baysi (Ligeti, Catalogue, p. 342) «editor»; nayirayuly-a (L) «composition, literary
work; style, structure»; kelen-ü nayirayulul(ta) (L) «sentence structure»; nayiraly-a (L)
«literary work, belles-lettres, composition».
46 WT 769 = Τ rua yig sgrigs, Ma sisete-,
" K, L qayulju biii- (L), qayulju ab- (L) «id.»; qayulburi (L) «copy, excerpt»; kereg
qayulqu kümün (K) «writer, a man versed in affaire». Cf. also qayas «half». The basic
meaning «to make two of one thing» is sufficient for explaining the meaning «to copy».
I have to mention, however, that the tally-stick was broken lengthwise, one part remained
with the debtor or tax-payer and the other with the lender or tax-colleetor.
48 K, L, WT 771 = Τ ήο bsus, fio gsu-, Ma sarkiya-,
49 K, L, SD I 915 also éuyum, suyum = Τ thig-ma ; siyum tata- (K, L, SD 915)
«to draw a line» = Τ gzuù thig, thig rgyag, thig gdab ; siyum tuyuly-a (K, SD I 916) «lead
for drawing lines» = Τ thig za ; siyumtu cayasun (L) «ruled paper»; siyum-un modun
(K, SD I 916) «ruler» = Τ thig sin ; siyumda-, siyumna- (K, L) «to line»; siyumdayur
(K, L) «ruler of reed» = Τ thig smyug. Cf. also siyur- (L) «to tear or rip lengthwise».
50 K, L, dangsa-dur temdegle- (L) «to enter in a register book»; temdeglel (K, L,
WT 739) «record note» = Τ kha byari, zal byafi, them yig, Ma ι

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130 a. RÔNA-TAS
(< temdeg «sign, mark»), ten

küre- «to recover strength»),
script), to make interpunct
«to write» (< «to compose, co
connected with writing in t
2. The Utensils of ha
The most important words

ün keregsel or bicig-ün ed) ar
ultimately a Chinese word and
used for or with ink are —
sitions with the word beke.53
The word for «writing or painting brush» is bir, bigir (= bir).56 This is
also a Chinese word in Uigur and the final -r shows that it was borrowed in the
51 WT 770 = Τ slar gso, Ma aitubu-.

52 WX 774 _ χ thig-le, Ma torki- ; toyuriyulu- (WT 773) «to encircle words or
letters» = Τ dbu chufi, Ma surde-,
53 K, L = Τ rcom-, brcom- ; sudur tuyurbi- (K, L) «to undertake the writing or
compilation of a book»; tuyurbil (K, L) «writing, compiling» = Τ brcam-pa, 'char-sgom,
spros-pa.
54 K, L, SD I 1228, WT 818 =T snag-cha, Ma bexe. Cf. Chinese rno ( < mgk).
55 beke-yin talq-a (K, L) «powdered India ink»; beke uyuqu 6ayasu (L) «blotting
paper»; beke-yi 6ögü6e (K, SD II 1228) «small cup for ink» = Τ snag-kofi ; beke-yin saynri
(SD I 1229, WT 819) «board to put the ink-stand on it» = Τ snag stegs, Ma bexei tek
beke-yin dalai (SD I 1229, WT 819) «water-cup for the ink-slab» = Τ snag-cha'i ka-(o-ra,
Ma bexei namu ; beke nuqu- (SD I 1229) «to préparé ink on an ink-slab» = Τ snag-cha snur-
M beke jiyura- (L). «id.»; beke jiyuraqu iilayun (L) «ink-slab»; beke-ber bicigsen ebkimel
(SD I 1229) «letter or paper roll written with ink» = Τ snag-yig dpe ; ulayan beke (K, SD
II 615, WT 818) «red ink, vermillion» = Τ mchal sbram, Ma farsilaxa (inuxôn «piece o
cinober»; keb-ün beke (SD II 17) «ink for printing» = Τ rgya snag ; kaii beke (SD I 1229)
«Kashmirian ink» = Τ (ka)-ce snag ; bekede- (L, SD I 1229) «to smear or soil with ink» =
Τ snag ris rgyag, M bir türki-,
56 K, L, WT 816, SD II 19 = Τ pir, Ma fi, M saiuy, cacuy originally «tuft, fringe,
tussel». Bir-ün üfügür (L, WT 816, SD II 19, 20) «tip of a writing brush» = Τ pir mgo,
M bir-ün qosiyun metü; bir yuursu ( WT 816, SD II 19), bir yuyursun, yayursun (L) «the bam
boo tube of a writing brush» =T pir sbug, Ma fi kitala; bir qui (K, WT 817,SDII 19) «métal
case of a brush» = Τ pir sub, pir don, Ma fi-i χοηιοχοη; bir-ün talbiyur (K, WT 817, SD II 19
«a stand for brushes» = Τ pir stegs, Ma fi-i nenggeleku ; bir sayulya (K, L, WT 817, SD
19) «id.» = Τ pir dam, Ma fi-i si/an ; bir-ün noryaqu saba (K, WT 817, SD II 20) «water
cup in which the brush is moistened (K), water cup for the ink-slab (Ma according to
Hauer)» = Τ pir-gyi iu-snod, Ma fi-i ulyaqô; bir-ün ugiyaqu saba (K, WT 818, SD II 19
«a pot for washing the brush» = Τ pir khrud, Ma fi-i oboqô ; bir-ün miq-a (SD II 20
«the tassel of the brush» = Τ pir sa ; ilyaburi-yin bir (K) «a small brush» = Τ bcad pir ;
ulayan bir (K) «brush for vermillion»; bir-ün üsün (K) «the hair of the brush» = Τ pir spu

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TERMINOLOGY Ο F MONGOLIAN WRITING 131
time of the T'ang dynasty. The Manchu fi is the same Chi

a la ter period.
A third Uigur word dénotés a special kind of ink: si
red ink». The Uigur word is of Persian origin.
The word ü)ügiH «reed-pen, pen, nib» or qulusun üf
an Uigur loanword; on its origin see p. 134 below.
While the names of the most important Utensils of w
origin we find a few words for objects of secondary im
borrowed from other languages: qaranda «pencil» is of Rus
supposedly has a Turkish etymology,59 sambara «writin
loanword.60
The remaining words are of Mongolian origin. The most important
Mongolian word is cayasun61 «paper» a derivative from the obsolate stem *câ
bir-ün bariyëi (Κ) «painter» = Τ pir thogs-pa ; bir bariyëi (SD II 19) «id.» = Τ ri-mo
mkhan, pir-'jin, M jiruyaëi ; bir idegül- (L) «to dip the brush in ink, saturate the brush
with ink» = M bir-tür beke silemede- (SD II19); bir türki- (SD I 1229) «to smear, draw with
a brush soaked in ink» = Τ snag ris rgyag, M bekede- ; bir-iyer uyuija jiru- (SD II 20) «to
draw spiral Ornaments with a brush» = Τ pir-gyis patra bris. Cf. Ch. pi < pjët. On the
Uigur forme see Csongor, Acta Orient. Hung. II (1952), p. 81.
57 K, L, SD II 614 — 615, Sag 127, also éungqu ; tungyalay singqu (K, L, SD II 615)
«light red cinober ink» = Τ mchal-lëog ; singqu-bar biëigsen ebkimel (K, SD II 615) «letter
written with einober» = Τ mchal yig dpe. Cf. Ma cinuyô- «to write with vermillion». On
the word see P. Pelliot, Le nom persan du cinabre dans les langues altaiques : TP XXIV
(1926), pp. 253 — 255, L. Ligeti, Sur quelques transcriptions sino-ouïgoures des Yuan :
UAJb XXXIII (1961), pp. 235-236.
58 K, L, SD II 499 = Τ smyug-gu ; üjüg jasa- (K) «to sharpen a pen», üjüg-ün
kituya tonyuriy (SD II 494) «penknife».
59 L. cf. npeoôpa>KeHCKHH, A. T., 3raMOJiorn<iecKHK cnoeapb pyccKoro jfâbiKa2, Mos
eow 1958, Vasmer, M., Russisches etymologisches Wörterbuch, Heidelberg 1953.
60 Κ, L also sambar = Τ sa-'bris, byaû-leb; arciqu sambar-a (WT 820) «blackboard
which can be washed off» = Τ byaû-leb reim, Ma fusixen, Cf. Ligeti L., Mongoles jôvevén
szavaink kérdése (The problem of our loanwords of Mongolian type) : Nyelvtudomânyi
Kôzlemények XLIX (1935), p. 248.
61 L, K, SD II 1089, WT 805, Sag 123 = Τ sog-bu, Sog-gu, Ma yoosan ; arisun c.
(K, L) «parchment» = Τ pags-ëog ; ebkimel c. (K) «paper roll» = Τ Sog-ril ; ündüsün c.
(K) «paper made of plants and their roots» = Τ reva-sog, büs 6. (K) «paper made of cotton»;
bayaja 5. (L) «piain paper», gere altan δ. (SD II 1090) «golden paper» = Τ Sog-bu gser-ma.
The following sorts of paper are enumerated in WT pp. 805 — 815, the majority of the
Mongolian names are mere translations of the Manchu and Chinese items and were never
used in the Mongolian language. Ulayaljin 6. «paper made of bark» = Τ brdab sog, Ma
dersen yoosan ; tungqay 6. «placard-paper» = Τ srab è., Ma tuwabungya χ. ; gege tungqay-un
c. «glazed placard paper» = Τ 'ur S., Ma ginëixiyan tuwabungya χ. ; ge jögelen tungqay c.
«id. for packing»; qatayuqan t. 6. «id. (hard)»; jekeyiken t. δ. «id. of poor quality» = Τ
phal Ma arsari t.y. ; solyu 6. «Korean paper» = T ka-liû s. ; Ma solyo χ. ; köbünglig c.
»paper of cotton» = T bal Ma kobungge y. ; dörbetü c. «paper being four times larger
then the usual format» = T bii S., Ma duingge y. ; ariyun dörbetü δ. «id. (made of bark
9* Acta Orient. Hung. Tomus XVIII. 1965

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132 Α. RÖNA-TAS
«to be white»62. Tin, lead,

bala «graphite» (cf. balai «
asqa cilayun, asqa tig65 «sla
are only secondarily conne
not bring us nearer to the o
A few other objects hav
(cf. fiyura- «to knead»,67 fi
soaked in water)» = Τ bcaù s. Ma bolyo d.y.; qulusun d.c. «id. (made of bamboo)» = Τ
snug ë., Ma cuseri d.·/. ; idegelegsen d.c. «id. (worked up with alum, for painting)» = Τ
mchur s., Ma feksulenxe d.·/. ; ging-ün c. «a sort of thick paper made of wood-fibre in
Peking» = Τ 'jain s., Ma ginggun y. ; muubin c (also L) «paper of long fibres» = Τ 'bras s.
— Ma mobin, maobin χ. cf. Ch mao-pien ; muutuu 6. (also L) «paper made of hempfibres» =
Τ so s., Ma motan, moo teo χ., Cf. Ch. mao-t'ou ; niytalan c. «a strong paper made of hemp
fibres» = Τ phye s., Ma jisin y., ürgülji c. «paper made of two or four bound layers of
bamboo-pulp» = Τ sbrel s., Ma yolbongyo y. ; yeke u.c. «id. (thick)» = Τ s.s. che-ba, Ma
amba χ.χ ; nimgen u.c. «id. (thin)» = Τ s.s. srab, Ma nekeliyen y.y ; koke narin U.c. «blue
wall paper» = Τ sbrel sog snon-po, Ma lamun narayôngya χ.χ. ; qulusun c. «a sort of
bamboo paper» = Τ 'dam s., Ma cuseri y. ; emegen c., emegen qulusun c. (also L) «bamboo
paper» = Τ 'od-ma s., Ma cuseingge χ. ; kegelegsen c. «glazed thin paper» = Τ bzah s., Ma
giyan&ixiyan χ. ; luu-tu k. 6, «paper with dragon-pattern» = Τ sog-bu 'brug-rna, Ma
muduringya g.χ. ; sayin ünürtü S. «paper having a nice smell» = Τ sog-bu dri-bzan, Ma ·
wangya g.χ. ; labdaysan bider-tü c. «waxed paper with floral pattern» = Τ s. spra bchil-ma,
Ma ayalaya ilyangya y. ; dardatu c. (also SD II 1090) ««brocade paper», a patterned strong
sort» — Ts. me-ris-ma, Ma junggingge y. ; ger-e attan 6. «golden paper of bamboo» = Τ
sog-bu gser-ma, Ma sayaliyan nilgiyan y. ; alban köküge c. «a sort of blue paper used in
offices» = Τ gzuû sog snon-po, Ma albani lamun y. ; jilgügür c. «sandpaper» = Τ byes sog,
Ma yongyadun y. ; beyilen c. «coarse paper» = Τ reins s., Ma suseri y. ; bidügün b.c. «id.
of a second sort» = Τ r.s. phal-ma, Ma m.uwa s.y. ; dotuyadu c. (also SD 1098) «seven
times folded paper» = Τ sog-bu Ideb bdun-ma, Ma nadangya y. ; cabuy c. «paper for packing»
= Τ thum s., Ma uyungge y., jekeyiken c. «id. of second sort» = Τ th.s. tha-ma, Ma muwa
u.y.
62 cabidar, cabidaycin «reddish-yellow with white tail and mane», caya «boiled taray
caya «walleye, leucoma of the Cornea», cayabtur «whitish», cayabur «id.», (ayad- «to b
too white», cayadqa- «to make white», ôayaycin «white (of female animais)», cay
«whiten», cayali- «to faint», cayalji «lake salmon (with white flesh)», cayan «white», c
«to become white», casun «snow» etc. cf. also Ma sanggiyan and Ligeti, Les anciens élé
ments mongols dans le mandchou : Acta Orient. Hung. X (1960), p. 239.
63 L, SD II 857 = Τ g-ya'.
64 K, L, SD I 915 = Τ Vo-ne.
65 K, L = Τ g-yam rdo.
64 K, L = Τ ro-ne, ra-ne, za-ne, Ma toyolon, cf. MMo tobalya.
67 K, L, SD 1065, WT 819 also jiyuruyul, 'jiyuruyuul, juruul = Τ bdar, mdar, Ma
yuwan, M beke jiytiraqui cilayun ; bïdiskeltû Jiyurayul (WT 815) «ink-slab which can
heated with charcoal» = Τ sro-bdar Ma wen]engge yuwan.
68 L, WT 821 = Τ thig rgyag, Ma )usuqô, M suyum cf. jiru-.
69 K, L, SD I 915 = Τ thig-ma cf. note 49.
70 WT 820 = Τ "α-Ιοή, Ma muxeren.

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TERMINOLOGY OF MOXGOLIAN WRITIXG 133
(for pressing the paper)», qayudasun'1 «a sheet of pa

tobkiyan'3 «a ream of paper». Of these words only qayu
a brief comment. The word qayudasun defined as cay
sheet of paper» figured originally in the expression qay
sheet». Qayudasun denoted originally the thin layer
hence anything which is similar to this thin layer. Q
of horn) and its original meaning is «what is in the fro
3. The script
The resuit of writing is, strictly speaking, the letters. But in a broader
sense we have to review here the terminology of the part of the letters, the
interpunction, the style of the writing, the terms of the kinds of the letters
etc. Some times it is difficult to separate the handwritten and the printed
script, therefore I shall deal with both together.
The basic word here is also of Uigur origin: üsüg, üjüg75 «letter». It was
71 Κ, L, SD I 1141, WT 748 = Τ sog-ldeb, sog-hril, sog-rkaii, gre-kha, glegs-bu, Ma

α/αχα, M cayasun-u nigen nabci ; qayzidasun-u aru tala (K) «folio verso» = Τ sog-bu'i
rgyab logs ; qayudasun-u ebür tala (K) «folio reeto» = sog-bu'i mdun logs ; qayudasun
cayasun (K, L) «sheet of paper»; bicig q. (L) «documents»; ber-e-gin q. (L) «visiting card,
list of names»; nom-un q. egigül- (L) «to turn the pages in a book»; cuquyilaysan q. (SD 1142)
«letter» = Τ Ideb 'phrin ; abcitu q. «accordion-like folded letter» = Τ gser Heb, Ma abdangya.
72 K, L, SD II 1229, WT 820 = Τ snag-bum, snag-skon, skoii-bu, Ma qowaca.
73 K, L, SD II 1090, WT 814 =T sogbam geig, Ma kiyan, cf. tobkimal (L) «brochure»
and tobki- in note 137.
74 Cf. A Dariganga Vocabulary : Acta Orient. Hung. XIII (1961), p. 164.
75 K, L, SD II 824, WT 777, Sag 132 = Τ yi-ge, Ma xergen, M bicig, adali ü. (K)
«similar letters, the same vowels differring only in quantity» = Τ 'dra-ba'i yi-ge, erdem-ün
ü. (K) Sanskrit letters ë, δ, ar, al developed from i, i, u, ü, ri, rl, Iri, lrii> = Τ yon-tan-gyi
yi-ge ; üsüg-ün arbidqal (K) «the lengthening of a vowel (Skrt)» = Τ yig-ge'phal-pa ;
üsüg-ün erike (K, SD II 826) «line, row of words in the middle of the page» = Τ yig-phreû,
yig sar, M üsüg-ün mär, üsüg-ün firum ; üsüg-ün ür-e (K, SD II 826) «single letters, sepa
rated letters» = Τ yig 'bru, M yaycayan ü.; teng ü. (WT 778) «id.» = Τ yig rkyah, Ma
yaryata xergen ; üsüg-ün sudur (K) «aiphabet», üsüg dayan uruyei (K) «the final letters of
Tibetan (-g, -d, -η, -ή, -δ, -m, -'a, -r, -l, -s) = Τ rjes 'fug ; üsüg-ün dayun (L, K) «the sound
of the letter»; üsüg-ün dayudaqui (K) «the pronunciation of the letter»; üsüg-ün ciyulyan
(K) «all the letters, alphabet»; üsüg-ün keb (K, L, SD II 827, WT 821) «type (in printing),
samples of writing, alphabet» = Τ yig spar, Ma xergen-i kemun ; sab üsüg (K) see note 93;
sacayu ü. (K) vowels of the same quantity» = Τ chims-pa'i yi-ge ; ëar ü. see note 92,
tolugai ügei ü. (K) «the Tibetan dbu-med script»; toluyayitu ü. (K, SD 824) «the Tibetan
dbu-can script»; it. kinay&i (L) «proof-reader»; ü. örügei (L) «typesetter»; üsüg-ün dürim
(L) «spelling, orthography»; bicig ü. (L) writing, document, literature»; bicig ü. büküi
(L) «literate»; egün-ü dour-a yar-un üsüg firuyci (L) «the undersigned»; yar-un ü. (L)
«signature»; sine ü. (L) ««new script», the cyrillic script», üsüg falyan bici- (K<3 5r) «to
Acta Orient. Hang. Tomus XVIII. 1965

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134 Α. RÖNA-TAS
borrowed from Sogdian, a

origin.76 The word occurs in
documents.77 Script in gén
bici-.
In the terminology of the

of Uigur origin : bintu, bind
Manchu writing, zéro» and b
of a book or chapter». Both
It is interesting that the n
origin : the diacritic dots pla
it «s» and the stroke for le
write together (in one word e

«consonant» = Τ gsal-byed, and
«small eharacters» = Τ yig Shuri
in formai documents» = Τ 'bru-c
or read proof sheets»; aq-a ü. (O
«id.»; em-e ü. (L, OM, KÖ) «pa
sounds»; cingya ü. (OM) «id.»; er
«initial letter»; ami falyayci ü
üsüg-ün segül (KÖ) «the end of
üsüg-ün nöküce (OM) «suffix»;
(OM) «grammar»; dayisun ü. (OM
script»; kebtege dörbeljin ü. (OM
in 1686»; yerü mongyol ü. (OM)
(cf. G. Kara: Acta Orient. Hun
snan-ba'i yi-ge; ebkemel ü. (L
xergen, letters for rendering t
«rough draft» = Τ rgyug-ma, M
Τ bSar-ma, Ma gidara xergen ; k
Ma ginggülere xergen; tulyurun
Ma fuqjingya xergen ; kitad ü
xergen, nayirayuluysan ü. (WT
Chinese characters, the first gi
sdebs-yig, Ma eseme ocabuya xe
76 Cf. Sogd wjk'k read uzka
question can be found in HJAS
77 On the letters of Gasan 13
1320 see Mostaert—Cleaves, Tro
HJAS XV (1952), pp. 478-482.
78 Cf. note 24.
79 K, L, SD I 915, WT 781 =» Τ thig-(le), Skrt vindu, anusvâra, M tileg, Ma fu

qa; orui-yin bintu (K, L) 'a circle above vovels, indicating nasalisation' = Τ chahs
thig.
80 K, L.
_ 81 K, L WT 781 = Τ ca-rtags, Ma saqa.

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semantic development from the basic meaning «molar

loop for o/w in Mongolian script» had the original mean
of the letters a and e or η when they occur at the end o
a derivative from the verb orki- «to cast away» hence «w
aside», or caculya8i from cacu-, sacu- «to spread». The «ta
of certain letters is called segül, originally «tail of anima
also «suffix», on which see below). The aleph, the sign for
ning and in the middle of the words has the name sidün8
of the letter i is called silbi.8e This word has the origina
but dénotés also the loop for fastening buttons. The liga
üsüg87 «folded letters» (on ebkimel see below). The name
is a Tibetan calque: dusul88 «dots, specially the diacr
The word is a dérivation of dusu- «to drip» and is forme
Tibetan thig «drop, dot». It is not by change that we fin
«belly», «tail», «shin bone» ail of which are clearly zo
Though the basic terminology of the script is of U
a strong Tibetan influence in the terminology of seco
Tibetan influence can be observed in two types of wo
belong Tibetan loanwords: the dot, the point, the Mongo
corresponding to a comme is called cig or ceg,89 The word
«line, circular mark in writing, punctuation mark, zé
of a Tibetan or Mongolian letter in transcriptions fro
nasalization», it is called also tileg.9i Two styles of wr
words of Tibetan origin. The cursive style is called gsar o
name of the Tibetan dbu-med writing), the elegant style
(originally the name of the Tibetan dbu-can writing).
82 L.
83 Κ, L, orkicu (OM) = Τ 'phen-sib.

84 L.
85 L, OM, KÖ.
86 L, KÖ, cf. Acta Orient. Hung. XIII (1961), p. 170.
87 Cf. note 75.
88 K, L, WT 782, SD I 915 = Τ thigs-pa, thig, thig-le, chiggs, chogs, Ma ton
orui-yin dusul (K) «dot above the character» = Τ stod kor, Skrt anusvâra ; dusul toy
(SD I 916) «a fixed dot» = Τ thig s sdod.
89 K, L, WT 783 = Τ cheg, sad, Ma cik ; ceg temdeg (L) «punctuation ma
cubuy-a 6eg (L) «dotted line»; dabqur 6eg «colon, punctuation mark in old Mongo
sisting of two dots and corresponding to a period»; dörbeljin ceg (L) «punctuation
of four dots, used at the end of a paragraph in old Mongolian writing».
90 K, L = Τ thig-le, asq-a tig (K, L) «crayon, slate pencil» = Τ g-ya'-thig, be
(K) «black line drawn with ink» = Τ snag-thig.
91 SD I 915 = Τ thig-le.
92 L,SDII824,KI 311a =T gSar-yig, dbu-med, sar üsüg (L) «id.» = M terigün-ügeiiXsüg.
93 SD II 760, 824 = Τ gzab, M toluyayitu üsüg, sab üsüg (KI 311a) cf. p. 147 below.

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136 Α. RÖXA-TAS
Tibetan calques are comm

egesigu «vowel» originally
üsüg95, geyigälügci96 «conson
(cf. Tib. gsal-byed), segül97
A few additional words are
ara- «to write, draw a line»),
«suffix» (cf. nökü- «to pat
(originally «line in général»)
tion, «comma», tasuly-a103
off»).
The names of the various scriptures used or known by the Mongols are
mostly formed with the word üsüg (on these terms see note 75). The name of
the Soyombo script104 is öber-iyen boluysan gegen üsüg or soyumbu, a late San
skrit word in the Mongolian language.
4. Printing
The earliest word for printing block in Mongolian is an Uigur word.

Its early form is in Mongolian tamya, later tamaya.105 The word originally
94 Κ, L, ΟΜ, KÖ, also egesig üsüg = Τ dbyans-yig, egesig-ün bicig (K) «musical
notes» = Τ dbyaiis-yig ; egesig dayun (L) «vowel»; egesig ügei geyigülügci (L) «consonant
not followed by a vowel», em-e egesig (OM, KÖ, L) ««female» i.e. front vowels»; er-e egesig
(OM, KÖ, L) ««male» i.e. back vowels», ersü, eresü egesig (OM), also urbaqu egesig «the
neutral it>.
95 Cf. amin (KÖ 5r) «vocalic part, vowel», Baldanzapov, op. cit., p. 9.
96 L, OM, KÖ = Τ gsal-byed yig, geyigülügci üsüg (K) «id.»; geyigülügii abiy-
«id.», qatayu geyigülügci (L) «hard consonant».
97 K, L, WT 782, OM, SD II 826 = Τ mfug, gzab mfug, rria-ma, yig-mfug, M
doron-i uncexen ; üge-yin segül (K, L) «id.»; soyuya segül (WT 782) «the final stroke o
(Manchu) letters» = Τ bsar m fug, Ma suiy_on-i uncexen.
98 L, ar firuy (SD II 911) «written, drawn line» = Τ ri-mo byed-pa, Mfiruyadas
99 K, L, SD II 934 also furadasun, furdasun, firudasun = Τ ri-mo, re-kha, firu(
dasüla- (L) «to draw a line».
100 L, OM, cingy-a nökücel (OM 14a) «strong suffix», Icöndüi nökücel (OM 14a)
«weak suffix».
101 Cf. note 49.
102 K, L, WT 747, SD II 1040 = Τ sad, 6eg, mcham, bcad-pa, Ma laqcan, M fabsar ;

tasulburi bulya- «to eut» (e.g. the final letter).
103 K, L, ceg tasüly-a (L) «punetuation»; cegtei tasuly-a (L) «semieolon»; tasulul (L)
«Separation, division, comma».
104 Cf. G. Kara: Acta Orient. Hung. IX (1959), pp. 1—38.
105 K, L, WT 821 = Τ tham-ka, the-mo, phyag-rgya ; bieiken tamaya (K), tamayaqan,
üöüken tamaya (WT 937) «little seal» = Τ the'u ; tamaya-yin buduy (K, L, WT 821, SD I
411) «ink used for seals, usually vermillion» = Τ tham mchal, Ma doron-i boco ; tamaya-ba

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TERMIN0L0GY OF MOXßOLIAX WRITING 137
denoted «brand, branding iron , seal, stamp» but it wa

also in Uigur. As a late loanword it can be found in Tibe
or tham-ga, also dam-kha, dam-ga. The action of print
blocks was called tamaya-bar tamayala-, or tamaya dar
Later on this word was replaced by another Uigur wor
type, form, printing blocks or type» which is now use
Its most important dérivations are: keble-109 «to print
«printer», keblegür111 «mould, form, pattern», keblel
publication; publishing house, press.» These words deve
language.
Parallel with the words tamaya and keb we find the Tibetan loanword
bar113 a word which entered the Mongolian language subsequently to the Uigur
words. It was used for the name of printing block, in expressions as bar daru
tamayala- (Κ) «to seal» = Τ rgya brgyab-, rgyas 'debs- ; tamaya-yin temdeg (K) «sign, mark,
brand», tamaya cidququ küriy-e (Κ, SD I 911) «place where the seals are made» = Τ
tham-ka'i gliri ; temdeg tamay-a (K) «seal, brand» = Τ thel-se ; tamayala- (K, L) «to
(affix a) seal, to stamp, to brand; to print with blocks (13 — 14th cent.)» tamay-a-yin
senji (SD I 911) «handle of the seal»; tamay-a-yin 6a6uy (SD I 911) «tuft on the seal, for
handging» = Τ tham sbod. Cf. Uig. tamqa. On early examples and the Turkish background
see Ligeti: ,4 ci α Orient. Hung. VIII (1958), p. 223. The suggested Ossetian origin of the
word seems to be rather dubious (Cf. Vernadsky, G., Note on the origin of the ivord tamga:
JAOS LXXV (1950) pp. 188-189.
106 K, L, cf. note 105.
10' Cf. Ligeti, Catalogue du Kanfur mongol imprimé I, Budapest 1942, pp. 303 — 304.
108 K, L, SD II 16, 31, 49 = Τ dpar, spar, par, rafi-chod ; keb bicigci (K, L) «one
who writes the text for a printing block» = Τ par 'bri mkhan ; keb-iyer daru- «to print
with blocks»; keb-tür daru- (K, L, SD II 17) «id.», keb daru- (SD II 31) «id.» — Τ dpar
rgyab- ; keb seyil(e)- (K, L, SD II 17) «to carve a printing block» = Τ par rko ; keb-ün
beke (K, L) «printer's ink» = Τ par snag ; keb-ün firu&i (SD II 17) «one who carves the
text on the block» = Τ par g-yog ; keb-ün öayasun (K, L) «printing paper» = Τ par sog ;
keb-ün ger (K, L, SD II 17) «printing establishment» = Τ par khan ; keb-ün bey-e (K, SD II
17) «typographical letters» = Τ par gzi, par bzi ; keb-ün modun (SD II 18) «printing block»
= Τ par sin ; keb-ün orusil (SD II 17) «printers colophon, colophon of the block-print» =
Τ par byari; keble- (K, L, SD II 16) «to print, to publish» = Τ 'gyin-, dbyibs 'cho-, cf. Uig.
keb, Turkm. gäp, Jak. kiäp, Hungarian kép.
109 Κ, L, SD II, also nom keble-, Τ 'gyih-, dbyibs 'cho- ; keblen (SD II 16) «printed» =
Τ par rgyob; keblen daru- (L) «to print», keblen yarya- (L) «to publish (printed matter)»;
modun bar-tur seyilen keble- (L) «to print from wooden blocks».
110 K, L = Τ par mkhan.
111 Κ, L, SD II 306 = Τ dbyibs spar.
112 L.
113 K, L = Τ dpar, spar, par ; bar daru- (L) «to print from engraved blocks»;
bar keblel (L) «block printing press»; bar seyile- (K) «to carve the letters on a wooden block»
= Τ spar brko- ; bar-un firuci (K) «worker in the printing house» = Τ bar g-yog ; bar-un
jabsay (K) «tools for printing»; bar-un bicig (L) «printed book», bar-un yafar «printing
office».

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138 Α. RON A-TAS
«to print», bar seyile- «to car

keblel «block printing pres
«to print», barlamal «xylogra
Though the influence of th
Mongolian one is evident from
origin connected with block-
together with tamya in tarn
«to order to carve», with late
The original meaning was «to
the meaning «to press». To
belong kerci-118, seyile-, seyilü
on wood and stone, the latter
114 barla- (Κ, L, SD II 17) = Τ

«printing office»; tamay-a barla
printed (matter)»; barri (SD II 17
dpar > spar > par.
115 Cf. note 107. In the dialects coyul- and cuyul- have différent représentations:
KhL cuulach 'pa3pe3aTb, peath HaABoe (Hanp. TKaHb); pacKajibieaTb HaABoe' see also:
KhL cuurach 'pBaTbcn HaflBoe (Hanp. ο τκ3ηη), pacKaawBarbca Haaeoe', KhL cuurchaj
'paaopBaiiHbin (Hanp. ο tiohh); npecHyüiiMH (Hanp. ο aepeee) and: KhL cooloch 'npo/jw
pnBJiHBaTb, npoKaabiBaTb, npoÖHBaTb' KhL coorchoj, 'npoAbipgBjieHHbifi, AbipHBbiii, flbipa'
Kalm tsölxv «durehboren, durchlöchern, durchstecken», tsör-/o «durchlöchert werden »(tsül
/3 «zerbrechen, (die Mitte) einbrechen, zum Bersten bringen», (cf. HS 72 iewüre-); Ord.
ts'öl- «trouer, perforer, transpercer, rendre public, divulguer (les méfaits de quelqu'un),
ts'§l- «déchirer dans le sens de la longueur (se dit des étoffes)» etc.
116 K, L = Τ brkos-ma byed.
117 K, L, SD II 49, Sag 134 = Τ bien-, spar- ; daruqu üsüg (Κ, SDII 1108) «writ,
characters (K), the Tibetan dbu-med script (SD)» = Τ yi-ge dbu-med, M toluyai ügei;
darulta (K, WT 820) «paper-prcss» = Τ sog-nor, Ma gida-/ô ; darumal (K, L, SD II 17,
Sag 131) «printed (book)» = Τ bzab-ma, po-ti ; darumal bicig (L), darumal nom (K) «id.»;
darumalla- (L) «to print».
118 K, L = Τ thub-, sur- ; kercigür (L) «chopping knife, cleaver, chopper»; kerciyesün
(K, L) «incision, notch, score, clipping, eut, rip, gash» = Τ gras-pa ; kerciyesule- (K, L)
«to eut, to carve, to make incisions or notches» = Τ gra-bar byed ; kercim (L) «piece, slice,
incision, notch»; kersimeg (L) «notch, score»; kercimel (K, L) «eut, eut up, minced». Cf.
Chuv kart- «to make incisions», Jak. kïrt- 'pe3aTb', Az kärtik 'pyöep, 3apy6Ka', Ma
kersi-, Tung kerci-.
119 K, L, SD II 49 = Τ brko-, rko-, bar seyilü- (K) «to eut letters in the printing
block» = Τ par brko- ; nom seyilü- (SD II 49) «id.», seyilügsen keb (K) «wooden block with
letters carved in»; seyilbüri (L) «carving, engraving»; seyilbürici (L), seyilügci (K, L)
«engraver» = Τ brko mkhan, rko-bo ; seyilge (K, L) «engraving, inscription», töbed eke-lüge
sigün keb-tür seyilgebei (K) «after having confronted (the translation or copy) with the
Tibetan, he ordered to carve it on blocks»; cilayun-dur seyiVjü temdegle- (K) «to engrave
an inscription on a stone, on a stele», cf. seyi- «to become thin or sparse», Ma seile- «to
cook meat which is eut in, incised».
120 K, L, SD II 30 = Τ spar yig rkyag, M yala-tu kümün-ü niyur yar-tur üsüg bici
(SD) «to tattoo letters on the face and arm of a criminal», cf. sibüge «awl».

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TERMIKOLOGY OF MONGOLIAN WRITING 139
Though the words for printing block are ail of forei

a Mongolian synonym: qabtasun.121 This word original
wooden tablet or board (cf. qabtayai «flat», Manchu qabc
the wooden boards between which the Mongolian books are
printing blocks, an obvious semantic development due
printing blocks.
For printing paper, ink etc. see the chapter on the
writing.
5. The book
From a formai point of view the written documents can be divided into
books, inscriptions and letters. The Mongolian book can be a manuscript o
xylograph, and, recently, a book printed in the modem style by movab
types. In a wider sense we have to discuss here also the get-up of the boo
its binding, the internai divisions etc.
The Mongolian words which dénoté the book as a unity are ail of foreign
origin. The commonest words here too are borrowed from Uigur: nom1
«religious book, scripture; book (in général)» also «teaching, religion» is th
well-known Greek word νόμος and came into Mongolian via Uigur. From Mon
golian it entered the Manchu language where it has the form nomun. Another
common word for «book, volume» is debter123 also a Greek word which found
its way through Uigur into the Mongolian language from whence later it cam
to Tibetan (deb-ther, deb-gter, deb-ster etc.) and Manchu (debtelin). The Sanskri
word pothl got the Mongolian form boti12i and is used for books of the oblon
121 Κ, L, Sag 129 == Τ bkab-byab, blcab-bya-na, sga-sin, leb-sifi, glegs-pa, bam-Hi

M absa-yin modun, qabtasun-dur seyile- (K, L) «to engrave on wooden blocks (for printing
debter-ün qabtasun; (K, L) «wooden bookcover(s)»; kereg-ün qabtasun (L) «folder for do
ments, file»; qatayu qabtasun (L) «hard cower, binding», jögelen qabtasun (L) «soft
paper binding»; qabtasun-u modun (Sag 133) «wooden board, bloek»; qabtayai mod
(SD II 186) «id.» = Τ bam siri, M absa-yin modun ; qabtasula- (L) «to put Covers on book
or folders, to bind books»; qabtasulayci (L) «bookbinder», qabtasutai, qabtasutu (L) «hav
ing cover; bound (of books)».
122 K, L, WT 731, SD I 492 = Τ chos, Ma nomun ; nom. daru- (L) «to print books»;
nom debter (L) «books in général»; nom keblegëi (L) «book publisher»; nom-un sang (L)
«library»; nom-un süm-e (L) «library of a monastery»; jasaytu nom (WT) «Shu Ching»
= Τ srid bsrun, Ma dasan-i nomun.
123 K, L, WT 749, SD I 360, 1019, Sag 129 = Τ deb-ther etc., glegs-bam, Ma debtelin,
M boii, sudur etc.; debter-ün oyusur (K, SD I 360) «cord for binding books» = Τ glegs-thag ;
debter-ün qabtasu (K, SD I 360) «wooden board for books» = Τ glegs sin ; debter-ün yadar
(K, SD I 1014, WT 750) «book cover» == Τ deb-ther-gyi g-yogs, Ma debtelin-i burgiyen ;
debter-ün boyulta (K, SD I 360) «book wrapper».
124 K, L, SD II 20, Sag 126 — 127 =T po-ti, pu-ti, glegs-bam, M debter ; sudur
debter, cf. Hindi pothî.

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140 A. KÔXA-TAS
format resembling the palm

for Buddhist works: sastir12
via Uigur into the Mongoli
The usual Mongolian boo
or is wrapped in a piece of c
or qabtasun.12S Absa denoted
boards in which a thing is
and is a relatively late corn
qabtasun a word of Mongol
The names for the wrappin
bari- «to hold»), debel131 (ori
dress») or fanget.133 This l
125 К, L, WT 733 = Τ bstan b

(K) «the translated sâstras, the
bstan bcos rcorn-; jarliy kiged
religions books», cf. Skr sastra.
126 K, L, WT 734, SD I 360, Sa
po-ti, lo-rgyus, Ma suduri ; usu
dpe ; bicimel sudur (K, L) «man
for preserving books» = Τ dpe
sudur (L) «source, original»; sud
sudur-un qayudasun-u toya (K) «the number of the pages in a book» = Τ dpe-yig sog
grans ; sudur qudalduyd (K) «bookseller» = Τ dpe chod-pa ; sudur bayulya- (K, SD I
360) «to сору a book, to transcribe a book» — Τ dpe bsu- ; sudur-un segul (K) «the
end of a book» = Τ dpe mjug; sudur-un sirege (K) «table for books» = Τ dpe khri ;
sudur tuyurbi- (K) «to compose a book» = Τ dpe rcom,- ; sudur tobki- (K) «to bind a
book» = Τ dpe 'dogs-, dpe 'chems; sudur-un duytui (L, K) «case for a book» = Τ dpe
khug ; sudur jingci (K) «id.» = Τ dpe subs ; sudur-un ger (K) «library» = Τ dpe khan;
darumal sudur (K, L) «printed book»; sudur debter (Sag 126) «a book (in old form)»;
sudurci (K, L) «one devoted to the study of the Buddhist sutras»; sudurcila- (K, L)
«to study the sutras, to compose the sutras etc.»; sudurla- (K, L) «to arrange paper
in form of a sudur, to compile a chronicle». Cf. Skrt sutra, Uig. sutar, sûdhar.
127 SD II 187 = Τ bam, sib, M qabtayai modun.
128 Cf. Note 121.
129 The word can be found in the Manchu-Tunguzian dialects: Ma absa (Hauer
«Brett am Heck des Kahnes», Tung (Vasilevië) avsa «коробка для женского py ко дел
с твёрдой основой, обтянутая ров дугой (оленьей кустарной замшей)» (Р-Т, Ν, Ε, I,
Tkm, Brg, Olkm), «женская мягкая сумочка» (Aid, Uèr, Urm, Cmk), «ящик; сундик
(Р-Т, Ν, Ε, Brg), absa (ibid) «коробка (для рукоделия), ящик» (Р-Т, Е); avxa (ibid) «ящик»
(Ε, Hng); avsak (ibid) «коробка для рукоделия» (S-B, Bnt); ausa «id.» (P-T, Tkm); Ne
afsakan «берестяная коробка»; Orok xapsau, «id.» Cf. KhL avs Троб', BurL absa «id.
Kalm aws (O. selten) «Kasten»; DahM abese «coffin».
130 L, Sag 127, barimtay qubcid (SD I 1166) «id.».
131 Sag 127 = Τ na-bza', gos.
132 K, L, Sag 127 = Τ na-bza', gos, bgo-ba.
133 K, L, Sag 128, SD I 622, sudur-un jangci (L) «id.».

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TERMIXOLOGY OF MONGOLIAN WRITINO 141
worn by lamas». In this meaning it is a Manchu loanwo

Manchu has borrowed it from Chinese.134
Generally the cover or the binding of the book is called duytui,135 which
is a Mongolian word with the basic sense «cover, case, wrapping», it is a
called yadar136 «cover, esp. of a book» (originally «exterior»), bürilge, bür/cüg
«cover» (cf. büri- «to cover»), To make the cover, to bind a book is express
with the verb tobïci-, tobsi-137 or qabtasula- (cf. note 121).
The ribbons or straps for tying the book are of leather, linen or som
other material. They are called oriyadasun138 (cf. oriya- «to tie around»).
The label placed in books, also a red cover-strip on envelopes is calle
coyudusun139 «strip (of paper)» (cf. coyxii- «to open», coyul- «to pierce, to punch
The piece of silk at the beginning of the book has the name gdongdar or dong
darli0, and is a Tibetan loanword. The tickets hanging on the front-side of the
book are also called manfily-a141 «anvthing pendulous, trinkets» from the ver
■manp- «to be thin, pendulous».
Any mark, sign on or in the book is called temdeg142 «sign».
134 Cf. Ma jangci «bei Schnee und Regen angezogener Filzmantel (Hauer)», Chin
chan-tzü «feit». (K gives as Chinese équivalent tou p'eng «rain-coat», in Tung-hsiang w
find the word as a Chinese loanword dzanzï «feit») = Τ 6har skyobs.
135 Also «book-case», K, L, WT 750 = Τ bam-po, bug, subs, Ma dobton ; bicig-ün
duytui (L) «envelope of a letter»; sudur-un duytui (K, L) «cover of a book».
136 L, debter-ün yadar (WT 750) = Τ deb-ther g-yogs, Ma debtelin-i burgiyan ;
sudur-un yadar (L) «id.»; nom yadarla- (L) «to put a cover on a book».
137 K, L, WT 772 «to bind (as a book)»; debter toblci- (K) «id.»; tobkiyan (K,
«note-book, fasciele, brochure, a ream of paper» = Τ sog bam geig, Ma kiyan ; tobkim
(L) «brochure, pamphlet».
138 Sag 129, also oriyalta, oriyadasun-u büse = Τ glegs thag, M debter-ün oyusur.
139 K, L also ioudasun, ioyuudasun (WT 749) = Τ sog-char, char-bu, Ma afayari.
140 Sag 128 = Τ gdon-dar, M ekin-ü temdeg, man]ilya.
141 Sag 128, ekin-ü manjilya «id.».
142 K, L, K<3 also «document, passport, index» (K) =T rtags, las-byah, byaü-bu,
bka'-rtags, zal-byan ; egüden-ü temdeg (K, L) «inscription, name on the door»; ükegür-ün
temdeg (K) «tomb, epitaph» = Τ dur-byan ; niyur-tur temdeg sibe- (K) «to brand marks on
the face»; belge-yin temdeg (K, L) «sign for/on something, omen» = Τ rtags byari ; temdeg
utaya (K) «smoke used as signal»; temdeg bici- (K) «to make sign, to sign, subscribe»;
temdeg biöig (L) «an officiai document, passport»; temdeg tamay-a (K) «seal»; temdeg
temdegle- (K) «to mark, to put the datum on a paper»; temdeg-ün dayalya (K) «suffix of
case or number» = Τ rtags mtha'; temdeg modun (K, L, WT 748) «wooden tablet for
recording the name, rank and merits of officiais eligible for promotion, special appointment
etc.» = Τ sin byan, Ma susixe ; temdeg modu bayicaya- (K) «to look after in the registers,
to turn over pages»; temdeg ôilayun (K, L, SD II 225) «monument, stone inscription» = Τ
byaû-rdo ; temdeg bosqa- (L) «to erect a sign or a mémorial stone»; temdeg üge (L) «ad
jective (gram.)», angqarul-un temdeg (L) «exclamation point»; asayulta-yin temdeg (L)
«question mark»; yar-un temdeg (L) «signature»; nere-yin temdeg (Sag 128) «short register
of the volumes» = Τ mehan-tho; temdegci (K) «who makes marks, who seals» = Τ brjed

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142 Α. RÖNA-TAS
The internal divisions of a

line on a page is mör,u3 t
(see above p. 133), tal-a,Ui
level, space», — as a Mong
form tala, with the mean
niyur is the word for «fac
«leaf». Ail these are Mong
paragraph, section» bölüg, b
sort, category etc.» is also
conveyed by the word gelmeli
ifi151 «volume of a book w
meaning from «complété, t
The old Mongolian book
indication of content at t
yarcay,153 and is a Tibetan
catalogues, inventories,
sense. The préfacé or introd
Mongolian verb udurid- «to
nai division of the book can
«enumeration of chapters, r
byaft-pa ; temdegle- (Κ, L) «to

or book»; temdeglel (K, L, WT
ejebun ; temdeglel dangsa (K) «journal, memo»; ayan-u temdeglel (L) «travel account»;
edür-ün temdeglel (L) «diary»; jam-un temdeglel (L) «travel notes»; temdeglel-ün debter (L)
«note-book, register»; teyndegtei biëig (L) «certificate, patent, license».
143 L, K.
144 K, L, WT 784, Sag 127, SD I 520 = Τ nos, Ma tala.
145 L.
146 SD II 1090 = Τ sog-ldeb, M qayudasu.

147 K, L, WT 746 = Τ le'u, Idebs, le-chan, le-ma, Ma fiyelen. To the öfü of the first
syllable: Kalm bölö «Teil», bül «(Heeres)abteilung», KhL büleg, BurL bideg T/iaea,
pa3aeji'. Cf. Turkm. hol-, Az böl «to devide», Chuv. pül- 'nepeßHBarh' ( < Kazt.) and
perhaps Ma bulu- «to put hay, grass in Stack».
148 L, Κ = Τ rigs-pa, cha-chan, rnam-grafis, Ma χαδίη.
149 Κ, L, Sag 132 = Τ glegs-bam.
150 Tibetan glegs has nothing to do with the word. Ma keime- > kemne- «to measure,
to take measure» is also difficult to connect with our Mongolian word.
151 WT 750 = Τ bod, Ma yoxi, M tegüs.
152 Cf. ijil «one of a pair or complété set».
153 K, L, SD I 12 also karâig = Τ dkar-chag, ka-kha'i tho, M toya bicig, yarciyla- (L)
«to draw up a table of contents, to préparé a list or catalogue, to entitle, give a title to, to
address (as a letter)».
154 K, L = Τ khrid-pa, 'dran-pa ; bicig-ün uduridqal (L) «id.».
155 K, L = Τ le'u tho, lo-tho.
156 L, cf. Τ thob-yig «id.».

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table of contents, register» are Tibetan loanwords some

qayay157 «title» is also a Tibetan loanword.
It would exceed the limits of this paper to deal
content. Most of them are of foreign origin such as: ceae
register» and dang m, dang se159 « a c cou nt - b oo k, journal,
annals, records; list, roll, catalogue» ail of which are
via Manchu into Mongolian. The words for160 «médi
namril161 «explanation, commentary, note», namtar
history» are of Tibetan origin. Öadiy173 «biography, gen
incarnation of the Buddha or Buddhist saint» toget
mentioned sudur and sastir are Sanskrit words whic
into Mongolian. Qauliwi «codex, decree» and kius «m
Chinese importations, the former is also présent in Man
Of native Mongolian are the words: teüke, tegük
sources, histroy, annals», domuy167 «legend, table, hist
«outline, abbrevitation, summary, résumé». It is per
interest to note, that while the terms for religious book
and ultimately also Greek and Sanskrit, and the ter
books are Manchu and Chinese, the terminology of t
Mongolian origin.
157 Κ, L = Τ kha-yig, bla-dvags chig.

158 Κ, L, WT 748, SD II 826, 828, 1089 = Τ ëog-khram, yig
deb-yig, Ma cese, cf. Ch ts'e tzü.
159 K, L, WT 748, SD I 1014, II 826 = Τ yig-dam, deb-yig
dangse, M bicig, ebkimel biëig, teüke ; dangse bicig (K, L) «registe
dangsatai (K, L) «having an account, being on record etc.», Chin
160 L = Τ sbyor.
161 K, L = Τ rriam 'grel, ma 'grel.
162 K, L = Τ rnam-thar ; beye-yin namtar (L) «autobiography».
163 K, L = Τ skyes-pa rabs ; üliger cadiy (K) «legend» = Τ rtogs-brjod, Cf. Skr.
jâtaka.
164 K, L = Τ khrims, srol, chul, lugs-ka ; qaidici (L) «legislator, lawyer, jurist»
Cf. Ma qooli.
165 L = M temdeglel, Ch chi.
166 K, L; teüke bicigëi (L) «historiographer » ; teüke namtar (L) «history andbiography»
tobëi teüke (L) «abridged history»; jarliy teüke (K) «order, dispatch, rule» = Τ thafi,
bka'-than ; teükeci (L) «historian, historiographer; narrator»; cf. Chag tewlük, Kir teülük
«a day, a given period», Sor tep «time».
167 K, L = Τ lo-rgyus, rtogs-pa ; domuy tuyuji «story, taie»; üliger domuy (L)
«legend, the talk of the town, object of ridicule», domuyci (L) «narrator of legend»;
domuyla- (L) «to narrate or compose a legend».
168 K, L = Τ mdor bsdus ; tobëi-bar biii- (K, L) «to write in a concise, brief manner»;
tobci biëig «outline, summary»; tob&i düng (L) «summary»; tobëi temdeglel (L) «id.»; tobëiyan
(K, L) «abbreviation, abridgement, summary, sketch»; tobëilal (L) «summary, résume»
Cf. the meaning «button» of the same word.

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144 A. KO N'A-Τ AS
I have to mention here the w

but originally only «order, com
jarliy «decreeo and jarla- «to o
was borrowed parallel with y
6. Other written documents
The term for inscription in the Yüan period was bii or bui tas170 «stele,
mémorial stone with inscriptions ». Both words are of Uigur origin in Mongolian,
while bii, bui is originally a Chinese word for «stele» and tas is a Turkish word
for «stone». Later on the stone inscriptions were called bicigtei cilayun or
(cilayun-u)bicigesü171 «stone with inscription, with letters». To erect a stele
is bayiyul- «to be caused to stand» and for inscribing the verb biet- was used.
On the words seyile- and kerci- see above p. 138.
The common word for handwritten documents other than book and in
scription is bicig. The général term for letter is jakidal or ]akiy-a172 both dé
tions from the Mongolian verb )aki- «to send a letter, to inform by a writ
document», which is a secondarv meaning developed from the basic me
of the verb «to dispatch, to give instructions». Ail documents, including pa
rolls, documents folded like an accordion, letters of such a form are called
ebkimel, ebkemel173 or nuyulburi174. Both words are dérivations from the Mon
golian verbs ebke- «to fold», niyul- nuyul- «id.» respectively.
169 Κ, L = Τ bya gtod, cf. jarla- «to order, to make known, to publish» = Τ sbran- ;
jarlal (K, L) «publication».
170 Cf. the Sino-Mongolian inscriptions of 1335, 1338, 1362, and bui tas in 1340
on which see Cleaves: HJAS XII (1949), p. 93, Kara: Acta Orient. Hung. XVII (1964),
p. 159, Cf. Ch pei «stele».
171 L.
172 L, K, WT 775 = Τ 'phrin ; chems-pa, Ma jasiyan, jakiy-a bicig «letter, missive»

(Κ, L) = Τ 'phrin-yig, '6hol-yig; jakiy-a tamaya (K) «diplom, credit letter» = Τ bka' sog.
The Ma word jasi- is a Mongolian loanword the same is jasiyan.
173 K, L, WT 749, SD II 1090 = Τ sog-dril, Ma buqdari, M nuyulburi; ebkimel
cayasun (L) «folded paper, a roll or scroll of paper»; ebkimel bi&ig (L) «ligature, folded
letter, document» (SD I 1014) = Τ deb-yig, Ma dangse ; ebkimel üsüg (L) «ligature» ;
esitü ebkimel (L, WT 822) «scroll, roll of paper(on a wooden cylinder or around a stick)» =
Τ 'ja sog, Ma unutu; bay-a ebkimel (SD I 1142) «a little paper-roll» = Τ Ideb churi.
174 K, L, WT 814, SD II 1090, 1142 = Τ sog-dril, ldeb-pa, sog-ldeb, Ma buqadan, M
ebkimel ; nigen nuyulburi (WT 814) «one time folded letter» = Τ sog Ideb geig, Ma emun
buqdan, yadayatu nuyulburi (WT 815, SD II 1090) «outside folded letter» = Τ phyi Ideb,
Ma an-i buqdan ; dotuyatu niyulburi (WT 815, SD II 1090) «inside folded letter» = Ma
e-i buqdan ; ergün bariqu niyulburi (L) «a mémorial to the throne; a visiting card of a
subordinate officiai», cf. Ma ikô- «to be shrunk, to be bent».
Acta Orient. Hung. Tomus XVIII. i960

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7. To read
The most général word for reading is ungsi-1'15. It is a Mongol w

denoting the action of reciting originally sacred texts and perhaps it was u
before the introduction of writing for reciting rituals, charms. A similar
is ith-1" «to recite sacred texts, murmur prayers», it has the basic me
«to call, summon, invite» and belongs equally to the sphere of the old Mong
religion. To read aloud is also called dayuda-177 a verb formed from the ba
word dayun «sound». The special monotonous chanting of the lamas is
ginggine-, gingina-, ginggile- etc.178 an onomatopoetic word for murmuri
Conclusions
It would be prématuré to draw final conclusions from the material

reviewed above. The next step has to be intensive research into the dialects,
especially the archaic ones which were not, or only in a limited measure under
the influence of the literary language. Another task will be the study of the
use of these terms in Mongolian literature from the 13th Century on. Finally
the Altaic background of the words has to be cleared up.
What can be stated at the présent moment is that the study of the termi
nology corroborâtes our présent knowledge according to which the literary
culture of the Mongols was inherited from the Uigurs. The basic words for
writing, the Utensils of handwriting, the most important words for script,
printing, book and inscription came from the Uigur language into Mongolian.
The Uigur culture acted as a lense focusing the literary cultures of the Greeks,
Persians, Sogdians, Indians and Chinese and projecting them, together with its
175 Κ, L, WT 787, SD I 1111 =T bklag-, klog-, gdon- 'don-, Ma fiyele- ; ungsin

cegejile- (L) «to read and memorize»; ungsiqu debter/nom (L «reader, textbook»; ungsiju
ög- (L) «to read to someone»; duuyariu ungsi- (L) «to read aloud»; nom ungsi- (L) «to
recite the seripture or a sacred text, to read a book»; ungsiëi (Κ, L) «reader» unsilyaci
(Κ, L) «id.» = Τ klog-pa-po, klog-mkhan ; ungsiydaqu sastir (K) «a sastra for reading» =
Τ bklag-bya'i glegs-bam, klag-bya'i bstan-b&os ; ungsily-a (K, L) «reading (moatly of religioua
books), daily recitation, lesson of a monk» = Τ klog bya ; ungsily-a ungsi (SD I 50) «to
read» = Τ log 'don ; ungsimar (L) «fit for reading, one who should read (predic.)»; ungsiy-a
(SD I 1111) «reading, a text for reading' = Τ 'don-ya.
176 K, L, SD I 50 = Τ 'bod-, klog, M ungsi-,
177 K, L, WT 786 = Τ klog-, 'bod-, Ma xôla- ; sudur dayurisqa- (SD I 491) «to
recite a religious text» = Τ mdo sgrogs.
178 L, K, SD I 1111 = Τ 'don-res byed ; gingginen ungsi- (K, SD I 1051), WT 787)
«to read murmuring» = Τ gdaris slob-, Ma gingsi- ; gingilel-, gingileldü- (SD I 1111) «id.».
10 Acta Orient. Hang. Tomus XVIII. 1965

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146 A. RÖXA-TAS
own, on the Mongolian c

culture on an Uigur ground
origin in the terminology
very early period as their
did not last very long.
All the secondary terms
the names of the parts oft
of blocks, the binding o
letter have names of Mong
The terminology clearly
first came to the Mongols
only later replaced by th
terminology of handwritin
with the exception of the
monastic life. Among the t
words, the Tibetan influen
punction and writing style
shows clear Tibetan influen
was elaborated on Tibetan
origin with a later admixt
Tibetan is strong on the in
resuit of the mass of translations made from Tibetan. Prom these facts we can
conclude that Mongolian writing, and literary culture had already develop
when it came into close contact with Tibetan.
The influence of the Manchus — who took their script from the M
was unimportant and restricted to the sphere of administration.
More surprising than this is the fact that the terminology sh
little direct Chinese influence. Those Mongolian words which are
of Chinese origin came into the Mongolian language either thro
or through Manchu.
If the Mongols had any script before the time of Chingis, that i
the introduction of the Uigur script, this must have been a runic one.
did not borrow words for carving blocks, to make incisions, inscribe
but used for this purpuse old Mongolian words as jiru-, seyile-, cuyu
Dealing with Mongolian writing we also have to mention the rôle
by the Mongols in the spread of writing. The Mongolian loanwords in
and Tibetan show that the Mongolian literary culture enjoyed a hi
throughout Asia.
After having concluded this paper I found the following terms:

«writing set (brush and inkslab)», sibfi, sïb]u (L, K) «small print or w
in notes or commentary, notes, explanation» = Τ mchan- yig, yig
Acta Orient. Hutig. Tomus XVIII. 1965

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TERMINOLOGY OF MOXGOLIAN WEIXING 147
sibeacuy (L) «tooth in Mongolian script» ( = sidün) ; q

or enter one's name on a register, to insert something in
to drive in, to attach»); qadamal ilge (L, K) «interline
(< qada-) = Τ zur mchan; qasilta (L) «quotation mark»
«to shield»); comur «legible» (< «clear); fanggi (L) «inf
Î'inggi uya- «to lie solidly», fanggiya «knot»); cab üsüg (L)
tan letter as used in standard printing» = M gzab, sab,
(L) «space (printing)» (< cigji- «to calk»).
Acta Orient. Hung. Tovnus XVIII. 1965

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1965 - A. Róna-Tas - Some Notes On The Terminology of Mongolian Writing

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SOME NOTES ON THE TERMINOLOGY OF MONGOLIAN WRITING

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There are many unsolved problems in the history of Mongolian

Acta Orient. Hung. Tomus XVIII. 1965

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and it is obscure whether

Acta Orient. Hung. Tomas XVIII. 1965

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or whether we cari speak of a direct Uigur—Mongolian contact in

' Pelliothaspointedout (AM 11(1925),pp. 284—289) that theUigur T

Acta Orient. Hung. Tomus XVIII. 1965

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9 The first period began aft

Acta Orient. Hang. Tomus XVIII. 1965

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by the médiation of the Uigurs to the Mongols,13 but the antécéde

Acta Orient. Hung. Tomus XVIII. 1965

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also in respect of the so

15 On a chancellary praetiee of the Mongols in the 13th century see Cleaves:

Acta Orient. Hung. Tomus XVIII. 1965

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Mongolian prototype was formed the Manchu18 and Oirat

18 On the Manchu script and the relevant literature cf. Ligeti: A

Acta Orient. Hung. Tomas XVIII. 1965

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schrift der Karl-Marx-ZJniversitât, Leipzig X (1961), Gesellschafts- und Sprachwissen

Acta Orient. Hung. Tomm XVIII. 1965

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of writing, script, inscription, letter, written book etc.»,

There is also another word in Mongolian which has connections with th

28 K, üsüg-ün qoyar )üil bicilge (K) «double manner of writting letters».

Acta Orient. Hung. Tomus XVIII. 1965

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the printing blocks is called

Acta Orient. Hung. Tomus XVIII. 1965

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dérivations. Here are some of them: bayulya-36 «to w

38 Κ, L = Τ bsus 'beb·; bayulyala- (WT 771) «id.» = Τ bsus-'bebs, Ma doola-;

Acta Orient. Hung. Tomus XVIII. 1965

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(< temdeg «sign, mark»), ten

The most important words

51 WT 770 = Τ slar gso, Ma aitubu-.

Acta Orient. Hung. Tomus XVIII. 1965

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time of the T'ang dynasty. The Manchu fi is the same Chi

9* Acta Orient. Hung. Tomus XVIII. 1965

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«to be white»62. Tin, lead,

Acta Orient. Hung. Tomus XVIII. 1965

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(for pressing the paper)», qayudasun'1 «a sheet of pa

71 Κ, L, SD I 1141, WT 748 = Τ sog-ldeb, sog-hril, sog-rkaii, gre-kha, glegs-bu, Ma

Acta Orient. Hang. Tomus XVIII. 1965

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borrowed from Sogdian, a

In the terminology of the

write together (in one word e

79 K, L, SD I 915, WT 781 =» Τ thig-(le), Skrt vindu, anusvâra, M tileg, Ma fu

Acta Orient. Hung. Tomus XVIII. 1965

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