Teaching English as a

Second or Foreign
I THIRD
Language EDITION
 Teaching English
as a Second or
Foreign Language
THIRD ED ITIO N

MARIANNE CELCE-MURCIA
EDITOR

HEINLE & HEINLE

------------- * - ------------
THOMSON LEARNING

U N IT E D STATES • A U ST R A LIA • C A N A D A • M E X IC O • S IN G A P O R E • SPAIN • U N IT E D K IN G D O M

Contents
Foreword vii
Acknowledgments viii

U N IT I. Teaching M ethodology I
Language Teaching Approaches: An Overview
M arian n e C elce-M urcia 3
Communicative Language Teaching for the Twenty-First Century
S a n d ra J. Savignon 13
Guidelines for Language Classroom Instruction
G rah am C rookes a n d C raig C h a u d ro n 29
English for Specific Purposes (ESP):Tailoring Courses to Students Needs—
and to the Outside W orld
A nn M. Johns a n d D o n n a P rice-M achado 43
Syllabus Design
D avid N 'unan 55

U N IT II. Language Skills

A. Listening 67
Aural Comprehension Instruction: Principles and Practices
Joan M orlev 69
Skills and Strategies for Proficient Listening
P at W ilcox P eterso n 87
B. Speaking 101
Teaching Oral Skills
A n n e L azarato n 103
Teaching Pronunciation
J a n e t G oodw in I I7
Developing Children’s Listening and Speaking in ESL
S abrina Peck 139
C. Reading 15 1
Teaching Children Literacy Skills in a Second Language
A rn e E d ig cr I 53
Developing Adult Literacies
Gail W einstein I7 1
Reading for Academic Purposes: Guidelines for the ESL/EFL Teacher
W illiam G rabe a n d F red rick a L. S toller I87
D. Writing 205
Functional Tasks for Mastering the Mechanics of W riting and Going Just Beyond
Elite O lsh tain 207
Considerations for Teaching an ESL/EFL W riting Course
B arb ara Kroll 2 I9
Grammar in W riting
J a n F ro d e se n 233

Contents v
 E. Grammar and Vocabulary 249
Teaching Grammar
D iane L arsen -F reem an 25 I
Cognitive Approaches to Grammar Instruction
S an d ra Fotos 267
Vocabulary Learning and Teaching
Jea n e tte S. D eC arrico 285

U N IT III. Integrated A pproaches 301

Content-Based and Immersion Models for Second and Foreign Language Teaching
M arg u erite .Ann Snow 303
Literature as Content for ESL/EFL
S an d ra L ee McKav 3 I9
Experiential and Negotiated Language Learning
J a n e t L. E rrin g 333
Bilingual Approaches to Language Learning
M art M cG roartv 345

U N IT IV. Focus on the L e a rn e r 357

Language Learning Styles and Strategies
R ebecca L. O x fo rd 359
Supporting Second Language Children’s Content Learning
and Language Development in K—5
B arb ara H aw kins 367
Teaching Adults
S h a ro n H illes a n d A n d re S utto n 385

U N IT V . S k ills fo r T e a c h e rs 401
Planning Lessons
L in d a Je n s e n 403
Textbooks: Evaluation for Selection and Analysis for Implementation
Patricia Bvrd 4 I5
W hen the Teacher Is a Non-Native Speaker
P e te r M edgves 429
Building Awareness and Practical Skills to Facilitate Cross-Cultural Communication
Eli H inkel 443
The Use of Media in Language Teaching
D o n n a M. B rin to n 459
Computers in Language Teaching
M aggie Sokolik 477
Action Research,Teacher Research, and Classroom Research in Language Teaching
K athleen M. Bailer 489
Reflective Teaching in ELT
J o h n M. M u rphy 499
Second Language Assessment
A ndrew D. C o h en 5 15
Keeping Up to Date as an ESL or EFL Professional
Jo A n n (Jodi) C ran d all 535

References 553
Index 575
 Foreword
T h e p u rp o se o f this th ird
edition o f Teaching English as
a Second or Foreign Language,
also know n as “T he Apple
B ook,” rem ains the sam e as
the first (1979) an d second
(1991) editions: to pro d u ce
a com prehensive in tro d u c ­
tio n to th e p ro fe ssio n of
teach in g English to speakers o f o th e r languages.
T h e goal has b e e n to m a in ta in a b alan ce
betw een theory a n d p rac tic e — betw een provid­
ing necessary back g ro u n d inform ation a n d rele­
vant research, on th e one h a n d , a n d offering
m any classroom suggestions an d resources for
teachers, on the other. This ed ition covers the
areas 1 believe to be critical to successful lan­
guage instruction: know ledge of past an d p res­
e n t teaching approaches, b ack g ro u n d on and
techniques for teaching the language skills, vari­
ous options fo r in teg ratin g the skills, awareness
o f im p o rta n t le a rn e r factors, an d info rm atio n
th a t is useful for the classroom teacher's everv-
day p e rfo rm a n c e an d professional growth. I
have tried to p ro d u ce an in tro d u c tio n to the
field that would be o f sufficient d e p th and
bread th to be suitable for students with som e p re­
vious teaching experience, vet straightforw ard
enough n o t to needlessly bewilder the novice.
This third edition covers m ore topics and has
m ore contributing authors than the precious ones:
■ First edition (1979): 31 chapters, 27 con­
tributors
■ Second edition: 32 chapters, 36 contributors
■ T hird edition: 36 chapters, 40 contributors
N ineteen of the thirty-six authors who contributed
to the second edition have also contributed to this
volume (often— but not always— on the same
topic). Sixteen of the chapters appearing in this
edition are rerised a n d u p d a te d versions o f ch ap ­
ters in the second edition and, in m ost cases, the
revisions have b een substantial. Ten chapters
have been com pletelv rew ritten; the rem ain in g
ten chapters rep re sen t topics th at appear as
Forew ord
chapters for the first time in this edition (the
a u th o r’s nam e is in parentheses):
■ Communicative Language Teaching for the
Twenty-First Century (Savignon)
■ Syllabus design (N unan)
■ D ev eloping C h ild re n ’s L iste n in g a n d
Speaking Skills (Peck)
■ C ognitive A p p ro a c h es to G ra m m a r
Instruction (Fotos)
■ Bilingual Approaches to Language Learning
(McGroartv)
■ W hen the Teacher Is a Non-Native Speaker
(Medgyes)
■ Facilitating Cross-Cultural Com m unication
(Hinkel) "
■ Action Research, Teacher Research, and
Classroom Research (Bailer )
■ Reflective Teaching (Murphv)
I am m ost grateful to all forty co n trib u to rs to
this th ird edition for th eir splendid work.
Many o f the new topics in this edition were
originally suggested bv colleagues who anony-
mouslv reviewed the second edition for H einle &
H einle. I am very grateful for their input, which I
har e used along with mv own ju d g m en t to create
this volume. T he reviewers also helped to com ince
me that a rerised and updated third edition was
necessary, and they encouraged m e to once again
undertake the daunting task o f preparing a com ­
prehensive textbook for use in m ethods courses
designed to prepare ESL/EFL teachers.
As in both previous editions, each chapter
concludes with discussion questions, suggested
activities, a n d a n u m b er of suggestions for fu rth e r
reading. These supplem entary m aterials show
how the authors feel their ch ap ter can be used in
m ethodology courses to stim ulate critical think­
ing, fu rth er reading on a topic, and application
o f knowledge. T he new feature in this edition is
the listing o f useful websites at the en d o f m ost
chapters to m ake teachers in training atvare of
the vast arrav of resources av ailable to them via the
World W ide Web if they have access to a com puter,
even if they are working in rem ote areas.
vii
 A lthough designed prim arily as a textbook
for a preservice T E SL /T E FL m ethods course, I
feel th at this volum e will also be a useful refer­
ence a n d guide for those who are teaching ESI,
o r EFL w ithout having h ad specific training and
for practicing teachers who received th eir train ­
ing som e years ago.
In trying to m ake the text com prehensive. I
adm it to having m ade it too long for one course.
T hus I w ould advise instructors who plan to use
this book to be selective an d to focus on the
chapters m ost relevant to the p rep a ra tio n of
th e ir students as teachers. O ne colleague has
w ritten th at he prefers to em phasize Units I, IV,
a n d V in his m ethods course, w hereas a n o th e r
colleague inform s m e th a t she uses Units II and
III as the core o f h e r class. I even know of one
setting w here U nits I, IV, an d V constitute one
course a n d Units II a n d III a second course.
D ifferent instructors an d different training p ro ­
gram s em phasize different topics a n d organize
courses differentlv. This is un d erstan d ab le.
I personally like to give students options when
I assign chapters to read. For example, after even-
one has read and discussed the five chapters in
U nit I, students can select the chapter(s) that best
m eet their current or anticipated needs:
Acknowledgments
Many colleagues, students, and friends have been
o f invaluable assistance in the preparation of this
volume. My greatest debt is to all the colleagues
who graciously accepted my invitation to write
chapters for this edition. T he breadth and d epth of
their expertise make this collection tmlv unique.
I am especiallv indebted to Brent Green, my to evervone m en tio n ed in this paragraph.
research assistant, who helped to prepare the cum u­
lative list o f references and the index. I could not
have finished this book without his and Jo Flilder’s
assistance and offer them mv heartfelt thanks.
Many people at H einle 8c Heinle have helped
in the shaping and production of this large volume.
I had my initial discussions with Erik G undersen,
th en h a d fu rth e r discussions an d signed the con­ suggestions for revision a n d im provem ent. T he
tract with Eric B redenberg, who th en tu rn e d the
pro ject over to Sherrise Roehr. I received m uch
■ Read one of the two chapters on listening
• Read two of the three chapters on speaking,
reading, and writing and so on
A nother approach I have used is to ask every­
one in a class to skim a particular unit o f the book
(or subsection in U nit II). T hen I ask students to
form pairs or small groups that are responsible for
presenting and leading discussions on individual
chapters. (The instructor m ust of course proride a
m odel and explicit guidelines for what is expected
in such a presentation.) The textbook chapters
that are not covered in a course as a result of
needs analvsis and careful selection then becom e
useful reference m aterials for the teacher in train­
ing, whose interests and needs and target students
mav well change after com pletion o f the m ethods
course and the training program . Also, if one goes
to an o th er region or countrv or works in a rem ote
area, it is useful to have a single, com prehensive
reference for language m ethodologv— just as it is
useful to have a com prehensive dictionary and a
com prehensive reference grammar. This volume is
mv attem pt to compile and edit such a reference
for language methodologv.
I welcome com m ents and feedback on thi
edition. In ou r role as teachers, we all hat e m uch
to learn from one another.
-M a ria n n e (ielce-M nrcia. e d ito r
help and support from Sherrise Roehr, Sarah
Barnicle, and Eunice Yeates-Fogle of H einle 8c
H einle in the com pletion of the m anuscript and
once again had the pleasure o f working with
Tuncle A. Dewev of Dewev Publishing in the final
phase of production. Mv warm and sincere thanks
Finallv. I w ould like to note that I have in co r­
p o rate d into this edition m anv suggestions for
im proving the second edition th at readers, stu­
dents. and colleagues have graciously shared
with me oxer the tears. I offer special thanks to
the anonvm ous reviewers who co m pleted H einle
& H einle s q u estio n n aire, designed to elicit
responsibilitv for the choices m ade a n d for am
critical om issions is m ine alone.
 I : T eaching M ethodology
UNIT I

UNIT
Teaching Methodology
In this first section, Celce-Murcias chapter gives the reader a historical
perspective and outlines the principal approaches to second and foreign
language teaching that -лere used during the twentieth century. Then
Savignon's chapter goes into detail in describing the com ponents of
communicative language teaching, the currently dominant approach. In
their chapter Crookes and Chaudron discuss classroom research and its
implications for developing a principled approach to language teaching.
The following chapter by Johns and Price-Machado introduces the
reader to the English for S p e o fc Purposes movement, which has had a
profound influence on ail English language teaching. Finally, N unan’s
chapter gives the reader an overview o f the syllabus design process,
bringing us full circle, since tne syllabus ideally goes hand-in-hand with the
materials and approaches used in the language classroom.
 Language Teaching Approaches:
An Overview1
MARIANNE CELCE-MURCIA
In “ Language Teaching Approaches; An O verview ," Celce-Murcia gives some historical background,
then outlines the principal approaches to second and foreign language teaching that w ere used during
the twentieth century. She previews the book as a w hole and projects some trends for language
instruction in the new millennium.
IN T R O D U C T IO N
The field o f second (or foreign) language teach­
ing has u n d e rg o n e m any fluctuations and shifts
ver the years. D ifferent from physics or chem -
i'trv. in which progress is m ore or less steady
until a m ajor discovery causes a radical theoreti-
:oil revision (K uhn 1970), language teaching is a
held in w hich fads and heroes have com e an d
gr.ne in a m a n n e r fairly consistent with the kinds
ut changes that occur in youth culture. I believe
shat one reason for the frequent swings of the
oendu lum that have been taking place until fairly
recently is the fact that very few language teachers
have a sense of history about their profession and
are thus unaw are o f the historical bases o f the
many m ethodological options they have at their
disposal. It is h o p e d th at this b rie f and neces­
sarily oversimplified survey yvill encourage m any
language teachers to learn m ore about the ori­
gins o f th eir profession. Such knotvledge yvill
ensure som e perspective w hen teachers evaluate
any so-called innovations or new approaches
to m ethodology’, which yvill surelv continue to
em erge from tim e to time.
Pre-twentieth-Century Trends:
A Brief Survey
Prior to the tw entieth century, language teaching
m eth o d o lo g y vacillated betw een two types
of approaches: getting learners to use a language
li.e., to speak an d u n d e rsta n d it) versus getting
learners to analyze a language (i.e., to learn its
gram m atical rules).
Both the classical G reek and m edieval Latin
periods were characterized by an em phasis on
teaching people to use foreign languages. T he
classical languages, first G reek and th en Latin,
were used as lingua francas. H igher learn in g was
con d u cted prim arily th ro u g h these languages all
over E urope. They were used widely in philoso­
phy. religion, politics, and business. Thus the
educated elite becam e fluent speakers, readers,
and yvriters of the ap p ro p riate classical language.
We can assum e that the teachers or tutors used
inform al and m ore or less direct approaches to
convey the form a n d m eaning o f the language
thev were teaching and that they used aural-oral
techniques with no language textbooks p er se,
but ra th e r a small stock of hand-copied written
m anuscripts of som e sort, perhaps a feyv texts in
the target language, o r crude dictionaries that
listed equivalent words in two o r m ore languages
side by side.
D uring the R enaissance, the form al study
of the gram m ars o f G reek an d Latin becam e
p o p u lar th ro u g h the mass p ro d u ctio n of books
m ade possible by the invention of the p rin tin g
press. In the case o f Latin, it was discovered that
the g ram m ar of the classical texts was d ifferent
from that o f the Latin bein g used as a lingua
franca— the latter subsequently being labeled
vulgate Latin, i.e., Latin o f the com m on people.
M ajor differences had developed betw een the
classical L atin d escribed in th e R enaissance
gram m ars, yvhich becam e the form al object of
in struction in schools, a n d th e Latin b ein g used
for evervdav purposes. This o c cu rred at about
the same tim e that Latin beg an to be a b a n d o n e d
as a lingua franca. (No one was speaking classi­
cal Latin anym ore, a n d various E u ro p ean ver­
naculars h ad b eg u n to rise in respectability and
popularity.) Thus, in retrospect, strange as it
may seem , the R enaissance p reo c c u p a tio n with
the form al study o f classical Latin m a t hat e con­
trib u ted to the dem ise of Latin as a lingua franca
in W estern E urope.
Since the E uropean vernaculars h ad grown
in prestige an d utility, it is n o t surprising that
people in one country or region began to find it
necessary a n d useful to learn the language of
a n o th e r country or region. T hus the focus in lan­
guage study shifted back to utility' ra th e r than
analysis d u rin g the seventeenth century. Perhaps
the m ost fam ous language teacher and m eth o d ­
ologist o f this p eriod is J o h a n n Amos Com enius,
a Czech scholar an d teacher, who published
books ab o u t his teaching techniques betw een
1631 an d 1658. Som e o f the techniques that
C om enius used a n d espoused were the following:
■ Use im itation instead of rules to teach a
language.
■ Have your stu d en ts re p e a t after vou.
■ Use a lim ited vocabulary initially.
■ H elp your students practice read in g an d
speaking.
■ Teach language th ro u g h pictures to m ake it
m eaningful.
T hus C om enius, p erhaps for the first tim e,
m ade explicit an inductive a p p ro ach to learning
a foreign language, the goal o f w hich was to
teach use ra th e r th an analysis o f the language
b ein g taught.
C o m en iu s’s views h eld sway for som e time;
however, by the beg in n in g o f the n in e te e n th cen­
tury, the systematic study of the gram m ar o f clas­
sical Latin an d o f classical texts h a d once again
taken over in schools an d universities th ro u g h ­
o u t E urope. T he analytical G ram m ar-Translation
A pproach becam e firmly e n tre n ch e d as a m eth o d
for teaching n o t only Latin but, by extension,
m o d ern languages as well. It was perhaps best
codified in the work o f Karl Ploetz, a G erm an
scholar who h ad a trem endous influence on the
language teaching profession during his lifetime
an d afterwards. (He died in 1881.)
However, the swinging o f the p en d u lu m
continued. Bv the e n d of the n in e te e n th centrin',
the D irect M ethod, which once m ore stressed
the abilitv to use ra th e r th an to analyze a
language as the goal o f language instruction,
had begun to function as a viable alternative
to G ram m ar-T ranslation. Frangois G ouin, a
F renchm an, began to publish in 1880 c o n cern ­
ing his work with the D irect M ethod. H e advo­
cated exclusive use o f the target language in
the classroom , having b e e n influenced by an
o ld er friend, the G erm an philosopher-scientist
.Alexander von H um boldt, who had espoused the
n o tio n th at a language c an n o t be taught, that
one can only create conditions for lea rn in g to
take place (Kelly 1969).
T h e D irect M ethod becam e very p o p u lar
in France and G erm an y a n d has enthusiastic
followers am ong language teachers even today
(as does the G ram m ar T ranslation A pproach).
In 1886, d u rin g the same p erio d th at the
D irect M ethod first becam e p o p u lar in E urope,
th e In te rn a tio n a l P h o n e tic A ssociation was
established by scholars such as H enry Sweet,
W ilhelm V iftor, a n d Paul Passy. They developed
the In te rn atio n a l P honetic A lphabet (IPA) a n d
becam e p art of the R eform M ovem ent in lan­
guage teach in g in the 1890s. These p honeticians
m ade som e of the first truly scientific c o n trib u ­
tions to language teaching w hen they advocated
principles such as the following:
■ the spoken form o f a language is prim ary
a n d sh o u ld be tau g h t first;
■ the findings of phonetics should be applied
to language teaching;
■ language teachers m ust have solid train in g
in phonetics;
■ learners should be given p h o n e tic training
to establish good speech habits.
T h e work o f these p h o n etician s focused on the
te a c h in g o f p ro n u n c ia tio n a n d o ral skills,
which they felt h ad b een ignored in G ram m ar-
T ranslation. Thus, a lth o u g h the R eform Move­
m e n t is n o t necessarily considered a full-blown
pedagogical a p p ro ach to language teaching, its
a d h e re n ts did have an in flu en ce on fu tu re
approaches, as we shall see.
 Q uite apart from the work o f the Reform
M ovement, the influence of the Direct M ethod
grew; it crossed the Atlantic in the early twentieth
century w hen Emile de Sauze, a disciple of
Gouin, cam e to Cleveland, O hio, in o rd er to see
to it th at all foreign language instruction in the
public schools there im plem ented the Direct
M ethod. De Sauze’s endeavor, however, was not
com pletely successful (in C leveland o r else­
where) since there were too few foreign language
teachers in the U nited States, who were fluent
speakers of the language thev taught. Later, the
M odern Language Association of Am erica, based
on th e C olem an R ep o rt (C olem an 1929),
endorsed the R eading A pproach to language
teaching, since given the skills and lim itations of
most language teachers, all that one could rea­
sonably expect was th at students w ould com e
away from the study o f a foreign language able
to read the target lan g u a g e — with em phasis on
some o f th e great works o f literatu re a n d philos­
ophy th at h ad b e e n p ro d u ce d in the language.
T h e R eading A pproach, as reflected in the
work o f M ichael West (1941) a n d others, held
sway in the U n ited States until the late 1930s and
early 1940s, w hen W orld War II broke out and
m ade it im perative for the U.S. military to quickly
and efficiently teach foreign language learners
how to speak a n d u n d e rs ta n d a language.
At this tim e, the U.S. governm ent h ired linguists
to help teach languages and develop materials:
the A udiolingual A pproach (Lries 1945), which
drew heavily on structural linguistics (Bloomfield
1933) a n d behavioral psychology (Skinner 1957),
was born. In Britain the same historical pressures
gave rise to the O ral o r Situational A pproach
(e.g., Pittm an 1963), which drew on Firthian
Linguistics (codified in the work o f F irth ’s best-
known student, M. A. K. Hallidav [1973]) as well
as draw ing on the ex p erien ce of B ritain’s lan ­
guage educators with oral ap p ro ach es to foreign
language teaching. .Although som ew hat influ­
en ced by, b u t less dogm atic th an , its A m erican
c o u n te rp a rt (the A udiolingual A p p ro ach ), the
O ral o r Situational A pproach advocated o rg an ­
izing structures a ro u n d situations th at would
provide the lea rn er with m axim um opportunity
to practice the target language, with “p ractice”
nonetheless often being little m ore than choral
repetition. Some historians o f language teaching
(e.g., Howatt 1984) believe th at the earlier Reform
M ovem ent played a role in the developm ent of
both Audiolingualism in the U nited States and
the Oral-Situational A pproach in Britain.
Nine Twentieth-Century Approaches
to Language Teaching
In addidon to the Grammar-Translation Approach,
the Direct A pproach,2 the Reading Approach, the
Audiolingual Approach, and the Oral-Situadonal
A p proach— whose historical developm ent I have
sketched above briefly— there are four o th er
d iscernible ap p ro a c h e s to foreign language
teaching that developed and were widely used
d u rin g the final q u arter of the tw entieth century'.
Thus, there are nine approaches altogether th at I
shall be referring to:
1. G ram m ar-Translation
2. Direct
3. R eading
4. A udiolingualism (U nited States)
5. O ral-Situational (Britain)
6. Cognitive
7. Affective-Hum anistic
8. C om prehension-B ased
9. C om m unicative
However, before listing the features o f each
app ro ach , I w ould like to digress a m o m e n t to
clarify som e term inology that is crucial to this
discussion. Namely, what do we m ean by the
term s approach, method, a n d technique? Are these
term s synonymous? If not, how do they differ?
A nthony (1963) has provided a useful set of def­
initions for o u r purposes. An approach to lan­
guage teach in g is so m eth in g th at reflects a
certain m odel o r research p a ra d ig m — a theory,
if vou like. This term is the broadest o f the three.
A method, on the o th e r h and, is a set of p ro ce ­
dures, i.e., a system th at spells out ra th e r precise­
ly how to teach a second or foreign language.
It is m ore specific than an ap p ro ach b u t less
specific than a technique. M ethods are typically
c o m p a tib le w ith o n e (o r som etim es two)
approaches. A technique is a classroom device or
activity an d thus represents the narrow est o f the
th re e concepts. Som e techniques are widely
used a n d fo u n d in m any m ethods (e.g., dicta­
tion, im itation, an d rep e titio n ); however, some
techniques are specific to o r characteristic of a
given m eth o d (e.g., using cuisinaire rods = the
Silent Way [G attegno 1976]).
T he m ost problem atic o f A nthony’s three
term s is method. M ethods proliferated in the
1970s. Thev were typically very specific in term s
o f the procedures a n d m aterials that the teacher,
w ho req u ired special training, was supposed to
use. They were alm ost always developed and
defined by one person. This person, in turn,
train ed practitioners who accepted the m eth o d
as gospel and h elp ed to spread the word. Some
m ethods an d th eir originators follow:
■ Silent Wav (G attegno 1976)
■ G om m im itv L anguage L earning (C urran
1976)
■ Total Physical R esponse (Asher 1977)
■ Suggestologv, Suggestopedia, o r A ccelerated
L earning (Lozanov 1978)
However, the lack o f flexibility in such m ethods
led som e ap p lied linguists (e.g., R ichards 1984)
to seriouslv q u e stio n th e ir usefulness a n d
aroused a healthy skepticism am ong language
educators, who arg u ed that th ere is no such
th in g as the best “m e th o d ”:
the com plex circum stances o f teach­
ing a n d le a rn in g lan g u ag es — with
d ifferen t kinds o f pupils, teachers,
aim s a n d objectives, a p p ro a c h e s,
m eth o d s, a n d m aterials, classroom
techniques a n d standards of achieve­
m e n t— m ake it inconceivable that any
single m e th o d could achieve o p ti­
m um success in all circum stances.
(Strevens 1977, p. 5).
At this p o in t I will outline each of the nine
ap p ro ach es listed above. In addition, I will note
any special proficiency o r role th a t the tea c h e r is
exp ected (or not expected) to fulfill.
1. Grammar-Translation Approach (an ex ten ­
sion of the approach used to teach classical
languages to the teaching of m odern languages)
a. Instruction is given in the native language of
the students.
b. T h ere is little use o f the target language for
com m unication.
c. Focus is on gram m atical parsing, i.e., the
form an d inflection o f words.
d. T h ere is early read in g o f difficult texts.
e. A typical exercise is to translate sentences
from the target language into the m o th e r
tongue (or vice versa).
f. T h e result o f this ap p ro ach is usually an
inability on the p a rt o f the student to use the
language for com m unication.
g. T he teach er does n o t have to be able to
speak the target language.
2. Direct Approach (a reaction to the Gramm ar-
Translation A pproach and its failure to produce
learn ers who could com m unicate in the
foreign language thev had been studying)
a. No use o f the m o th e r tongue is p e rm itted
(i.e., the teach er does not n e e d to knew the
stu d e n ts’ native language).
b. Lessons begin with dialogues a n d anecdotes
in m o d e rn conversational stvle.
c. A ctions a n d pictu res arc used to m ake
m eanings clear.
d. G ram m ar is learn ed inductively.
e. Literary texts are read for pleasure a n d are
n o t analyzed gram m atically.
f. T he target culture is also tau g h t inductively.
g. The teacher m ust be a native speaker or have
nativelike proficiency in the target language.
3. Reading Approach (a reaction to the prob­
lems experienced in im plem enting the Direct
Approach; reading was viewed as the m ost usable
skill to have in a foreign language since not many
people traveled abroad at that time; also, few
teachers could use their foreign language well
enough to use a direct approach effectively in
class)
a. Only the gram m ar useful for read in g com ­
p reh e n sio n is taught.
b. Vocabulary is controlled at first (based on fre­
quency and usefulness) an d then expanded.
c. T ranslation is once m ore a respectable class­
room pro ced u re.
d. R eading com prehension is the onlv language
skill em phasized.
e. T he tea c h e r does n o t n e e d to have оgood oral
proficiency in the target language.
4. Audiolingualism (a reaction to the R eading
- oproach an d its lack of em phasis on oral-aural
-sails: this ap p ro ach becam e d o m in an t in the
V nited States d u rin g the 1940s, 1950s, and
zoOs: it draws from the Reform M ovem ent and
me D irect A pproach but adds features from
m u c tu ra l linguistics [B loom field 1933] an d
tehavioral psychology [Skinner 1957] )
a. Lessons begin with dialogues.
b. Mimicry a n d m em orization are used, based
on the assum ption that language is habit
form ation.
c. G ram m atical structures are sequenced and
rules are tau g h t inductively.
d. Skills are sequenced: listening, speaking—
reading, w riting postponed.
e. Pronunciation is stressed from the beginning.
:. Vocabulary is severely lim ited in initial stages,
g. A great effort is m ade to prevent lea rn er
errors.
b. L anguage is o fte n m a n ip u la te d w ith o u t
regard to m ea n in g o r context,
i. T he teacher m ust be proficient onlv in the
structures, vocabulary, etc. that he or she is
teaching since learning activities and m ateri­
als are carefully controlled.
5. Oral-Situational Approach (a reaction to the
T rad in g A pproach an d its lack of em phasis on
ral-aural skills; this ap p ro ach was d o m in a n t in
brttain d u rin g the 1940s, 1950s. a n d 1960s; it
araws from the R eform M ovem ent an d the
Direct A pproach b u t adds features from F irthian
anguishes an d the em erg in g professional field
: language pedagogy)
a. T he spoken language is primary.
b. All language m aterial is practiced orally
b efo re b e in g p re s e n te d in w ritten form
i read in g a n d w riting are tau g h t only after an
oral base in lexical an d gram m atical form s
has b e e n established).
c. Only the target language should be used in
the classroom.
d. Efforts are m ade to ensure that the m ost gen­
eral an d useful lexical items are presented.
e. G ram m atical structures are g rad ed from
sim ple to com plex.
f. New item s (lexical an d gram m atical) are
in tro d u c e d a n d practiced situationallv (e.g.,
at the post office, at the bank, at the d in n e r
ta b le ).
6. Cognitive Approach (a reaction to the behav-
iorist features of the A udiolingual A pproach;
in flu e n ce d bv cognitive psychology [X eisser
1967] a n d C hom skyan linguistics [Chom sky
1959,1965])
a. L anguage learn in g is viewed as rule acquisi­
tion, not habit form ation.
b. In struction is often individualized; learners
are responsible for th eir own learning.
c. G ram m ar m ust be taught but it can be taught
deductively (rules first, practice later) a n d /
or inductively (rules can either be stated after
practice or left as im plicit inform ation for the
learners to process on their own).
d. P ronunciation is de-em phasized; perfection is
viewed as unrealistic and unattainable.
e. R eading and writing are once again as im por­
tant as listening and speaking.
f. Vocabulary instruction is once again im por­
tant, especially at interm ediate and advanced
levels.
g. E rrors are viewed as inevitable, to be used
constructively in the learning process.
h. T he teacher is expected to have good general
proficiency in the target language as well as
an ability to analyze the target language.
7. Affective-Humanistic3 Approach (a reaction
to the general lack o f affective considerations
in b o th A udiolingualism an d the Cognitive
Approach: e.g., Moskowitz 1978 and C urran 1976).
a. R espect is em phasized for the individual
(each student, the teacher) a n d for his o r
h e r feelings.
b. C om m unication that is m eaningful to the
lea rn er is em phasized.
c. In struction involves m uch work in pairs a n d
small groups.
d. ("lass a tm o sp h ere is viewed as m ore im p o r­
tant than m aterials o r m ethods.
e. P eer su p p o rt and in teractio n are viewed as
necessarv for learning.
f. L earn in g a foreign language is viewed as a
self-realization experience.
g. T he teacher is a counselor or facilitator.
h. T he teacher should be proficient in the target
language and the stu d e n t’s native language
since translation may be used heavilv in the
initial stages to help students feel at ease; later
it is gradually phased out.
8. Com prehension-Based Approach (an o u t­
growth o f research in first language acquisition
that led some language m ethodologists to assume
th at second o r foreign language learn in g is
very' sim ilar to first language acquisition; e.g..
Postovsky 1974; Winitz 1981; K rashen an d Terrell
1983)
a. Listening c o m p re h en sio n is very im p o rtan t
and is viewed as the basic skill th at will allow
speaking, reading, an d w riting to develop
spontaneously over tim e, given the right
conditions.
b. L earners should begin by listening to m ean­
ingful speech and bv responding nonverballv
in m eaningful wavs before thev produce anv
language themselves.
c. L earners should not speak until thev feel
ready to do so; this results in b e tte r p ro n u n ­
ciation th an if the le a rn e r is forced to speak
im m ediately.
d. L earners progress bv being exposed to m ean­
ingful in p u t that is just one step beyond th eir
level of com petence.
e. Rule learn in g mav h elp learners m o n ito r (or
becom e aware of) w hat they do, b u t it will
n o t aid th eir acquisition o r sp ontaneous use
o f the target language.
f. E rro r correction is seen as unnecessarv and
p erh ap s even co unterproductive; the im p o r­
ta n t th in g is th at the learners can u n d e r­
stand a n d can m ake them selves u n d ersto o d .
g. If the teacher is n o t a native (or near-native)
speaker, appropriate m aterials such as audio-
tapes and \ideotapes m ust be available to pro­
vide the appropriate input for the learners.
9. Communicative Approach (an outgrow th of
the work of anthropological linguists [e.g., Hymes
1972] and Firthian linguists [e.g., Hallidav 1973],
who \iew language first and forem ost as a svstem
for com m unication; see Savignon’s chapter in this
volume)
a. It is assum ed that the goal of language teach ­
ing is le a rn e r abilitv to com m unicate in the
target language.
b. It is assum ed that the co n ten t of a language
course will include sem antic notions and
social functions, n o t just linguistic structures.
c. S tudents regularlv work in groups or pairs to
transfer (and, if necessarv, negotiate) m ean ­
ing in situations in which one person has
in form ation that the o th er(s) lack.
d. Students often engage in role play o r d ram a ­
tization to adjust th eir use of the target lan­
guage to different social contexts.
e. Classroom m aterials a n d activities are often
au th en tic to reflect real-life situations an d
dem ands.
f. Skills are integrated from the beginning; a
given activity m ight involve reading, speak­
ing, listening, and also writing (this assumes
the learners are educated and literate).
g. The teacher's role is primarily to facilitate
com m unication and onlv secondarily to cor­
rect errors.
h. T he teach er should be able to use the target
language fluentlv and appropriately.
To sum up, we can see that certain features
o f several o f the first five approaches arose in
reaction to perceived inadequacies or im practi-
calities in an earlier ap p ro ach o r approaches.
T h e fo u r m ore recentlv developed approaches
also do this to som e extent; however, each one
is g ro u n d e d on a slightlv different theorv or
view o f how p eo p le learn second o r foreign lan­
guages o r how people use languages, a n d each
has a central p oint a ro u n d which everything else
revolves:
Cognitive Approach: Language is rule-governed
cognitive behavior (not habit form ation).
Affective-Humanistic Approach: L e a rn in g a
foreign language is a process of self-
realization and of relating to o ther people.
 Comprehension Approach: Language acquisition
occurs if and only if the learner com pre­
hends m eaningful input.
Communicative Approach: T he p u rp o se of
language (and thus the goal of language
teaching) is com m unication.
These four m ore recent approaches tire not
necessarily in conflict or totallx incom patible
since it is not difficult to conceive of an inte­
grated approach which would include attention
to rule form ation, affect, co m p reh en sio n , and
c o m m u n ic a tio n a n d w hich w ould view the
lea rn er as som eone who thinks, feels, u n d e r­
stands, and has som ething to saw In fact, many
teachers would find such an approach, if well con­
ceived and well integrated, to be very attractiv e.
A Note on Approach, Method,
and Syllabus Type
We now u n d erstan d that an approach is general
(e.g., C ognitiye), that a m eth o d is a specific set
o f pro ced u res m ore or less com patible with an
approach (e.g., the Silent Way), and that a tech ­
nique is a y e n specific type of learning activity
used in one o r m ore m ethods (e.g.. using col­
ored rods of varying lengths to cue and facilitate
language practice in the Silent Wav). Historically,
an approach o r m eth o d also tends to be used
in conjunction with a syllabus, which is an inv en ­
tory o f objectives the lea rn er should master: this
inventory is som etim es presented in a recom ­
m en d ed sequence and is used to design courses
a n d teaching m aterials.
W hat sort of syllabuses have been used with
the approaches discussed above? Most o f them
have used — implicitly o r explicitly— a structural
syllabus, which consists of a list of gram m atical
inflections an d constructions that the tea c h e r is
expected to teach a n d the lea rn er is expected to
master. T he Gram m ar-Translation A pproach, the
Direct A pproach, the Audiolingual A pproach,
the Cognitive A pproach, and even some m ethods
following the C om prehension A pproach have all
em ployed a structural syllabus. In o th e r words,
teachers and textbook writers following these
a p p ro a c h e s have o rg a n iz e d th e ir lan g u ag e
courses a n d language-teaching m aterials a ro u n d
g ram m ar p o in ts, with A u diolingualism also
specifying p ro n u n cia tio n points a n d the Oral-
Situational A pproach often specifying vocabu­
lary objectives in additional to gram m ar.
In contrast to the structural svllabus, the
R eading A pproach is text-based: this kind of
language course is organized aro u n d texts a n d
vocabulary item s with only m in o r consideration
given to gram m ar.
In the Oral-Situational A pproach, th ere is
often a dual-objective svllabus in which various
situations are specified for instruction (e.g., the
post office, a restaurant, a bus, the doctor's
office, etc.), along with some of the structures
and the vocabulary that one m ight n eed to p ro ­
duce the language n eed ed in these situations.
In the Com m unicative A pproach, one type
of sv llabus is organized around notions (m eanings
such as spatial location, time, degree) and func­
tions (social transactions and interactions such as
asking for inform ation or com plim enting som e­
one). In this svllabus form at, gram m ar and vocalt-
ularv are secondary, being taught not as ends in
themselves, but only insofar as they help express
the notions and functions that are in focus. Many
adherents of the Com m unicative A pproach, how­
ever. reject anv sort of atomistic svllabus, w hether
structural or notional-functional. They advocate
instead a comm unicative svllabus (i.e., a process-
based or task-based svllabus) in which real-world
tasks and authentic materials are used to design
language courses (Yalden 1983).
T he .Affective-Humanistic A pp ro ach has
p ro d u ced the most radical svllabus type— the
learner-generated svllabus. Thus, in m ethods like
Communitv Language L earning (C urran 1976)
and Project W ork (see Evring's c h ap ter in this
volum e), the learners decide what thev want to
learn and what thev want to be able to do with
the target language. For a fuller discussion o f syl­
labus design, see X unan's ch ap ter in this volume.
C O N C L U S IO N
W hat is the solution for the ESL/EFL teacher,
giv en the abundance of past, cu rren t, an d future
approaches.- T he only wav to m ake wise decisions
is to learn m ore about the various approaches
a n d m ethods available and to find out which
practices have proved successful (see the ch ap ter
by C rookes and C h audron in this volum e). This
c h a p te r has just scratched the surface. F urth er
inform ation is available in the rem a in d e r o f this
volum e a n d in m any o th e r books, in journal
articles, at professional conferences and work­
shops, an d on the W orld W ide Web.
T here are also five o th er things the teacher
should do to m ake good decisions concerning the
choice o f an approach, a m ethod (or m ethods),
and finally techniques and materials:
1. Assess student needs: Whv should thev be
learning English? For what purpose? (See
Jo h n s and Price-M achado’s chapter in this
v olum e).
2. E xam ine in stru ctio n a l constraints: tim e
(hours p er week, davs p er week, weeks per
term ); class size (nature o f enrollm ent): ma­
terials (set syllabus and text, or com pletely
open to teacher?); phvsical factors (classroom
size, AV support). T hen decide what can rea­
sonably be taught.
3. D eterm ine the attitudes and learning styles
(see O xford's c h ap ter in this volum e) of
individual students to the extent that this is
possible, and develop activities and m aterials
consistent with the findings.
4. Identify the discourse genres, speech activi­
ties, a n d text tvpes that the students n e e d to
learn so th at you can in co rp o rate them into
m aterials an d learn in g activities.
5. Specify how the students' language learning
will be assessed (see C ohen's ch ap ter in this
volum e.)
H aving do n e all these, the teach er will be in a
position to select the m ost useful techniques or
principles a n d to design a productive course
o f studv by draw ing from available approaches,
syllabus types, a n d existing research findings.
Clifford Prator, a fo rm e r professor a n d col­
league of m ine, sum m ed up the professional
EST te a c h e r’s responsibility nicely (personal
c o m m u n ic a tio n ):
Adapt; don 4 adopt.
Teachers are certainly in a b e tte r position to f k-
low P rator's advice if they are fam iliar with the
history an d the state o f the art o f o u r profession
Som e suggestions for fu rth e r read in g are pr o­
vided below to aid the re a d e r in attaining the>r
objectives.
In fact, all of the chapters in this volurt-
encl with discussion questions, suggested actru-
ties. suggestions for fu rth e r reading, and. whenu
relevant, useful Web sites. Section 1 o f this y.; -
tim e discusses topics in language m e th o d o lo r
Section 2 focuses on teaching the individual lan­
guage skills. Section 3 presents som e integrate 1
ap p ro ach es to language teaching, Section о
focuses on specific groups o f learners, an. a
Section 5 provides language teachers with back­
g ro u n d inform ation and skills th a t will heir
them becom e m ore know ledgeable a n d skill: vk
practitioners.
D IS C U S S IO N Q U E S T IO N S
1. W hat has been the attitude tow ard the teach ­
ing of (a) p ro n u n cia tio n , (b) gram m ar, and
(c) vocabulary in the n in e approaches dis­
cussed in this chapter? Has th ere been .-
swinging of the pendelum ? Why o r whv not?
2. W hat changes have occurred regarding the
position of spoken language a n d w ritten lan­
guage in the carious approaches? Why?
3. W hich of these approaches have you person­
ally experienced as a language learner? W hat
were vour impressions and what is your assess­
m ent of the effectiveness of the approach (es i?
4. W hich a p p ro ach (es) do vou, as a teacher,
feel m ost com fortable with? Whv?
S U G G E S T E D A C T IV IT IE S
1. Select an in teg rated skills E SL /EFL text that
vou have used o r expect to use. Exam ine its
contents to d eterm in e which ap p ro ach it
seems to follow m ost closelv. S u p p o rt your
decision with exam ples. Discuss any m ixing
of approaches that you observe.
2. Exam ine any English language proficiency
test, standardized or otherw ise. See if you
can d etect a m ethodological bias in the test.
S upport your conclusion (s) with exam ples.
'3. W hat kinds of language learn ers do you
teach (or expect to teach)? Be as specific as
possible. W hich ap proach (es) would s e n e
such a p o p u latio n best? Why?
FU R T H ER R EA D IN G
.reciters interested in the history of the language
reciting profession should consult:
H w att. A. P. R. 1984. A History of English Language
Teaching. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Wily. L. G. 1969. Twenty-Five Centuries of Language
Teaching. New York: Newbury Elouse.
Teachers interested in the current state of the art in
_ ;лцс teaching methodology should consult:
Larsen-Frecman, D. 2000b. Techniques and Principles
in Language 'Teaching. 2d ed. New York: Oxford
University Press.
Richards, J. C., and T. S. Rodgers. 1986. Approaches
and Methods in Language Teaching. New York:
Cambridge University Press.
Stern. H. H. 1983. Fundamental Concepts of Language
Teaching. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
ENDNO TES
1 Precursors to this chapter were published in the
Mextesol journal (Celce-Murcia 1980) and Practical
English Teaching (Celce-Murcia 1981). This is a
revised and updated version based on these and
several other sources, notably Kelly (1969), Madsen
(1979). Blair (1991), and Prator with Celce-Murcia
(1979). and Celce-Murcia (1991b).
- The term Direct Method is more widely used than
Direct Approach: however, the former is a misnomer,
since this is reallv an approach, not a method, if we
follow Anthony’s (1963) terminology.
The term humanistic has two meanings. One refers
to the humanities (i.e.. literature, history, phi­
losophy) . The other refers to that branch of psy­
chology concerned with the role of the socio-
affective domain in human behavior. It is the latter
sense that I am referring to here. However, see
Stevick (1990) for an even broader perspective on
humanism in language teaching.
 Communicative Language Teaching
for the Twenty-First Century
S A N D R A J. S A V I G N O N
In "Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) for the Twenty-First Century" Savignon identifies five
components of a communicative curriculum. She sees the identification of learner communicative
needs and goals as the first step in the development of a teaching program that involves learners as
active participants in the interpretation, expression, and negotiation of meaning.
You may not loiter downtown in ire cream
stores. You may not ride in a carriage or
automobile with any man unless he is your
father or brother. You may not dress in
bright colors. You must wear at least two
petticoats. You must start the fire at 7 Л.М.
so the school room will be warm by 8 л.М.
Rules for teachers,
G oodland, Kansas (1915)1
W hat d o you th in k of the above 1915 Rules for
Teachers? Do they seem som ew hat strange o r o u t­
dated? Do they m ake you smile? If vou had been
a tale n te d new teach er in G oodland, Kansas, in
1915, you m ost likely w ould have fo u n d these
rules to be the m ark o f a school system with high
standards. No d o u b t the standards set for stu­
dents were as high as those set for teachers.
Teachers in G oodland could co u n t on students
to be respectful a n d diligent. In tu rn , teachers
w ere expected to set a good exam ple.
Teachers have alwavs been expected to set a
good exam ple for learners, to provide a m odel of
behavior. But as the 1915 rules for teachers so
d early rem in d us, the m odel can an d does
change. W hat seems a good exam ple in one tim e
or place, a given context of situation, may seem
quite strange or in ap p ro p riate in a n o th e r tim e or
place. A nd so it is with language teaching. As this
v o lu m e ’s in tro d u c to ry c h a p te r by M arian n e
Celce-M urcia shows, teachers have fo u n d m any
ways o r m ethods for teaching languages. All have
b een ad m ired m odels in som e tim e or place,
often to be ridiculed, perhaps, or dism issed as
in ap p ro p riate in yet another. Times change, fash­
ions change. W hat may once ap p ear new and
prom ising can subsequently seem strange and
outdated.
W ithin the last q u a rte r century, com m u­
nicative language teaching (CLT) has b een p u t
forth aro u n d the world as the “new,” or “innova­
tive," way to teach English as a second o r foreign
language. T eaching m aterials, course descrip­
tions, a n d curriculum guidelines proclaim a goal
o f communicative competence. For exam ple, The
Course of Study for Senior High School, guidelines
p u b lish e d by th e J a p a n e s e M inistry o f
E ducation, Science, a n d C ulture (M om busho)
state the objectives o f ELT: “To develop stu d e n ts’
ability to u n d e rsta n d a n d to express them selves
in a foreign language; to foster stu d e n ts’ positive
attitu d e towards com m unicating in a foreign
language, and to heighten their interest in lan­
guage an d culture, thus d e ep en in g international
u n d e rsta n d in g ” (Wada 1994, p. 1). M inoru Wada,
a university professor a n d a senior advisor to
M om busho in prom oting ELT reform in Japan,
explains the significance o f these guidelines:
T h e M om busho G uidelines, or course
o f study, is o n e o f the m ost im p o rta n t
legal precepts in the Ja p an e se educa­
tional system. It establishes national
standards for elem entary an d second­
ary schools. It also regulates co n ten t,
the stan d ard n u m b e r of a n n u al teach­
ing hours at lower level secondary
[junior high] schools, subject areas,
 subjects, an d the stan d ard n u m b e r of
req u ired credits at u p p e r level second­
ary [senior high] schools. T he course
o f study for the teach in g o f English as
a foreign language a n n o u n c e d bv the
M inistry o f E ducation, Science, and
C ulture in 1989 stands as a landm ark
in the history of English ed u cation in
Japan. For the first tim e it in tro d u c ed
in to English ed u catio n at b o th sec­
ondary school levels the concept of
communicative competence. In 1989. the
M inistry o f E ducation, Science, and
C ulture revised the course o f study for
prim ary as well as secondary schools
on the basis o f proposals m ade in a
1987 re p o rt by the C ouncil on the
School C urriculum , an advisory g roup
to the M inister of E ducation, Science,
an d C ulture. T he basic goal o f the
revision was to p rep a re students to
co p e with th e rapidly o c c u rrin g
changes toward a m ore global society.
T h e re p o rt u rg e d Jap an ese teachers to
place m uch m ore em phasis on the
developm ent o f com m unicative com ­
p eten ce in English.
Parallel efforts are underw ay in nearbv Taiwan
for sim ilar reasons. Based on in-depth interviews
o f e x p e rt tea c h e r educators, W ang (in press)
rep o rts on the progress (see also W ang 2000):
M uch has b een d o n e to m eet the
d em an d for co m p eten t English users
a n d effective te a c h in g in Taiwan.
C u rren t im provem ents, according to
th e te a c h e r experts, in clu d e the
change in en tran ce exam inations, the
new curriculum with a goal of teaching
for com m unicative com petence, and
th e island-w ide im p le m e n ta tio n in
2001 o f English education in the ele­
m entary schools. However, m ore has to
be d o n e to ensure quality teaching and
learn in g in the classrooms. Based on
the teach er ex p erts’ accounts, fu rth e r
im provem ents can be stratified into
th re e in te rre la te d levels rela te d to
teachers, school authorities, an d the
governm ent. Each is essential to the
success of the o th ers' efforts.
This c h a p te r looks at the p h e n o m e n o n of
com m unicative language teaching (GET). W hat
is GLT? How and whv did it develop? W hat are
the theoretical u n d e rp in n in g s o f this ap p ro ach
to language teaching? How has GET b een in te r­
p re te d an d im p lem en ted in various contexts?
K eeping in m ind the needs a n d goals of learners
a n d the traditions o f classroom teaching, w hat
are som e wavs for teachers to shape a m ore com ­
m unicative ap proach to ELT in the context o f
th eir own situation?
W H A T IS CLT?
Xot long ago, w hen A m erican structural linguis­
tics and behaviorist psychology’ were the prevail­
ing influences in language teaching m ethods
and m aterials, second 'foreign language teachers
talked about com m unication in term s of four
language skills: listening, speaking, reading, and
w riting. T h ese skill categories w ere widelv
accepted and provided a readv-m ade fram ew ork
for m ethods m anuals, learn er course m aterials,
and teacher education program s. Speaking and
writing were collectively described as active skills,
reading and listening as passive skills.
Todav. listeners and readers no lo n g er are
reg ard ed as passive. Thev are seen as active
particip an ts in the n eg o tiatio n o f m eaning.
Schemata, expectancies, a n d top-down/bottom-up
processing are am ong the term s now used to cap­
ture the necessarily com plex, interactive n a tu re
of this negotiation. Yet full and w idespread
u n d e rsta n d in g o f com m unication as negotiation
has been h in d e re d bv the term s th at cam e to
replace the earlier active/passive dichotom y.
T he skills n e e d e d to engage in speaking a n d
w riting activities were described subsequently as
productive, w hereas listening an d reading skills
were said to be receptive.
While certainly an im provem ent over the
earlier active ’'passive representation, the term s
“productive" and “receptive’’ fall short of captur­
ing the interactive nature o f com m unication. Lost
in this p ro d u ctiv e,/recep tiv e, m essage send-
in g /m e ssa g e receiving re p re se n ta tio n is tlte
collaborative natu re o f m aking m eaning. M eaning
appears fixed, to be sent an d received, not
unlike a football in the bands of a team q u a rte r­
back. T he interest of a football gam e lies of
course n o t in the football, but in the m ores and
strategies o f the plavers as tliev punt, pass, and
fake th eir wav along the field. T he interest of
com m unication lies similarlv in the m ores and
strategies of the participants. T he term s that best
represent the collaborative natu re of what goes
on are interpretation, expression, and negotiation
o f m eaning. T he com m unicative com petence
n e e d ed for participation includes not onlv gram ­
m atical com petence, but pragm atic com petence.
T he inadequacv o f a four-skills m odel of
language use is now recognized. And the short­
com ings of audiolingual m ethodologv are wiclelv
acknow ledged. T here is g e n e ra l a ccep tan ce
o f the com plexity and in terrelatedness of skills
in b o th w ritten and oral com m unication and
o f the n e e d for learners to h are the experience
o f com m unication, to participate in the negotia­
tion of m eaning. Newer, m ore com prehensive
theories o f language an d language behavior
have replaced those that looked to A m erican
structuralism and behaviorist psvchologv for
support. T he ex p an d ed , interactive view of lan­
guage behavior they offer presents a n u m b e r of
ch allen g es for teachers. A m ong th em , how
should form and function be in teg rated in an
instructional sequence? W hat is an ap p ro p riate
norm for learners? Hots is it determ ined? W hat
is an error? A nd what, if anvthing. should be
do n e w hen one occurs? Hots is language lea rn ­
ing success to be m easured? A cceptance o f com ­
m unicative criteria entails a c o m m itm en t to
address these adm ittedlv com plex issues.
H O W A N D W H Y D ID C L T
D EV ELO P?
T h e origins of con tem p o rarv CLT can be traced
to c o n c u rre n t developm ents in b o th E urope a n d
N orth Am erica. In E urope, the language needs
of a rapidlv increasing g ro u p of im m igrants and
guest workers, as well as a rich British linguistic
tradition in cluding social as well as linguistic
context in description of language behavior led
the C ouncil o f E urope to develop a svllabus for
learners based on notional-functional concepts
o f language use. Derived from neo-F irthian sys­
temic o r functional linguistics that views language
as meaning potential and m aintains the centrality
of context o f situation in u n d e rsta n d in g lan­
guage systems an d how thev work, a T h resh o ld
Level o f language abilitv was described for each
of the m ajor languages o f E urope in term s of
what learners should be able to do with the lan­
guage (ban Ek 1975). Functions were based on
assessm ent o f lea rn er needs a n d specified the
e n d result, the goal of an instructional program .
T he term communicative attach ed itself to p ro ­
gram s that used a functional-notional syllabus
based on needs assessm ent, and the language
fo r specific p u rp o se s (LSP) m o v em en t was
launched.
O th e r E uropean developm ents focused on
the process of com m unicative classroom language
learning. In Germanv, for exam ple, against a
backdrop of social dem ocratic concerns for indi­
vidual em pow erm ent, articulated in the writings
o f th e c o n te m p o ra rv p h ilo s o p h e r Ju rg en
H aberm as (1970). language teaching m eth o d o l­
ogists took the lead in the developm ent o f class­
room m aterials that e n co u rag ed le a rn e r choice
(C andlin 1978). T h e ir svstematic collection of
exercise tvpes for com m unicatively o rie n te d
English language teaching were used in teach er
in-service courses a n d workshops to guide cu r­
riculum change. Exercises were designed to
exploit the varietv of social m eanings co n tain ed
within p articular gram m atical structures. A sys­
tem of "chains" en couraged teachers a n d learn ­
ers to define their own learning path th ro u g h
p rin c ip le d selection o f relevant exercises
(P iep h o 1974: P iep h o an d B redella 1976).
Similar exploratorv projects were also initiated bv
C an d lin at his th e n academ ic h o m e, the
L'niversitv of Lancaster in England, and bv H olec
(1979) an d his colleagues at the University
o f N aurs in France. S upplem entary tea c h e r
resource m aterials p rom oting classroom CLT
becam e increasinglv p o p u lar d u rin g the 1970s
(e.g.. Males and Duff 1978).
 M eanw hile, in the U n ited States. Hemes
(1971) h a d reacted to Chom sky's (1965) ch ar­
acterization o f the linguistic com p eten ce of the
“ideal native speaker” a n d p ro p o sed the term
communicative competence to rep resen t the use of
language in social context, or the observance of
sociolinguistic norm s o f ap p ro p riat e. His concern
with speech com m unities and the integration of
language, com m unication, and culture was not
unlike th at of Halliday in the British linguistic tra­
dition (see Hallidav 1978). Hvmes's com m unica­
tive com petence mav be seen as the equivalent of
Hallidav’s m eaning potential. Similarly, his focus
was n o t language learning, but language as social
behavior. In subsequent interpretations of the sig­
nificance o f Hvmes's views for learners, m eth o d ­
ologists working in the U nited States ten d ed to
focus on native speaker cultural norm s and the
difficulty, if n o t impossibility, of authentically
representing them in a classroom of nonnative
speakers. In light of this difficulty, the ap propri­
ateness o f com m unicative com petence as an
instructional goal was questioned (e.g., Paulston
1974).
At the same tim e, in a research project at the
University7 o f Illinois, Savignon (1972) used the
term “com m unicative com petence” to charac­
terize the ability of classroom language learners
to interact with o th er speakers, to m ake m eaning,
as distinct from their ability to recite dialogs or
perform on discrete-point tests of gram m atical
knowledge. At a tim e when p attern practice and
erro r avoidance were the rule in language teach­
ing, this study of adult classroom acquisition of
F rench looked at the effect o f practice on the use
of coping strategies as part of an instructional pro­
gram . By encouraging learners to ask for inform a­
tion, to seek clarification, to use circum locution
an d w'hatever o th er linguistic and nonlinguistic
resources thev could m uster to negotiate m eaning
and stick to the com m unicative task at hand,
teachers were invariably leading learners to take
risks and speak in o th er than m em orized patterns.
T he coping strategies identified in this study
becam e the basis for subsequent identification bv
Canale and Swain (1980) of strategic competence
w hich— along with gram m atical com petence and
sociolinguistic com petence— appeared in their
three co m ponent fram ew ork for com m unicative
com petence. (The original Canale and Swain
fram ew ork with su b seq u en t m odifications is
discussed below.) Test results at the end o f the
instructional p eriod showed conclusively that
learners who had practiced com m unication in
lieu o f lab o ra to ry p a tte rn drills p e rfo rm e d
with no less accuracy on discrete-point tests of
gram m atical structure. O n the o th er h and, their
communicative competence as m easured in term s of
fluency com prehensibility, effort, an d am o u n t of
com m unication in u n reh earsed oral com m u­
nicative tasks significantly surpassed th at of
learners who had h ad no such practice. L earner
reactions to the test form ats lent fu rth e r su p p o rt
to the view that even beginners resp o n d well to
activities that let them focus on m eaning as
opposed to form al features.
A collection of role plavs, games, an d o th er
com m unicative classroom activities were subse­
quently developed for inclusion in adaptating
the French CREDIF- m aterials, Yoix el Visages de
la France. T he accom panying guide (Savignon
1974) described their purpose as that o f involving
learners in the experience of com m unication.
Teachers were encouraged to provide learners
with the French equivalent of expressions that
would help them to participate in the negotiation
of m eaning such as ‘'W hat's the word for . . . ?”
“Please repeat," “I d o n 't u n d e rsta n d .” Not unlike
the efforts of C andlin and his colleagues w orking
in a E uropean EFT context, the focus here was
on classroom process and lea rn er autonom y.
T he use o f games, role play pair work, and o th er
small-group activ ities has gained acceptance and
is now widely reco m m en d ed for inclusion in
language teaching program s.
CLT thus can be seen to derive from a m ul­
tidisciplinary perspective that includes, at a m in­
im u m , linguistics, psychology, philosophy,
sociology, and ed ucational research. Its focus
has b een the elab o ratio n a n d im p lem en tatio n
o f program s and m ethodologies th at p ro m o te
the developm ent of functional language ability
th ro u g h lea rn er participation in com m unicative
events. C entral to CLT is the u n d e rsta n d in g of
language learn in g as both an ed ucational a n d a
political isstte. L anguage teaching is inextricably
tied to language police. Viewed from a m ulticul­ not include the abilitv to state rules o f usage. O ne
tural /н/m national as well as /м/m iatio n al p er­ dem onstrates gram m atical com petence n o t by
spective, diverse sociopolitical contexts m andate staling a rule b u t by using a rule in the in te rp re ­
n o t only a diverse set of language learn in g goals, tation, expression, or negotiation of m eaning.
b u t a diverse set of teaching strategies. Program
design a n d im p lem en tatio n d e p e n d on negoti­
a tio n b etw een police m akers, linguists, re ­
search ers, a n d teach ers. A nd evaluation of
p rogram success requires a sim ilar collaborative
effort. T he selection of m ethods an d m aterials
a p p ro p riate to both the goals and context of
tea c h in g begins with an analvsis of sociallv
defined lea rn er needs and stvles o f learning.

H O W H A S C L T BEEN
IN TE R P R E TE D ?
T he classroom m odel shows the hvpothetical
integration o f four com ponents that hat e been
advanced as com prising com m unicative com pe­
ten ce (Savignon 1972. 1983.1987. in press:
Canale and Swain 1980: Canale 1983a: Bvram
1997). A dapted from the fam iliar "inverted pvra-
m id ” classroom m odel p roposed bv Savignon
(1983), it shows how. th ro u g h practice and expe­
rience in an increasinglv wide range o f com m u­
nicative contexts and events, learners graduallv
ex pand th eir com m unicative com petence, con­
sisting of grammatical competence, discourse compe­
tence, sociocult and competence, a n d strategic
competence. A lthough the relative im portance of
the various com ponents depends on the overall
level of com m unicative com petence, each one is
essential. Me ireover. all com ponents are in te rre ­
lated. They cannot be developed o r m easured in
isolation an d one cannot go from one com po­
n e n t to the o th er as one strings beads to m ake a
necklace. Rather, an increase in one co m p o n en t
interacts with o th er com ponents to pro d u ce a cor­
resp o n d in g increase in overall com m unicative
com petence.
Grammatical competence refers to sentence-
level gram m atical forms, the abilitv to recognize
the lexical, m orphological, svntactic, and p h o n o ­
logical feature o f a language and to m ake use of
these features to in te rp re t and form words a n d
sen ten ces. G ram m atical c o m p e te n c e is n o t
linked to anv single theorv o f gram m ar an d does
Figure 1. Components of Communicative Competence
Discourse competence is con cern ed n o t with
isolated words or phrases b u t with the in terco n ­
nectedness of a series o f utterances, w ritten
words, and or phrases to form a text, a m eaning­
ful whole. The text m ight be a poem , an e-mail
message, a sportscast. a telephone conversation,
or a novel. Identification o f isolated sounds or
words contribute to interp retatio n o f the overall
m eaning of the text. This is known as bottom-up
protessing. On the o th er hand, u n d erstan d in g of
the them e or purpose of the text helps in the
in terp retatio n o f isolated sounds o r words. This is
known as top-down processing. Both are im portant
in com m unicative com petence.
Two o th e r fam iliar co n cep ts in talking
about discourse com petence are text coheimce
and cohesion. Text coherence is the relation of
all sentences or utterances in a text to a single
global proposition. T he establishm ent of a global
meaning, or topic, for a text is an integral p art of
both expression and in terp retatio n and makes
possible the in terp retatio n of the individual sen­
tences th at m ake up the text. Local connections
or structural links betw een individual sentences
provide cohesion. Hallidav and H asan (1976)
are well-known for their identification of various
cohesive devices used in English. and their work
has influenced teacher education m aterials for
ESL/EFL. (for illustration, see Celce-M urcia and
L arsen-Freem an 1999).
Sociocultural competence extends well bevond
linguistic form s and is an interdisciplinary field
o f inquiry having to do with the social rules
o f language use. S ociocultural c o m p e ten c e
requires an un d erstan d in g o f the social context
in which language is used: the roles of the partic­
ipants, the inform ation thev share, and the func­
tion o f the interaction. .Although we have vet to
p ro tid e a satisfactory description of gram m ar, we
are even fu rth er from an adequate description of
sociocultural rules o f appropriateness. And vet we
use them to com m unicate successfully in mam-
different contexts of situation.
It is of course not feasible for learners to
anticipate the sociocultural aspects for even
context. M oreover, English often se n e s as a lan­
guage o f com m unication between speakers o f
different prim arv languages. Participants in m ul­
ticultural com m unication are sensitive not onlv
to the cultural m eanings attached to the lan­
guage itself, but also to social conventions con­
c e rn in g lan g u ag e use, such as tu rn-taking,
appropriacy of content, nonverbal language, and
tone o f voice. These conventions influence how
m essages are in te rp re te d . C ultural awareness
ra th e r than cultural know ledge thus becom es
increasingly im portant. Just knoyving som ething
ab o u t the culture of an English-speaking country
will n ot suffice. W hat m ust be learned is a general
em pathy and openness towards o th er culture'.
Sociocultural com petence therefore in clu d e ' a
willingness to engage in the active negotiation <>f
m eaning along with a willingness to 'in p e n d
ju d g e m e n t and take into consideration the oo>-
sibilitv o f cultural differences in con v en tio n ' or
use. T ogether these features m ight be 'u b 'u m e d
u n d e r the term cultural flexibility < i Co on/
awareness.
T he "ideal native speaker." som eone yvho
knows a language perfectly and uses it ap p ro p ri­
ately in till social interactions, exists in theory
onh. N one of us knows all there is to know
of English in its many- m anifestations, both
aro u n d the world and in o u r tnvn backyards.
C om m unicative com petence is alwavs relative.
T he coping strategies that we use in unfam iliar
contexts, with co n strain ts d u e to im p e rfe c t
knoyvledge of rules or lim iting factors in then-
application such as fatigue or distraction, are
rep resen ted as strategic competence. W ith practice
and experience, we gain in gram m atical, dis­
course. and sociocultural com petence. T he rela­
tive im portance of strategic com petence thus
decreases. Hoyvever. the effective use of coping
strategies is im p o rtan t for com m unicative com ­
petence in all contexts and distinguishes highly
co m petent com m unicators from those yvho are
less so.
Bv definition. CLT puts the focus on the
learner. L earn er com m unicative needs provide
a fram ew ork for elaborating program goals in
term s of functional com petence. This im plies
global, qualitative evaluation o f le a rn e r achieve­
m en t as opposed to quantitative assessm ent of
discrete linguistic features. C ontroversy over
a p p ro p riate language testing m easures persists,
an d m anv a curricu lar innovation has b e e n
u n d o n e by failu re to m ake corresponding-
changes in evaluation. C u rren t efforts at ed u ca­
tional reform favor essay writing, in-class p rese n ­
tations, a n d o th e r m ore holistic assessm ents
o f lea rn er com petence. Some program s have
initiated portfolio assessment, the collection and
evaluation o f lea rn er poem s, reports, stories,
videotapes, and similar projects in an effort
to b e tte r re p re s e n t a n d e n c o u ra g e le a rn e r
achievem ent.
A lthough it now has a new nam e and is
enjoving w idespread recognition and research
attention, CLT is not a neyv idea. T h ro u g h o u t the
long history of language teaching, there always
have been advocates of a focus on m eaning, as
opposed to form , and o f developing learn er abil­
ity7 to actually use the language for com m unica­
tion. T he m ore im m ediate the com m unicative
needs, the m ore readily com m unicative m ethods
seem to be ad o p ted . In h e r book Breaking
Tradition, M usum eci (1997) provides a fascinat­
ing account o f language teaching reform efforts
dating back to the M iddle Ages w hen Latin, not
English, was the lingua franca. Breaking Tradition
is a favorite read in g of mv students. Then find it
a refreshing an d reassuring rem in d er that dis­
cussions of m ethods and goals to r language
teach in g pred ate the tw entieth cen trin ' bv far.
D e p en d in g u p o n th eir own p rep aratio n
a n d experience, teachers them selves differ in
th eir reactions to CLT. Som e feel u n d e rsta n d ­
able frustration at the seem ing am biguity in dis­
cussions o f com m unicative ability N egotiation
o f m ean in g mav be a lofts goal, but this view of
language behavior lacks precision an d does not
provide a universal scale for assessm ent of indi­
vidual learners. Ability is sie v e d as satiable and
highly d e p e n d e n t u p o n context an d purpose as
well as on the roles and attitudes o f all involved.
O th e r teachers who welcom e the o p p o rtu n ity to
select a n d /o r develop th eir osvn m aterials, p ro ­
sid in g learners with a range o f com m unicative
tasks, are com fortable reiving on m ore global,
integrative judgm ents of le a rn e r progress.
An additional source of frustration for some
teach ers are seco n d lan g u ag e acquisition
research findings that show the route, if not the
rate, o f language acquisition to be largely unaf­
fected bv classroom instruction. First language
cross-linguistic studies o f developm ental univer-
sals initiated in the 1970s were soon followed bv
sim ilar second language studies. Acquisition,
assessed on the basis of expression in u n re ­
hearsed, oral com m unicative contexts, appeared
to follow a describable m orphosvntactic sequence
regardless of learn er age or context of learning.
A lthough thev served to bear out teachers’ infor­
m al observations, namelv that textbook presenta­
tion and drill do not ensure lea rn er use of taught
structures in learners' spontaneous expression,
th e findings were nonetheless disconcerting.
Thev contradicted both gram m ar-translation and
aucliolingual precepts that placed the b u rd en of
le a rn e r acquisition on teacher explanation of
gram m ar and controlled practice with insistence
on learn er accuracy. They were fu rth e r at odds
with textbooks that prom ise •‘m astery” o f "basic”
English, Spanish. French, etc. Teacher rejection of
research findings, renervecl insistence on tests of
discrete gram m atical structures, an d even exclu­
sive reliance in the classroom on the learners’
nativ e or first language, w here possible, to be sure
thev "get the gram m ar.” have been in some cases
reactions to the fru stration o f teach in g for
com m unication.
S H A P IN G A C O M M U N IC A TIV E
C U R R IC U LU M
In rec e n t vears. m am innovations in curriculum
p lan n in g have been p ro p o sed th at offer both
novice an d veteran teachers a dizzying array
of alternatives. G am es, voga, juggling, a n d
jazz have been p ro p o sed as aids to language
learning. Rapidiv increasing o p p o rtu n ities for
c o m p u te r-m e d ia te d c o m m u n ic a tio n , b o th
synchronous— online chat room s — an d asyn­
c h ro n o u s— the full spectrum of inform ation
an d interactions available on the In te rn e t as well
as specialized bulletin boards an d e-m ail— hold
prom ise for fu rth e r integration o f com m unica­
tive opp o rtu n ities for learners worldwide.
In attem p tin g to convev the m ean in g of
CLT to both pre-service a n d in-service teachers
o f English as a second o r foreign language in a
wide range of contexts. I have fo u n d it helpful to
think of a com m unicative curriculum as p o te n ­
tially m ade up of five com ponents. These com ­
p o nents mav be reg ard ed as them atic clusters of
activities or experiences related to language use
a n d usage, providing a useful wav o f categoriz­
ing teaching strategies that pro m o te com m u­
nicative language use. Use o f the term component
to categorize these activities seem s particularly
a p p ro p riate in that it avoids am suggestion of
sequence or level. E x p erim en tatio n with com ­
m unicative teaching m ethods has shown th at all
five co m p o n en ts can be profitably b len d e d at all
stages of instruction. O rganization o f learn in g
activities into the following com p o n en ts serve
n o t to sequence an ELT program , b u t ra th e r to
highlight the range of options available in cu rricu ­
lum p lan n in g and to suggest wavs in which th eir
very interrelated n ess benefit the learner.
■ L anguage Arts In an ESL classroom w here English is the
■ L anguage for a P urpose language o f instruction, th ere is an im m ediate
■ My Language Is Me: Personal English Language an d natu ral n e e d for learners to use English.
Use W here this h appens, L anguage for a P urpose is
■ You Be, Г 11 Be; T h e a te r Arts a built-in feature o f the learn in g environm ent.
■ Beyond the Classroom In an EFL setting w here the teach er may have a
language o th e r th an English in com m on with
Language Arts, o r language analysis, is the
learners, special a tte n tio n needs to be given to
first c o m p o n e n t on th e list. L anguage Arts
providing o p p o rtu n ities for English language
includes those things th at language teachers
experience. Exclusive use of English in the class­
often do best. In fact, it may be all they have been
room is an option. In so-called content-based
tau g h t to do. This c o m p o n e n t includes m any
instruction, the focus is o th e r th an the English
o f the exercises used in m o th e r tongue program s
language. T he content, fo r exam ple history,
to focus atten tio n on form al accuracy. In ELT.
m usic, or literature, is tau g h t th ro u g h the иле of
L anguage Arts focuses on form s o f English,
English. Immersion program s at the elem entary,
including syntax, m orphology, and phonology.
secondare, o r even university level w here the
Spelling tests, for exam ple, are im p o rtan t if
en tire curriculum is tau g h t in English offer a
w riting is a goal. Fam iliar activities such as trans­
m axim um am o u n t of Language for a P urpose
lation, dictation, an d rote m em orization can be
(see Snow's c h a p te r in this v o lu m e). In addition,
helpful in bringing atten tio n to form . Vocabulary
task-based c u rricu la are d esig n ed to provide
expansion can be e n h a n c e d th ro u g h definition,
lea rn ers with m axim um o p p o rtu n ity to use
synonyms, a n d antonym s as well as attention to
L anguage for a Purpose (see chapters by N unan;
cognates a n d false cognates w hen applicable.
Jo h n s a n d Price-M achado; an d C h a u d ro n an d
P ro n u n ciatio n exercises an d p a tte rn e d repeti­
C rookes in this volum e).
tion o f verb paradigm s and o th e r structural fea­
L earners who are accustom ed to being
tures can be useful in focusing on form , along
taught exclusively in th eir m o th e r tongue may at
with the explanation o f regular syntactic features,
first be un co m fo rtab le if the teach er speaks to
rules o f gram m ar. T here are also m any Language
them in English, expecting them n o t only to
Arts games th at learners o f all ages enjoy for the
u n d e rsta n d but, perhaps, to respond. V ire n this
variety an d group interaction they provide. So
h appens, teachers n e e d to take special care to
long as they are n o t overused and are n o t pro­
help learners realize th at they are n o t expected
m o ted as the solution to all m an n e r of language
to u n d e rsta n d ev en word, any m ore th an they
learn in g problem s, these gam es can be a wel­
are expected to express them selves in nativelike
com e addition to a te a c h e r’s repertoire.
English. M aking an effort to get the gist an d
Language for a Purpose, or language experi­
using strategies to in te rp re t, express, an d neg o ­
ence, is the second com ponent. In contrast with
tiate m ean in g are im p o rtan t to the d evelopm ent
language analysis, language experience is the use
o f com m unicative co m p eten ce. F or learn ers
o f English for real a n d im m ediate com m unica­
who are accustom ed to gram m ar translation
tive goals. N ot all learners are learning English
courses tau g h t in th eir m o th e r tongue with an
for the same reasons. A ttention to the specific
em phasis on gram m ar an d accuracy, th e tra n ­
com m unicative needs of the learners is im p o r­
sition will n o t be easy. Kivoko Kusano H ubbell (in
tant in the selection a n d sequencing o f m aterials.
press), a Japanese teacher o f English in Tokyo,
Regardless of how distant or unspecific the com ­
recounts some struggles in h e r determ in ed effort
m unicative needs o f the learners may be. even-
to teach communicatively:
program with a goal o f com m unicative com pe­
tence should give atten tio n to o pportunities for Мапл Jap an ese students have b een
m eaningful English use, opportunities to focus tau g h t th a t they have to really know
on m eaning ra th e r than on form . evert word in a sentence o r a phrase
 in o rd er to u n d e rsta n d a foreign lan­
guage. They are n o t taught to use the
strategies th at they already use in their
native Japanese, th at is, to guess the
m eaning from the context. W hen the
blackboard is full o f writing a n d I am
busy in class, I ask a student, “Please
erase the blackboard!”, h an d in g him
an eraser a n d p o inting to the dirtv
blackboard. If he does n o t move, it is
n o t because he is offended. H e ju st did
n o t recognize the w ord “erase,” and to
him that m eans he did not u n d erstan d
m e. If he is willing to accept the am bi­
guity', he gets up and cleans the board.
W ith en c o u ra g e m e n t an d h elp from their
tea c h e r in developing the strategic com petence
they n e e d to in te rp re t, express, an d negotiate
m eaning, learners express satisfaction and even
surprise. Kusano H ubbell goes on to rep o rt the
positive reactions she receives at the en d of the
term . (All com m ents have b een translated from
Ja p an e se by the author.)
“C om pletelv different from anv class
I ’ve ever h a d !”
“I have never expressed my own ideas
in English before. W ork was alwavs to
translate this section, to fill in the
blanks o r read. It was all passive.”
“In my career o f English education
from Jr. H igh to C ram School th ere
was no tea c h e r who spoke English
o th e r th an to read the textbooks.”
My Language Is Me: Personal English Language
Use, the third co m p o n en t in a com m unicative
curriculum , relates to the le a rn e r’s em erging
identity' in English. L earner attitude is w ithout a
d o u b t the single m ost im portant factor in learn er
success. W hether a le a rn e r’s m otivations are inte­
grative o r instrum ental, the developm ent o f com ­
m unicative c o m p e te n c e involves th e w hole
learner. T h e m ost successful teaching program s
are those th at take into account the affective
as well as the cognitive aspects o f language
learning. They seek to involve learn ers psycho­
logically as well as intellectually.
In p la n n in g for CLT. tea c h e rs sh o u ld
rem e m b e r th at n o t evervone is com fortable in
the sam e role. W ithin classroom com m unities, as
within society at large, th ere are leaders and
th ere are those who p refer to be followers. Both
are essential to the success of g roup activities. In
group discussions, there are always some who
seem to do the m ost talking. Those who often
rem ain silent in larger groups typically partici­
pate m ore easily in pair work. O r they may prefer
to work on an individual project. T he w ider the
variety of com m unicative, or m eaning-based,
activities, the greater the chance for involving
all learners.
Mv L anguage Is Me implies, above all,
respect for learners as thev use English for self-
expression. .Although Language Arts activities
provide an app ro p riate context for atten tio n to
form al accuracy Personal English Language LTse
does not. Most teachers know this and intuitively
focus on m eaning rath er than on form as learners
express their personal feelings o r experiences.
However, repeated em phasis on structural accu-
racv in textbooks or on tests mav cause teachers
to feel uncom fortable about their in atten tio n
to non-nativelike features that do n o t im pede
m eaning. .An un d erstan d in g of the im portance of
opportunities for the in terpretation, expression,
and negotiation o f m eaning in CLT an d o f the
distin ctio n betw een L anguage Arts a n d My
Language Is Me can help to reassure teachers that
the com m unicative practice thev are providing is
im portant for their learners.
Respect for learners as thev use English for
self-expression re q u ire s m o re th a n sim ply
restrain t in a tten tio n to form al “e rro rs” th at
do n o t in te rfe re with m eaning. It includes recog­
nition that so-called “nativelike” p erfo rm an ce
mav not, in fact, even be a goal for learners.
L anguage teaching has com e a long way from
aucliolingual davs w hen “native” p ro n u n cia tio n
a n d use was held up as an ideal. R eference to the
term s "native” or "nativelike" in the evaluation
o f com m unicative co m p eten ce is in ap p ro p ria te
in todav's postcolonial, m ulticultural world. As
observed earlier, we notv recognize that native
speakers are never “ideal'' and, in fact, varv widely
in range and style of comm unicative abilities.
M oreover, as the English language is increasingly
used as a language of global com m unication, so
called “non-native" users of its m am varieties
overw helm ingly o u tn u m b e r so-called "native
speakers.” T he decision of what is or is not one's
“native” language is arbitrary and irrelevant for
ELT a n d is perhaps best left to the individual
concerned. C hennv Lai. a graduate MATESI.
candidate studying in the U nited States, expresses
his views:
As to the definition of "native" or "first"
language we discussed in today's class. I
cam e up with the idea that we have no
say about w hether a person's native lan­
guage is this one or that one. It is the
speaker whet has the right to FEEL
which language is his native one. The
native language should be the one in
which the speaker feels most com fort­
able or natural w hen m aking dailv
com m unication, or m ore abstractly,
the one in which the speaker does all
his thinking. T here are two m ajor lan­
guages spoken in Taiwan: M andarin
an d Taiwanese. I d o n ’t have any slight­
est problem using eith er of them since
I use both even' clav in equal p ro p o r­
tion. But w hen I do mv thinking, con­
sidering things, or even kind o f talking
to mvself', mv “m ental" language is
M andarin. Because of this. I would
say th a t mv native language is
M andarin. . . . we probable can sav that
a person's native language can actually
“switch” from one to a n o th e r d u ring
stages o f his life.
Since a personality inevitable takes on a
new dim ension th ro u g h expression in a n o th e r
language, th at dim ension needs to be discovered
on its own term s. L earners should not only be
given the o p p o rtu n ity to say w hat thev want to
say in English, thev also should be en co u rag ed
to develop an English language personality with
which they are com fortable. They mav feel m ore
com fortable m aintaining a degree o f form ality
not fo u n d in the in terp erso n al transactions of
native speakers. T he diary entrv of a Jap an ese
le a rn e r o f English offers im p o rtan t insight on
the m atte r of identity:
I just d o n 't know what to do right
now. I m ight have b e e n wrong since I
began to learn English: I always tried
to be b e tte r and w anted to be a good
speaker. It was wrong, absolutely wrong!
W hen I got to California. I started im i­
tating A m ericans and picked up the
words that I heard. So mv English
becam e just like -Americans. I c o u ld n 't
help it. I m ust have b een funnv to
them , because I am a Japanese and
hat e mv own culture an d background.
I think I alm ost lost the most im portant
thing I should not have. I got California
English, including intonation, p ro n u n ­
ciation. the wav thev act, which are not
m ine. I har e to have my own English, be
mvself w hen I speak English (Preston
1981. p. 113).
On the o th e r hand, learners mav discover a
new freed o m o f self-expression in th eir new lan­
guage. W hen asked what it is like to write in
E nglish, a lan g u ag e th at is n o t h e r native
tongue, the K orean w riter Mia Ann, a u th o r of
House of the Winds (1998), replied th at it was “like
pu ttin g on a new dress." W riting in English
m ade h e r feel fresh, see h erself in a new way,
o ffe red h e r fre e d o m to e x p e rim e n t. W hen
expressing them selves in a new language, writers
are not the onlv ones to experience the feeling
of "putting on a new dress." My L anguage Is
Me calls for recognition a n d respect for the indi­
vidual personality o f the learner. (We will re tu rn
to the m atte r of the "native 'non-native” dis­
tinction with respect to users of English later
when discussing sociolinguistic issues.)
You Be. I'll Be: Theater Arts is the fourth com ­
p o n e n t of a com m unicative curriculum . “.All the
w o rld ’s a stage." in the fam iliar w ords of
Shakespeare (As You Like It, II, viii; 139). A nd on
this stage we plav manv roles, roles for which we
improvise scripts from the m odels we observe
aro u n d us. Child, parent, sister, brother, em ­
ployer, em ployee, doctor, or tea c h e r— all are
roles that include certain expected ways o f behav­
ing and using language. Sociocultural rules of
appropriateness have to do with these expected
wavs. Familiar roles may be plated with little
conscious attention to style. O n the o th er hand,
new and unfam iliar roles req u ire practice, with
an awareness of how the m eanings we in te n d are
being in te rp re te d bv others. Som etim es there
are no m odels. In the last h a lf o f the tw entieth
century, w om en who suddenly found them selves
in w hat had b e e n a "m an's world," w h eth er as
firefighters, professors, o r CEOs, had to adapt
existing m odels to ones with which they could
be com fortable. And the transition is far from
com plete. W ith the exception o f G reat Britain,
no m ajor w orld pow er to date has h ad a wom an
h e a d o f state. Bv the e n d o f the twentv-first cen­
tury th ere no d o u b t will be n u m ero u s m odels
from which to choose.
If the world can be thought o f as a stage,
with actors and actresses who plav their parts as
best they can, th eater mav be seen as an o p p o rtu ­
nity to experim ent with roles, to trv things out.
Fantasy and playacting are a natural and im por­
tan t p art of childhood. Make-believe and the "von
be, I’ll b e ” improvisations fam iliar to children the
w’orld over are im portant to self-discoverv and
growth. They allow voting learners to experim ent
a n d to try things out, such as hats and wigs,
m oods and postures, gestures and words. As occa­
sions for language use, role-plaving an d the m anv
related activities that constitute T heater Arts are
likewise a natural c o m p o n e n t o f language learn­
ing. They allow learners to ex p erim en t with the
roles thev play o r mav be called upon to plav in
real life. T h e a te r Arts can provide learners with
th e tools thev n e e d to act, that is. to in terp ret,
express, a n d negotiate m ean in g in a new lan­
guage. Activities can include both scripted and
u n scrip ted role plav, sim ulations, an d even p a n ­
tom im e. E nsem ble-building activities fam iliar in
th e a te r training have been used very successfully
in EET to create a clim ate o f trust so necessary
for the in co rp o ratio n of T h e a te r Arts activities
(see Savignon 1997). T he role of th e tea c h e r in
T h e a te r Arts is th at o f a coach, providing sup­
port, strategies, an d en c o u ra g e m e n t for learners
as they explore new ways of being.
Beyond the Classroom is the fifth an d final
c o m p o n e n t of a com m unicative curriculum .
Regardless o f the variety of com m unicative activ­
ities in the E SL /EFL classroom , th eir purpose
rem ains to p rep a re learners to use English in the
w orld beyond. This is the wrorld u p o n which
learners will d e p e n d for the m ain ten an ce and
developm ent o f th eir com m unicative co m p e­
tence once classes are over. T he classroom is b u t
a rehearsal. D evelopm ent o f the Beyond the
Classroom c o m p o n e n t in a com m unicative cur­
riculum begins with discovery o f lea rn er interests
and needs an d of opportunities to n o t only
respond to but, m ore im portantly, to develop those
interests and needs th rough English language use
bevond the classroom itself.
In an EST setting, opportunities to use
English outside the classroom abound. Systematic
"field experiences" may successfully becom e the
core of the course, which then could becom e a
w orkshop in which learners can com pare notes,
seek clarification, an d e x p an d the range o f
dom ains in which thev learn to function in
English. Classroom visits to a courtroom trial,
a public auction, or a church bazaar provide
introductions to aspects o f the local culture that
learners m ight n o t experience on their own.
C onversation p a rtn e rs, a p p re n tic e sh ip s, an d
activities with host families can be arranged.
Residents of nearbv retirem ent com m unities can
be recruited as valuable resources for a range of
research projects. Senior citizens often welcome
the opportunity to interact with international vis­
itors or new arrivals and offer a wealth of knowl­
edge and experience. Thev could be interview7ed
about notew orthy historical events, child rearing
in earlier decades, or their view’s on politics,
health care, or grandparenting.
In an EFT setting, on the o th er h and, the
ch allen g e fo r in c o rp o ra tin g a B eyond the
Classroom c o m p o n e n t may be greater, b u t cer­
tainly n o t insurm ountable, a n d is essential for
both teacher a n d learners. As a child, I looked
forw ard to receiving letters from my pen pals.
Thev would arrive bearing colorful stam ps from
France. Wales, Jap an , Taiwan, and Australia. I
had vet to learn a second language, so o u r corre­
spondence was all in English. However, this reg­
u lar ex c h an g e o f letters p u t a sm all town
m idw estern .American girl in touch with o th er
places aro u n d the globe a n d with o th e r users of
English. Technology has since b ro u g h t the whole
w orld m uch closer. English language radio an d
television program s, videos, an d feature length
films are readilv available in m am F F f settings,
along with new spapers and m agazines. English
speaking residents o r ■visitors m at be available to
visit the classroom . T he In te rn et now provides
o p p o rtu n ities to in teract with English speaking
peers on a varietv of topics, to develop gram ­
m atical, discourse, sociocultural, and strategic
com petence. These o p p o rtu n ities for com puter-
m ediated com m unication (CMC) will increase
dram aticallv in the years ahead. T he following
except from an e-mail exchange betw een classes
of secondary school students in G erm any and the
Lhrited States on the topic of the death penalty
reveals th e p o ten tia l for dev elo p in g socio­
cultural and strategic skills in addition to gram ­
matical and discourse com petence (R oithm eier
and Savignon in press):
GER 1: Death Penalty— an inhuman punishm ent
GER 3: . . . Finally. I th ink nobodv has the
right to kill o th e r people but to kill a
person because of m erev is inhuman
an d should never be a law in certain
dem ocratic states or countries. . . .
LbSA 2: . . . I can see b o th sides o f the death
penalty. I believe w hen discussing this
inhuman tre a tm e n t vou m ust think
ab o u t the victims o f these people.
USA 4: . . . Basically, I think the d eath penalty
is w rong and inhumane.
USA 6: T he d eath penalty is inhumane . . .
Exam ples such as the above provide strong
su p p o rt for the claim that m em bers of a discus­
sion g roup are strongly influenced bv p rio r post­
ings an d that the language thee use is influenced
bv what the\ read from participants. In addition
to p rea rra n g e d exchanges, learners can check
W orld W ide Web sites for a range o f inform ation,
schedules, rates, locations, descriptions, and
the like.
P U T T IN G IT A L L T O G E T H E R
How do we put it all together? Is there an opti­
m um com bination of Language Arts. Personal
Language Use, Language for a Purpose. T heater
Arts, and Be\ ond the Classroom? These questions
must be answ ered bv individual language teach­
ers in the context in yvhich they teach. Cultural
expectations, goals, and styles o fle a rn in g are but
some o f the ways in yvhich learners mav differ
from each other. To the complexity o f the learn er
m ust be added the com plexities of teachers and
of the settings in which they teach. Established
routines, or institutional belief about what is
im portant, weigh heavily in a te a c h e r’s decisions
as to yvhat and horv to teach and often m akes
innovation difficult (see Sato in press; W ang in
press). Finally, the need for varietv m ust be taken
into account. Learners yvlm are b ored with rule
recitation or sentence translation mav ju st as
easily lose interest in games o r role play, if these
are allowed to becom e routine. Difficult as it
is. the teacher's task is to u n d e rsta n d the many
factors involved and respond to them creatively.
Teachers cannot do this alone, of course.
They n e e d the su p p o rt of adm in istrato rs,
the comm unity, and the learners themselves.
M ethodologists and re a d ie r education program s
have a responsibility as yvell. They should provide
classroom teachers with the perspective and expe­
riences they need to respond to the realities
of their world, a changing yvorlcl in yvhich the
old way s of ELT mav not be the best wavs. T he
optim um com bination of the analytical and the
experiential in ESL EFF for a given context is a
focus o f ongoing research. However, a noyv yvell-
established research tradition in second/foreign
language learning teaching has clearly shoyvn the
im portance o f attention to language use, o r expe­
rience, in addition to language usage, or analysis.
But the ovenvhelm ing emphasis in most school
program s is on the Fitter, often to the com plete
exclusion of the former.
W H A T A B O U T GRAMMAR?
Discussions of GET not infrequently lead to
questions of gram m atical or form al accuracy.
T he perceived displacem ent of attention to mor-
phosvntactic features in lea rn er expression in
favor of a focus on m eaning has led in some cases
to the im pression that gram m ar is not im portant,
o r that p ro p o n en ts of CLT favor lea rn er self-
expression w ithout re g a rd to form . W hile
involvem ent in com m unicative events is seen as
central to language developm ent, this involve­
m en t necessarilv requires attention to form . T he
natu re o f the co ntribution to language develop­
m en t o f both form -focused and m eaning-focused
classroom activitv rem ains a question in ongoing
research. T he optim um com bination of these
activities in any given in stru ctio n al setting
depends no doubt on learner age. nature and
length o f instructional sequence, opportunities
for language contact outside the classroom ,
teacher preparation, and o th er factors. However,
for the developm ent of com m unicative abilitv,
research Findings overw helm inglv su p p o rt the
integration o f form -focused exercises with
m eaning-focused experience. G ram m ar is im ­
portant, and learners seem to focus best on gram ­
m ar when it relates to their com m unicative needs
and experiences.
C om m unicative com petence obviouslv does
not m ean the wholesale rejection o f fam iliar
m aterials. T here is n o th in g to prevent com m u­
nicatively-based m aterials from being subjected
to gram m ar-translation treatm ent, just as there
may be n o th in g to prevent a teacher with onlv an
old gram m ar-translation book at his or h e r dis­
posal from teaching communicativelv. W hat m at­
ters is the teacher's conception of what learning
a language is and how it happens. T he basic p rin ­
ciple involved is an orientation towards collective
participation in a process o f use a n d discovery
achieved bv c o o p e ra tio n betw een individual
learners as well as betw een learners and teachers.
S O C IO L IN G U IS T IC ISSUES
N um erous sociolinguistic issues await attention.
V ariation in the speech com m unity an d its
relationship to language change are central to
sociolinguistic inquire. As we have seen above,
sociolinguistic perspectives on variability and
change highlight the folk of describing native
speaker com petence, let alone non-native speaker
com petence, in terms of "mastery " or “com m and”
o f a system. .All language systems show instabilitv
and variation. L earner language systems show
even greater instability and variability in terms of
both the am ount and rate o f change. Moreover,
sociolinguistic concerns yvith identity' and accom ­
m odation help to explain the construction by
bilinguals o f a “variation space" that is different
from that o f a native speaker. This mav include
reten tio n of anv n u m b er of features of a previ­
ously acquired code or sy stem o f phonology and
syntax as well as features of discourse an d prag­
m atics. in c lu d in g c o m m u n ic a tio n strategies.
T he p h e n o m e n o n may be individual or. in those
settings yvhere there is a com m unity o f learners,
general. Differences not only in the code itself
b ut in the sem antic m eanings attrib u ted to these
different encodings contribute to identification
yvith a speech com m unity or culture, the yvav a
speech com m unity views itself and the world.
This o ften in clu d es code m ixing a n d code
switching. the use bv bilinguals o f resources from
m ore than one speech comm unity.
S ociolinguistic perspectives have b e e n
im portant in u n d e rsta n d in g the im plications of
norm , appropriaev, and variability for CLT and
continue to suggest avenues o f inquiry for fu rth er
research and m aterials developm ent. Use of
authentic language data hits u n derscored the
im portance of context, such as setting, roles, and
genre, in in terpreting the m eaning of a text. A
range o f both oral and written texts in context
provides learners yvith a variety of language expe­
riences. which they n eed to construct their own
"variation space" and to m ake determ inations of
a p p ro p ria te in their own expression of m eaning.
"C om petent" in this instance is not necessarily
synonym ous with "nativelike." N egotiation in
CLT highlights the n e e d for interlinguistic, that
is. intcrcidturcd, awareness on the part of all
involved (Byram 1997). B etter tm clerstanding of
the strategies used in the negotiation o f m eaning
offers a potential for im proving classroom prac­
tice of the n e e d ed skills.
Natives and Foreigners
We m ight begin bv asking ourselves whose lan ­
guage we teach and for what purpose. W hat is
o u r own relationship with English? Do we con­
sider it to be a foreign, second, or native language?
 Webster's New International Dictionary. 2nd
edition, published in 1950. a tim e w hen language
te a c h in g in the U n ite d States was on the
th re sh o ld o f a p e rio d of u n p re c e d e n te d scrutiny,
ex p erim en tatio n , an d grow th, p ro tid e s the fol­
lowing definitions of these term s we use so often
with respect to language. Foreign derives from
M iddle English forein. forene. O ld French forain
a n d Latin fonts, m ean in g outside. Related words
are foreclose, forest, forfeit. M odern definitions
include “situated outside one's own country; born
in, belonging to, derived from, or characteristic
o f some place o th er than the one u n d e r consid­
eration; alien in character; not connected or
p e rtin e n t,” etc.
Those identified as teaching a foreign lan­
guage, p erhaps even in a D ep artm en t of Foreign
Languages, should ask. "Whv?" W hat does the
label “foreign" signal to colleagues, learners,
a n d the com m unity at large?- Toclav we are c o n ­
ce rn e d with global ecology an d global economy.
A nd English has b een describe as a “global lan­
gu ag e” (Crystal 1997). N onetheless, one m ight
object, “fo re ig n ” is still a useful term to use in
distinguishing betw een teaching English in. sat-.
Pattava, T h a ila n d , a n d te a c h in g E nglish in
Youngstown, O hio. In Youngstown. English is
taught as a second language w hereas in Pattava
it is a foreign language. T he contexts of learning
are n o t the same, to be sure. N eith er are the
learners. N o r the teachers. But do these facts
change the n a tu re of the language? A nd what
ab o u t the teaching of Spanish in Chicago, in
B arcelona, in B uenos Aires, in G uatem ala City,
in M iami, o r in M adrid? In what sense can
Spanish in each of these contexts be described
as “fo reign” or “seco n d ”? And what are the im pli­
cations of the label selected for the learners? For
the teachers?
H aving tau g h t F rench in U rbana, Illinois,
for m an \- years, I can easily identify with the
problem s o f teachers of English in Pattava. M ore
so, p e rh a p s, th an those w ho teach ESL in
U rb an a with easy access to English speaking
com m unities outside the classroom . O n the
o th e r h a n d , teach in g F rench in U rbana or
English in Pattava is no excuse for ig n oring or
avoiding o p p o rtu n ities for com m unication, both
w ritten an d oral. T he potential o f com puter-
m ed iated negotiation o f m ean in g for language
learn in g and language change in the decades
ah e ad will be increasingly recognized, b o th
inside and outside language classrooms.
W hat mav be a p roblem is the te a c h e r’s
com m unicative co m petence. Is he or she a
native speaker? If not. does he o r she consider
him- or herself bilingual? If not. whv not? Is it a
lack o f com m unicative com petence? Or, rather,
a lack of com m unicative confidence? Is he or
she in tim id ated bv “native" speakers? Native
Speaker is the title of a m oving first novel by
C hang-rae Tee. an A m erican raised in a K orean
im m igrant family in New Jersey. It docum ents
the struggle and frustration o f know ing two cul­
tures an d at the same tim e not com pletely
belonging to e ith e r one. As such, it serves as a
p o ig n an t rem in d er of the challenges o f bilin­
gualism a n d b icu ltu ralism . How does o n e
"belong”? W hat does it m ean to be bilingual? To
be bicultural? To be a native speaker?
Again, the exam ple o f English is im portant.
Such w idespread a d o p tio n of one language is
u n p re c e d e n te d . English users todav in clu d e
those who live in countries w here English is a pri­
mary language — the U nited States, the U nited
Kingdom . Canada. Australia, and New Zealand;
those who live in countries w here English is an
additional, m /ranational language o f co m m u n i­
c a tio n — fo r e x am p le. B an g lad esh , In d ia,
N igeria, Philippines, a n d Tanzania; those who
use English prim arily in /н/rrnational co n tex ts—
countries such as C hina, Indonesia, Ja p a n , Saudi
A rabia, a n d Russia. Bv conservative estim ates the
n u m b e r of non-native speakers of English in the
w orld todav o u tn u m b e rs native speakers by
m ore th an 2 to 1. a n d the ratio is increasing.
M odels of appropriaev vary from c o n tex t to con­
text. So m uch, in fact, that som e scholars speak
n o t onlv of varieties of English b u t of World
Englishes, the title of a new journal devoted to
discussion of descriptive, pedagogical, and o th e r
issues in the global sp re a d o f the English
language. As лее have seen above, d e p e n d in g on
the context as well as le a rn e r needs, "native"
speakers mav or m ar- n o t be a p p ro p riate m odels
(see also K achru 1992).
W H A T C L T IS N O T
D isappointm ent with both gram m ar-translation
an d audiolingual m ethods for th eir inabilitv
to prep are learners for the in terpretation, ex­
pression, and negotiation of m eaning, along with
enthusiasm for an arrav of alternative m ethods
increasingly labeled communicative, has resulted in
no small am ount of uncertaintv as to what are
and are not essential features of CLT. Thus,
this sum m ary description would be incom plete
w ithout brief m ention of what CLT is not.
CLT is not exclusively co n c ern e d with face-
to-face oral c o m m u n ic a tio n . T h e prin cip les
o f CLT apply equally to reading and writing
activities th at involve re a d e rs a n d winters
engaged in the in te rp re ta tio n , expression, and
n e g o tia tio n o f m ean in g : the goals o f CLT
d e p e n d on lea rn er needs in a given context.
CLT does not require sm all-group or p air work:
g ro u p tasks have been found helpful in mans
contexts as a wav of providing increased o p p o r­
tu nity a n d m otivation for c o m m u n ic a tio n .
However, classroom g roup or pair work should
not be considered an essential feature an d mav
well be in ap p ro p ria te in som e contexts. Finally.
CLT does not exclude a focus on m etalinguistic
aw areness o r know ledge of rules o f syntax,
discourse, and social appropriateness.
T he essence o f CLT is the en g ag em en t of
learners in com m unication in o rd e r to allow
them to develop th eir com m unicative com pe­
tence. Terms som etim es used to refer to features
o f CLT include process oriented, task-based, and
inductive, o r discoi'ery oriented. Inasm uch as strict
a d h e re n c e to a given text is n ot likelv to be true
to its processes and goals, CLT c a n n o t be fo u n d
in any one textbook or set o f cu rricu lar m ateri­
als. In keeping with the n o tion of context o f sit­
uation, CLT is properly seen as an ap p ro ach or
theory o f in tercu ltu ral com m unicative com pe­
ten c e to be used in d ev e lo p in g m aterials
an d m ethods a p p ro p riate to a given co n tex t of
learning. C ontexts change. A w orld o f carriages
an d petticoats evolves into one of genom es and
cyberspace. N o less th an the m eans a n d norm s
of com m unication thev are designed to reflect,
com m unicative teach in g m ethods designed to
e n h a n c e th e in te rp re ta tio n , expression, and
negotiation o f m ean in g will co n tin u e to be
e x p lo red an d adapted.
D IS C U S S IO N Q U E S T IO N S
1. If vou h ad to choose th re e adjectives to
describe CLT, what w ould thev be?
2. W hat m ight be som e obstacles e n c o u n te re d
bv teachers who wish to im p lem en t a com ­
m unicative ap p ro ach to language teaching?
How m ight these obstacles be overcom e?
3. Do vou feel English to be a foreign, second, or
native language? How m ight vour feelings
influence vour classroom teaching?
4. O f the five described co m p o n en ts o f a com ­
m unicative curriculum , which are the m ost
fam iliar to vou as a language learner? As a
language teacher?
5. W ho sets the norm for English language use
in vour p articular context o f situation? How?
Whv?
S U G G E S T E D A C T IV IT IE S
1. Request perm ission to observe two or th ree
d iffe re n t in tro d u c to ry level ESL or EEL
classes. N ote the interaction betw een the
tea c h e r an d the learners. W ho does m ost of
the talking? How m uch of the talking that
vou h e a r is in English? Whv?
2. Interview som e language learners for their
views on whv thev are learn in g a foreign o r
second language.
3. Look at the inverted pyram id diagram of
com m unicative com p eten ce on page 17. Do
you agree with the p ro p o rtio n s drawn? Draw
your own diagram to show the relationship
betw een the fo u r co m p o n en ts o f com m u­
nicative com petence.
4. Select one of the five co m p o n en ts o f a com ­
m unicative c u rricu lu m d e scrib ed in this
chapter. Make a list o f co rresp o n d in g lea rn ­
e r activities or experiences th at vou would
like to use in your teaching.
FU R T H ER R EA D IN G
Breen, M., and C. Candlin. 1980. The essentials of a
communicative curriculum in language teaching.
Applied Linguistics 1(1) :89—112.
Byram, M. 1997. Teaching and Assessing Inter-
cultural Communicative Competence. Cleveclon. UK:
Multilingual Matters.
Hollidav. A. 1994. Appropriate Methodology and Social
Context. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Xunan. D. 1989a. Designing Tasks per the Commu­
nicative Classroom. Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press.
Savignon. S. J. 1997. Communicative Competence: Theory
and Classroom Practice. New York: McGraw Hill.
ENDNO TES
1 The author copied this passage mam years ago while
visiting the Union School, a country school building
that teas moved to the citv of Goodland, Kansas, bv
the Sherman Countv Historical Society. It is owned
and operated as a school museum bv the Society.
- CRTDIF is the acronym for Centre de Recherche
et d'Etude pour la Diffusion clu Francais. It was
an institution specializing in French as a foreign
language and functioned in association with the
Ecole Xormale Superieur de Saint-Cloud from
1939 to 1996.
 Guidelines for Language Classroom
Instruction 1
GRAHAM CROOKES
In "Guidelines for Language Classroom Instruction," Crookes and Chaudron review research and
practice in both second and foreign language contexts. The main areas of classroom instruction
described are: presentational modes and focus on form, types of activities and parameters of tasks
and interaction, classroom organization, teacher control of interaction, and corrective feedback.
I. IN T R O D U C T IO N
W hat goes on in th e lan g u a g e classroom
betw een the tea c h e r a n d students is obviously
the core area o f inform ation p e rta in in g to for­
mal second language (SL) teaching a n d lea rn ­
ing. “O ut-of-class’' know ledge o f lan g u ag e
teach in g in areas such as needs analysis, curricu­
lum design, lesson planning, m aterials design,
a n d evaluation is, o f course, necessary for a truly
professional op eratio n , but so long as th ere is a
teach er w orking with a g roup o f students, the
essence of classroom SL teaching resides in the
n a tu re of instruction an d interaction betw een
teachers an d students.
In this c h a p te r we identify and discuss som e
o f the m ore im p o rta n t characteristics and p rin ­
ciples o f this in teractio n .- O u r co n ception o f the
tea c h e r is som eone with a great n u m b e r o f deci­
sions to m ake at even m o m en t o f classroom
instruction. In som e cases, research findings can
guide those decisions. In others, research can
info rm professional ju d g m e n t, b u t decisions
m ust be based on experience a n d in tu itio n
ra th e r th an know ledge. However, decisions will
be aided bv a know ledge o f the range o f instruc­
tional alternatives available, as well as by an
awareness o f the cultural context an d personal
values o f the tea c h e r an d students.
W hen a second language is taught, a num ­
b e r o f m ajor steps m ust be taken. First, elem ents
of the language o r its use. or skills such as learn­
ing strategies, m ust be bro u g h t into the classroom
and presented or highlighted. T he teach er and,
• CRAIG CHAUDRON
u n d e r certain learn er-cen tered conditions, the
students select elem ents of the SL in this p h ase.3
Second, th at which has b e e n selected a n d p re ­
sented m ust be learned; the tea c h e r has to
arran g e m atters and events to brin g this about.
T h ird, the tea c h e r m ust provide know ledge
of results, th at is, co rrectio n o r feedback, to the
students.
We should n o t ignore that these processes
take place in a social m ilieu, and that because of
the wav language functions betw een individuals,
these processes c an n o t be totally separated from
the social clim ate which develops am o n g stu­
dents a n d betw een teach er an d students, th o u g h
space does not p erm it us to address this im p o r­
tant p o in t here. Finally, let us note th a t consci­
entious SL teachers usually com e o u t of a class
asking them selves how the class w ent— in o th e r
words, engaging in a process o f self-evaluation.
We believe that this is a vital process for profes­
sional self-developm ent, a n d one which needs to
be explicitly structured into SL teachers’ routines.
See M urphv’s ch ap ter on reflective teaching in
this volum e, for a full discussion.
2. L A N G U A G E P RESEN TA TIO N
2.1 Meta-Planning for Lesson
Objectives
W hich elem ents of language are u n d e rta k en
d e p en d s on the objectives a tea c h e r has in m ind
for the lesson. Thev are th en the result o f lesson
p lan n in g and the general syllabus for the course
(see the ch ap ters by J e n se n an d N'unan in
this volum e). D espite considerable variation,
generally the first elem en t of a lesson is the first
c o m p o n e n t o f the traditional "present-practice-
evaluate” seq u en ce, w hich co n stitu tes m any
teachers’ u n d erstanding of basic lesson structure.
Let us assume for present purposes that a
teach er has selected a particular elem ent of
language, or aspect o f language leanring, to be
focused on as the first m ajor stage o f a class period.
T here are then two types of choices to be made:
those concerning the phvsical characteristics of the
presentation, that is, materials, use o f audiorisual
(AY) equipm ent, etc.; and those concerning the
deductive o r inductive procedures that learners
will be engaging in in o rder to acquire rules, items,
analogies, and other aspects of the target language.
T he fo rm er are considered in the following
section, the latter in section 2.3.
2.2 Modalities (Materials, AV)
W hile n o t espousing anv particular approach in
this chapter, we feel that m anv professionals rec­
ognize the im portance o f practice in the acquisi­
tion o f anv cognitive skill. T here is increasing
recognition4 of SL learning as a process of skill
acq u isitio n (O 'M allev, C h am o t, a n d W alker
1987), which im plies the im portance of practice,
o r ou tp u t, rath e r than m ere input (cf. Pica et al.
1996; Swain and Lapkin 1995). Teachers thus
n e e d to rem ain aware that thev are not in the
classroom to fill np the tim e with the sound of
th eir own voices, b u t to arrange m atters so that
th eir students do the talking (or writing, o r lis­
tening). Particularly in EFL ra th e r th an ESL situ­
ations, class tim e is so valuable that we believe the
teacher should move on to practice phases o f a
lesson as soon as possible in a m an n e r consistent
with an adequate p resentation of m aterial and
the giving o f clear instructions for som e practice
exercises.
Assum ing th at the instructor decides that a
given teaching objective calls for som e su p p o rt in
the wav of m aterials, w hat then? T he m ajor
resource is o f course the textbook. In addition,
o th e r tea c h in g aids fall into two categories
(Celce-M urcia 1979): n o n te c h n ic a l aids a n d
technical aids (not counting the students th em ­
selves, who can of course plav a stim ulating role
in the p resentation stages of a lesson). T he for­
m er include the chalkboard, realia. flashcards,
m agazine pictures, and charts. T he latter include
the overhead projector, audio and video reco rd ­
ings, CD-ROM. and In tern et. Both types o f aids
are considered elsewhere in this book (see chap­
ters bv B rinton and Sokolik in this volum e).
D espite in cre asin g rese a rc h in to som e
m edia, the range o f classroom and cultural con­
texts for T E S /F L m eans that deciding w hether
or not to use AY aids is usuallv a m atter for indi­
vidual teacher judgm ent, su p ported by general
considerations. Does th eir use in a given circum ­
stance aid com prehension? Do thev stim ulate
m ore student talk than would have otherwise
occurred? Above all, does their use constitute an
efficient use o f class tim e, particularly taking into
account the teach er tim e req u ired to p ro d u ce
them o r the logistics o f setting up an d rem oving
am nccessarv equipm ent? This is an area in which
careful teacher investigation and rep o rtin g of
successes and failures in practice would benefit
the profession.
P erhaps because o f the com plexitv of the
q u e stio n , a su rprisinglv sm all a m o u n t o f
research inform s teachers of how to use a text­
b o o k (b u t see T om linson 1997). F o r the
u n tra in e d teacher, a good textbook can stand in
for a syllabus an d training program , while an
e x p erien ced teach er can use the text as an aid,
a d o p tin g som e parts, ad ap tin g others (Stevick
1971), or can even dispense with it completely.
T he utilitv of the average textbook for a tvpical
present-dav ESL EFL course is norm ally u n q u es­
tio n ed (but see Allwright 1981 and O ’Neill 1982
fo r positions on both sides o f this p o in t).
N onetheless, лее urge teachers to rem e m b e r th at
m ost textbooks in a given p erio d o f tim e are
often verv m uch alike (Ariew 1982); thev are the
p ro d u ct of the pressures o f the m arket, as im per-
fectlv in te rp re te d th ro u g h the p u blisher and
m aterials writer, an d can often run c o u n te r to
legitim ate ed ucational pressures. W hat sells mav
n o t be w hat works; w hat works mav n o t neces-
sarilv have a form at which book publishing
com panies can utilize or produce. Above all,
th erefo re, a critical stance is called for (see Bvrd's
c h a p te r in this volum e).
Som e general points can be m ade about
the p resen tatio n stage o f a lesson. First, the
in stru cto r is, in fact, ra th e r free from constraints
despite the various p ro ced u res suggested bv the
teachers' notes tvpicallv accom panying the text.
Texts designed for b eg in n in g an d in term ed iate
learners still com m onlv p rese n t th e m aterial of
each u n it via a dialogue, an d the tea c h e r is often
in structed to have the students work with the
dialogue. In m any traditional classroom settings
(especially EFL settings), this involves having the
class rep eat the dialogue in unison, possible
m oving next to partial m em orization. Yet, an
equally efficient p ro c e d u re for som e classes
w ould be to have students p air off an d read the
dialogue aloud while the teach er circulates and
checks individual p erfo rm an ce. T he p o in t is
th at teachers have the rig h t an d responsibilitv to
utilize the m aterial in w hatever wav seem s a p p ro ­
priate, hopefully m aking use o f the findings that
SL research suggests.
For exam ple, an increasinglv well-established
line of work has stressed the role of attention and
awareness in SL learning (Schmidt 1990, 1995)
and the im portance of drawing the learner's atten­
tion to certain characteristics of the language
which m ight otherwise be missed (referred to as
“in p u t e n h a n c e m e n t”; see R u th e rfo rd 1987.
Doughty an d Williams 1998a). It follows, th ere­
fore, that the teacher should usually present the
text o r illustrative m aterial with an im m ediate
focus on the target points. O n the o th er hand,
research over the last two decades has m ade clear
th at SL learning does n ot take place in a simple
linear fashion with one linguistic elem en t being
ad d ed to the next. In the svntactic dom ain, learn­
ers p ro ceed at different speeds th ro u g h fairly reg­
ular sequences (P ienem ann a n d Jo h n sto n 1987).
It is unlikely that structural target points will be
internalized by rnanv in a class after one expo­
sure.0 C o n seq u en ts, the particular aspect o f lan­
guage to be learn ed should alm ost certainly com e
up on o th er occasions, in o th er lessons. T he fact
th at SL learning involves the learning o f a cogni­
tive skill im plies th at the first stage o f use (the
“cognitive stage”) will be erro rfu l a n d difficult
for the learner. M ovem ent Uwvards autom aticity
will req u ire a great deal o f active, realistic prac­
tice in the use o f the target language, w'hich may
n o t be susceptible to general e rro r correction.
Finally, at the p resen tatio n stage, it is relevant to
consider w hat little is knowm ab o u t the le a rn e r’s
d e v e lo p m en t o f co n tro l over the pragm atic
aspects of the SL. An em phasis on realistic, com ­
m unicative language use in the classroom from
an early stage is th erefo re justified, as is the
d evelopm ent of the m etalinguistic term s n e e d e d
to talk a b o u t language use (Flenriksen 1988).
As a final com m ent, although we have used
the generallv accepted term textbook th ro u g h o u t
this section, it is clear that sole reliance on a text­
book within the classroom is becom ing less com ­
m on in richer countries or m ore wTell-resourced
schools. D evelopm ents in technology have m ade
the c re a tio n an d alm ost im m ed iate use o f
in-house m aterials increasinglv possible. T he
advantages of personalization and localization of
m aterials are clear. In addition, o f course, the ease
of access to all kinds o f supplem entary resource
m aterials an d stim ulus m aterials via the Web has
helped teachers supplem ent textbooks while at
the same tim e raising students' expectations.
2.3 Rule Presentations
and Explanations
A great deal of research in the 1960s was con­
cerned with w hether and when to present explicit
second language g ram m ar rules to students
(L.evin 1972; see rec e n t discussion o f the issue in
Borg 1999). T he upshot o f those studies was that
explicit gram m ar instruction was n o t consistently
superior in the long run to o th er practices. As
a result, the various com m unicatively oriented
language teaching m ethods a n d prescriptions
developed after this tim e de-em phasized the
use o f explicit gram m ar rule p rese n tatio n and
even qu estio n ed the use o f gram m atically based
m aterials.
However, subsequent research on second
language acquisition has increasingly established
the legitimacv of a focus on form (see m ost
recentlv Doughtv and Williams 1998a, 1998b; and
N orris and O rtega 2000), while still questioning
the desirability of a persistent focus on correct­
ness at all times in a syllabus o r course of stitch.
(These issues are dealt with in m ore detail in
the chapters by Larsen-Freem an and Fotos in this
yolttme.)
Based on the claims o f most theorists that
som e focus on form can be req u ired by learners
o r bv a given classroom sequence, it is reason­
able for teachers to be aware of options in how
to m ake a rule explicit or not; w hether or not to
isolate a rule; w h eth er an ex p lanation should
involve a deductive or inductive presentation;
who should give the e x p lan atio n — the teacher,
the text, o r a n o th e r student: w h eth er the lan­
guage is abstract or not; and w h eth er the expla­
natio n is provided orallv or in writing. Teachers
m ust ensure the clarilv and sufficiency of their
explanations bv checking stu d en t c o m p re h e n ­
sion, preferably n o t m erely bv solicitation o f a
“yes” o r a nod.
Follow ing th e a p p ro a c h of C h a u d ro n 's
(1982) description o f teachers' vocabulary elab­
oration, Yee and W agner (1984) developed a
discourse m odel o f teachers' vocabulary and
gram m ar explanations. T h eir m odel contains
several m ajor segm ents (a fram ing stage, a
focusing stage, the explanation itself, an d a
re s ta te m e n t), w ith several su b c ate g o rie s as
optional features (e.g.. with or w ithout m ention
of the topic item , m etastatem ents, teacher solicits
of students, exam ples, etc.). At each stage, thev
point out that com prehension checks bv the
teacher are optional. .An exam ple of their m odel
in a brief gram m ar explanation follows:
T kach hr: Can we say Focus + solicit
“these" in a tag?
Student : You can 't use Explanation +
the w ord “th ese” explicit rule
in a tag.
T eacher : W hat do we + solicit
n e e d to use?
Taking a functional approach to analysis
o f rules a n d explanations, Faerch (198bi found
th at a typical sequence in teacher rule presenta­
tio n involved (1) a “Pro b lem -fo rm u latio n ":
(2) an “Induction" with the teacher eliciting
student opinions: and (8) the te a c h e r’s “Rule-
form ulation": followed optionally bv (4) “Exem ­
plification" bv the teacher or students. Alert
teachers will adapt this typical p attern to their
circum stances, eith er shortening the sequence
if a rule is judged to be quickly learned, o r devel­
oping m ore student-generated ideas and interac­
tion if the students have difficulty.
3. TASKS
T he next m ajor step in executing classroom
lessons involves practice a n d “learning" of the
m aterial. In this section we will identify the pri­
mary units of classroom teaching and evaluate
the co m p o n en ts of those that m ost influence
learning. To aid discussion an d com m unication
am ong teachers (as well as for the sake o f com ­
parative research), it is useful to have a set of
term s to describe sim ilar teaching procedures.
O ver several decades o f classroom research,
standard term inology for what ought to be the
basic units for p lan n in g a n d executing lessons
has b een lacking. In the following sections we
will utilize the yvords adroit у an d task, a n d
attem pt to show how these can be m ore system­
atically classified, described, and analyzed for
their co n trib u tio n to instruction.
3 .1 Subsections of a Lesson—
The Activity
Probably the m ost comm only used an d general
term for the parts of a lesson is activity. Most
teachers will use this уvot'd in discussing th eir
lesson plans a n d behaviors, although specific
activities often have p articular nam es. In m uch
recent analy sis o f SL. classrooms, m aterials, and
syllabi, the term task has been used to discuss
those less-controlled activities yvhich p ro d u ce
realistic use of the ST (Crookes a n d Gass 1998a,
1993b). This term has also characterized certain
c o m m u n icativ e approaches*1 yvhose u p su rg e
m arks the c u rren t era of ST teaching. In fact,
the yvidespread use o f the label task-based has
in ntanv cases simply replaced the o ld er term
communicative. In discussing both c o n tro lled and
fre e r ty pes of classroom learn in g procedures, yve
will utilize activity as a b ro a d e r term ; task will
apply to a separable elem en t o f a lesson that is
prim arily geared to practicing language p rese n t­
ed earlier (or otherw ise lea rn ed ), usually involv­
ing students w orking with each other, to achieve
a specific objective.
It is often said that for each specific lea rn ­
ing point, learners n e e d to develop from m ore
controlled and m echanical to fre e r an d com m u­
nicative behaviors. T herefore, a classification of
activity types along such a con tin u u m provides
the options from which the teach er can select a
given sequence w ithin a lesson. Yalcarcel et al.
>1985) have developed a tentative list of activity
types. We have g ro u p ed this list according to
fo u r phases o f in stru c tio n a l se q u e n c in g in
lessons (see E delhoff 1981. p. 57): Inform ation
and M otivation (in which learners' interest,
experience, a n d relevant language knowledge
are aroused); In p u t C ontrol (in which learners
are involved in d e e p en in g their u n d e rsta n d in g
by close atten tio n to detail): Focus W orking (in
which individual linguistic and them atic difficul­
ties can be isolated and exam ined in d e p th ): and
T ransfer/A pplication (in which new know ledge
and the learn er's refined com m unicative abili­
ties can be put to active use). Teachers should be
fam iliar with each of these activity tvpes and pav
atten tio n to the various discussions in the litera­
ture of th eir benefits and disadvantages.
Information and Motivation Phase
Warm-up: m im e, dance, song, jokes, plan etc.:
the purpose is to get the students stim ulated,
relax ed , m otivated, attentive, or otherw ise
engaged and reach- for the classroom lesson; not
necessarily related to the target language.
Setting: focus is on lesson topic: either verbal or
nonverbal evocation of the context that is relevant
to the lesson point: teacher directs attention to
the upcom ing topic bv questioning, m im ing, or
picture presentation, or possibly a tape recording.
Brainstorming: free, un d irected contributions by
the students an d teacher on a given topic to gen­
erate m ultiple associations w ithout linking them ;
no explicit analysis or in terp retatio n is given by
the teacher.
Story telling: oral presentation bv the teacher of
a story or an event as lcngthv practice, although
not necessarily lesson-based; it implies the use of
extended discourse; it usually aims at m aintaining
attention or m otivation and is often entertaining.
A propos: conversation and o th e r socially ori­
e n te d in te ra c tio n /s p e e c h by teacher, students,
or слеп visitors on general real-life topics; typi­
cally au th en tic a n d genuine.
Input/Control Phase
Organizational: m anagerial structuring of lesson
or class activities; includes reprim anding of stu­
dents an d o th er disciplinary action, organization
of class furniture and seating, general procedures
for class interaction and perform ance, structure
and purpose of lesson, etc.
Content explanation: explanation o flesso n con­
tent and gram m ar o r o th e r rules a n d points:
phonology, gram m ar, lexis, sociolinguistics, or
w hatever is being "taught."
Role play demonstration: use of selected stu­
dents or teacher to illustrate the procedures (s) to
be applied in the following lesson segm ent; it
includes brief illustration of language or o ther
content to be incorporated.
Recognition: students identify a specific target
form , function, definition, rule, or o th e r lesson-
related item, eith er from oral or visual data, b ut
w ithout pro d u cin g language as a response (e.g.,
checking off items, draw ing symbols, rearranging
pictures, m atch in g u tte ran c e s with pictures,
u n d erlin in g significant inform ation from a text.)
Language modeling: p resentation o f new lan­
guage bv the teacher th rough isolated sentences
with the help of visuals, drawings on blackboard,
realia. m im ing, recorded m aterial, etc.; involves
students' participation in the form of repetition,
question-answer display, translation, etc.; it usually
aims at checking correct pronunciation and syn­
tax. or m eaning com prehension.
Dialogue Narrative presentation: reading or lis­
tening passage in the form of dialogue, narration,
song. etc., for passive reception (students becom e
fam iliar with the text w ithout being asked to per­
form am task related to the con ten t); it usually
implies students’ listening to a tape o r the teacher
reading aloud while students follow with or with­
out the text.
Question-answer display: c o n tro lle d activity
involving p ro m p tin g of student responses bv
m eans o f display questions (teacher o r questioner
already knows the response o r has a very lim ited
set o f expectations for the appropriate response);
these are distinguished from referential questions bv
m eans of the likelihood of the questioner know­
ing the response and the speaker being aware of
the questioner knowing the response.
Review: teacher-led review of previous w eek /
m o n th or o th er period; a form al sum m ary and
assessm ent o f stu d en ts’ recall and perform ance.
Foe us/Working Phase
Translation: stu d e n t o r tea c h e r provides L I or
L2 translations o f given text.
Dictation: students write dow n orally p rese n ted
text.
Copying: students w7rite dow n visually p rese n ted
text.
Reading aloud: student(s) read aloud from a
given text— distinguished from dialogue presenta­
tion in th at the focus is on pro n u n ciatio n and
rhythm .
Drill: typical language activity involving fixed
p attern s o f students a n d tea c h e r resp o n d in g
a n d pro m p tin g , usually with rep etitio n , substitu­
tion, a n d o th e r m echanical alterations; typically
with little m ean in g attached.
D ialogue/N arrative recitation: students recite
a passage o r dialogue which they have previously
le a rn e d o r p re p a re d ; e ith e r in u n iso n o r
individually.
Cued narrative/dialogue: students b u ild up a
dialogue or a piece of narrative following cues
from m im ing, cue cards, pictures, flow charts, key
functional requests, or o th er stimuli related to
narrative o r dialogue (e.g., filling empty7bubbles,
cued dialogues, com pleting a dialogue or a text,
discourse chains, etc.).
M eaningful drill: lan g u ag e activity involving
exchange o f a lim ited n u m b e r o f fixed patterns
of interaction; distinguished from mechanical
drills in th at students have to m ake a choice with
respect to the m ean in g conveyed.
Preparation: stu d e n ts p la n th e s u b s e q u e n t
activity (in pairs, individually, o r in groups) by
m eans of rehearsing, m aking notes, or simply
thinking.
Identification: students pick out and p ro d u c e /
label or otherwise identify' a specific target form ,
function, definition, or o th er lesson-related item.
Game: organized language activity th at has a
particu lar task or objective a n d a set o f rules
w hich involve an e le m e n t o f c o m p e titio n
betw een players (e.g., b o ard games, hangm an,
bingo, etc.); it usually im plies e n te rta in m e n t
an d relaxation.
R eferential question-answer: activity th a t
involves p ro m p tin g of responses by m eans o f ref­
eren tial questions (the q u e stio n e r does n o t
know b e fo re h a n d the response info rm atio n );
distinguished from information exchange in th at
th e in fo rm a tio n o b ta in e d is n o t m e a n t to
achieve a task o r solve a problem .
Checking: teacher guides the correction of stu­
dents' previous activity o r hom ew ork, providing
feedback as an activ ity rath e r than within a n o th e r
activity.
Wrap-up: b rie f teacher- o r stu d e n t-p ro d u c ed
sum m ary of points o r item s th at have b e e n prac­
ticed o r learned.
Transfer/Application Phase
Inform ation transfer: students extract inform a­
tion from a text (oral o r w ritten) w hich they
apply to a n o th e r m ode (e.g., visual w ritten;
oral w ritten, etc.); it im plies som e transform a­
tion o f the inform ation by filling o u t diagram s,
graphs, answ ering questions, etc., while listening
o r read in g ; d istin g u ish ed from identification
in th a t students are expected to re in te rp re t the
inform ation.
Inform ation exchange: activity th a t involves
one-wav o r two-way co m m u n ic a tio n such as
inform ation gap exercises, in which one o r both
parties m ust obtain inform ation from the o th er
to achieve a goal: distinguished from meaningful
drill in that the pattern o f exchange is not lim ited
to a fixed set or o rd er o f structures; distinguished
from information transfer in th at the inform ation
is not reinterpreted: and distinguished from refer­
ential questions in that obtaining the inform ation is
critical for the resolution of the task.
Role play: students act out specified roles and
functions in a relatively free way; distinguished
from cued dialogues bv the cuing being provided
only m inim ally at the beginning, n o t during, the
activity.
Report: p rep ared oral exposition of students'
previous work (books or stories read, project
work, etc.) and elaborated on according to stu­
d en ts’ own interpretation: it can also be students'
reports on inform ation obtained from a previous
activity as long as it can be considered as prepar­
ation (i.e., students rep o rt back with the help of
data obtained during the activity).
Narration: s tu d e n ts ' lengthv e x p o sitio n of
som ething which thev have seen (film, video
program , event, etc.), read (news, books, etc.),
or ex p erien ced (events, storv. etc.); n a rra te d in
their own words an d w ithout previous p rep a r­
ation; distinguished from cued narrative because
of lack o f im m ediate stim ulus.
Discussion: debate or o th e r form of g roup dis­
cussion o f specified topic, with o r w ithout speci­
fied sid es/p o sitio n s p rearran g ed .
Com position: w ritten d e v e lo p m en t o f ideas,
story, dialogues, o r exposition: akin to report but
in the w ritten m ode.
Problem solving: students work on an activity in
which a problem and som e lim itations on m eans
are established; it requires cooperative action on
the p a rt of participants, in small or large groups,
in o rd er to reach a solution; onlv one outcom e —
som etim es am ong o th er possible solutions— is
allowed p er group.
Drama: p la n n e d dram atic ren d itio n o f play,
skit, etc.
Simulation: activity that involves com plex in ter­
action betw een groups a n d individuals based on
sim ulation of real-life actions a n d experiences.
Borderline Activity
Testing: formal testing procedures to evaluate
students’ progress; considered borderline because
it could be included in anv phase, dep en d in g on
the content to be tested.
3.2 Task Types and Parameters
A n u m b e r o f the labels from this list o f activities
have e n te re d into the research an d pedagogical
literature on "tasks.” C urrently th ere is consider­
able ex p erim ental work being c o n d u c te d on
factors that d ifferentiate lea rn in g tasks with
respect to th eir p aram eters an d th eir influence
on lea rn ers' p ro d u ctio n in term s o f fluency,
complexity, a n d accuracy. Som e o f these factors
are sum m arized in this section (see also the
sem inal collection of studies in C rookes and
Gass 1993a, 1993b).
Below are th ree com m only applied defini­
tions o f tasks, falling on a continuum from the
n o tio n o f "real-w orld” tasks to specifically
focused pedagogical activities:
[a] piece o f work undertaken for one­
self or for others, freelv or for some
reward . . . exam ples . . . include paint­
ing a fence, dressing a child, buying a
pair of shoes . . . bv "task” is m eant the
h u n d re d and one things people do in
evendav life, at work, at plav, and in
between (Long 1985, p. 89).
a task is taken to be an activity in which
m eaning is primary; there is some sort
of relationship to the real world; task
com pletion has some priority; and the
assessment of task perform ance is in
term s of task outcom e (Skehan 1996,
p. 38 ).
the smallest unit o f classroom work
which involves learners in co m p re­
h en ding, m anipulating, producing, or
in te rac tin g in th e target language.
M inimally, tasks will c o n ta in som e
form o f data or in p u t (this m ight be
verbal, e.g., a dialogue o r read in g
passage, o r nonverbal, e.g., a picture
 sequence). T h e task will also have
(implicitly or explicitly) a goal and
roles for teachers and learners. (Neman
1989a, p. 5).
Almost anything can be used as the basis of a
task, such as dialogues, public announcem ents,
new spaper headlines, telephone directories, or
picture strips (N unan 1989). In many SL teaching
situations, tise of a variety of texts (written and spo­
ken) is justified, since part o f developing learners’
skill is ensuring that thev becom e familiar with as
wide a range o f text tvpes as possible.
C urrent research is focusing on wavs and
m eans to establish a priori the relative complexity
o f tasks. This will aid task selection as well
as su p p o rt the developm ent o f task-based syl­
labuses. R obinson (2000) has recently proposed
a distinction betw een task complexity, task condi­
tions, a n d task difficulty, which can be com pared
with schem as for the analysis of task factors and
dim ensions p roposed in earlier work, such as
th at o f N u n an (1989), Pica, Kanagv, an d Falodun
(1993), an d Skehan (1996). Robinson includes
in task complexity only those factors that affect
lea rn ers’ cognitive resources for atten tio n and
processing of inform ation an d th erefo re affect
th e accuracy, fluency, an d com plexity of their
p ro duction. These characteristics are \iew ed as
continua, with e n d points rep resen ted bv the
presence o r absence (±) o f features: ± few ele­
m ents, ± here-and-now1 reference (vs. there-and-
th e n ), ± reasoning dem ands, ± planning, ± single
task, a n d ± p rio r knowledge. T h ere are several
studies which have dem onstrated, for exam ple,
th a t allowing for p lan n in g in the perfo rm an ce of
tasks leads to im provem ents in e ith e r accuracy,
fluency, o r complexity7 or com binations o f these
positive outcom es (Crookes 1989; O rtega 1999).
Similarly, less com plex tasks favor the m ore posi­
tive e n d o f each c o n tin u u m . As com plexity
increases, fluency a n d accuracy ten d to drop.
W hat Robinson proposes as task conditions
have often b een exam ined in the literature with
respect to their effects on am o u n t of learn er pro­
duction, interaction, a n d feedback. Thus, ' partic­
ipation variables” such as op en and closed tasks,
one-way an d two-way tasks, a n d convergent and
divergent tasks have been shown to have substan­
tive effects on interaction. Some of these are dis­
cussed briefly below. Tikewise, “p a rticip a n t
variables" such as g en d er similarities o r differ­
ences, familiarity am ong learners, and powrer rela­
tionships can have an influence on task outcom es.
Finally. Robinson makes an im portant dis­
tinction between those factors that can be de­
scribed for specific tasks and the learner-internal
factors that influence the difficulty that different
learners will have in ability to perform on any
given task. These include learners’ motivation,
anxiety, confidence, aptitude, level of attained
proficiency in the L2, and intelligence. Skehan
(1996) has also pointed out the im portance of
various pressures on learners (e.g., tim e pres­
sures) that can affect how successfully thev per­
form on tasks.
It is im p o rta n t to n o te th a t w'hatever
a p p ro ach one takes to the task analysis, it m ust
be em b e d d e d in an analysis o f the effects o f task
sequencing. T hat is. as suggested in the listing of
activities within phases in the previous section,
im p lem en tatio n o f tasks in pedagogicallv ratio­
nal sequences can accom plish a g rea t deal
toward en su rin g lea rn er success on a given task.
S k eh an ’s m odel (1996, p. 57) of task im p lem en ­
tation, for instance, suggests ways in which p re ­
tasks help establish target language o r reduce
cognitive load th ro u g h consciousness-raising or
practice, and post-tasks help learners to restruc­
tu re a n d in teg rate target form s o r functions,
increasing the in teg ratio n o f learn in g goals as
fu rth e r sim ilar tasks are perfo rm ed .
3.2.1 Relevant Characteristics
Several of the characteristics to be discussed are
am o n g th e “task c o n d itio n s” p ro p o se d by
Robinson (2000). .Although thev mav n o t affect
complexity p er se, thev have been shown to affect
the nature of the language used in tasks. The
m ain focus of such language has b een on the p ro ­
vision o f com prehensible in p u t as indicated by
m arkers o f interactional m odification. It has been
argued that language which is com prehensible to
the ST learner a n d is at an ap p ro p riate level will
be o f high utility for learn in g purposes, an d that
indicators o f such discourse are those deviations
from norm al talk which are used to clarify mis­
un d erstan d in g s o r problem s in com m unication
(Long 1980). T h e role o f practice in SL devel­
o p m en t has also been em phasized, an d Swain
(1985) has refe rre d to this as th e output hypothe­
sis. This suggests th at valuable task characteris­
tics w ould req u ire learn ers to p ro d u ce m ore
com plex constructions th an they w ould o th e r­
wise use (C rookes 1989; D uff 1986; for fu rth e r
discussion see C rookes 1986; Pica, Kanagy, and
Falodun, 1993).
A typical task co ndition which was heavily
investigated was '‘in fo rm a tio n structure" (an
aspect of “inform ation tran sfer” activities — see
section 3.1). In fo rm atio n gap tasks m at be
designed so th at each particip an t holds different
inform ation which m ust be shared verbally in
o rd e r for the task to be successfully com pleted.
Such a “two-way task” can be co m p ared with one
in which verbal inform ation transfer is also nec­
essary for task com pletion, but w here the infor­
m ation is allocated solely to one participant, who
is req u ired to convey it to the other. Classic work
of this type (Long 1980) showed that two-wav
tasks pro d u ced m ore interactional m odification
(repetitions, expansions, confirm ation checks,
etc.) than did one-wav tasks for native sp eak er'
non-native speaker (XS-XXS) chads.
A second set of task characteristics, in a sense
com plem entary to the one-/two-wav distinction, is
shared assum ptions. Some studies suggest that the
extensive shared background inform ation avail­
able in some two-wav tasks mav work against call­
ing forth m ore negotiation of m eaning. It mav be.
as Gass and Varonis (1985) argue, that if both par­
ticipants in an inform ation-gap task have a very-
clear idea of the structure of one a n o th e r’s infor­
m ation, there will be less likelihood of partial or
co m plete m ean in g breakdow ns. Similarly, as
Gaies (1982) suggests, if both participants are well
acquainted with each other, they will be able to
m anage com m unication difficulties w ithout the
n eed for the extensive negotiation that is probably
useful for language acquisition. This may also
apply to the availability of visual support for a task.
In an investigation o f the degree to which three
d ifferen t tasks p ro d u ce d changes in le a rn e rs’
interlanguages (IL), C rookes a n d R ulon (1988)
fo u n d th at o f two problem -solving tasks, the one
in w hich observable IL d ev elopm ent was less evi­
dent was the one in which the task provided visual
support to both m em bers of the dyad. Even
th o u g h the pictures used were n o t identical,
thev were versions of the same p icture, differing
only in certain lim ited features (often called
"Spot the D ifference”).
A th ird feature which has b e e n posited as
likelv to be relevant is recycling. If the discourse
g e n e ra te d by a task requires the sam e linguistic
m aterial to be used repeatedly, such a conversa­
tion w ould be potentially m ore useful to the
XXS th an one in which m any item s o c cu rred
once only (see Gass et al. 1999).
A fou rth possible factor is convergence,
which derives from the work o f D uff (1986).
M am com m unicative tasks available on the ESL
m aterials m arket require participants to “reach
a m utually acceptable so lu tio n ” (D uff 1986,
p. 150). often in solving som e values clarification
problem . .Also quite com m on now are m aterials
which req u ire students to take a stand on one
side o f an issue and argue th eir positions (e.g.,
.Alexander, Kingsbury, an d C hapm an 1978). T he
fo rm er mav be term ed a “convergent task type,”
the latter a "divergent task type” (D uff 1986,
p. 150). D uff fo u n d that convergent tasks lead to
frequent exchange of turns and m ore com m uni­
cation units, whereas divergent tasks lead to
longer turns of greater syntactic complexity. If
convergent tasks produce m ore questions and
shorter turns, one mav assume that m ore com pre­
hensible input is available in the discourse which
accom panies their perform ance. Alternatively, if
o utput and the role of practice are em phasized,
divergent tasks mav be m ore highly valued,
although
the ex tended discourse (long turns) in
[divergent tasks] reduces opportunities
for negotiation o f input . . . coupled
with the greater svntactic complexity of
[discussion], this reduces . . . the
am ount o f com prehensible in p u t avail­
able (Duff 1986, p. 170).
 We hope that bv being aware of the factors
which have been investigated, as well as the factors
for which no evidence can legitimatelv be claimed
(despite publishers' prom otional claims), teachers
will find it easier to m ake the best possible deci­
sions when designing or selecting SL tasks.
4. FA C ILIT A TIO N
A m ajor role o f the instructor is to arrange m at­
ters so the m aterial p resen ted gets used and
thereby learned. This mav be far m ore critical in
the learning o f a cognitive skill, in which practice
assumes m ajor dim ensions, than in the learning
of most school subjects, in which declarative
know ledge (A nderson 1982; OAlallev, Cham ot,
an d W alker 1987) is being p resen ted and clear
p resentation mav be sufficient in itself to ensure
learning (cf. West 1960). We need, therefore, to
give som e consideration to such m atters as the
overall organization of the classroom , the nature
and dynamics of teacher-student and student-
stu d en t interaction, and the interface betw een
these m atters and the selection o f classroom
learning tasks.
4 .1 Class Organization
T he key participants in classroom organization
are the teacher, the tea c h e r aide o r trainee, the
individual stu d e n t an d groupings o f students,
the class as a whole, the language p resen tatio n
m aterials used (e.g., textbook. AY m edia), and
any visitors or outsiders. Com binations of these
result in particular structures in class organization
and effects on language learning processes.
T he d o m in a n t view o f second language
classroom processes toclav favors stu d e n t-
c e n te re d lea rn in g instead o f the trad itio n al
teacher-dom inated classroom (X unan 1988b).
T h e tea c h e r-d o m in a te d classroom (“teacher-
fro n te d ”) is characterized bv the tea c h e r speak­
ing m ost o f the tim e, leading activities, a n d
constantly passing jud g m en t on stu d e n t p e rfo r­
m ance; in a stu d en t-cen tered classroom , stu­
d e n ts typically will be o b serv ed w orking
individually o r in pairs and small groups, each
on distinct tasks an d projects.
L earner-centered instruction has the b e n e ­
fits of greater individualization of learning objec­
tives. increased student opportunities to perfo rm
using the target language (w hether receptivelv or
productivelv), an d increased personal sense of
relevance and achievem ent, thus relieving the
teacher o f the n e e d to constantlv supervise all
students. Students often will pav m ore attention
an d learn b e tte r from one a n o th e r since their
p erform ances and processes of negotiation o f
m eaning are m ore closelv ad apted to one an­
oth er's level of abilitv. Teachers should thus be
p rep a re d to develop fewer teacher-dom inated
activities and tasks, while rem aining conscious of
their students' need for guidance in setting objec­
tives. for appropriate m odels of and feedback
about the target language, a n d for constructive
and supportive evaluation of their progress.
In general, the m ost a p p ro p riate a n d effec­
tive classroom organization is pair an d g roup
work. T raditional teachers still h a rb o r negative
views o f the outcom es of learn er-d o m in ated
activities, b ut a small am o u n t of im p o rta n t class­
roo m -cen tered research has d e m o n stra ted that
w hen stu d e n ts h a te m o re o p p o rtu n itie s to
em plov the target language, thev m anage to p e r­
form equallv successfullv in term s o f gram m ati­
cal accuracv as w hen the teach er is leading the
discussion (D oughtv and Pica 1984; Pica and
D oughtv 1983; cf. discussion in C h au d ro n 1988,
pp. 151-152).
G roup work has been shown to result in many
advantages for SL learners (see, for example, Long
et al. 1976; Pica and Doughtv 1983; Pica et al.
1996): learners speak m ore frequentlv a n d with
longer stretches o f speech; thev p ro d u ce m ore
in te ra c tio n a l m o d ific a tio n s d ire c te d at o n e
an o th er; a n d thev utilize a w ider range o f lan­
guage. An especially im p o rta n t effect related to
cultural differences is th a t the observable in hibi­
tions to speak in larger classes ten d to disappear
in small g ro u p work.
It should also be recognized that group work
results in diversity of p e rfo rm a n c e betw een
groups. This suggests th at ju st as individuals
contribute to a group, the different groups in a
classroom can be linked through different tasks,
roles, and shared responsibilities to generate
whole-class tasks a n d objectives. A lthough
competitive m odels can be em ployed in this
way (as described in Kagan 1986), m any favor
whole-class cooperative learning projects.
4.2 Aspects of the Teacher-Fronted
Class
A lthough we em phasize the relative productivitv
of the small g ro u p over the teacher-fronted class,
tea c h e rs so m etim es n e e d to o p e ra te in a
"lock-step" m ode. We will discuss two general
characteristics of teac h e r-stu d e n t in te rac tio n
which can fairlv easilv be m an ip u lated u n d e r
these conditions to the advantage of SL learn ­
ing: question tvpe and wait tim e.
4.2.1 Question Types
Studies (Brock 1986; L ong an d Sato 1983) have
shown that ESI. teachers' classroom questioning
patterns are tvpicallv different from those used
bv native speakers conversing casuallv with adult
non-native speakers. SI. teachers ask m ore displav
questions (those to which the questioner alreaclv
knows the answer) than do orclinarv XSs talking
to NNSs. T he latter usuallv use referential ques­
tions (those to which the questioner does not
already know the answ er). This difference mav be
because teachers tend to act as if the SL were
inform ation which they must transm it to students,
testing w hether it has been understood bv using
display questions.
T h e re are reasons to be co n c ern e d about
this. First, it is generallv accepted that the m odel
o f the target language provided bv the teacher
in the classroom should n ot deviate greatlv from
thatlikelv to be e n c o u n te re d in real life. Second,
if teacher-student in teractio n is p redom inantlv
th ro u g h displav questions, relativelv little real
c o m m u n ic a tio n is g o in g on. As L o n g an d
Crookes observe,
Displav questions bv definition p re ­
clude students attem p tin g to com m u­
n icate new, u n k n o w n in fo rm a tio n .
Thev ten d to set the focus o f the entire
exchange thev initiate on accuracy
ra th e r th a n m eaning. T he te a c h e r
(an d usuallv th e stu d e n t) already
knows w hat the o th e r is saving or trv-
ing to say, so th ere is no m ean in g left
to negotiate (1987, p. 181).
W ithout negotiation of m eaning it is ques­
tionable w hether students addressed by a teacher
are actuallv receiving useful input, in term s
of appropriateness to their c u rren t level of com ­
p re h e n s io n a n d / o r lan g u a g e d e v e lo p m en t.
F u rth e rm o re , less com plex language is likelv to
be p ro d u ce d bv learners who know th at the
tea c h e r is onlv asking the question to check th eir
know ledge, ra th e r than really w anting a p ro p e r
an d com plete answer to a real question.
A fu rth e r distinction is relevant: closed ref­
erential questions versus o p en referential ques­
tions. T he fo rm er are questions to w hich the
speaker does not know the answer, b u t to which
th ere is e ith e r onlv one or a very lim ited set o f
possible answers; the latter are questions to
which the speaker does not know the answer and
to which a large varietv o f answers are possible
(see the the distinctions am ong activitv tvpes in
Section 3.1). Long et al. (1984) fo u n d th at open
referential questions p ro d u ce d m ore com plex
student responses than did closed referential
questions, with com plexitv m easured bv n u m b er
of words p er student turn.
4.2.2 Wait-Time
Wait-time refers to the length of the pause which
follows a teacher's question to an individual stu­
dent or to the whole class. This lasts until eith er
a student answers o r the teacher adds a com m ent
or poses a n o th e r question. It can also apply to
the p erio d betw een one stu d en t's answ er to a
question and the response o f the te a c h e r or
a n o th e r student. A n u m b e r o f investigations in
general education have found that wait-times can
be altered bv teachers but tend to be short,
aro u n d one second (e.g., Rowe 1969; for a review
see Tobin 1987). W hen wait-time is increased to
th ree to five seconds, there is im provem ent in
learning and in the qualitv o f classroom dis­
course. T he principal SL study o f wait-time (Long
et al. 1984) found that increased wait-time after
teacher questions resulted in longer SL student
utterances. It did not result in m ore u tteran ces
p e r stu d en t turn, however, which mav have been
cine to the low proficiency level of the students
in th e studv o r possiblv to an in te ra c tio n
b etw een cognitive level o f q u e stio n s a n d
w ait-tim e. W hen asking "h ard e r" q u estions,
teachers te n d e d to wait longer, b ut the difficulty
o f such questions was n o t alwavs com pensated
fo r by p r o p o rtio n a te d lo n g er wait-time. We
advance the m atte r o f wail-time h ere as an exam ­
ple o f a classroom p ro ce d u re which is easv to
m anipulate a n d which w arrants fu rth e r class­
room investigation. Teachers m ight want to trv
the effects o f simply waiting lo n g er as thev in te r­
act with th eir SI. students, know ing that th eir
findings, if com m unicated, could aid th eir col­
leagues a n d fu rth e r substantiate (or perhaps dis­
prove) the po ten tial of increased wait-time in SL
teaching.
5. C O R R E C T IO N
A N D FE E D B A C K
In Section 2.3 we n o ted that a focus on form al
aspects o f the SL has again becom e a c o n cern of
m ethodologists an d practitioners. E rro r correc­
tion a n d feedback have tvpicallv been consid­
ered to be p art o f such a focus. As C hau d ro n
notes in his review of feedback in language
teaching
In any com m unicative exchange,
speakers derive from th eir listeners
inform ation on the reception and com ­
prehension o f their message. . . . From
the language tea c h e r’s p oint of view,
the provision of feedback . . . is a m ajor
m eans bv which to inform learners of
the accuracv o f both their form al target
language prod u ctio n and their o th er
classroom behavior a n d knowledge.
From the learners' p o in t o f view, the
use of feedback in repairing their u tter­
ances, and involvem ent in repairing
th e ir in te rlo c u to rs’ utterances, mac-
constitute the m ost p o te n t source of
im provem ent in b o th target language
developm ent an d o th e r subject m atter
know ledge (1988, pp. 132-133 ).
W hile th ere is no reason to associate feed­
back a n d correction solelv with a form al focus,
approaches to language teaching will vary in the
degree to which the teacher is expected to be the
source of "correcting" behavior. A traditional
notion is that the teacher or m aterials provide a
correction o f everv (im portant) lea rn er error,
while a m ore c u rren t view em phasizes the im por­
tance of learners obtaining feedback (and pos­
sible correction) onlv w hen the m eanings thev
attem pt to convex are not understood; even then,
the feedback should be a natural outcom e of
the com m unicative interaction, often betw een
learners. Even in the m ost lea rn er-ce n te re d
instruction, learners n e e d feedback in o rd e r to
differentiate betw een acceptable a n d unaccep t­
able target language use. (See the chapters bv
L arsen-Freem an and Fotos in this volum e for
fu rth e r discussion.)
T he provision of feedback, or even "correc­
tions." does not m ean that the inform ation pro­
vided m ust be staled in form alized gram m atical
or o th er descriptive term s. T he teacher has inanv
options available, from simple indicating lack of
com prehension or otherwise signaling the occur­
rence o f an e rro r and getting the learn er to
self-correct, to the most elaborate gram m atical
explanation and drill of correct forms.
Teachers frequently m ake the m istake of
th in k in g that bv providing a correct “m o d el,” bv
rep eatin g stu d en t statem ents with som e slight
change in the grammatical form, learners will per­
ceive the correction and incorporate it into their
developing grammars. This is the form of feedback
known as "recasts," which is a relatively implicit
focus on form (see Long, Inagaki, and O rtega
1998). As C haudron (1977) notes, and Lester
(1998a) argues further, such feedback is likelv to
be perceived bv the learner not as a formal change,
but rather as a confirm ation, rephrasing, or clarifi­
cation of the functional m eaning. For example:
Student : I can no go back hom e today early.
T etcher : You c a n ’t go hom e early todav?
Student : \ o .
If th ere is in fact reason to provide form al
feedback in such a case, it helps to focus on the
specific correction by em phasizing a n d isolating
the m o d eled forms (C h au d ro n 1977): I can't go
home, or earlv toda\. But it appears evident from
studies of recasts that thev are in fact effective
20-25 p ercen t o f the tim e. This effectiveness mav
be because th e r occur w hen the le a rn e r has
reached a stage of gram m atical co m p eten ce that
allows him o r h e r to perceive the slight differ­
ence in use.
In som e recent research on French lan­
guage im m ersion classrooms in C anada, Lvster
and Ranta (1997: see also Lvster 1998a. 1998b)
illustrate a wide varietv o f feedback events,
fre q u e n tlv in the m iddle o f c o n ten t-b ased
exchanges. Thev argue that th eir data illustrate
the positive value of explicit correction and nego­
tiated feedback in guiding learners' to the cor­
rect use o f target forms, since "uptake" of correct
gram m atical form s occurred m ore frequentlv fol­
lowing such corrective mor es. It should Ire noted
that a considerable higher rate of uptake of p ro ­
nunciation and lexical errors occurred in their
data when the teachers provided onlv implicit
feedback in the form of recasts.
O n the o th e r hand, such practices mar be
less effective th an e n c o u ra g in g le a rn e rs to
self-correct (see Tom asello and H erron 1988) or
having o th e r learners assist in corrections. Peer
correction has the potential advantage of being
at the right level of developm ent in the learn er's
in terlanguage gram m ar.
As we noted in Section 2.3. an im portant
lim itation on the effectiveness of feedback and
correction, especially with respect to gram m atical
developm ent, is the natural o rd e r of acquisition
o f a given structure o r function. Ultimatelv.
teachers m ust rem ain cu rren t with findings of
research in SL acquisition, to b e tte r u n derstand
when it m ight be useful to correct.
6. C O N C L U S IO N
This introductory' review o f SL classroom teach­
ing as an area of studv and professional practice
could be extended; indeed, m anv o th e r chapters
of this volum e continue the discussion o f kev
areas for classroom practice. N onetheless, it is
evident that teachers still e n c o u n te r m anv areas
of ig n o ran ce w here ideallv th ere should be
knowledge. O n the one hand, teachers should
know w hat relatively firm inform ation does exist,
and w here th ere is room for investigation. This
should aid their decision m aking. As the SL p ro ­
fession develops, m ore teachers are qualified to
conduct their own research or to collaborate
with researchers.' O n the o th e r h and, teaching
trill alwavs be a series of ju d g m en t calls; its
real-time cognitive complexity m eans it will never
be just a science, and will alwavs rem ain som e­
thing of an art (cf. Clark and Lam port 1986;
L einhardt and G reeno 1986). We have tried here
to help the judgm ent calls be educated, inform ed
ones through the teacher's com bined use of
knowledge and educated professional reflection.
D IS C U S S IO N Q U E S T IO N S
1. Whv should LSL teachers be concerned about
keeping up with the results of classroom
research and second language acquis-ition
research?
2. Do vou agree that teachers should m ake their
lesson objectives clear to their students? Can
t on think of situations in which this would be
inappropriate? Whv?
3. I low m uch place do vou think presentation,
ex p lan atio n , a n d discussion of rules for
language use have in the SL classroom? W hat
underiving view of language and language
learning supports vour view?
4. Discuss the wavs in which one m ight investi­
gate the most effective wav of giving feed­
back (or correction). W hat data w ould vou
collect, and how would vou identify successful
correction?
S U G G E S T E D A C T IV IT IE S
1. Prepare (individuallv) and com pare (as a
group) a mini-lesson. Select a specific point
of language form or function, rule of conver­
sation. o r o th e r social use o f English.
Individuallv develop a sequence of activities
that vou m ight use to present, develop, and
 evaluate this point, a n d then com pare your
suggestions in a group. Develop a jointlv
agreed-upon way of teaching this point and
practice it with one another.
2. A useful alternative wav o f practicing the first
activity is for each person to teach a p o in t in
a language unknow n to the others in the
group. Discuss your feelings on once again
being a second language learner.
3. W orking with a partner, discuss tvays in which
a teacher with a m ulticultural g roup of stu­
dents can best m aintain a positive classroom
clim ate, p ro m o tin g s tu d e n t in te re st a n d
m otivation.
FU R T H ER R EA D IN G
Bailey, К. M., and D. Xunan, eds. 1996. Voices from the
Language Classroom. Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press.
An extensive and accessible collection of recent
classroom SL studies, illustrating the range of
current work of a more qualitative nature.
Burns, A. 1999. Collaborative Action Research for English
Language Teachers. Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press.
A practical introduction to teacher research in
SL contexts based on actual investigations by a
team of SL teachers in Australia.
Chaudron, C. 1988. Second Language Classrooms.
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
A comprehensive survey of earlier SL classroom
research.
Crookes, G., and S. M. Gass. eds. 1993. Tasks in a
Pedagogical Context: Integrating Theon and Practice.
Philadelphia, PA: Multilingual Matters.
An illustrative collection of studies of pedago­
gical applications of the concept o f ‘’task” in SL
teaching.
Lurch. T. 1996. Communication in the Language Class­
room. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
A useful introduction to basic processes of class­
room interaction and teacher talk, with clear
examples.
ENDNO TES
1 We are grateful to mam people named for their
assistance with the previous version (Crookes and
Chaudron 1991) of this paper, and we wish to
continue acknowledgement of Marisol Valcarcel,
Mercedes Yerclu. and Julio Roca, of the
Universidad de Murcia.
- Our discussion is traditional to the extent that we
will not deal with approaches to SL teaching that
involve going outside the classroom (e.g., Ashworth
1985: Auerbach 1996: Fried Booth 1986).
4 5Vhat "size" the elements are is not at issue here.
That is to saw we are not concerned with whether
the units presented are structural or functional,
or if the language of a given pedagogical task is an
unanalvzed whole.
4 Though the idea is not a new one— see, e.g., West
(I960).
J This is. of course, a problem for the syllabus design­
er to be aware of and to resolve bv proper choice of
learning targets (see Long and Crookes 1993).
b We should point out that we deliberately avoid the
word "method" here: we do not accept its general
validity as a term of analysis (cf. Richards 1984).
‘ This is particularly clear in the increased recogni­
tion of the importance of action research in the
area of SL teaching (Bums 1999; Crookes 1993;
Freeman 1998).
 English for Specific Purposes:
Tailoring Courses to Student Needs—
and to the Outside World
ANN M. J O H N S • DONNA
In "English for Specific Purposes," Johns and Price-Machado argue that all good teaching is specific
purpose’ in approach. Using Vocational ESL and other examples, this chapter covers key questions such
as " W h o are the stakeholders?" and "W h a t is authenticity in the classroom?” which are addressed using
needs and discourse analysis. Various program models demonstrate how ESP values are realized in
different contexts.
W H A T IS ESP?
English for Specific Purposes (ESP) is a move­
m ent based on the proposition that all language
teaching should be tailored to the specific learn­
ing an d language use needs of identified groups
of stu d en ts— and also sensitise to the sociocul­
tural contexts in which these students will be
using English. Most of the m ovem ent's practi­
tioners are teachers of adults, those students
whose needs are m ore readilv identified within
academ ic, occupational, or professional settings.
,\n increasing n u m b er of ESP practitioners live
and work in English-speaking countries, teaching
in program s offering vocational ESL (WESL) or
English for O ccupational Purposes (EOP) pro­
grams for new im m igrant and refugee popula­
tions o r in contexts em phasizing academ ic (LAP)
o r business langu age (English for Business
Purposes). However, ESP continues to be even
m ore com m on in English as a Foreign L anguage
(EFL) contexts, w here an increasing n u m b e r of
a d u lt stu d e n ts are e a g er to le a rn business
English o r academ ic English in o rd e r to pursue
th eir careers o r studv in English-m edium educa­
tional institutions. O ne rem arkable exam ple of
the explosion o f ESP program s in EFL contexts
has taken place in C hina, w here foreign trade
has risen from 10 p e rc e n t to 45 p e rc e n t o f the
Gross N ational P ro d u ct over the last thirty years
an d the n e e d to speak English in in te rn atio n a l
P R I С E -M A C H A D О
trade is u rg en t (H u an g 1999). Many em ployers
an d e d u catio n al institutions th ro u g h o u t the
w orld are searching for E SL /EFL teachers with
solid ESP backgrounds.
ESP Categories
T he m ain interests of the ESP m ovem ent can
be categorized in a n u m b er of ways (see, for
exam ple. Dudley-Evans an d S t.J o h n 1998, p. 6).
For the purposes o f this discussion, we have
created a set of categories as shown in Figure 1
on page 44.
Because of their c u rre n t im portance, a few
of these categories will be h ighlighted in this
chapter: English for O ccupational Purposes, par-
ticularlv \ TESL an d English for Business Purposes
(EBP), a n d English fo r A cadem ic Purposes
(EAP). It is im p o rta n t to note, however, th a t this
chart is far from exhaustive; th ere is a rem ark­
able arrav o f ESP courses offered th ro u g h o u t the
world. In various cities in Italy, for exam ple,
there are project-oriented curricula for white-col­
lar workers in the tourist industry (English for
T ourism ). In M orocco, H asan II U niversity
devotes m any of its EAP courses to specific grad­
uate m ajors such as agronom y. In som e nations,
learning English to contribute to the develop­
m en t o f a com m unity o r region is a central goal
(Gueve 1990). As the prison p o p u latio n grows
 English for Specific Purposes

English for Academic Purposes (БАР)

English for Science English for Business English for Medical English for
and Technology (EST) and Economics (EBE) Purposes (EM P) the Law (ELP)
(Academic) (Academic) (Academic) (Academic)

English for Occupational Purposes (EOP)

English for
Professional Purposes
(EPP)

English for Medical English for Business Pre-employment Occupational- Cluster W orkplace
Purposes (EM P) Purposes (EBP) V ESL Specific V ESL V ESL V ESL

Figure I . Classification of ESP Categories

in the U n ited States, th ere are ESP courses in * relevant to the lea rn er
co m p u ter rep air an d o th e r areas of com puter ■ successful in im parting learning
language an d technology for the incarcerated. ■ m ore cost-effective th an “G eneral
T his rem a rk a b le diversity o f situations a n d E nglish."1
curricula highlights one of the virtues of ESP: the
program s are ad ap ted to the contexts and needs An ESP definition needs to distinguish betw een
of particular groups o f students. four absolute a n d two variable characteristics:

1. A bsolute characteristics: ESP consists o f lan­

C E N T R A L ESP C O M P O N E N TS guage teaching which is

A lthough the m odern ESP m ovem ent has evolved
in m any directions since it was fo u n d ed in the
m id 1960s (see Swales [1988] for an excellent
overview), several com ponents have rem ained
relatively constant th ro u g h o u t its history. In
1988, P eter Strevens provided the following
overview o f ESP a n d its features.
T he claims for ESP are th a t it is
■ fo cu sed on th e le a r n e r ’s n e e d a n d
wastes no tim e
■ designed to m eet the specified needs of
the lea rn er
■ related to c o n te n t (i.e., in its them es
a n d topics) to p a rticu la r disciplines,
occupations, o r activities
■ centered on the language appropriate
to these activities in syntax, lexis, dis­
course, semantics, and the analysis of this
discourse
■ in contrast to “G eneral E nglish.”
2. Variable characteristics: ESP mav be. b ut is
n o t necessarily
■ restricted to the language skills to be
learn ed (e.g., read in g only)
■ not taught according to any preordained
methodology.
T he “absolute characteristics” of the m ovem ent,
in particular, have provided guidance in the
design of ESP curricula and teaching over the
vears. Thus, they are im p o rtan t for u n derstand ­
ing how ESP practitioners distinguish themselves
from o th e r ESL/EFL teachers in professional
organizations, such as TESOL, and elsewhere.
Each characteristic will be discussed later in this
chapter.
First, however, it is necessary to lat' a fo u n ­
dation, to consider those issues that ESP practi­
tioners m ust address as they plan program s and
develop curricula.
ISSUES A D D R E SS E D IN ESP
PROGRAM P L A N N IN G
ESP pro g ram s are developed because th ere
is a d e m a n d , because teach ers, supervisors,
gov ern m en t agencies, professionals, students, or
o thers see a n e e d for language courses in which
certain co n ten t, skills, m otivations, processes,
a n d values are id entified a n d in teg rated into
specialized, often short-term , courses. As ESP
p ra c titio n e rs a p p ro a c h course d ev elo p m en t,
they m ust consider a m u ltitu d e o f fa c to rs— an d
som e essential q u estio n s— before, an d during,
pro ject initiation.
1. Stakeholders in the Class or Project W hat
are the sources o f d em an d for this ESP program ?
W ho are the clients? An employer, an agency, a
governm ent, a m ore traditional educational insti­
tution, o r the students themselves? W hat do the
stakeholders view as the essential elem ents of the
ESP program they desire?
These are the first questions posed— for a
n u m b er of reasons, one o f which is funding:
Stakeholders generally provide the m oney for
courses and curriculum developm ent. A nother
reason is m andates: G overnm ents and institutions
th ro u g h o u t the world require specialized lan­
guage training or education for certain employees
and students.
Som etim es m andates, funding, a n d govern­
m en t reco m m en d atio n s create a intricate web
o f re q u ire m e n ts , resp o n ses, a n d oversight.
For exam ple, vocational ESI. (VEST) program s
in the U nited States2 have b een developed as
com plex responses to welfare reform a n d the
needs o f fu n d in g agencies such as th e A dult
E ducation a n d Family Literacy Act.3 Many VEST
program s, in th eir attem p t to m ee t c u rre n t
re q u ire m e n ts , are in fo rm e d by th e U.S.
D ep artm en t o f L a b o r’s SCANS R e p o rt1, th o u g h
no fu n d in g for \T.SL com es directly from this
agencv.
T he SCANS R eport established two levels of
criteria for w orkplace skills (see, for exam ple,
M arshall 1997). At the first level, the F o u n d atio n
Skills include basic components (reading, writing,
active listening, quantitative operations, in te r­
p retin g , o rg an izin g in fo rm a tio n a n d ideas),
thinking skills (learning a n d reasoning, thinking
creatively, m aking decisions, solving problem s),
an d personal qualities (responsibility, self-esteem,
sociability, integrity, self-m anagem ent). At the
seco n d level, th e W orkplace C o m p eten cies
include resource management (organizing, plan­
ning. etc.), interpersonal skills (working in teams,
teaching others, negotiating, working effectively
within culturally diverse settings, etc.), informa­
tion management (acquiring a n d evaluating facts
an d data, using com puters, etc.), systems manage­
ment (u n d ersta n d in g social organization and
technological systems), an d technology (selecting
equ ip m en t and tools, applying technology to
tasks, etc.). Becattse of the influence of this report,
m anv \T S L textbook writers and teachers have
used SCANS as the basis for their curricula (see,
for exam ple, Price-M achado 1998).
In o th er contexts, the stakeholders are the
stu d en ts them selves, particularly in private
ESL/EFL schools th ro u g h o u t the world which
professionals attend to upgrade their language
skills. These students are often very precise about
what thev want to learn and achieve. Even if the
students do not, or cannot, initiate o r direct
an ESP project, there has been considerable
attention given to wavs in which thev should be
em pow ered to participate within it. Somerville
(1997, p. 92), working in Australia, argues that we
m ust be asking questions such as the following if
we are to design workplace literacy curricula that
are learner-centered:
■ W ho are the participants in workplace literacv
programs?
■ How do the workers experience the programs?
■ How do program s change w orker participa­
tion in workplace culture?
■ (W hat happens to the workplace during and
after w orkers’ participation in the program ?)
O th e r m ajor stakeholders are educational insti­
tu tio n s, p a rticu larlv universities in v o k e d in
academ ic-purposes program s, an d private com ­
panies that n e e d focused English language an d
skills train in g for th eir professional emplovees.
An exam ple of co m bined governm ent and
institutional stakeholder influence has taken
place in re c e n t years in Tunisia. This countrv's
president, with his en to u rag e, m ade diplom atic
a n d trade-related trips to countries such as
South Africa w here English plavs a central role.
A lthough the p re sid e n t’s m ajor advisors and
business peo p le spoke F rench and Arabic, thev
did n o t have sufficient com m and of business
o r diplom atic English to be successful. As a
result., he has req u ired all institutions of h ig h er
learn in g in Tunisia to step up th eir teaching of
the English language.5
2. Available Teachers A central issue to be con­
sidered is the natu re of the teachers who will be
involved in an ESP program . W hat content, skills,
a n d literacies will they be expected to teach? How
m uch teacher training have thev com pleted? Are
they linguisticallv sophisticated, i.e., can they dis­
cuss how English works and analvze specialized
discourses? W hat tvpes o f cu rricu la a n d
approaches are thev m ost com fortable with? .All
o f these questions are cen tral to design.
Inexperienced or "traditional” teachers cannot
work within an experim ental ESP context, for
exam ple. In nianv EFT contexts, the ESP teacher
is n o t a native speaker of English (See M edgves’s
ch ap ter in this volum e); this, too, will influence
the type o f ESP curriculum designed.
ESP teachers face challenges that o th e r
instructors rnav be able to circum vent. O ne chal­
lenge relates to ESP content: discerning the p ar­
ticular vocabularv, discourses, an d processes that
are essential to the ESP training o f students
w ithin a specialized context. W hat does the
teach er have to know about electrical e n g in e e r­
ing and its practices to assist students to write a
research p a p e r in that discipline? W hat does a
tea c h e r have to know about the language of
welding, or tourism , to address the needs of stu­
dents who have chosen these vocations? Manv
ESP practitioners argue that if thev can analvze
language an d discourses a n d study language
use. thev do n o t n e e d specialist expertise.
O th ers argue that tit least som e fam iliaritv with
the students' discipline or vocation is valuable.
In all cases, the te a c h e r/p ra c titio n e r con­
ducts some research in the form of needs assess­
m e n t a n d targ e t situ atio n analysis b efore
designing the curricu lu m — and often, th ro u g h ­
out the course. In English for Academ ic Purposes
program s, practitioners often analyze the dis­
courses of the stu d en ts’ discipline, visit classes,
talk to faculty, and study the strategies and lan­
guage that students use to succeed. In business
or diplom atic English, as discussed in the
Tunisian exam ple above, the p ractitio n er may
have to accom pany a delegation to an English-
speaking country in o rd er to u n d erstan d the
required language for that context. In VEST, this
needs analysis research often includes inter­
viewing vocational instructors or em ployers and
atten d in g vocational classes. In Fairfax County
(Virginia) Adult EST Program s, for exam ple,
[The \T.SL. teacher attends vocational
classes], taking notes on troublesom e
vocabularv, idiom s, slang, concepts,
cultural differences, an d th en s /h e
addresses these things in the EST class.
This makes up most o f the co n ten t of
the EST class with additional practice
in the developm ent o f reading, listen­
ing. speaking, writing and problem
solving skills (Schrage, personal com ­
m unication, 2 /2 6 /0 0 ) •
A n o th e r c h a llen g e fo r ESP tea c h e rs
involves a tta in in g th e necessary b re a d th of
u n d e rsta n d in g about successful com m unication
w ithin a context that they, a n d th eir students,
n e e d to develop. How is a good w orking and
com m unicative relationship established am ong
professionals from differen t cultures who are
negotiating o r p resen tin g papers in English?
W hat kinds o f problem s a n d relationships exist
betw een L2 w orkers a n d th eir supervisors? How
should a person use language to be polite, give
orders, or perform o th er English language func­
tions within the target context? Or, to give one
very specific purpose area, how does a pilot estab­
lish contact with a n d give clear messages to air
traffic controllers? These are subtle and not-so-
subtle com m unications issues that can m ake or
break businesses and affect safetv and good work­
ing relationships.
3. Authenticity Issues Because ESP involves
special Englishes an d contexts, n o t "G eneral
E nglish,” efforts to achieve m axim um linguistic,
strategic, a n d situational authenticitv are m ade
in designing curricula. O n e of the m ost advanta­
geous “a u th e n tic ” possibilities is provided bv
courses offered wholly, or in part, on site in the
target location: at a w orkplace, such as a factorv
o r shipyard, or w ithin specific academ ic con­
texts, such as an en g in e e rin g or biologv d e p a rt­
m ent. On-site ESP provides o p p o rtu n ities for an
accurate a n d rich needs assessm ent a n d o n ­
going training an d evaluation, as well as for
in p u t from the stakeholders involved. In univer­
sities, on-site language training may occur in
ad ju n ct courses o r o th e r tvpes o f content-based
arran g em en ts th at p erm it students to ex p eri­
ence language a n d literacies in th eir n atural
contexts (see J o h n s 1997).
If on-site courses c an n o t be offered, practi­
tioners search for o th e r wavs to provide students
with authenticitv. T h e re is a long a n d som etim es
contentious historv o f in tro d u c in g in to th e class­
room w ritten o r oral discourses th at are central
to, b u t rem oved from , the target situation in
w hich th e students will eventually be using
English. Manv curriculum designers analyze and
segm ent these discourses so th a t they can be
studied w ithin a curriculum . However, som e
experts argue th a t when practitioners im p o rt
into the classroom target situation texts (or
“g en res”) taken o u t o f th eir original settings,
these texts lose th eir authenticity of context,
audience, an d o th e r factors:
a traditional belief that now appears
problem atic is that genres for use in
one co n tex t— historv lessons o r office
w ork— can be straightforw ardlv taught
in a differen t co n tex t such as the
English lesson. . . . Producing an exam ­
ple o f a genre is a m atter n o t ju st of
generating a text with certain form al
characteristics b u t o f using generic
resources to art effectivelv on a situa­
tion th rough a [written or spoken text]
(Freedm an and Medway 1994, p. 11).
Supporting this claim, som e practitioners argue
that authenticitv should relate to the transferabili­
ty of strategies or activities rath e r than to spoken
or w ritten texts from target contexts. Thus, for
exam ple, if students practice politeness strategies
in the target language, thev may be able to use
these approaches in a variety o f som ew hat u n p re ­
dictable contexts. In the following quote, which
continues to influence ESP curricula, W iddowson
argues the following:
[a] process-oriented ap p ro ach accepts
from the outset th at the language data
given to the le a rn e r will n o t be p re­
served in store intact, b u t will be used
in the m ental mill. H ence the lan­
guage c o n te n t of the course is selected
not because it is representative of w hat
the learner will have to deal with after
the course is over b u t because it is
likelv to activate strategies for learning
as the course progresses (1981, p. 5).
Efforts at activating strategies and processes in ESP
classrooms can take m anv forms. For exam ple,
after research in g the targ et EFL situation,
Souillard (1989. p. 24) found certain oral activities
for French students to be relevant and transfer­
able to their disciplinary classrooms in which
English was the m edium o f instruction: dictating
calculations, describing a geom etric figure, giving
instructions for a p ro ce d u re , describing a p lan t
site, p rep a rin g a schedule, a n d describing a
g rap h or flowchart.
4. Curricular Decisions O th e r chapters in this
volum e address the issues o f curriculum . (See
especially those bv N unan, Snow, Erring, and
M cGroarty.) All o f those issues m ust also be
addressed in ESP. In m aking curricular decisions.
ESP practitioners have b een influenced over the
years by trends in applied linguistics and general
ESL/EFL teaching, w hen relevant to their stu­
d en ts, m oving th ro u g h th e m eth o d o lo g ical
variations, from gram m ar-based to com m unica­
tive, to process-based, an d to genre-based curric­
ula. But whatever the c u rre n t trends, it is a basic
responsibility' o f an ESP practitio n er to be con­
text- a n d student-sensitive. Thus, in several EFL
contexts, only ESP reading is taught, often using
m ethods such as intensive reading that are most
am enable to local student learning. In o th er con­
texts, the con cen tratio n is u p o n o ra l/a u ra l skills.
(See L azaraton’s c h ap ter in this volum e.) T he
purpose of any ESP curriculum , then, is to m eet
the specific linguistic and pragm atic needs of
students as they p rep are for identified English-
m edium contexts. No texts and discourses and
no tasks or activities should be extraneous to
student needs a n d the req u irem en ts of the target
context.
O f course, this makes the selection of o ff
the-shelf textbooks very difficult, as Swales
(1980), am ong others, has noted. Should a text­
book be Avide-angled" an d inclusive, such as
m any English for Business texts are. losing some
o f the specificitv of local student needs? Should
textbooks be “narrow-angled," addressing some
o f the focused needs of the learner? State-of-the-
art ESP classes often m ust also include the inte­
g ratio n o f c o m p u te r technology. Plow this
technolog)' is used, and which skills are integrat­
ed, will again d e p e n d u p o n the specific needs of
the students. K appra (2000), for exam ple, makes
these suggestions for integrating SCANS ATSL
and co m puter technologies:
a. Have students keep co m p u te r records of
th eir progress a n d assess that progress bv
com pleting reports,
b. Assign co m puter-related tasks such as dis­
trib u tin g disks an d trouble-shooting.
c. Use problem -solving activities that require
basic c o m p u te r skills (p. 14).
W h eth er practitioners choose p u blished
textbooks or develop th eir own m aterials, revi­
sion an d u p d atin g m ust occur constantly in ESP.
In "adjunct" EAP classes in universities, for
exam ple, the ESP teachers m ust consult fre­
quently with the c o n te n t instructors to adjust or
ren egotiate th eir assignm ents. In E O P A U S L
program s, job shadow ing can be used to u p d ate
curricula. \T S L program s are also frequently
revised an d new m odules created to reflect the
language and o th e r skills n e e d ed for jobs that
becom e available in the com m unin'.
5. Assessm ent All ESI. EFL teach ers m ust
consider issues of assessm ent, discussed in the
c h a p te r bv C ohen in this volum e. W hat is partic­
ularly c h allen g in g in ESP pro g ram s is that
students and th eir sponsors, governm ents, or
academ ic institutions are anxious to see im m e­
diate a n d fo cu sed assessm ent results th a t
address specific objectives. Tims, the dem ands
of assessment, both in terms of formative and
summative evaluation, are great. In a work on ESP
testing. Douglas (2000) points out the following:
[a] specific purpose language test is
one in which test c o n te n t a n d m eth ­
ods are derived from an analysis of the
characteristics of a specific target lan­
guage use situation, so that test tasks
and c o n te n t are authentically rep re ­
sentative of the target situation, allow­
ing for an in teractio n betw een the test
taker's language activity a n d specific
pu rp o se c o n te n t know ledge, on the
one h an d , and the test tasks on the
other. Such a test allows us to m ake
inferences about a test taker's capacity
to use language in the specific p u r­
pose dom ain (p. 19).
ESP assessment m ust also be appropriate to the
instructional context. In \T S L program s, for
exam ple, interviewing supervisors or the students
themselves about language, content, and task pro­
ficiency can be m ore effective than anv traditional
oral exam ination or reading and writing test.
Some ESP experts, particularh- in large YESL and
EAP program s, are now testing students on-line to
encourage the developm ent of com puter skills
and to m ake testing m ore efficient. In EAP pro ­
grams, th ere is a long history o f attem p tin g to
design discipline-sensitive exam inations at insti­
tutions such as the Universitv o f M ichigan.
PREPARING A N ESP
C U R R IC U LU M
After this discussion of the questions and topics
th at m ust be addressed before a curriculum is
p rep ared , we notv tu rn to the "absolute charac­
teristics” m en tio n e d bv Strevens (1988) and
their application to curriculum design. T h ough
ESP shares m uch with "G eneral English" curric­
ula a n d overlaps with content-based designs,
there are certain features which distinguish it
from o th e r approaches.
N eeds A ssessm ent In everv g e n u in e ESP
course, needs assessment is obligatorv. and in
m ant' program s, an ongoing needs assessment is
integral to curriculum design and evaluation. In
perform ing an assessment, practitioners attem pt
to determ ine as closelv as possible what students
will need to d o — and how thev will need to do
it— in English language contexts or with English
language literacies. Over the tears, m ethods of
assessing learner needs have becom e increasinglv
sophisticated a n d process-based. H e re are
a few of those em ploved, often for the same
curricular design:
1. Q uestionnaires a n d survevs: These can be
given to the students them selves, th eir
em ployers or supervisors, or the audiences
to w hom then will be w riting o r speaking.
Thev can be adm in istered as “precourse
questionnaires" (Ducllev-Evans a n d St. John
1998), th ro u g h o u t the course, o r after it is
com pleted.
2. Interviews o f experts, students, an d o th er
stakeholders: Particularlv useful for aca­
dem ic English are som e o f the interviews
about uses and functions of specific linguistic
items in discourses, a practice th at has
becom e increasinglv popular after a land­
m ark study o f the uses of the passive p u b ­
lished in The ESP Journal/ (Tarone et al.
1981).
In VESL (Vocational ESI.) a n d Business
English, interview ers ten d to rely u p o n the
supervisors and experts w ithin the target
situation in which the students w ould be
working, as well as the w o rk e rs/stu d e n ts
themselves.
3. O bservation, job-shaclowing, a n d analysis:
T hese ap p ro ach es can take place on the
job. in academ ic contexts while students
are reading and writing (i.e., “processing”)
texts, while individuals are speaking, work­
ing in groups, etc. ESP needs assessments
have been greatlv influenced bv recent qual­
itative research, specificallv ethnography.
M uch o f the c u rren t work is "thicker” in
term s of description than that o f the past, so
careful observation tends to be integrated
with o th er forms o f needs assessment.
Job-shadowing is very valuable to YES I.
teachers, who explore the linguistic, cultural,
and pragm atic experiences of workers as they
experience a tvpical dav on the job.
4. M ultiple intelligence an d lea rn in g stvle
.survevs of the students: ESP practitioners use
standard instrum ents as well as o th er m eth­
ods for d eterm ining stu d en t approaches
to learning and text production such as pro­
tocols and interviews (see S t.Jo h n 1987).
5. M odes o f working: W orking in team s is
a n o th e r aspect o f job p erfo rm a n c e th a t is
com m on in m anv VEST contexts as well as
in som e academ ic classes. A needs assess­
m en t may thus include analysis o f how
team s work in the target context, break­
downs in negotiation in culturally m ixed
groups, a n d o th e r factors th a t may in hibit
or e n h a n ce success.
6. Spoken or w ritten reflections by the stu­
d e n ts — or th eir supervisors— before, d u r­
ing. o r a fter in stru ctio n : In reflectio n ,
stakeholders are able to look back cm what
thev h a te experienced with an ESP p ro ­
gram . Reflections can be used to determ ine
how a current program should be revised or
future program s should be designed.
 T here is im portant literature distinguishing
between student needs, wants, and larks (see, for
exam ple, H u tc h in so n a n d W aters 1987,
p. 55), and for adults, these are im portant distinc­
tions. Readers interested in exploring these issues
are encouraged to consult the considerable litera­
ture in both ESP an d jo b training program s on
needs assessment for curriculum design.
From the established needs, specific objec­
tives for students are w ritten, an d from these
objectives, the classroom tasks a n d m ethod s
for assessm ent o f th e p ro g ram a n d its students
are d e te rm in e d a n d revised as th e course
progresses.
Relating to Content (of Occupations, Disciplines,
etc.) Since 1988 w hen Strevens wrote his ESP
overview, th ere has been an explosion of research
and theory on co n ten t (see, for exam ple, Snow’s
ch ap ter in this volum e), as well as on the wavs in
which values established within com m unities of
workers and practitioners influence the m an n er
in which c o n ten t is ap proached and visually dis­
played. B erkenkotter and H uckin (1995, p. 14),
discussing academ ic content, argue that "what
constitutes true . . . knowledge . . . is knowledge of
appropriate topics and relevant details.” O ne
exam ple from the litera tu re may show how
u n d erstan d in g the uses of c o n ten t influences stu­
d e n ts ’ success in universities. G iltrow a n d
Valiquette (1994) asked teaching assistants from
psychology a n d crim inology to read their stu­
d e n ts’ papers a n d critique their ability to m anage
the knowledge o f their respective disciplines. T he
teaching assistants found that successful student
papers were quite different, d ep en d in g on the
field. In psychology, students were required to
dem onstrate how thev could m anage details in
texts by including some inform ation and exclud­
ing o th er topics. In criminology, on the other
hand, the m ost im portant skill involved relating
concepts to exam ples, again m aking the co n ten t
work within a disciplinary framework.
W hat does this m ean about co n ten t selec­
tion for curricula? It tells us that in all ESP situa­
tions, practitioners m ust continuouslv assess what
types o f c o n te n t are central, how content is used
a n d valued, and the relationships betw een vocab­
ulary and central concepts. A nother essential
e le m e n t o f successful c u rric u lu m d esig n is
selecting c o n te n t th at m otivates students: those
topics that these im p o rta n t stakeholders w ant
to address. In a volum e on adult participatory
literacv instruction a n d VESL, A uerbach et al.
(1996) argue the following:
verv o ften , [a d u lt stu d e n ts] are
im m ersed in the struggles o f adjusting
to a new cu ltu re, sep aratio n from
families, p reo ccu p atio n with the polit­
ical situation in th eir hom e countries,
trving to find work, a n d so on. R ather
th a n seein g th ese p re o c c u p a tio n s
as obstacles to lea rn in g , a partici-
patorv ap p ro ach allows them to focus
on th em as p art o f learn in g . . . [and
thev are] m ore engaged in c o n te n t
(p. 158).
Identifying and Analyzing Essential Language
and Discourses Since ESP can be co n sid ered a
subdiscipline of applied linguistics, practitioners
have m ade effective use of the trends in this area
to analvze, for curricular purposes, the language
a n d discourses (genres) o f the targ et situations
in which th eir students will be studying, living, or
working. In the 1960s, language analysis te n d e d
to c e n te r on the p articu lar gram m atical o r lexi­
cal features (i.e.. “registers”) of discourses. Thus,
researchers fo u n d th at certain verb form s p re­
d o m in a te d in scientific discourses (B arb er
1966), th a t a lim ited g ro u p of cohesive devices
are fo u n d in business letters (Johns 1980) and
th at abbreviations are characteristic o f telexes
(Zak a n d Dudley-Evans 1986). Now, o f course,
m uch business and academ ic com m unication
takes place via e-mail, so p ractitio n ers are
researching the registers of e-mail com m unication
in o rd er to develop m ore authentic curricular
m aterials (see, for exam ple, Gim enez 2000).
.As com m unicative syllabus design (especially
N otional Functional syllabi) becam e popular, the
types o f discourse analyses conducted relied m ore
upon language function th an u p o n counts o f spe­
cific linguistic item s. M atsunobu (1983), for
exam ple, fo u n d th at university business profes­
sors used th re e m ajor types o f speech acts in
th eir lectures: inform atives, m etastatem ents, and
discourse m arkers: thus, she developed a listen­
ing curriculum in which these acts were the
focus. As it has m atu red , research into com m u­
nicative functions has drawn increasinglv from
pragm atics, showing, lo r exam ple, that the wavs
in which individuals are polite to each o th er
d e p e n d upon their disciplines an d u p o n their rel­
ative status. Hyland (1998) found that when pub­
lished authors in the sciences write to their peers,
they ten d to “hedge" their conclusions, m aking
com m ents such as, “T he data ap p ear to show . .
or “Perhaps this indicates . . . "
Nett surprisingly, com puters are now used
to d e te rm in e the gram m atical features shared bv
large num bers o f spoken or w ritten discourses
within certain genres (Biber 1994). A related
app ro ach , m ore tvpical o f the British ESP spe­
cialists, is c o n c o rd a n c in g (Jo h n s 1989). a
m eth o d for d e te rm in in g lexical collocations in a
large n u m b e r of spoken and w ritten texts. In
con co rd an cin g , p ractitio n ers d e te rm in e what
language most com m onlv surrounds a word in
authentic discourses. Tliev m ight explore a com ­
m on word such as take, and through exam ining a
large n u m b er of written and spoken discourses
from particular situations, they can determ ine the
linguistic environm ents in which take appears.
This work is a boon to ESP. of course, since teach­
ers organize their curricula according to the most
com m on contexts of central vocabularv.
C on co rd an cin g and corpus linguistics tend
to be m ost co n c ern e d with bottom -up studies of
texts, m easuring the natu re and interactions of
various gram m atical and lexical features. O th e r
ESP practitioners have co n c en tra te d upon the
m acro features o f texts — and th eir co n tex ts— bv
studving the relationships betw een the structure
an d language o f w ritten texts a n d the situations
in which these texts appear. John Swales’s Genre
Analysis: English in Academic and Research Settings
(1990) set the tone for ESP research of this type,
an d mans others have followed his lead.
Drawing from earlier u'ork in applied lin­
guistics. ESP specialists have studied genres from
a variety of occupational and academ ic com m u­
nities such as the law (Bhatia 1993) and business
(Eustace 1996). T hough using curricula in which
genres are central has been characteristic of
EBP for a n u m b er of t ears ( Johns 1987). these
approaches h a te onlv recentlv influenced the
teaching of reading an d waiting in academ ic set­
tings, particularly at the graduate level (see Swales
and Feak 1994).
PROGRAM M ODELS
W hat do ESP program s look like? It should be
clear from this discussion th at th ere is a wide
range o f courses an d program s in a wide range
o f locations, always keved to the language needs,
skills, co n ten t, an d processes req u ired . Perhaps
one of the best articulated a n d w idespread sets
o f program m odels in EST contexts falls u n d e r
the \T S E rubric. It includes the following:
Preem ployment VESL This is a m odified ver­
sion o f a "general" EST class in that the c o n te n t
is den oted to job readiness and g en eral “soft” job
skills as ou tlin ed in the SCANS R eport. Students
practice general jo b functions such as resp o n d ­
ing to com plaints, m aking requests, an d answer­
ing the p h o n e. Tliev mav also p rep a re for job
interviews and o th e r initial job skills.
Occupation-Specific VESL H ere, the c o n te n t
is related to a particu lar job such as nu rsin g assis­
tant o r electronics assembler. It can be tau g h t
eith e r as p rep a ra tio n for. or con cu rren tly with, a
vocational program . An exam ple m ight be a
th re e -h o u r class, th ree d ais a week, in w hich stu­
dents studv vocabularv an d o th e r skills they will
n eed for an electronics assem ble class th at also
enrolls native speakers o f English. .After the VESL
class, thev atten d the regular electronics assembly
class— or thev mav attend both concurrently.
T here is freq u en t com m unication betw een the
W S L and vocational instructors.
Cluster VESL These classes include students
from differen t vocations in one classroom .
Students studv all four "skills” (listening, speaking,
reading, and writing), often in a them e-based pro­
gram (e.g., "The World of W ork”). In one class, for
exam ple, students read about how to m eet people
and make small talk in the workplace. T hen, they
m eet in pairs or teams answering jigsawr com pre­
hension questions o r com pleting a problem ­
solring or writing exercise. Later, students work
on individualized m odules devoted to th eir cho­
sen professions a n d are assessed on this work.
(Note: Because o f the a tte n d an c e req u irem en ts
in m any ad u lt schools, this is probablv the most
com m on type o f program .)
Workplace VESL This term applies to skills
a n d c o n te n t o f a specific w orkplace. It can be
job-specific, such as for electronics assemble, or
it may have a b ro a d e r em phasis. O ften, the
em ployer pays for som e o r all o f the course, and
em ployees are excused d u rin g th eir workdav to
a tte n d (Thom as, Bird, a n d G rover 1992, p. 108).
English for Business program s are the m ost
p o p u la r in the English as a Foreign Language
world. Businesses, o r individuals, req u ire classes
in negotiation, co rresp o n d en ce, bid and rep o rt
w riting, a n d in su p erv isin g b ilin g u al a n d
E SL /E FL workers. N ot surprisinglv, program
design com es in m any shapes an d sizes d e p e n d ­
ing u p o n the large variety o f contexts an d stu­
d en ts served. (See the special Business English
issue o f English for Specific Purposes, 15(1), 1996.)
English for Academic Purposes also has a
long historv o f program specialization, particularlv
in science and technology areas at advanced levels
(see Swales 1988). Some excellent research and
curricula (see, for exam ple, Swales and Feak
1994) have been developed for graduate students
in the areas o f research p a p e r analysis and
advanced academ ic writing. U nfortunately for
m any ESL contexts, the EAP tradition at the
undergraduate level has been clouded with con­
troversy. T here is little agreem ent on how, or what,
EAP should consist of for those students who have
n o t yet advanced into their academ ic majors.
ESP and the Future T here is no question that
ESP is well established, particularly in EFL aca­
dem ic an d business contexts and in VESL pro­
gram s in English-speaking countries. O u r largest
professional organization, TESOT, has an active
ESP Interest Section whose m em bers represent a
wide variety o f EFL and ESL contexts. T here is
considerable dem an d for ESP teachers who can
p erfo rm a variety o f needs assessment tasks, such
as collecting authentic discources and analyzing
them , m aking appropriate observations, and con­
sulting various stakeholders— and th en produce
curricula sensitive to the students and context.
T h e re is also a n e e d for discourse analysis
research, particularlv in English for Business
a n d \T.SL contexts. In ad d itio n , th e re is a
grow ing d e m a n d for specialists who can develop
com puter-based curricula and m ore a u th en tic
tests. T eachers with professional tra in in g in
these areas find them selves in great d e m a n d
in tern atio n allv — an d often thev are leaders in
adult school sites within th eir ho m e countries.
In the future, ESP mav include m uch m ore
studv o f genres, particularlv the “hom ely” genres
of the workplace and community. It may lead to
the developm ent of m ore sophisticated, learner-
centered or team -oriented curricula, particularly
in \T S L and professional program s. T here may
also be greater involvement of ESP in econom ic
developm ent and nation building.
’W hatever its directions, ESP will rem ain
central to ESL and EFL teaching th ro u g h o u t the
world.
D IS C U S S IO N Q U E S T IO N S
1. How can a \T S L teacher (or am - ESP teacher,
for that m atter) integrate the essential areas
o f sociabilitv, teamwork, and self-esteem into
his or h er teaching?
2. Your supervisor has decided th a t you will
initiate a VESL class (an ESP program ) at
your school. W hat are som e of the questions
you n e e d to ask a n d things you n e e d to do to
p rep a re for th at class?
3. W hat areas of ESP appeal to you most? Why?
If you were to teach a class in the m ost appeal­
ing area, what would its focus be? Why?
4. How can a perso n effectively assess the
results of an ESP program ? .After consulting
the c h a p te r bv C ohen in this volum e or the
work bv Douglas (2000), discuss som e possi­
bilities for assessment.
5. T h ro u g h o u t this chapter, the au th o rs ju x ta ­
pose "G eneral E nglish” a n d ESP. W hat is
“G eneral E nglish” in vour view? To w hom
should it be taught?
S U G G E S T E D A C T IV IT IE S
1. D esign a “tria n g u la te d ” needs assessm ent for
a particu lar class, which includes obtaining
the same data in d ifferen t ways. C onsider
questionnaires, observation, interviews, and
discourse analysis.
2. W h ere does c o m m u n ic a tio n b reak d o w n
occur? W here do E SL /EFL students face the
m ost difficulty in using English in target
situations? O bserve a class, a lab, bilingual
workers on-line or at a construction site.
D ecide what th e areas of breakdow n are
(e.g., question-posing skills) and how vou
m ight teach them .
3. LTsing inform ation from needs assessments
o r o th e r sources, develop some g roup activ­
ities that relv u p o n e ith e r strategies for
achieving ends (e.g., negotiation) o r essen­
English for Specific Purposes: A n International
tial linguistic features (e.g., hedging). Assign
these activities to a class.
4. W hat are the features o f a p articular genre
th at students will n e e d to read or write?
Classify som e o f these features an d discuss
how you m ight p resen t them to a class.
5. If available, survey the th ree ''wide-angled"
VESL textbooks listed below. Make a list
o f sim ilarities and differences am ong these
volum es that considers:
a. the use a n d w eighing o f the SCANS
com petencies,
b. the te x t’s organization.
c. central activities.
Does one textbook seem m ore ap p ro p riate
Grognet. A. 1997. Integrating Employment Skills into
for certain groups of students? Whv?
■ Price-Machado, D. (1998). Skills for Success.
New York: C am bridge University Press.
■ Magv, R. (1998). Working It Out. Boston:
H einle 8c H einle Publishers.
■ English ASAP (1999). Austin, TX: Steck-
Yaughn.
Johns. A. M.. and T. Dudlev-Evans. 1991. English for
FU R T H ER R E A D IN G
Douglas, D. 2000. Assessing Languages for Specific
Purposes. New York: Cambridge CYriversitv Press.
This is the first volume devoted exclusively to
assessment, a central issue in ESP and in other
specific purposes languages (ESP). A text that is
accessible to nonexperts, it includes a variety of
actual test tasks taken from a num ber of LSP
areas.
Dudlev-Evans, T, and M. f. St. John. 1998. Develop­
ments in ESP: A Multi-Disciplinary- Approach.
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
This is a verv good text for those new to ESP. It
includes discussions and examples of all the
“absolute characteristics” of the movement and
provides a variety of examples from EAP and
English for Occupational Purposes (both pro­
fessional and \TSL).
Journal (formerly The ESP Journal). Founded in
the earlv 1980s, the journal includes articles on
all of the "absolute characteristics” of ESP (needs
assessment, discourse analysis, etc.) as well as
discussions of research and the practical issues of
curriculum design. .Also included are metre infor­
mal discussions of ESP issues and book reviews.
Gillespie. M. 1996. Learning to Work in a New Land:
A Review and Sourcebook for Vocational and
Workplace ESL. Washington, D.C.: Center for
Applied linguistics.
This text examines the role of immigrants in
the workforce, the status of English language
learning in vocational and workforce educa­
tion. and the wavs the educational and govern­
mental systems can enhance opportunities and
productivity for the English language learner.
Adult ESL Education. (A project in adult immi­
grant education. PAIE). Washington, D.C.:
National Clearinghouse for ESL Literacy Educa­
tion. [Sponsoring agenev: Office of Educational
Research and Improvement, Washington,
D.C.] (ERIC PRODUCT 071). This question
and answer text discusses how employment
preparation can be integrated into an English as
a Second Language curriculum, whether in a
workplace or general ESL program.
specific purposes: International in scope, specific
 in purpose. TESOL Quarterh. 26(2): 297-614.
Commissioned for TESOL’s twentv-fifth
anniversary, this article provides a short
overview of the ESP movement and its history.
EN DN O TES
1 “General English” is enclosed bv quotes throughout
this chapter because the authors do not believe that
such a language exists. All language and language
classes are specific to the learner, the context, and
the content.
- The authors would like to thank Gretchen Bitterlin,
ESL Resource Teacher, San Diego Community
College District: and Brigitte Marshall, Educational
Programs Consultant, Adult Education Office,
California Department of Education, for their assis­
tance in the \TiSL discussions found in this chapter.
4 As Title II of the Workforce Investment Act (WTA).
4 Secretary of Labor's Commission on Achieving
Xecessarv Skills.
■’ The authors are indebted to Mohamecl Daoud, one
of Tunisia's foremost ESP experts, for this anecdote.
b Now called English for Specific Purposes: An Inter­
national Journal.
 Syllabus Design
DAVI D NUNAN
in “ SyMabus Design," Nunan describes and evaluates a range of syllabus types including grammatical,
notional-functional, content-based, task-based, and integrated, he also sets out and illustrates key
procedures for developing syllabuses.These include needs analysis, goal and objective setting, and the
development of competencies.
O V ER V IEW
In o rd e r to define svllabus design, we n e e d to
start with the b ro a d e r field o f curriculum devel­
o pm ent. Curriculum is a large messy co ncept
which can be looked at in a n u m b e r o f warns. A
very b ro ad definition is that it includes all of the
p la n n e d lea rn in g experiences o f an educational
system. T he field o f curriculum developm ent
was first system atized bv Tr ier in 1949, who artic­
ulated fo u r fu n d am en tal questions that m ust be
answ ered bv anv cu rriculum developer:
1. W hat educational purposes should a school
seek to attain?
2. W hat educational experiences can be pro ­
vided that are likelv to attain those purposes?
3. How can the educational experiences be
effectively organized?
4. How can we d eterm in e w h eth er these p u r­
poses have b een attained?
In the context of language teaching, the first
two questions have to do with syllabus design, the
th ird with language teaching m ethodology, and
the fo u rth with assessm ent an d evaluation.
Syllabus design, then, is the selection, sequencing,
and justification of the content of the curriculum .
In language teaching, c o n te n t selection will
include selecting linguistic features such as items
o f gram m ar, pronunciation, and vocabulary' as
well as experiential content such as topics and
them es. This selection process is guided by needs
analyses o f various kinds. Needs analysis provides
the designer with a basis both for content specifi­
cation an d for the setting of goals a n d objectives.
In 1976, David W ilkins p u blished an influential
b o o k called Notional Syllabuses, in w hich he
argued th at the p o in t o f d e p a rtu re for syllabus
design should n o t be lists o f linguistic item s, b u t
a specification of the concepts th at learn ers wish
to express (notions such as tim e a n d space), an d
the things th at learners w ant to do with language
(functions such as co m p lim en tin g o r apologiz­
ing). M ore recen tly th ere have b een calls fo r the
ad o p tio n o f a process approach, in which the
point o f d ep a rtu re is n o t lists o f linguistic or
notional-functional content, b u t a specification
of com m unicative and learning processes. This
has resulted in proposals for task-based syllabuses.
A nother significant trend, particularly in second
as opposed to foreign language contexts, has been
the em ergence of content-based syllabuses. Most
recently, an integrated approach has been called
for. In such an approach, all or m ost o f the ele­
m ents and processes described above are incorpo­
rated into the svllabus.
In this chapter, I wall elaborate o n the con­
cepts an d processes described in the p reced in g
p aragraph. W here a p p ro p riate, the concepts
will be illustrated with extracts from syllabuses of
differen t kinds.
Grammatical Syllabuses
T raditionally the p o in t of d e p a rtu re for design­
ing a language syllabus has b een to select a n d
sequence lists o f gram m atical item s, a n d th en
in teg rate these with lists o f vocabulary items.
Lists o f phonological item s have som etim es b een
throw n in for good m easure.
 G ram m atical syllabuses are still very p o p u ­
lar today, alth o u g h thev were at th eir most p o p ­
u la r th ro u g h th e 1960s. w hen virtually all
syllabuses were crafted in gram m atical term s.
T he assum ption underlying these syllabuses is
th a t language consists o f a finite set of rules
which can be co m bined in various wavs to m ake
m eaning. T he task for the language lea rn er is to
m aster each rule in the o rd e r p resen ted bv the
svllabus before m oving on to the next. T he
w hole purp o se o f the gram m atical svllabus teas
to control in p u t to the lea rn er so that onlv one
item teas p resen ted at a tim e. This created a
dilem m a, which becam e m ore and m ore press­
ing with the advent of Com m unicative Language
Teaching: How co u ld one co n tro l in p u t at
the same tim e as one is providing learners with
exposure to the kinds o f language thev would
e n c o u n te r outside the classroom?
This problem can be addressed in a n u m b er
o f ways. O n e solution is to ab andon anv attem pt
at structural grading. A nother is to use the list of
graded structures, not to d eterm in e the language
to which learners are exposed, but to d eterm in e
the items that will be the pedagogic focus in
class. In o th e r words, learners are exposed to nat­
uralistic samples o f text which are onlv roughly
graded, and which provide a richer context, but
thev are onlv expected form ally to m aster those
items which have been isolated, graded, and set
o u t in the svllabus (X unan 1988a, p. 30).
D uring the 1970s, the gram m atical svllabus
cam e u n d e r attack on two fronts. In the first
place, the linear sequencing entailed in gram ­
m atical syllabuses did not rep resen t the com ­
plexity of language. Secondly, evidence from the
field o f second language acquisition showed that
learners did not necessarily acquire language in
the o rd e r specified bv the gram m atical svllabus.
For exam ple, Dulav and Burt (1973) and Bailey,
M adden, and Krashen (1974) showed that cer­
tain gram m atical items ap p eared to be acquired
in a p red e term in e d order, and that this o rd er
ap p eared to be im pervious to form al instruction.
This led K rashen (1981. 1989) to argue that we
sh o u ld a b a n d o n gram m atically stru c tu re d
syllabuses com pletely in favor o f a "natural
a p p ro a c h ” to language learning. In the natural
a p p ro ach , gram m atical g rad in g is eschew ed.
replaced bv com m unicative activities that pro­
m ote subconscious acquisition following the
''natural" o rd e r ra th e r than conscious learn in g
based on classroom instruction.
An alternative explanation for the lack of
congruence between the input provided by gram ­
matical syllabuses and the language actually used
bv learners at different stages of developm ent has
been provided bv P ienem ann a n d Johnston
(1987). These researchers argue that the o rd e r
in which learners acquire a p articular item will
be d eterm in ed , not bv the gram m atical com ­
plexity of the item , but bv its speech processing
complexity. T h eir hypothesis predicts that the
third person singular verb inflection (present
tense) s. which is grammatically simple but com ­
plex in term s of speech processing, will be
acquired relatively late in the language acquisition
process, and this is indeed what we find. T hird
person s is one of the first gram m atical m or­
phem es to be taught, but for m am learners it is
one oi the last items to be acquired. In fact, some
learners never acquire it.
T he speech processing theory predicts that
the following items will be acquired in the o rd e r
below, and that this is th erefo re the o rd e r in
which thev should be in tro d u ced in the svllabus:
W hat's the tim er W hat's so u r nam e?
How do vou spell X? Are vou tired?
W here are vou from? Do vou like X?
P ienem ann and Johnston (1987) argued
that the structural svllabus should be retained.
However, the o rd erin g of item s in the svllabus
should follow a very different sequence — that
established bv th eir research as being “learn-
able." Thus. гг/equestions with do would not be
taught until learners had m astered tr/equestions
with be.
T he problem with this proposal, particularly
in light o f Com m unicative Language Teaching, is
that m am of the items that are required for com ­
m unication are "late acq u ired ”— for exam ple,
re/z-questions with do. Teachers w orking with
such a sv llabus w ould be able to use few com m u­
nicative tasks in the earlv stages o f learning.
Critics of the P ienem ann an d Johnston proposal
have argued that “u n learn ab le” structures can be
introduced, but thev should be p resented as
holistic form ulae. In o th e r words, learners would
be taught question forms such as Whal do \ou do ?
and Where does she live? as single “chunks” for use
in com m unicative tasks such as role plats, infor­
m ation gaps, and so on. They would not be
expected to break these down into th eir con­
stituent parts immediatelv; this would h appen
gradually over time. In fact, som e second lan­
guage acquisition researchers argue that this pro ­
cess of learning strings o f language as unanalvzed
chunks and then later breaking them down is a
key psycholinguistic m echanism in the acquisi­
tion process (Ellis 1994).
T H E “O R G A N IC ” A P P R O A C H
TO GRAM M AR
U nderiving the traditional linear svllabus is the
notion that learning is a process of m astering
each item perfectly one at a time. In fact, when
the structural svllabus teas at its height of popular­
ity, masterv learning was an im portant m ovem ent
within educational psvchologv. In m etaphorical
terms, it teas believed that a language develops in
the same war as a building is constructed— one
(linguistic) brick at a time.
However, the complexitv of the acquisition
process revealed bv a growing bodv of second
language acquisition (SLA) research led some
syllabus designers to argue that language develop­
m ent is basicallv an organic process. A ccording to
this m etaphor, a new language develops in a wav
that is m ore akin to plants grotring in a garden
ra th e r th an a b u ilding being constructed.
Learners do not acquire each item perfectlv. one
at a time, but num erous items imperfectlv. all
at once.
N EED S A N A LYSIS
W ith the advent o f C om m unicative Language
Teaching (CLT) in the 1970s. a very different
ap p ro ach to svllabus design was p ro p o sed by a
n u m b e r o f linguists. This ap p ro ach began, not
with lists o f gram m atical, phonological, a n d lex­
ical features, but with an analysis o f the com m u­
nicative needs of the learner. A set o f techniques
an d procedures, know n as needs analysis, teas
developed to assist designers a d o p tin g such an
approach. W hile needs analysis was a crucial tool
for those working in the areas of English for
Specific Purposes (ESP) and English for Academic
Purposes (EAP), it was also widely used in General
English svllabus design.
T he appearance of needs analysis in lan­
guage education (it had existed in o th er areas of
educational planning for manv years) was thus
stim ulated bv the developm ent of Com m unicative
Language Teaching (CLT). Proponents of CLT
argued that it was neith er necessary n o r possible
to include every aspect o f the target language in
the svllabus. Rather, svllabus c o n te n t should
reflect the com m unicative purposes and needs of
the learners. Language-for-tourism syllabuses will
contain different content from svllabttses designed
for teaching academic English. (See Johns and
Price-Machado's chapter in this volume).
N eeds analysis includes a wide variety of
techniques for collecting and analyzing inform a­
tion. both about learners and ab o u t language.
T he kinds o f inform ation that svllabus designers
collect include biographical inform ation such as
age. first language b ack g ro u n d , reasons for
learn in g the language, o th e r languages spoken,
tim e available for learning, an d so on. T he most
so p histicated in stru m e n t for d o in g a needs
analysis was developed bv M unbv (1978). Called
the communicative needs processor, it involved spec­
ifying the following:
■ particip an t (biographical data ab o u t the
le a rn e r):
* purposive dom ain (the purposes for which
the language is req u ired );
* setting (the environm ents in which the lan­
guage trill be u s e d ):
* in teractio n (the people that the le a rn e r will
be com m unicating with);
* instrum entality (the m edium : spoken versus
written: the m ode: m onologue or dialogue,
face-to-face or indirect):
■ dialect:
■ target level (degree o f m asterv req u ired );
■ com m unicative event (productive and re­
ceptive skills neded);
* com m unicative kev (interpersonal attitudes
and tones req u ired ).
 Brincllev (1984, 1990) draws a distinction
betw een “objective” needs and “subjective"needs:
Objective needs are those which can
be diagnosed bv teachers on the basis
o f the analysis o f personal data about
learners along with inform ation about
th eir language proficiency and p at­
terns o f language use. . . . w hereas the
“subjective” needs (which are often
“w ants,” “desires,” “expectations" or
o th e r psychological m anifestations)
c an n o t be diagnosed as easily, or, in
m any cases, even stated bv learners
them selves (Brincllev 1984. p. 31).
Objective needs analyses result in c o n ten t
derived from an analysis o f the target com m u­
nicative situations in which learners will engage,
as well as an analysis of the kinds of spoken and
w ritten discourse they will n eed to c o m p re h en d
a n d pro d u ce. Such analyses were fu n d am en tal
to the d evelopm ent o f an im p o rta n t and e n d u r­
ing m ovem ent within language tea c h in g — that
o f language for specific purposes.
N eeds-based course design, particularly
w hen it results in tightly specified learning out­
comes, has been heavily criticized. W'iddowson
(1983), for exam ple, claims that such courses are
exercises in training ra th e r than in education
because learners can only do those things for
which they have been specifically prepared. He
argues th at learners should be to able to do
things for "which they have not been specifically
p rep ared . However, the extent to which learners
are able to transfer learning from one context to
a n o th e r is basically a m ethodological issue rath e r
th an a syllabus design issue. Syllabus designers
can facilitate learning transfer by building into
the svllabus opportunities for recycling.
A n o th er criticism of needs-based course
design is that, "while it m ight be relevant in sec­
o n d language contexts, it is often irrelevant in
foreign language contexts, w here learners have
no im m ediate, o r even foreseeable, n eed to com ­
m unicate orallv. In such contexts, subjective
needs, relating to such things as learning strat­
egy preferences, mav be m ore relevant than
objective needs.
Goal and Objective Setting
N eeds analysis provides a basis for specifying
goals and objectives for a learn in g program .
Goals are broad, general purposes for learn in g a
language. At the b roadest level. Halliday (1985)
argues that individuals use language
■ to obtain goods a n d services,
■ to socialize with others, and
■ for e n te rta in m e n t an d enjoym ent.
These t e n broad goals can be elaborated
and refined, as the following goal statem ents
illustrate:
Instruction should enable learners to
1. participate in conversation related to the
pu rsu it o f com m on activities with others;
2. obtain goods and services th ro u g h conver­
sation or correspondence;
3. establish and m aintain relationships through
exchanging inform ation, ideas, opinions,
attitudes, feelings, experiences and plans;
4. m ake social arrangem ents, solve problem s,
an d com e to conclusions together;
5. discuss topics of interest;
6. search for specific inform ation for a given
purpose, process it, a n d use it in som e way;
7. listen to or read inform ation, process it,
an d use it in som e way;
8. give inform ation in spoken or w ritten form
on the basis of p ersonal experience;
9. listen to or read, a n d /o r view a story, poem ,
plav, feature, etc., and respond to it person­
ally in some wav (Clark 1987, p. 186).
Having established the goals o f a learning
program , the syllabus designer articulates a set
of objectives desig n ed to realize th e goals.
Objectives are th erefo re m uch m ore specific
th an goals, an d n u m ero u s objectives will be
specified for any given goal. Form al p e rfo r­
m ance objectives have th ree elem ents: a “task”
o r p erfo rm a n c e elem ent, a standards elem ent,
an d a conditions elem ent. T he task elem ent
specifies w hat the lea rn er is to do, the standards
elem en t sets out how well the p e rfo rm e r is to
carrv out the task, and the conditions elem ent
establishes the circum stances u n d e r w hich h e or
she is to perform .
 T he following exam ples illustrate just how
specific p erfo rm an ce objectives are:
1. In a classroom role plat' (co n d itio n ), stu­
dents will exchange personal inform ation
(p erfo rm an ce). T h ree pieces o f info rm a­
tion will be ex ch an g ed (standard).
2. W hen listening to a taped w eather forecast
(condition), students will extract inform a­
tion on m inim um and m axim um tem pera­
tures and o th er relevant inform ation such as
the likelihood of rain (perform ance). All key
inform ation will be extracted (standard.)
In the field o f general education, the objec­
tives ap p ro ach has been criticized over the years.
O ne criticism th at is relevant to language educa­
tion is th at trulv valuable learn in g outcom es
cannot be accuratelv specified in advance. (This
belief is c a p tu red bv the aphorism . "E ducation is
w hat’s left w hen evervthing th at has been taught
has b e e n forgotten.") In language teaching, our
aim is to help learners develop the abilitv to
com m unicate m eanings, attitudes, and feelings
that can onlv be prespecified in a verv general
sense. Proficiencv requires creativitv. a n d profi­
cient language users know m ultiple wavs of
achieving com m unicative ends th ro u g h lan­
guage. Identifving objectives a priori m ar th e re ­
fore be problem atic. A n o th er criticism is that
the prespecification o f precise an d detailed
objectives p rese n ts the tea c h e r from taking
advantage o f instructional opp o rtu n ities occur­
ring unexpectedlv in the classroom .
C O M P E T E N C E -B A S E D
LA N G U A G E T E A C H IN G (CBLT)
A ccording to Richards (in press), com petencv-
based training developed as an alternative to the
use o f objectives in program planning, although
th ere are m anv sim ilarities betw een the two
approaches. As with the objectives m ovem ent,
CBLT focuses on what learners should be able to
do at the en d of a course o f instruction. As with
objectives, com petencies are co n c ern e d with the
attain m en t of specified standards ra th e r than
with an individual's achievem ent in relation to a
group. Thev are th erefo re criterion- ra th e r than
n o rm -referen ced a n d this is the m ajor differ­
ence betw een the two approaches.
Exam ple o f a com petence statem ent:
T h e le a rn e r can n e g o tia te c o m p le x /
p ro b lem atic spoken exchanges fo r p ersonal
business a n d com m unitv purposes. H e or she
* Achieves purpose of exchange and provides
all essential inform ation accurately
* Uses a p p ro p ria te staging, for exam ple,
o p e n in g an d closing strategies
и Provides and requests information as required
* Explains circumstances, causes, consequences,
and proposes solutions as required
■ Sustains dialogue, for exam ple, using feed­
back. tu rn taking
* Uses gram m atical form s an d vocabulary
a p p ro p riate to topic an d register; g ram m at­
ical errors do not in te rfe re with m eaning
■ Speaks with pro n u n ciatio n /stress/in to n atio n
that does not im pede intelligibility
* Is able to in terpret gestures and o th er para-
linguistic features (Adult M igrant Education
Service 1993).
T he com petencv-based a p p ro ach has had
a m ajor influence on svllabuses in p articular
sectors o f th e e d u c atio n a l systems in m ost
English-speaking countries, including Australia,
New Zealand, the U nited K ingdom , and the
U nited States.
CBLT first em erged in the U nited States
in the 1970s and was widely ad o p ted in vocation­
ally o riented education and in adult ESL pro ­
grams. By the en d of the 1980s, CBLT had come
to be accepted as the "state-of-the-art” approach
to ESL bv national policvmakers and leaders in
curriculum developm ent (A uerbach 1986).
If we look at the sample com petency state­
m ent provided above, we will see that it has several
points of similarity with the objectives described in
a prerious section. It contains a "task" statem ent
and a n u m b er of "how well" or standards state­
m ents ("achieves purpose o f ex ch an g e,” “p ro ­
vides all essential inform ation accurately,” “uses
a p p ro p riate staging," "errors do n o t in terfere
with m eaning." "p ro n u n ciatio n does n o t im pede
intelligibility").
T H E STA N D A R D S M OVEM ENT
T h e m ost re c e n t m anifestation o f perform ance-
based ap p roaches to syllabus design, in the
U n ited States at least, is the standards move­
m ent. T h ro u g h o u t the 1990s, th ere was a con­
c e rted push for national ed u catio n standards.
This push was seen at all levels o f governm ent,
a n d it resu lted in legislation m an d atin g the
d evelopm ent an d im p lem en tatio n o f standards.
For exam ple, the A dult E ducation Act an d the
N ational Literacy Act of 1991 req u ire ad u lt basic
ed u cation program s in all states to develop indi­
cators of pro g ram quality' a n d to attach p e rfo r­
m ance standards to these quality indicators (see
website at the e n d of c h a p te r).
In manv ways, ju st as the com petency move­
m en t was a repackaging of concepts from the
objectives m ovem ent, the same is true of the stan­
dards m ovem ent. “O b jectiv es/co m p eten cies"
are redefined as standards, which can also be used
in work done in o th er areas such as m ath and
language arts. For exam ple, the National Council
of Teachers of English (NCTE 1997) standards
docum ent for English language arts states, “By
c o n te n t standards, we m ean statem ents th at
define what students should know and be able to
d o ” (p.1-2).
In ESL, the TESOL organization has com-
m issioned several sets o f standards in areas such
as pre-K -12, ad u lt education, a n d w orkplace
education. T he m ost fully developed o f these are
the pre-K -12 standards (S hort et al. 1997).
T hese are fram ed a ro u n d th re e goals an d nine
standards. T h e standards are fleshed o u t in
term s of descriptors, progress indicators, and
classroom vignettes. T he nin e c o n te n t standards
“indicate m ore specificallv [than the goals] w hat
students should know an d be able to do as a
result of in stru ctio n ” (p.15). D escriptors are
“b ro a d categories o f discrete, rep resen tativ e
behavior” (p.15). Progress indicators “list assess­
able, observable activities th at students mav p er­
fo rm to show p rogress tow ards m ee tin g
designated standards. T hese progress indicators
rep re sen t a varietv o f instructional techniques
th at may be used by teachers to d eterm in e how
well students are d o in g ” (p. 16).
T h e follow ing e x am p le from th e ESL
Standards illustrates the d ifferent co m p o n en ts of
the standard. It is w ritten for grades pre-K-3.
Goal:
■ To use English to com m unicate in social
settings
Standard:
■ Students will use English to participate in
social interactions
Descriptors:
* Sharing a n d requesting inform ation
■ Expressing needs, feelings, and ideas
■ Using nonverbal com m unication in social
interactions
■ G etting personal needs m et
■ E ngaging in conversations
* C o n ducting transactions
Sample Progress Indicators:
■ Engage listener's a tte n tio n verbally or non-
verballv
■ V olunteer inform ation and resp o n d to
requests about self and family
■ Elicit in fo rm a tio n a n d ask clarification
questions
■ Clarifv and restate inform ation as n eeded
■ D escribe feelings an d em otions after w atch­
ing a movie
■ Indicate interests, opinions, o r preferences
related to class projects
■ Give a n d ask for perm ission
■ Offer and respond to greetings, compliments,
imitations, introductions, and farewells
■ Negotiate solutions to problem s, interper­
sonal m isunderstandings, and disputes
■ R ead a n d w rite in v itations a n d th a n k
you letters
■ Use the telep h o n e
(Short et al. 1997, p. 31)
N O T IO N A L -F U N C T IO N A L
SY LLA B U SE S
The b ro ad er view of language as com m unication
that em erged during the 1970s was taken u p bv syl­
labus designers. .As indicated earlier, an im portant
figure here was Wilkins (1976), who argued for
syllabuses based on no tio n s a n d functions.
Notions are general conceptual m eanings such as
time, cause, and duration, while functions are the
com m unicative purposes th a t are achieved
through language such as apologizing, advising,
and expressing preferences.
Like m ost syllabus proposals, n o tional-
functionalism was n o t im pervious to criticism.
Early versions of notional-functional syllabuses
e n d e d u p n o t being so very different from the
g ram m atical syllabuses th a t thev rep la ce d .
Instead o f units en titled “sim ple past,'' we find
units e n title d “talking a b o u t the w eek en d .’’
W iddowson (1983) also p o in te d out that simplv
replacing lists of gram m atical item s with lists of
notional-functional ones n e ith e r re p re se n te d
the n a tu re of language as com m unication n o r
reflected the way languages were lea rn ed anv
m ore th an gram m atical syllabuses did.
W hen syllabus designers began tu rn in g
away from gram m atical criteria as the p o in t of
d e p a rtu re in designing th eir syllabuses, selection
and grading becam e m uch m ore problem atic. .As
soon as one looks beyond linguistic notions of
simplicity7 and difficulty, the n u m b er of criteria
begins to multiply. These criteria include situa­
tional, contextual, and extralinguistic factors.
T h ere are no objective m eans for deciding that
one fu n ctio n al item is m ore com plex th an
another. In addition, m ost functions can be
expressed in m any d ifferent ways an d at m any
different levels of complexity. A pologizing, for
exam ple, can range from Sorry to I really must
apologize— I do hope you can forgive me.
The relative arbitrariness of selecting and
sequencing can be seen in the following list of func­
tional com ponents from a well-known EFL course:
1. Ask a n d give nam es; say hello; ask a n d tell
w here people are from
2. Say h ello form ally a n d inform ally; ask
a b o u t an d give personal inform ation
3. D escribe people; tell the tim e
4. D escribe places; give com plim ents; express
uncertainty; c o n firm /c o rre c t inform ation
5. D escribe houses a n d apartm ents; m ake a n d
answ er tele p h o n e calls
6. Express likes a n d dislikes; ask ab o u t and
describe habits an d routines
7. Ask a n d tell ab o u t quantity
8. Ask for a n d give directions; ask for a n d tell
a b o u t physical an d em otional states
9. Talk about frequency; express degrees of
certainty7
10. Describe p e o p le ’s appearances; write simple
letters; give com plim ents
(Swan a n d W alter 1984)
C O N T E N T -B A S E D
SY LLA B U SE S
C ontent-based instruction (CBI) com es in m any
d iffe re n t guises (see Snow’s c h a p te r in this
volum e). However, all variants share o n e charac­
teristic— language is n ot p rese n ted directly, b ut
is in tro d u c ed via the c o n te n t o f o th e r subjects.
In school settings, this c o n te n t is typically the reg­
ular subjects in the curriculum such as science,
geography, and m athem atics. Learners acquire
the target language in the course of doing o th er
things. T he approach draws strongly on the expe­
riential view of learning, th at is, th a t active
engagem ent in com m unicating in the language is
the m ost effective m eans of acquiring it.
.As we saw at the beginning o f this chapter, the
three core tasks for the syllabus designer are select­
ing, sequencing, and justifying content. In CBI, the
justification comes from the content area itself. For
example, if the content area is general science, the
topic of photosynthesis would be introduced on
the grounds that it is a core topic in the field.
A rec e n t book on content-based in struction
presents teaching suggestions in the following
categories:
■ Information management: H e re learn ers sift
data into different categories, or are given
categories and are required to find examples
to fit these categories.
■ Critical thinking: Learners go beyond classify­
ing to evaluate or analvze data, for example,
by determ ining a point of view or arguing
from a given stance.
■ Hands-on activities: T hese involve m an ip u ­
lating data th ro u g h games, experim ents,
a n d o th e r experiential activities.
■ Data gathering: These tasks involve learners in
scanning fo r specific in fo rm a tio n a n d /
or collecting and assem bling facts, data, and
references.
■ Analysis and construction: This final category
involves “ (a) breaking a text into its com ­
p o n e n t parts, elucidating its rhetorical pat­
tern, an d exam ining text flow (cohesion
a n d co h eren ce) o r (b) applying know ledge
o f oral an d w ritten discourse conventions
to create a specifically p a tte rn e d text with
the goal of increasing fluencv, accuracv, or
b o th ” (M aster an d B rinton 1997, p. vi).
TA SK -B A S ED SY LLA B U SE S
Task-based syllabuses rep resen t a particular real­
ization of Com m unicative Language Teaching
(N unan 1989, see also Crookes an d C h a u d ro n ’s
c h ap ter in this volum e). Instead o f beginning
the design process with lists of gram m atical,
functional-notional, an d o th er items, the designer
conducts a needs analysis, which yields a list of the
com m unicative tasks that the learners for w hom
the syllabus is in te n d e d will n e e d to carry out.
In syllabus design, a basic distinction is draw n
betw een target tasks an d pedagogical tasks. A
target task is som ething that the learner m ight
conceivably do outside of the classroom. Examples
of target tasks include
■ Taking p a rt in a jo b interview
■ C om pleting a credit card application
■ Finding o n e ’s way from a hotel to a subway
station
■ C hecking into a hotel
Pedagogical tasks are unlikely to be deploved
outside the classroom. They are created in order to
“push” learners into com m unicating with each
other in the target language, on the assum ption
that this comm unicative interaction will fuel the
acquisition process.
T he following is a fairly com m on exam ple
of a pedagogical task:
In pairs, students com plete an infor­
m ation gap task to get instructions on
how to get from o n e ’s hotel to the
nearest subwav station. S tu d en t A has
a m ap of the town c e n te r with the
hotel m arked. S tudent В has the same
m ap with the subwav m arked.
Having specified target and pedagogical
tasks, the syllabus designer analyzes them in o rd er
to identify the knowledge and skills that the
learner m ust have in o rd er to earn- out the tasks.
T he next step is to sequence and integrate the
tasks with enabling exercises designed to develop
the requisite knowledge and skills. O ne kev dis­
tinction betw een an exercise and a task is that
exercises will have purely language-related out­
comes, while tasks will have nonlanguage-related
outcom es, as well as language-related ones.
Exam ples of exercises:
■ Read the following passage, from which all
prepositions have been deleted, and reinstate
the correct prepositions from the list provided.
■ Listen to the dialogue a n d answ er the
following tru e /fa lse questions.
■ Rearrange these questions and answers to form
a conversation, and practice the conversation.
E xam ple of a task:
■ Listen to the w eather forecast an d decide
what to wear. (Such a target task m ight be
carried out in the classroom by having
students circle pictures o f clothing and
accessories such as jackets, shorts, um brellas,
and sunglasses.)
T Y P E S O F TASKS
A n o th e r wav of distinguishing betw een tasks is to
divide them into reproductive an d creative tasks.
A reproductive task is one in which the learn er
is rep ro d u cin g language following a m odel pro­
vided bv the teacher, textbook, tape, o r o th er
source. A task is reproductive if the language that
the learner is to use is largely predeterm ined and
predictable. This does not m ean that such tasks A N IN T E G R A T E D A P P R O A C H
are necessarily noncom m unicative. Many com m u­
TO SY LLA B U S D ESIG N
nicative tasks, such as the following, are o f this type.
In this chapter, I have ou tlin ed the m ajor trends
an d developm ents in syllabus design over the
Class survey. Find som eone yvho lik es/
last twenty years. In my own work, I have tried to
d o e sn ’t like the following:
em brace an in te g rate d a p p ro ach to syllabus
likes d o e sn ’t like design in which all of the elem ents and options
E ating chilis _________ _________ discussed above are b rought together into a single
design. T he follofong exam ple illustrates one way
Playing tennis _________ _________
in which this m ight be done.
W atching
1. Identify- the g en eral contexts a n d situations
sci-fi movies _________ _________ in w hich the learners will com m unicate.
D oing homeyvork _________ _________ 2. Specify the com m unicative events th at the
learners will engage in.
3. M ake a list of the functional goals th at the
This task is reproductive because we know that learners will n e e d in o rd e r to take p art in
if the students are d o in g it right, thev will be the com m unicative events.
saying, “Do vou like eating chilis?" “Do y o u like 4. List the kev linguistic elem ents that learners
playing tennis?” etc. It is com m unicative in that
will need in order to achieve the functional
the person asking the question does n o t know goals.
w hether the classm ate's answer will be y« or no. 5. Sequence and integrate the various skill
Creative language tasks, on the o th e r h and,
elem ents identified in steps 3 a n d 4.
are less predictable. L earners m ust assem ble the
words an d structures thev have acq u ired in new
In developing integrated syllabuses, I find
and u n p red ictab le wavs. H ere is an exam ple of a
that cross-reference planning grids are very use­
creative task.
ful, because thev enable me to m ap out a n d coor­
dinate the different elem ents in the svllabus.
Pair -work. W ho is the best person for the job?
H ere is a cross-reference grid integrating func­
Read the following resum es, and decide who tions and structures for the first few units in a syl­
the best person is for the following jobs: labus u n d e rp in n in g a textbook series for yo unger
И School building supervisor learners. N ot only does the grid help guide m e in
selecting which items to teach w hen, it also shows
И R eceptionist
m e w here and w hen recycling is necessary-. I can
И L ibrarian also see if there are gaps in the svllabus.
И Bookstore clerk

In this task, the language used bv the students is

m uch less predictable. If we were to eavesdrop C O N C L U S IO N
on the task, we m ight p red ict th at we w ould h ear
In this chapter. I have provided an in tro d u ctio n
utterances such as:
to the field o f svllabus design. I suggest th at syl­
“I th ink . . . “ labus design is that part o f curriculum develop­
“We should . . . " m ent which is co n cern ed with selecting, grading,
“This person m ight . . . ” integrating, and justifying the c o n te n t of the cur­
riculum . D ifferent ty pes of syllabuses, from gram ­
However, th ere is no wav o f p red ictin g precisely m atical to task-based, are in troduced, described,
the language that will be used. a n d critiqued. T he key theoretical a n d em pirical
 Structures
F u n c tio n s Simple W h at Demonstratives: W h ere Prepositions: Simple
present questions this, that questions on, in, present
tense + u nd er tense +
'i be have

Introduce X X
yourself

Identify X X
ownership

Introduce X
people

Talk about X X
where things
are

Talk about X X
likes and
dislikes

(Source: Nunan 1999a)

influences on the field are also in troduced. In S U G G E S T E D A C T IV IT IE S

th e last p a rt o f the chapter, I argue for an inte­
g rated syllabus which draws on a n d incorporates
all o f the key experiential an d linguistic elem ents
discussed in the body o f this chapter.
D IS C U S S IO N Q U E S T IO N S
1. W hat do you see as the role o f the classroom
teach er in syllabus design?
2. W hat do you see as the advantages a n d
disadvantages o f an objectives-based syllabus?
3. W hat do you think that content-based and task-
based syllabuses m ight have in comm on? How
m ight they differ?
4. If you w ere asked to design a syllabus fo r a
new ESL o r EFL course, w hat are som e o f the
first things you w ould do as prep aratio n ?
1. L ook a t th e “C ourse Overview” in A ppendix
В o f J e n s e n ’s c h a p te r on lesson p la n n in g in
this volum e. Is this a syllabus? E xplain your
answer.
2. D esign a needs analysis q u estio n n aire fo r a
specified g ro u p o f learners.
3. C om pare th e selection a n d seq u en cin g o f
fun ctio n al an d gram m atical co m p o n en ts in
several g en eral E SL /E FL textbooks. W hat
sim ilarities a n d differences are there? Is
th ere a “com m on c o re ” o f elem ents across
the textbooks?
4. Identify a target group o f learners a n d carry
o u t the five p lan n in g tasks suggested in the
section on the integrated syllabus on page 64.
Develop a cross-reference grid sim ilar to the
one set o u t in the chapter.
5. Design four three-part perform ance objectives
for the group of learners in Activity 4 above.

FU R T H ER R EA D IN G
Dubin, F.. and E. Olshtain. 1986. Course Design.
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
This hook is designed for teachers who have the
planning and development of courses as part
of their duties. It covers what the authors call
the “fact-finding" stage — establishing realistic
goals, surveving existing programs, realizing
goals through instructional plans, selecting
the shape of the syllabus— and the considera­
tions involved in constructing communicative
syllabuses.
Brown, J. D. 1995. The Elements of Language Curriculum.
Boston. MA: Heinle if- Heinle.
Although it is a book on curriculum, and there­
fore deals with issues that go bet ond svllabus
design, it also provides an accessible introduction
to svllabus design issues.
Graves, K.. ed. 1996. Teachers as Course Developers.
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
This book contains six interesting case studies
of teachers as course developers and svllabus
designers. The narratives of these teachers, who
work in very different contexts worldwide, illus­
trate the process of course development from
the perspective of the teacher.
Nttnan. D. 1988a. S\llabus Design. Oxford: Oxford
University Press.
This book explores the principles involved in
selecting, grading, and integrating the carious
components of a language svllabus and demon­
strates how teachers can go about analyzing the
syllabuses in use in their own classrooms. It offers
analytical tools and techniques for evaluating,
modifying, and adapting syllabuses.
W E B S IT E S
Both the U.S. National Literacy Act of 1991 and the
U.S. Aclult Education Act of 1991, along with
related police resources, arc available on-line at
www.nifl.gov lines/collections/policy/resource,
html
 : L istening
UNIT 11 A

<
HH

Language Skills HH

H
z
Listening
Until quite recently, listening comprehension had been neglected with
regard to both its place in second or foreign language teaching
methodology and the development of techniques and materials for
use in the classroom. As Morley's chapter points out. listening
comprehension is now felt to be a prerequisite for oral proficiency as
well as an important skill in its own right. She offers guidelines for
developing activities and materials, including the development of a self-
access, self-study listening program. In Peterson's chapter the acquisition
of listening skills in a second or foreign language is explained with
reference to a cognitive processing model. She presents a taxonomy of
exercises and activities, showing how at eacn stage of learning, students
can be assisted in developing bottom-up and top-down listening
strategies and skills.
 Aural Comprehension Instruction:
Principles and Practices
IO A N MO R L E Y
In "Aural Comprehension Instruction: Principles and Practices," Morley first traces the changing
patterns of second language listening instruction, outlines four generic instructional models, and
discusses some of the psycho-social dimensions of listening. She then goes on to present suggestions
for developing activities and materials for coursework, including detailed guidelines for developing a
self-access self-study listening program.
IN T R O D U C T IO N
D uring the past thirty rears, theory and practice
in language learn in g an d language teaching
have ch anged in som e fu n d am en tal wavs. In
retrospect, the fo u r them es that d o m in ated the
S econd AILA (In te rn a tio n a l A ssociation o f
A pp lied linguistics) C o n fe re n c e in 1969
(C am b rid g e, E n g la n d ) seem to h a te b een
pro p h etic in p o in tin g the wav toward tren d s in
s e c o n d /fo re ig n lan g u a g e (S /F L ) e d u c a tio n
d u rin g the last q u a rte r o f the tw entieth century.
They h e ra ld ed new views on the im portance of
1. individual learners an d the individuality of
learning;
2. listening an d read in g as nonpassive a n d very
com plex receptive processes;
3. listening c o m p reh en sio n 's being recognized
as a fu n d am en tal skill;
4. real language used for real com m unication
as a viable classroom m odel.
Every facet of language study has b e e n
influenced bv these trends, b u t n o n e m ore d ra­
matically th an listening co m p reh en sio n . In the
1970s, the status o f listening began to change
from one of neglect to one of increasing im p o r­
tance. Instructional program s e x p a n d ed their
focus on pragm atic skills to include listening as
well as reading, writing, a n d speaking. D uring
the 1980s special a tte n tio n to listening was in co r­
p o ra te d in to new in stru c tio n a l fram ew orks.
P ro m in en t am ong these were form ats th a t fea­
tu red functional language a n d com m unicative
approaches. T h ro u g h o u t the 1990s, a tten tio n
to listening in language instruction increased
dram atically. A ural c o m p re h e n sio n in S /F L
acquisition becam e an im p o rta n t area of study.
.Although aural c o m p reh en sio n is notv well
recognized as an im p o rta n t facet o f language
learning, m uch work rem ains to be d o n e in both
theory an d practice. U nfortunately, as Brown
(1987) observed, a significant n u m b e r o f p u b ­
lished courses on listening co m p reh en sio n a n d
classroom practices in m anv schools in m any
countries continues to d em o n strate th a t listen­
ing is still reg a rd e d as the least im p o rta n t skill.
T he first three parts of this ch ap ter discuss
general aspects o f listening and language learn­
ing. (See Peterson's ch ap ter in this volum e for
additional inform ation.) T he last three sections
outline principles and guidelines for developing
a n d /o r adapting listening com prehension activi­
ties and materials. Lesson suggestions are given
for class, small-group, and pair work a n d for indi­
vidualized self-studv using equ ip m en t in the class­
room , at hom e, o r in a language laboratory
setting.
T R A C IN G T H E HISTORY:
L IS T E N IN G A N D LA N G U A G E
L E A R N IN G
Today the centrality o f listening in language
lea rn in g is well established. An a p p ro p riate
a u ra l c o m p re h e n s io n p ro g ra m th a t targets
le a rn e r listening at all levels of instruction is an
essential fo r se co n d lan g u a g e c o m p e te n c e .
A ural co m p reh en sio n establishes a base for the
d e v e lo p m e n t o f oral lan g u a g e w ithin the
“speech c h a in ” o f listening a n d speaking (D enes
an d Pinson 1963, p. T). It is im p o rta n t to note
th at m ultiple benefits accrue to the learn er
beyond the obvious im provem ents in listening
skills. In particular, listening com p reh en sio n
lessons are a vehicle for teaching elem ents of
gram m atical structure a n d allow new vocabulary
item s to be contextualized w ithin a bodv of com ­
m unicative discourse.
Making the Case: The Importance
o f Listening in Language Learning
It has taken m any vears to bring the language
teach in g profession a ro u n d to realizing the
im portance o f listening in second and foreign
language learning. As observed bv Rivers, long an
advocate for listening com prehension. "Speaking
does n o t of itself co nstitute com m unication
unless what is said is c o m p re h en d e d bv a n o th e r
person. . . . T eaching the com prehension o f spo­
ken speech is therefore of prim ary im portance if
the com m unication aim is to be rea c h e d ” (1966,
pp. 196, 204). T he reasons for the nearly total
neglect of listening are difficult to assess, b u t as
M orley notes, “Perhaps an assum ption th at lis­
tening is a reflex, a little like b re a th in g — listen­
ing seldom receives overt teaching atten tio n in
o n e ’s native language — has m asked the im por­
tance and complexity o f listening with u n d e r­
standing in a non-native language” (1972, p. vii).
In reality, listening is used far m ore than
any o th e r single language skill in norm al daily
life. O n average, we can expect to listen tyvice as
m uch as we speak, four tim es m ore th an y\e
read, a n d live times m ore th an we write (Rivers
1981; W eaver 1972).
Emerging Recognition of the
Importance o f Listening in
Second/Foreign Language Study
It is easy for us to take listening for granted ,
often with little conscious awareness of o u r p e r­
form ance as listeners. W eaver c o m m en ted on
the elusiveness o f o u r listening awareness: “After
all. listening is n e ith e r so dram atic n o r so noisy
as talking. T he talker is the center of attention for
all listeners. His behavior is overt and vocal, and
he hears and notices his own behavior, whereas
listening activity often seems like m erely b ein g —
doing nothing" (1972, pp. 12-13).
Much o f the language teaching field also
has taken listening for gran ted until relath'ely
recent times (but see G ouin 1880; Xida 1953;
Palm er 1917; Sweet 1899). M odern-dav argu­
m ents for listening com prehension began to be
voiced in the mid-1960s an d earlv 1970s by Rivers
(1966) and others. Xewmark and Diller u n d e r­
scored "the n e e d for the systematic developm ent
of listening com prehension not only ns a founda­
tion for speaking, but also as a skill in its own
right . . . " (1964. p. 20). Belasco expressed his
concerns as follows; "I was rudely jo lte d bv the
realization that it is possible to develop so-called
'speaking ability' and vet be so virtually incom pe­
tent in u n d e rsta n d in g the spoken language. . . .
[Students] were learning to audio-com prehend
certain specific dialogues and drills, but could
n o t u n d e rs ta n d [the lan g u ag e] o u t o f the
m ouths of native speakers" (1971, pp. 4 -5 ).
Morlev decried the fact that "virtually' no special­
ized textbook m aterials exist in the area o f in ter­
m ediate an d advanced listening” (1972, p. vii).
a n d Blair (1982) observed that special attention
to listening just d id n 't "self’ until recen t times.
Four Perspectives— Four Models of
Listening and Language Instruction
In the English language teaching program s of
the 1940s. 1950s, an d 1960s, n e ith e r the British
Situational A pproach to language teaching nor
th e A m erican A ucliolingual A p p ro ach paid
m uch a tten tio n to listening bevond its role in
gram m ar a n d p ro n u n cia tio n drills and learners'
im itation o f dialogues. T he language learn in g
theories of those tim es a ttrib u ted little im p o r­
tance to listening beyond the sou n d discrim ina­
tion associated with p ro n u n cia tio n learning.
Listening, along with reading, was reg ard ed as a
"passive” skill a n d was simply taken for granted.
However, slowlv an d steadily, m ore a tte n ­
tion has b e e n given to listening co m p reh en sio n .
Today, the role o f listening a n d the purp o se of
listen in g c o m p re h e n s io n in stru c tio n in the
S /F L curriculum , can be one of fo u r different
perspectives. A generic instructional m odel for
each perspective that reflects underlying beliefs
about language learn in g theory an d pedagogy is
o utlined below.
Model # I Listening and Repeating
Learner Goals To pattern-m atch: to listen and
im itate: to m em orize.
■ Instructional material: Features audiolingual
style exercises a n d or dialogue m em oriza­
tion; b ased on a h e a rin g -a n d -p a tte rn -
m atch in g m odel.
■ Procedure: .\sks students to (a) listen to a
word, phrase, or sentence pattern; (b ) repeat
it (imitate it); and (c) m em orize it (often, but
not always, a part o f the procedure).
■ Value: Enables students to do p attern drills,
to repeat dialogues, and to use m em orized
p re fa b ric a te d p a tte rn s in conversation:
enables them to im itate pro n u n ciatio n pat­
terns. H igher level cognitive processing and
use o f propositional language structuring
are not necessarily an intentional focus.
Model # 2 Listening and Answering
Comprehension Questions
Learner Goals To process discrete-point infor­
m ation; to listen and answer com prehension
questions.
■ Instructional material'. F eatures a stu d e n t
response p a tte rn based on a listening-and-
question-answ ering m odel with occasional
innovative variations on this them e.
■ Procedure: Asks students to (a) listen to an
oral text along a co n tin u u m from sentence
length to lecture length a n d (b) answer pri­
marily factual questions. Utilizes fam iliar
lo pes of questions ad ap ted from traditional
reading com prehension exercises; has been
called a quiz-show form at of teaching.
■ Value: Enables students to m an ipulate dis­
crete pieces o f in form ation, hopefully with
increasing speed and accuracy o f recall.
Can increase students' stock of vocabulary
units a n d gram m ar constructions. Does n o t
req u ire students to m ake use o f the infor­
m ation for am real com m unicative purpose
beyond answ ering the questions; is n o t
interactive two-wav com m unication.
Model # 3 Task Listening
Learner Goals To process spoken discourse for
functional purposes; to listen an d do som ething
with the inform ation, that is. carry o u t real tasks
using the inform ation received.
■ Instructional material: Features actisities that
require a student response p attern based on
a listening-and-using (i.e., “Listen-and-Do”)
model. Students listen, then im m ediately do
som ething with the inform ation received:
follow the directions given, com plete a task,
solve a problem , transm it the gist o f the
inform ation orallv or in writing, listen an d
take lecture notes, etc.
■ Procedure: Asks students to (a) listen and
process inform ation an d (b) use the orallv
transm itted language in p u t im m ediately to
com plete a task which is m ed iated th ro u g h
language in a context in which success
is judged in term s of w h eth er the task is
p erfo rm ed .
■ Value: T he focus is on instruction that is
task-oriented, not question-oriented. T he
purp o se is to engage learners in using the
in form ational c o n te n t p re se n te d in the
spoken discourse, n o t just in answ ering
questions about it. Two tvpes o f tasks are
(a) language use tasks, designed to give stu­
dents practice in listening to get m eaning
from the in p u t with the express purp o se of
 m aking functional use of it im m ediately
a n d (b) language analysis tasks, designed
to h elp learners develop cognitive an d
m etacognitive language learn in g strategies
(i.e., to guide them tow ard personal intel­
lectual involvem ent in th eir own learning).
T he latter features consciousness raising
a b o u t language a n d language learning.
Model # 4 Interactive Listening
Learner Goals To develop a u ra l'o ra l skills in
sem iform al interactive academ ic com m unica­
tion; to develop critical listening, critical think­
ing, an d effective speaking abilities.
■ Instructional material: Features the real-tim e,'
real-life give-and-take of academ ic com m uni­
cation. Protides a variety of student presenta­
tion and discussion activities, both individual
and small-group panel reports, that include
follow-up audience participation in question /
answer sessions as an integral part of the
work. Follows an interactive listening-think­
ing-speaking m odel with bidirectional (two-
way) listening/speaking. Includes attention
to group bonding and classroom discourse
rules (e.g., taking the floor, yielding the
floor, turn taking, interrupting, co m prehen­
sion checks, topic shifting, agreeing, ques­
tioning, challenging, etc.). (See Morley 1992
and 1995.)
■ Procedure: Asks students to participate in dis­
cussion activities that enable them to devel­
op all three phases o f the speech act: speech
d eco d in g , critical thinking, a n d speech
encoding. These phases involve (a) continu­
ous on-line decoding of spoken discourse,
(b) sim ultaneous cognitive reactin g /actin g
upon the inform ation received (i.e., critical
analysis a n d synthesis), an d (c) instant-
response encoding (i.e., p roducing personal
propositional language responses ap p ro p ri­
ate to the situation).
■ Value: T he focus here is instruction that is
c o m m u n ic a tiv e /c o m p e te n c e -o rie n te d as
w'ell as task oriented. Learners have o pportu­
nities to engage in and develop the com plex
arrav of com m unicative skills in the four
com petency areas: linguistic com petence,
discourse com petence, sociolinguistic com ­
petence. and strategic com petence (Canale
a n d Swain 19<S0).
SOME P S Y C H O S O C IA L
D IM EN SIO N S OF LA N G U A G E
A N D T H E L IS T E N IN G A C T
The Dynamic Process of
Communicative Listening:
Active, Not Passive
Listening, along with reading, has b een labeled
a "passive" skill. N othing could be fu rth e r from
the truth. A nderson and Lvnch (1988) reject a
conceptualization of listening as a passive act,
calling it a "listener-as-tape-recorder" explana­
tion. Thev argue that such a perspective fails to
account for the in te rp re ta tio n s listeners m ake as
thev h e a r the spoken text according to th eir own
purposes for listening an d th eir own store of
b ack ground knowledge.
Implications for Instruction O ne of the obvi­
ous im plications for instruction is to brin g stu­
dents to an u n d e rsta n d in g that listening is n o t a
passive skill, but an active receptive skill which
needs special a tte n tio n in language study. This
goal can be accom plished gradually as a p art of
listening skill-building activities. I.earners can be
guided to realize that achiev ing skill in listening
requires as m uch work as does becom ing skilled
in reading, writing, and speaking in a second
language.
Listening in Three Modes:
Bidirectional, Unidirectional,
and Autodirectional
If we consider the roles we plav in o u r listening
interactions, we can identify th re e specific com ­
m unicative listening m odes: bidirectional, u n i­
directional. and autodirectional.
Bidirectional Listening M ode T h e obvious
m ode is two-wav or bidirectional com m unicative
listening. H ere the reciprocal speech chain of
' p e a k e r/liste n e r is easilv observed (D enes and
Pinson 1963). Two (or m ore) participants take
turns exchanging speaker role and listener role as
they engage in face-to-face o r tele p h o n e verbal
interaction.
Unidirectional Listening Mode A second m ode
is one-wav or unidirectional com m unicative listen­
ing. Auclitorv input surrounds us as we move
th ro u g h th e dav. T h e in p u t com es from
a varietv of sources: overheard conversations,
nublic address an n o u n cem en ts, recorded mes­
sages (including those on telephone answering
m achines), the m edia (e.g.. radio, television,
films), instructional situations of all kinds, and
oublic perform ances (e.g.. lectures, religious
services, plavs. operas, musicals, concerts). As eve
hear speakers but are unable to interact, we often
talk to ourselves in a reactive or self-dialogue
m an n er as we analvze what we hear. We mat sub­
vocalize or even vocalize these responses.
Autodirectional Listening M ode T he th ird
com m unicative listening m ode is autodirectional.
We can th ink o f this as self-dialogue communication
in which we mav not be aware o f o u r interned
■des as both speaker and listener reacto r in
ur own thought processes. Som etim es we re-create
language internallv and "listen again" as we retell
and relive com m unicative interludes. Som etim es
we simple' a tten d to o u r own internal language
which we pro d u ce as we think th ro u g h alterna­
tives, plan strategies, and make decisions — all bv
talking to ourselves and listening to ourselves.
In all o f these com m unicative listening
modes, notice that listening is not a passive expe­
rience. Each listening m ode is a highlv active,
clearly participators, verbal experience.
Implications for Instruction S FL learners need
to have instruction and practice in both the bi­
directional com m unicative listening m ode and in
the unidirectional m ode. In addition, self-dicdogue'm
the autodirectional com m unicative listening m ode
should not be ignored. It is ;m im portant feature of
language behavior which should be discussed
with students. A utodirectional "talk” is som ething
which learners should be led to develop as a skill
in its own right, as well as a tool to be used in
connection with bidirectional and unidirectional
listening.
Psychosocial Functions of Listening:
Transactional Listening and
Interactional Listening
Brown and Yule (1983а) suggest dividing language
functions into two m ajor dirisions: language for
transactional purposes and language for inter­
actional purposes. Then note that transactional
language corresponds to Hallidav’s notion of
ideational, while interactional language corresponds
to his term interpersonal (Ilallidav 1970. p. 143).
Transactional Language Function Transactional
language is message oriented and can be viewed as
"business-tvpe" talk with the focus on co n ten t and
conveving factual o r propositional inform ation.
Transactional language is used for giving instruc­
tions. explaining, describing, giving directions,
ordering, inquiring, requesting, relating, checking
on the correctness of details, and veribdng under­
standing. The prem ium is on message clarity and
precision. Speakers often use confirm ation checks
to make sure what thev are sating is clear; they mav
even contradict the listener if he or she appears to
have m isunderstood.
Interactional Language Function T he m ost
im portant difference betw een the two tvpes of
language use is that interactional language is
"social-tvpe" talk; it is person oriented m ore th an
m essage o riented. Its objective is the establish­
m ent and m ain ten an ce of cordial social rela­
tionships. Brown and Yule co m m en t that a great
deal o f casual conversation contains phrases o r
echoes of phrases which ap p ear to be in te n d e d
m ore as co n tributions to a conversation than as
instances of inform ation giving. Im p o rta n t fea­
tures of interactional language are those o fid e n -
tifving with the o th e r p e rs o n ’s concerns, being
nice to the o th e r person, a n d m ain tain in g an d
respecting "face."
Implications for Instruction Teachers n eed to
provide practice experiences in both transactional
talk and interactional talk. While the contrast
betw een the two types of talk is usually clear,
som etim es it is n o t so obvious in an interaction
w here the two functions mav be intertw ined.
S tudents n e e d in struction an d listening practice
to h elp th em recognize w hen one of the two
functions is o p e ra tin g and how they can resp o n d
appropriately.
Psychological Processes: Bottom-Up
and Top-Down Listening Schemata
In accounting for the com plex nature of listening
to u n d erstan d spoken language, it is hypothe­
sized that two different m odes work together in a
cooperative process. O ne is the externally based
bottom -up m ode while the o th er is the internally
based top-down m ode. (See Peterson's ch ap ter in
this volum e for m ore inform ation.)
Bottom-Up Processing T he bottom -up m ode of
language processing involves the listener plaving
close atten tio n to every detail o f the language
input. Bottom-up refers to th at part o f the aural
co m p reh en sio n process in which the u n d e r­
standing o f the “heard" language is w orked out
pro ceed in g from sounds to words to gram m atical
relationships to lexical m eanings. T hat is, the
m eaning o f the message is arrived at, bottom to
top, based on the incom ing language data.
Top-Down Processing O n the o th e r h an d , the
top-down facet o f listening involves the listen e r’s
ability to b rin g p rio r in form ation to bear on the
task o f u n d e rsta n d in g the “h e a rd ” language.
This in te rn al resource includes a ban k of p rio r
know ledge an d global expectations ab o u t lan­
guage a n d the world. It is used by the listener
to m ake predictions ab o u t w hat the incom ing
m essage is expected to be at any point, a n d how
the pieces fit into the whole. C h au d ro n and
R ichards (1986) no te, “Top-down processing
involves p red ictio n an d inferen cin g on the basis
o f h ierarchies o f facts, propositions, a n d expec­
tations, a n d it enables the listener o r the rea d e r
to bypass som e aspects o f bottom -up processing"
(pp. 114-115).
Implications for Instruction Teachers need to
provide students with practice in both kinds of
language processing. Manv published m aterials
focus heavilv on one or an o th e r of these pro­
cesses, w ithout necessarily labeling them as top-
down or bottom-up.
T aking dual perspectives in to a cco u n t,
R ichards (1990) proposes a m odel o f m aterials
design for second or foreign language listening
com prehension that com bines language functions
(interactional and transactional) and language
processes (top-down and bottom -up). He observes
that the extent to which one or the o th er process
dom inates is determ ined bv (a) w hether the pur­
pose for listening is transactional or interactional,
(b) what kind of background knowledge can be
applied to the task, and (c) what degree of famil­
iarity listeners have with the topic. H e concludes:
Too often, listening texts require stu­
dents to adopt a single approach in lis­
tening. one which dem ands a detailed
u n d erstan d in g of the c o n te n t o f a dis­
course and the recognition of ever}'
w ord an d structure th at occurs in a
text. Students should n ot be req u ired
to resp o n d to interactional discourse
as if it were being used for a transac­
tional purpose, no r should the}' be
expected to use a bottom -up approach
to an aural text if a top-clown one is
m ore app ro p riate (p. 83).
Richards’s Functions/Processes Chart Richards
com bines the functions and the processes into the
following verv useful chart. It provides teachers
with a wav to construct a listening lesson which can
be cross-classified according to the dem ands of
both the listening function involved and the listen­
ing process which can be expected to be m ost
prom inently involved.
TO P-D O W N
T R A N S A C T IO N A L
 R ichards gives an exam ple for each o f the
fo u r cells as follows.
In the hottom-up mode:
Cell #1: Listening closely to a jo k e (interac­
tional) in o rd e r to know w hen to
laugh.
Cell #3: L istening closelv to in structions
(transactional) d u rin g a first driv­
ing lesson.
In the top-down mode:
Cell #2: L istening casuallv to cocktail partv
talk (interactional).
Cell #4: E xperienced air traveler listening
casually to verbal air safe tv instruc­
tions (transactional) w hich have
b een h e a rd m any tim es before.
O th e r exam ples o f transactional uses are
instructions, descriptions, lectures, a n d news
broadcasts. O th e r exam ples o f interactional uses
are greetings, small talk, jokes, and com plim ents.
Richards notes that in m anv situations both inter­
actional and transactional purposes are involved
and suggests that effective classroom particip­
ation requires both.
1. In teractio n al — to in teract with the teacher
a n d o th e r students while accom plishing class
tasks (i.e., “classroom " talk).
2. T ransactional— to assim ilate new inform a­
tion, construct new concepts, and acquire
new skills.
A F F E C T A N D A T T IT U D E S
In developing activities an d m aterials for listening
instruction, it is essential to consider the affective
domain, which includes attitudes, em otions, and
feelings. H ere the focus is on (1) the ways attitu-
dinal and em otional inform ation may be con­
veyed, both linguistically and non linguistically, and
(2) som e of the attitudinal language functions
that second language learners need to experi­
ence via instructional listening materials.
Linguistic and Nonlinguistic Cues
to Affect
As the old saying goes, it's n o t what you say, it’s
how vou sav it) But how can ESL a n d EFL listen­
ers learn to recognize a n d in te rp re t aspects o f
the how as well as the what in two-way a n d one-
wav oral com m unication? How can they becom e
skilled at processing both nonlinguistic a n d lin­
guistic affective inform ation?
In b id ire ctio n a l interactive co m m u n ic a ­
tion. messages are conveyed in at least three
wavs: linguistic (i.e., the words an d th eir m ean ­
ings). paralinguistic (i.e.. vocal m eaning) and
extralinguistic (i.e. th e m e a n in g tra n sm itte d
th ro u g h various aspects o f body language). In
unid irectio n al com m unication, the visual cues
o f extralinguistic inform ation may be missing,
an d the listener m ust th en rely on only the lin­
guistic an d paralinguistic inform ation
Linguistic M essages (the Words) M eanings
begin in people. But som etim es m eanings d o n ’t
com e across clearly , and we hear speakers protest,
"But that's not what I meant! In an attem p t to
convev an in te n d e d m eaning, speakers choose
words and arrange them into sentences or partial
sentences, groups o f sentences, and larger pieces
of m onologue o r dialogue discourse.
Both the words chosen, an d th eir intrasen-
tential and in tersen ten tial arrangem ents, m ap
affect (i.e.. feelings) o n to the linguistic inform a­
tion. As speakers do this, they may o r may n o t be
conscious of e ith e r the n a tu re o r the stren g th o f
the affective coloring; on the o th e r h an d , they
may use it deliberately, with careful design.
Examples:
That was an Iinteresting/'excellent/
good/fair,/so-so/terrible) movie.
I like him a lot but . . .
Even though she's my best friend,
I must tell you t h a t . . .
Clearlv. affective interpretation m ust be a
p art of listening com prehension activities. This
m eans that instructional experiences m ust be con­
textualized and must reflect real-world situations
an d feelings.
Paralinguistic M essages (Vocally Transmitted
Meaning) T he very way the voice is used in
speaking transm its m eaning. T hat is, the wav
words, sentences, and groups of sentences in
spoken language are program m ed vocally enables
them to ca n y inform ation about how thev are to
be in terp reted . A lthough the speaker mav not
be aware of it, the speaker's attitude toward what
he or she is saying is tra n sm itte d b\ vocal
features. In the im portant realm o f intonation,
the work by Brazil, C oulthard, and Jo h n s (1980)
an d Brown, Currie, and Kenworthv (1980) has
explored a variety o f aspects o f intonational
m eaning in oral discourse. T he vocal elem ents
that m ap affective inform ation onto the linguistic
message are those beyond the neutral patterns of
basic stress, rhvthm , and intonation. N uances of
m eaning can be transm itted by subtle changes in
tone qualitv, rate, rhvthm , stress, and mans- o th er
features.
Extralinguistic M essages (Meaning Transmitted
through Body Language) Speakers also convey
m eaning th rough bodv language. T hat is. simul­
taneous physical messages are being transm itted
with the words and vocal inform ation and m ust
be in te rp re te d bv the listener. O nce again, the
speaker mav or may not be fully aware of this
aspect of his or h e r com m unication. Elem ents
involved include body postures, bodv m ovem ents,
bodv and h a n d gestures, facial expressions, facial
gestures, eve contact, and use o f space bv the
com m unicators. It is im p o rtan t to help students
learn the m eanings of specific features o f body
language in the second language; thev also n eed
to recognize that body language differs greatly
betw een languages and betw een cultures.
Intellectual, Emotional,
and Moral Attitudes
As n o ted above, an im p o rta n t p a rt of co m m u n i­
cation is the expression and c o m p reh en sio n of
attitudes. Van Ek (1976) lists six basic language
functions, in clu d in g th re e w hich are attitudinal:
intellectual, em otional, an d m oral attitudes.
Intellectual Attitudes These include expression
and com prehension of agreem ent/disagreem ent:
co n firm ing/denying: a ccep tin g /d eclin in g ; for­
g e ttin g / rem em bering; possibility/im possibility:
capability/incapabilitv: uncertainty; obligation,
perm ission; and m ore (pp. 45-47).
Emotional Attitudes Included in this area are
expressing pleasure/'displeasure; in te re st/la c k
of interest; surprise: hope; fear; worry; satisfaction,-
dissatisfaction; disappointm ent; preference; grati­
tude: sympathy; intention; wants and desires; and
m ore (pp. 47-48).
Moral Attitudes M oral attitudes are expressed
in the lan g u a g e o f apologizing; expressing
a p p ro v a l/d isa p p ro v a l; a p p re c ia tio n ; in d iffe r­
ence; regret; a n d m ore (p. 48). (For additional
inform ation see M unbv 1978; Wilkins 1976).
D E V E L O P IN G L IS T E N IN G
C O M P R E H EN S IO N A C T IV IT IE S
A N D M ATERIALS
This second section focuses on instructional
considerations, while keeping in m ind the fol­
lowing th re e im p o rtan t points about listening
as a language act.
1. Information Processing Listening com pre­
hension is an act o f inform ation processing
in which the listener is involved in bidirectional
com m unication, o r unidirectional com m unica­
tion, a n d /o r autodirectional com m unication.
2. Linguistic Functions Broadly speaking, real-
world spoken com m unication can be Mewed as
serving two linguistic functions: interactional and
transactional.
3. Dim ensions o f Cognitive Processing The
cognitive processing o f spoken language appears
to involve sim ultaneous activation o f b o th top-
down a n d bottom-up e n g a g em e n t in o rd e r for lis­
teners to construct what they believe to be the
in te n d e d m ean in g o f the spoken message.
W ith these features of listening as a lan­
guage act in m ind, we begin with a discussion of
th re e im p o rta n t principles o f m aterials develop­
m ent. Next, we outline six kinds of com m unica­
tive outcom es, with lesson suggestions for each.
In the final section we p rese n t som e suggestions
for creatin g a self-access, self-study listening
center. C entral to th e underlying belief system
reflected in this c h a p te r is a com m unicative lan­
guage teaching perspective which values m ea n ­
ingful tasks a n d com m unicative activities. (See
Savignon’s c h a p te r in this volum e.)
Principles
In o rd e r to get le a rn e rs’ atten tio n , to keep them
actively an d purposefully engaged in the task
at h an d , an d to m axim ize the effectiveness of
listen in g /lan g u ag e-learn in g experiences, th ree
m aterials d evelopm ent principles are suggested:
relevance, transferability /applicability, an d task orien­
tation. These th ree principles are im p o rta n t in
m aking choices ab o u t both language c o n ten t
' i.e., th e info rm atio n p resen ted ) a n d language
outcome(s) (i.e., the way the inform ation is put
to use).
I. Relevance
Both the listening lesson content (i.e., the inform a­
tion) and the outcome (i.e., the nature of the use of
the inform ation) need to be as relevant as possible
to the learner. This is essential for getting and
holding learner attention and protides a genuine
motivational incentive. Lessons need to feature
content and outcom es that have "face validity" for
students. T he m ore that lessons focus on things
with real-life relevance, the m ore they appeal to
students, and the better the chance o f hatin g
learners’ w anting to listen. And if students reallv
want to listen, we have accom plished at least part
of the task which Strevens (1988) calls encouraging
the intention to learn.
Relevance is east- to control in self-created
classroom listening activities. However, tvhen
using pu b lish ed m aterials, it is necessary to
choose those lessons with topics th a t are relevant
to o n e ’s students. It mav be necessary to modify
both the way the m aterial is p rese n ted a n d the
way students are asked to use the inform ation.
Richards suggests som e ways to ad ap t m aterials,
in c lu d in g m odifying th e objectives; a d d in g
prelistening activities; ch anging the teaching
procedures for class presen tatio n ; a n d devising
postlistening activities (1983, pp. 237-238).
2. Transferability/Applicability
W hatever is relevant is also likelv to have potential
for transferability. Insofar as possible, at eith er the
content level or the outcome level, or both, listening
lessons need to have transferability/applicability
value, internally (i.e., can be used in o th er classes),
externally (i.e., can be used in out-of-school situa­
tions), or both. In o rd er to foster transfer of train­
ing, the best listening lessons present in-class
activities that m irror real life. For exam ple, the use
of radio or television news broadcasts in adult
classes can provide not only a real experience in
listening com prehension, but such lessons also
contain content that can be applicable outside of
class as a source of conversation topics.
3. Task Orientation
In form al language classes for teenage a n d adult
students a n d in language activity lessons for chil­
d ren , it is productive to com bine two d ifferent
kinds o f focus: (1) language use tasks a n d (2)
language analysis activities.
N otions o f task have developed o u t of com ­
m unicative teaching a n d m aterials p ro duction.
Jo h n so n defines task-oriented teach in g as teach­
ing which provides “actual m ea n in g ” by focusing
on tasks to be m ed iated th o u g h language, a n d in
which success is judged in term s o f w h eth er the
tasks are p e rfo rm e d (Brum fit and Jo h n so n 1979,
p. 200). Maley a n d M oulding focus on instruc­
tion which is task-oriented n o t question-oriented,
providing learners with tasks wTiich use the infor­
mation in the aural text, ra th e r th an asking lea rn ­
ers to "prove" th eir u n d e rsta n d in g o f the text by
answ e rin g questions (1979, p. 102). C andlin and
M urphv note, "The central process wre are con­
ce rn e d with is language learning, an d tasks pres­
e n t this in th e fo rm o f a p roblem -solving
negotiation betw een know ledge th at th e lea rn er
holds a n d new know ledge. This activity is con­
d u cted th ro u g h language in use, w'hich may,
itself, be seen as a negotiation o f m ea n in g ”
(1987, p. 1).
3a. Language Use Tasks T he p u rp o se h e re is
to give students practice in listening fo r in fo r­
m ation and then im m ediately d o in g som ething
with it. This kind of lesson features specific Listen-
and-D o com m unicative outcom es such as these:
■ L istening a n d p e rfo rm in g actions (e.g.,
co m m an d gam es and songs such as “Do the
H okey Pokev,” “\la v I?" “Sim on Savs”).
■ Listening an d p e rfo rm in g operations (e.g.,
listening an d constructing a figure, draw ing
a m a p ).
■ Listening and solving problem s (e.g., riddles,
intellectual o r logic puzzles, real-life num er­
ical, spatial, o r chronological problem s).
■ L istening a n d tran scrib in g (e.g., taking
tele p h o n e messages, w riting notes).
■ L istening a n d sum m arizing info rm atio n
(e.g., outlining, giving the gist o f a message
e ith e r verballv or in w riting).
■ Interactive listening a n d n eg o tiatin g of
m ean in g th ro u g h q u estio n in g /an sw erin g
routines (e.g., questions for rep etitio n of
in fo rm a tio n , q u e stio n s fo r verification,
questions for clarification, questions for
e la b o ra tio n ).
These listening an d language use tasks help
students to build the following two things:
(i) A Base o f Content Experiences This will
help them to develop expectancies, increase their
vocabulary, and build a repertoire o f fam iliar top-
down networks of background knowledge in the
second language. This, iir turn, increases predic­
tive pow er for future com m unicative situations,
including schemata (i.e., the larger-order m ental
fram ew orks o f know ledge) an d scripts (i.e., the
situation-specific m ental fram ew orks th at allow
us to pred ict actors, events, action sequences,
an d alternative o u tco m es). These include form u­
laic speech routines an d assum ed elem ents in the
physical setting.
(ii) A Base o f Operational Experiences This
will h elp learn ers to acquire a rep e rto ire of
fam iliar inform atio n -h an d lin g o p erations in the
second language th a t are applicable to future
com m unicative e n co u n ters in th at language.
3b. Language Analysis Tasks T h e p u rp o se
h e re is to give students opp o rtu n ities to analvze
selected aspects o f b oth language structure i i.e..
form ) an d language use (i.e., function 1 and to
develop som e personal strategies to facilitate
learning. (See Peterson's ch ap ter in this vol­
um e.) T he goal is consciousness raising about
language, which can be accom plished th rough
what W endin a n d Rubin (1987) term awareness­
raising tasks. Some language analysis tasks can be
designed to help students becom e know ledge­
able about how language works. Activities can
focus on one or two points at a tim e a n d can
include attention to a variety o f features o f gram ­
mar. p ro nunciation, vocabularv, an d discourse as
well as sociolinguistic a n d strategic features
(Canale and Swain 1980). Specific activities can
include:
■ Analvsis o f some features of “fast speech”;
tasks can help students learn to deal with
the rapid patterns of contextualized speech.
■ Analvsis o f p h rasin g an d pause points;
a tte n tio n to the wavs the g ro u p in g o f words
into functional units (ones th at “follow”
gram m ar) can be used to facilitate listen­
ing; ''chunking" the in p u t into units for
in terp retatio n .
■ Analvsis of both m onologues and dialogue
ex ch an g es, with a tte n tio n to discourse
organizational structures.
■ D escribing an d analvzing sociolinguistic
d im en sio n s, in c lu d in g p a rticip a n ts an d
their roles and relationships, settings, p u r­
pose of the com m unicative episodes, and
expected outcom es.
■ D escribing a n d analvzing com m unicative
strategies used by speakers to deal with mis-
c o m m u n ic a tio n . c o m m u n ic a tio n b re a k ­
downs. distractions, etc.
R ecordings of real-life conversations, talks,
a n d discussions can be used to in tro d u ce listen­
ing analvsis tasks. (See M orlev 1984 a n d 1985.)
Lynch (1983), I T (1984), Davis and Rinvolucri
(1988), an d M endelsohn (1995) all give a variety
o f language analvsis tasks.
Communicative Outcomes:
An Organizing Framework
It is clear bv notv that a Listen-and-Do form at—
that is, inform ation gathering and inform ation
using— is recom m ended for listening instructional
activities in the ESL or EFL curriculum . Listening
com prehension in today’s language curriculum
must go far beyond a 20-minute tape a day or a
paragraph or two read aloud followed by a series of
"test” questions about the factual content.
Listen-and-Do in the listening co m p reh en ­
sion context implies an outcom e “objective.” The
purpose of oral com m unication in the real world
is to achieve a genuine outcom e; it may be verv
simple (e.g., enjoying sociable conversation) or it
nrav be very com plex (e.g., un d erstan d in g intri­
cate instructions), but an outcom e is achieved.
This same attention to outcom e m ust be a part of
any listening com prehension activity p lan n ed for
use in the second language learning context.
M inim um req u irem en ts for two-wav oral
com m unication are two active participants and
an o u tco m e. P a rtic ip a n ts a lte rn a te roles of
speaker-sender a n d listener-receiver. One-wav
com m unication requires one active participant
(a listener-receiver), one long-distance partici­
pant (a speaker-sender), either “live" or recorded,
and an outcom e.
W hat is an outcome} According to Sinclair
(1984), an outcom e is a realistic task that people
can envision themselves doing and accom plishing
something. An outcom e is an essential com ponent
in both two-wav and one-way com m unication lis­
tening com prehension activities.
Six broad categories of outcom e are dis­
cussed below. Each, o f course, can be subdivided
into m ore narrowlv focused specific outcom es,
which can be m odified to suit a given student
group. Lesson outcom es can be graded toward
gradual expansion of difficultv, complexity, and
increasing p erform ance expectations for students.
A lesson mav contain m ore than one o ut­
com e, a lth o u g h too m am outcom es for a given
activitv mav be overw helm ing. Any outcom e can
be used at any age, as long as it is a part of a task
th at is a p p ro p riate to the age, interests, a n d lan­
guage proficiency level of the learners.
T h e re is overlap betw een som e outcom e
categories, a n d no atte m p t is m ade h ere to m ake
them m utually exclusive. They are p rese n ted as
an organizing fram ew ork for co nsideration by-
teachers in developing class or listening library
m aterials.
This categon- includes responses to things such
as directions, instructions, and descriptions in a
varietv of contexts. Examples include listening and
■ Drawing a picture, figure, o r design.
■ Locating routes of specific points on a map.
■ Selecting a picture of a person, place, or
thing from description.
■ Identifying a person, place, or th in g from
description.
■ P erfo rm in g h a n d or bodv m ovem ents as in
songs an d gam es such as “Sim on Savs” o r
"Do the H okev Pokey.”
■ O p eratin g a piece of e q u ip m e n t such as a
cam era, a recorder, a microwave oven, o r a
pencil sharpener.
■ C a rn in g out steps in a process such as a
m ath problem , a science experim ent, or a
cooking sequence.
Outcome 2. Listening and
Transferring Information
Two kinds o f inform ation transfer are featured:
spoken-to-written (i.e., h e a rin g inform ation a n d
w riting it) an d spoken-to-spoken (i.e. h ea rin g infor­
m ation a n d transm itting it in speech).
Spoken-to-written T he following are some activi­
ties for spoken-to-written practice.
■ Listening an d taking a m essage (in person
or bv telep h o n e) by transcribing the entire
m essage word for word if it is very sh o rt o r
bv w riting down a list of the im p o rta n t
items if it is long; the purpose is to give
an o th e r person a clear sense of the message.
■ Listening and filling in blanks in a g apped
storv gam e in o rd e r to com plete the story.
■ L istening a n d com pleting a form o r ch art in
o rd er to use the inform ation for a later p u r­
pose. such as m aking a decision o r solving a
problem .
■ Listening and sum m arizing the gist o f a
short storv, rep o rt, o r talk in o rd e r to re p o rt
it to a th ird person.
■ Listening to a “how to" talk and w riting an
outline o f the steps in the sequence (e.g.,
how to cook som ething, how to use a piece
o f eq u ip m en t, how to pkiv a gam e) in o rd e r
to e a rn o u t the action.
■ Listening to a talk or lecture a n d taking
notes in o rd e r to use the inform ation later
for som e a purpose.
A p o p u lar activity called jigsaw listening is
suggested by G eddes an d Sturtriclge (1979). In
o n e form o f jigsaw listening, small groups o f stu­
dents listen to different parts of a set o f infor­
m ation and write down the im p o rta n t points of
th eir portions. T h e n they share th eir inform a­
tion with o th e r groups so that a story or a
sequence o f actions can be com pleted, a p ro b ­
lem solved, or a decision m ade.
Spoken-to-spoken Jigsaw listening also can be
used with a spoken-to-spoken transfer o f infor­
m ation. O th e r activities in this m ode are the
following:
■ Listening to directions, th en passing them
along to a th ird person who m ust use the
info rm atio n to e a rn ' out a task.
■ Listening to p art of a storv an d rep eatin g it
to others.
(For exam ples see Davis a n d Rinvolucri 1988.
pp. 29-30 a n d M orlev 1984. pp. 68-69.)
Outcome 3. Listening and
Solving Problems
Many kinds o f activities for e ith e r groups o r indi­
viduals can be developed in this category. O ne is
gam es and puzzles:
■ W ord gam es in which the answers m ust be
derived from verbal clues.
■ N u m b e r gam es a n d “story" a rith m e tic
problem s.
■ Asking questions in o rd e r to identify som e­
thing, as in “Twenty Q uestions" o r “Anim al,
Vegetable, o r M ineral."
■ C lassroom versions of “Passw ord,”
“Jeo p ard y ,” o r "Twenty Q uestions” in which
careful listening is critical to the successful
com pletion of the gam e.
■ M inute m ysteries in which students, listen­
ing to the tea c h e r or a tape, read a verv
short mvsterv storv: this can be followed by
small g roup work in which students fo rm u ­
late solutions.
■ A jigsaw mvsterv in which each group listens
to a tape which provides one of the clues.
G roups then share inform ation with every­
one in o rd er to solve the mvsterv.
M ore d em a n d in g varieties of problem solving
are found in riddles, logic puzzles, and o th e r
intellectual problem -solving activities.
Real-world problem s can include:
* C om parison shopping tasks using reco rd ed
conversations for practice (e.g., asking for
prices from several rental car agencies,
llorist shops, or b arb er shops, th en choos­
ing the best bargain), followed bv similar
field trips.
-■ Short descriptions of court cases, with listen­
ers asked to make a decision and defend it.
Field trips can be assigned in which pairs of stu­
dents go out to do com parison sh o pping for
products or services, th en rep o rt back to the
entire class.
Outcome 4. Listening, Evaluating,
and Manipulating Information
These outcom es are intellectually challenging
ones in which the listener evaluates a n d /o r
m anipulates the inform ation received in some
m anner. Lesson activities for individuals, pairs,
o r small gro u p s can take m am d irectio n s,
including the following:
• W riting in form ation received a n d review­
ing it in o rd e r to answer questions or solve
a problem .
® Evaluating inform ation an d reviewing it in
o rd er to m ake a decision o r develop a plan
of action.
■ Evaluating argum ents in o rd e r to take a
position.
■ Evaluating cause-and-effect inform ation.
■ M aking p re d ic tio n s from in fo rm a tio n
received.
■ Sum m arizing o r giving the gist o f inform a­
tion received.
* Evaluating and com bining o r condensing
inform ation.
* Evaluating and elaborating or extending
inform ation.
■ O rganizing unorderecl inform ation into a
p a tte rn of orderlv relationships: c h ro n o lo g ­
ical se q u en c in g , spatial re la tio n sh ip s,
cause-and-effect. or problem -solution.
Field trips are challenging and useful for
interm ediate and advanced learners. Students can
be assigned fact-finding, inform ation-gathering
tasks for panel presentations or use in a project. At
m ore advanced levels, preparing for and e a rn in g
out a debate or discussion assignm ent on cur­
ren t local, national, o r in tern atio n al issues can
use b oth aural a n d w ritten inform ation and
involves the student in evaluating and m an ip u ­
lating inform ati o n .
Outcome 5. Interactive Listening-
and-Speaking: Negotiating Meaning
through Questioning/Answering
Routines
H ere the focus of the outcom e is on both the
product o f tran sm ittin g in fo rm atio n an d the
nrocess o f negotiating m eaning in interactive
reciprocal listener speaker exchanges. Initiallv.
m small groups, (i.e.. four to ten students), one
student cam give a b rie f p resentation such as a
W ort set of locallv relevant an n o u n cem en ts, a
:ive-minute "how-to" talk, a personal store or
anecdote, o r an explanatorv talk using visual
aids. (See M orlev 1992.)
E ither d u rin g or im m ediatelv after the pres­
entation, each listener is req u ired to ask at least
me question in a questioning answ ering ro u ­
tine. At first listeners can be given a card listing a
question tvpe and assigned the responsibilitv
tor asking that kind of question. T he listener-
questioner m ust continue with follow-up ques­
tions as necessarv until both participants are
uttisfied that clear m eaning has b een negotiated.
This m eans that the speaker is also a listener and
m ust keep questioning the listener-questioner to
m ake sure of the n a tu re an d in te n t o f the his or
h e r questions. V ideotape o r audio recordings of
these class sessions with subsequent viewing an d
discussion of selected segm ents cjuicklv d em o n ­
strates the im portance of negotiation o f m eaning
and how m uch tim e a n d energv m ust som etim es
be ex p en d ed in o rd e r to arrive at a consensus on
m eaning.
A wide variety of question types can be used
in this kind o f activitv, b u t for each lesson it is
useful to have onlv a lim ited n u m b e r o f question
tvpes used. Som e exam ples are the following:
* R epetition— questions asking only for ver­
batim repetition o f inform ation (“C ould
vou repeat the part about xx?").
« Paraphrase — q u estio n s asking only for
restatem ent in different words, often words
that tire sim pler and easier to u n d e rsta n d
("C ould vou sav th at again?" “I d o n ’t u n d e r­
stand what vou m ean bv xx.").
Verification— questions seeking confirm a­
tion that the inform ation was u n d e rsto o d
correctlv bv the listener ("Did I u n d e rsta n d
vou to sav that xx?" "In o th e r words, vou
m ean xx." "Do vou m ean xx?”).
Clarification — q u estio n s seek in g m o re
details o r an e x p la n a tio n o f an item
("C ould vou tell m e what vou m ean by xx?”
"Could vou explain xx?" "Could vou give us
an exam ple of xx?").
4 Elaboration— questions that ask for addi­
tional inform ation on a p oint in tro d u c ed
in the p resen tatio n (“Could vou tell us
m ore about xx?").
* Extension— questions th at ask for inform a­
tion on a new point, one th at was n o t in tro ­
du ced in the p resen tatio n (“W hat a b o u t
xx?" "How is this related to xx?”).
e Challenge — q u e stio n s th a t c h a llen g e
points given or conclusions draw n (“W hat
did vou base xx on?” "How did vou reach
the conclusion o f xx?” "How did vou xx?”
"Whv did vou xx?”) .

Tasks with this outcom e can include listening to
songs, stories, plays, poem s, jokes, anecdotes, or,
as suggested by Ur, “general interesting chat
im provised by the te a c h e r’ (1984, p. 29). Som e of
the activities in this categorv com e u n d e r the
head in g o f interactional listening, different from
the previous outcom e categories, which bv and
large are focused on transactional outcom es.
For these tasks, U r notes th at setting anv
outcom e o th e r th an enjoving, for instance, mac-
b ecom e superfluous o r even harm ful to the
com pletion o f the outcom e o f just enjoying.
U r makes an especiallv good case for infor­
mal “teacher-chat” as an excellent source of listen­
ing m aterial and observes that it se n es as a
relaxing break from m ore intensive work. She sug­
gests “teacher-talk” on personal topics (e.g., vour
favorite hobby, plans for the future, your opinions
on topical or local issues) (pp. 62-63). She notes
that this, in turn, mav lead naturally to “student-
talk” on similar subjects for loosely structured and
com fortable com m unicative classroom interludes,
ones that afford student “practice” opportunities
in both listening and speaking.
S E L F -A C C E S S /S E L F -S T U D Y
L IS T E N IN G A N D L A N G U A G E
L E A R N IN G
The purpose o f a self:access/self-study resource is to
provide an inviting listening center within a con­
ventional language laboratory or a broader lan­
guage resource center. This self-studv facility needs
to offer a wide choice of appealing audio and \ideo
materials on a variety of topics and at a range of pro­
ficiency levels. Books to accom pany tapes are use­
ful, of course. However, in addition to (or in place
of) commercial books, a library of listening m ateri­
als m ight also include carefully designed worksheet
materials that present listening tasks for self-studv.
pair-study, or small-group study, both on the school
premises and for checkout and hom e use.
Materials for free-listening time like free-
reading time) can be provided and students can be
given a chance to self-select from a Intoning
library th a t includes stories a n d poem s, talks and
lectures, plays a n d literary classics, participatory
gam es, puzzles, riddles, a n d read-along o r sing-
along stories, songs, an d games. Com m ercial
audio- and videotapes can easily be adapted for lis­
tening library use. M ore innovatively, a collection
o f local audio o r video recordings o f conversa­
tions, songs, music events, lectures, or panel dis­
cussions can be com piled. H om e videos can be an
appealing addition to a listening library Such
locally produced auditory m aterials have a special
relevance and applicability potential that com m ercial
m aterials lack.
Setting Up a Self-Access/Self-Study
Listening Resource Center
A self-access-''self-studv listening resource center
can be started with a m odest listening library of
audio and video rec o rd e d m aterial an d the
teacher-time needed to p u t materials into self-study
packets or modules.
Ideally, listening materials can be m ade avail­
able to students in a special language learning cen­
ter or m ultipurpose stuck room that also features
reading and writing materials and has a teacher or
m onitor present at all times to guide students in
the selection and ttse of materials and equipm ent.
Alternatively, self-access self-studv materials
can be used in a m ore conventional language lab­
oratory setting. W hatever the setting, the most
im portant point is that the individual learner has
com plete personal control over the materials. It is
essential that students be able to control the
source o f input so that thev can pace it— stop it,
start it, replav it— at will. Such control allows stu­
dents to regulate their own schedules o f study,
ra th e r than having a rate and volume of auditor}’
in p u t im posed on them . This helps reduce the
anxiety and pressure that m any students, particu­
larly beginners, seem to experience when listen­
ing in the second or foreign language. Some
m aterials m ight be m ade available for checkout
a n d hom e stud}-. However, a study facility often has
fewer distractions than a hom e or dorm itory envi­
ronm ent, and its atm osphere is usually m ore con­
ductive to the self-discipline necessary for
concentrated listening in the second or foreign
language.
 T he p ro ced u res for using self-access self-
study m aterials m ight be organized in the fol­
lowing wav:
1. S tudents check out a listening packet or
m odule that contains the audio- or video­
tap e, p re liste n in g in tro d u c to rv m aterial,
w orksheets (an d p e rh a p s som e visuals),
answer kev (and perhaps a script), instruc­
tions, a n d postlistening tasks.
2. Students plav the tape on th eir own schedule
o f starting, stopping, and replacing.
3. S tudents check th eir work them selves for
verification o f co m prehension.
4. Students consult the teacher o r m onitor
w hen necessarv.
Self-access listening m aterials can be o rg an ­
ized in to self-studv packets or m odules o f m an ­
ageable lengths. Thev can be cross-referenced
in a variety of wavs to m eet the needs o f individ­
ual students or groups of students (i.e.. c o n ten t
or topical groups, no tio n al categories, fun c­
tional categories, situational o r activitv categories,
level-of-difficultv groupings, specific listening-
task groupings, English for Specific Purposes
groupings).
M odules that feature up-to-date, locallv rele­
vant, authentic aural texts are especiallv effective
and are recom m ended wherever possible. In addi­
tion, segments from selected com m ercial listening
materials can be adapted to fit into this format.
Guidelines for Developing
Self-Access / Self-Study
Listening Materials
In addition to relevance, transferabilitv. task ori­
entation, a n d the com m unicative outcom es
tramework, the following guidelines are suggested
m a reference in preparing self-access selfstudv
listening practice materials:
1. A focus on listening as an active process
with instant or onlv slightlv delaved m an ip ­
ulation o f the inform ation received.
2. A focus on purposeful listening (a) in order
to process inform ation and immediately do
som ething with the inform ation, by perform ­
ing a task o f som e nature, and (b) in o rd er
to analyze particular features of the message
(i.e., linguistic features, sociolinguistic fea­
tures, discourse features, strategic features),
a n d (c) in o rd er to build a base o f content
experiences and outcomes experiences.
3. A focus on a variety o f practice m aterials that
includes a mix o f authentic, sem i-authentic,
and sim ulated language activities.
4. A focus on in tern al com m unicative in terac­
tion, as the listener receives language in p u t
(aurallv a n d visuallv), restructures it, an d
m akes a response that is e ith e r a refo rm u ­
lation of som e of the in form ation o r an
analvsis o f som e o f its features.
5. A focus on providing learners with verifica­
tion o f c o m p reh en sio n (i.e., im m ediate or
onlv slightlv delaved feedback) with self­
check answer kevs or scripts as n eed ed .
6. A focus on enco u rag in g guessing an d fol­
lowing “hunches" w hen in doubt.
7. A focus on selective listening, ig n o rin g
irrelevant m aterial, an d learn in g to tolerate
less than total un d erstan d in g .
8. A focus on self-involvement with an emphasis
on selfstudv and taking responsibility for o n e’s
own work and pride in o n e’s accomplishments.
9. A focus on providing learners with less
threaten in g listen in g /learn in g experiences;
a self-studs listening m ode w here students
hat e the freedom to regulate their own w?ork
and can stop the tape, rewind, an d replay as
thev wish.
10. A focus on in tegrating auditory a n d visual
language bv com bining listening, reading,
a n d writing, an d observing relationships
betw een spoken form s a n d w ritten forms.
11. A focus on gracluallv increasing expectations
for levels of com prehension (i.e., encourag­
ing students to challenge themselves an d to
move themselves along toward increasingly
dem anding expectations).
12. A focus on the fun o f listening!
F IN A L CO M M EN TS
Since the 1960s, the im p o rtan ce o f listening
c o m p re h en sio n in language learn in g a n d lan­
guage teach in g has m oved from a status o f inci­
d en tal a n d p e rip h e ra l im p o rtan ce to a status of
significant a n d cen tral im p o rtan ce. W hereas
only a few instructional m aterials were available
in the 1970s, today th ere are m am - texts an d tape
program s to choose from and, in general, m ate­
rials are becom ing m ore carefullv principled,
with serious a tte n tio n to theoretical considera­
tions. Each year m ore diverse m aterials are devel­
oped, an d m any now focus on the narrowly
specified listening needs of particular groups of
learners, including English for Specific Purposes.
Finally, it is im p o rta n t to em phasize that
the S /F L listening curriculum c a n n o t focus onlv
on buying the right books a n d tapes. Skill b uild­
ing in listening co m p reh en sio n is n o t som ething
th a t can be accom plished in a half-hour lesson
th re e tim es a week, n o r can a tten tio n to listen­
ing be lim ited to language laboratorv tapes.
Listening, th e language skill used m ost in life,
needs to be a central focus— all dav, ev en dav—
lim ited only by the availability o f the target lan­
guage in the school, the com m unin', a n d the
m edia. L istening in struction needs to include
b o th two-way interactive listening activities and
tasks an d one-way reactive Listen-and-Do activi­
ties a n d tasks. M aterials developers should pav
careful atten tio n to principles o f design, com ­
m unicative outcom es, language functions, lan­
guage processes, an d affective considerations.
D IS C U S S IO N Q U E S T IO N S
1. C haracterize each of the three com m uni­
cative listening modes: bidirectional, unidirec­
tional, and autodirectional. From vour own
personal experience, give examples of each of
these three kinds of com m unicative listening.
2. Discuss why listening has b een called "the
n eglected skill” of language teaching.
3. For th re e daws, keep a rec o rd o f how m uch
tim e you spend each day in each of the fo u r
skill areas: listening, speaking, reading, an d
writing. In small groups, m ake a com posite
of the tim es rec o rd e d for each of the four
language skills.
4. Review th e th re e principles o f m aterials
developm ent discussed in this chapter. Give
exam ples o f wavs they can be im p lem en ted
in listening lessons.
5. Discuss the differences betw een interactional
language use and transactional language use.
Give exam ples from vour personal experience
and com pare them with those given by others
in your class.
S U G G E S T E D A C T IV IT IE S
1. Ask perm ission to observe two o r th re e ESL
or foreign language classes. O bserve the
n atu re o f the interactions in the class. N ote
the am o u n t o f tim e in which students are
engaged in listening a n d the a m o u n t o f tim e
thev are engaged in speaking, reading, or
writing.
2. Write a lesson plan that focuses on two or
three wavs to include specific listening o p p o r­
tunities in a class where the central focus is on
a n o th e r aspect of language learning.
3. W orking in pairs, use the R ichards m atrix
(Richards 1990) and com e up with two or
th ree exam ples for each of the fo u r cells.
FU R T H ER R EA D IN G
Anderson. A., and T. Lynch. 1988. Listening. Oxford:
Oxford University Press.
This book stands back from the surface detail of
comprehension materials and provides an over­
all perspective on listening as a communicative
activity and as a language learning activity. It
includes a research design focus.
Brown. G.. and G. Yule. 1983. Teaching the Spoken Lan­
guage. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Using an approach based on the analysis of con­
versational English, this book examines the
nature of spoken language and presents prin­
ciples and techniques for teaching spoken pro­
duction and listening comprehension.
Nunan, D., and L. Miller. 1995. New Ийул in leaching
Listening Comprehension. Alexandria, YA: TF.SOL.
A ven useful compendium of activities for plan­
ning language lessons with a listening locus.
Mendelsohn, D., and J. Rubin. 1995. A Guide for
Teaching Second [winguage Listening. San Diego.
CA: Dominie Press.
An excellent collection of diverse topics in teach­
ing second language listening. Contains mav
practical examples and suggestions for lesson
development.
Morlev. J. 1999. Current Perspectives on Imploring
Aural Comprehension. LSL Magazine2 (1 ): 15-19.
This is an easv-to-read article for the beginning
TESL/TEFL student. It presents current perspec­
tives in the area of ESE EFL aural comprehension
instruction.
Ur. P. 1984. Teaching Listening Comprehension.
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Analyzes real-life listening characteristics and the
problems encountered bv language learners.
Presents a wide range of exercise types, ranging
from elementary to advanced, and appropriate
for both adults and children.
Special periodical issues devoted to listening
comprehension:
Applied Linguistics 7 (2). Summer 1986.
ELT Documents Special, "The Teaching of Listening
Comprehension." 1981.
foreign Language Annals 17 (4), September 1984.
JALT Newsletter 19 (4). 1982.
TF.SOL News let ter 19 (6). December 1985.
 Skills and Strategies for
Proficient Listening
PAT W I L C O X P E T E R S O N
In "Skills and Strategies for Proficient Listening," Peterson offers a developmental view of second
language listeners at beginning, intermediate, and advanced levels. She describes the comprehension
processes of proficient listeners as being both top-down and bottom-up in nature, and offers exercises
for building listening skills and strategies at all profic iency levels.
IN T R O D U C T IO N :
T H E IM PO RTA N CE OF
L IS T E N IN G IN
L A N G U A G E LE A R N IN G
Teachers who want to provide the most effective
classroom experience for their second language
students should consider this: Xo o th er tvpe of
language input is as easv to process as spoken lan­
guage, received through listening. At the begin­
ning stages of language studv, before students
have learned to read well, it is bv listening that
they can have the most direct connection to
m eaning in the new language. T hrough listening,
learners can build an awareness of the interw ork­
ings o f language systems at various lev els and thus
establish a base for m ore fluent productive skills.
At the interm ediate level, w hen students are
refining their understanding of the gram m atical
systems of their second or foreign language, lis­
tening can be used to stim ulate awareness of detail
and to prom ote accuracv. At advanced levels,
w hen students are able readers and written lan­
guage has becom e a viable source of input, listen­
ing should still occupv a central place in their
language use. A regular p rogram of listening can
extend learners' vocabularv and use o f idioms
a n d b u ild th e ir a p p re c ia tio n for cultural
nuances. M oreover, successful academ ic study in
English req u ires a m asterv of the listening
dem ands in form al lectures as well as in the in ter­
active exchanges which are com m on to sem inar
settings an d conversational lecture stales.
T here is such a wide range o f listening tasks
for different purposes and for all proficiency levels
that teachers can find listening activities to pro­
m ote learning at every stage. This ch ap ter will
present a brief developm ental view of listening
skills: how people learn to listen and how listening
prom otes learning. Sample exercises will be given
to facilitate listening at beginning, interm ediate,
and advanced stages of language developm ent.
T H E O R IE S O F L A N G U A G E
C O M P R E H EN S IO N
The following ideas about the listening process had
their beginnings m ore than fortv years ago and
have recently gained wide acceptance in the field.
Listening Is the Primary Channel
for Language Input and Acquisition
Proponents o f com prehension approaches recog­
nize the primacv of listening in the processes of
co m p re h en sio n , re te n tio n o f in fo rm a tio n in
memory, and acquisition of second language com ­
petence. X ida (1957) describes the language
learning experience of people in Africa, where
m ultilingualism w ithout form al instruction is a
com m on phen o m en o n . People simply go to a
place to live and work, they listen w ithout attem pt­
ing to speak, and quite soon they find that they
can "hear" the language. Only after internalizing
some part of the language do they try to speak.
Xida concludes. "T eam ing to speak a language is
verv largely a task of learning to h e a r it” (p. 53).
 This emphasis on the primacv of listening
contrasts dramatically with audiolingual practices of
the 1960s and 1970s. which prom oted early inten-
si\e oral practice. In an essay entitled "Win not start
speaking later?" Postovsky (1977) called for an
extended period of listening with delayed oral pro­
duction. Asher's (1969) Total Physical Response
approach featured a long preproduction phase in
which students listened, followed comm ands, and
dem onstrated their com prehension through non­
verbal actions. The Natural Approach (krashen
and Terrell 1983) also set a prespeech period for lis­
tening only, to be followed bv an early production
phase in which students gate an steers in single
words or short phrases. The prespeech period
could last for a few hours in the case of adult stu­
dents, or for up to six m onths with children.
A ccording to N ord (1981). reception should
p recede production because reception enables
production. W hile it is possible to learn to u n d e r­
stand without speaking, it is not possible to learn
to speak w ithout understanding. Prem ature pro­
duction has several negative effects: Lacking T9
com p etence, students are forced back on LI
p ro d u ctio n habits and m at m ake m any LI trans­
fer errors. T he n e e d to p ro d u ce utterances max
in te rfe re with the ability to c o m p re h e n d the lan­
guage completely, a n d thus in terfere with learn ­
ing and m em o ry T he overload of task dem ands
on th e lea rn er produces anxiety, which fu rth e r
inhibits learning.
Listening Comprehension Is
a Multilevel, Interactive Process
o f Meaning Creation
W hen good listeners involve themselves with am
type o f spoken discourse, a n u m b er of processes
work on various lew is sim ultaneously to produce
an u n d erstan d in g of the incom ing speech. The
h ig h er level processes (top-dow n) are driven bv
listeners' expectations and u n d e rsta n d in g ' ot the
context, the topic, the natu re of text, and the
natu re o f the world. T he lower level p a r c h e s
(bottom -up) are triggered by the so u n d ', words,
and phrases which the listener h e a t' he 1>r 'h e
attem pts to decode speech and a "ig : meaning.
The acoustic signal itself carries few cues to the
meanings that are encoded within it: the listener
must use his or her knowledge of the language to
recognize m eaningful sound units, to determ ine
sellable boundaries, and to identify words. This
phase of com prehension is known as perceptual pro­
cessing (Anderson 1983). Next the listener works
with the words and phrases he or she has decoded
to form m eaningful units, which are stored in short­
term memory. This is the parsing phase. Finally, the
listener searches long-term m em ory for ideas that
relate to the new information: when a match is
m ade between old and new information, com pre­
hension occurs. This is the utilization stage.
With h igher lew is of language proficiency,
the listener works m ore efficiently and is able to
m aintain activity on till levels simultaneously.
At b e g in n in g proficiency levels, p e rc e p tu a l
(bottom -up) operations require great am ounts
of conscious attention, so that little capacity
rem ains for h ig h er level operations. Later, after
lower level skills have been rehearsed m any
times, they can be p erfo rm ed autom atically and
the learner's intention can be freed up for top-
down operations (M cLaughlin. Rossman. and
M cLeod 1983).
In proficient listeners, top-down and bottom-
up processes interact, so that lack of inform ation
at one level can be com pensated for bv checking
against inform ation at the o th e r level. For exam ­
ple. advanced listeners max use their knowledge
of lexis and topic to in terp ret the confusing
sounds in the speech stream and to aid in xvord
recognition. On the o th e r hand, they max’ also
use their basic decoding skills to check the
progress o f the argum ent and to determ ine
w h eth er the discourse is going in the direction
thev had predicted. Listening in their natixe lan­
guage. people newer hear all the inform ation in a
message, and thex do not n eed to; proficiency in
c o m p reh en sio n is the ability- to fill in the gaps
an d to create an u n d ersta n d in g that m eets one's
purpose for listening.
Rost (1990) credits the contributions oi
second language reading research for pointing to
the im portance o f the student's prior knowledge
in m aking sense of incom ing linguistic data. This
general com prehension m odel has been extended
to listening as well. T here are mans’ terms for the
m eaning structures in the mind; they have been
called frames (Minskv 1975), scripts (Schank 1975).
and schemata (R um elhart 1980). We will use
Rum elhart's terminology. H e defines a schem a as
"a data structure for representing generic concepts
stored in memory" (p. 34). Carrell and Eisterhold
1 1983) suggest that background inform ation in the
l eader's m ind is of two kinds: content schem ata
and form al schemata. C ontent schem ata include
cultural knowledge, topic familiarity, and previous
experience with a field. Formal schem ata have to
do with people's knowledge of discourse forms:
text types, rhetorical conventions, and the struc­
tural organization of prose. Both content and for­
mal schem ata can aid the reader (and the listener)
m com prehending text (Flovcl and Carrell 1987).
Models of the Comprehension
Process
One view of listening com prehension describes
com prehension of a speaker's message as the inter­
nal reproduction of that message in the listener's
mind, so that successful listening reproduces the
m eaning m uch as the speaker intended (Clark and
Clark 1977). This is the inform ation processing
view of listening. A second view (Rost 1990) places
m ore emphasis on the goals and internal m eaning
'tructures of the listener: in this view, the listener
does not receive m eaning, but rather constructs
m eaning. The constructed message differs some­
what from the intended message and is influenced
bv context, purpose for listening, and the listener's
own prior knowledge. Both views acknowledge the
complexity of the listening process and the im por­
tance of both top-down and bottom -tip operations.
Nagle and Sanders (1986) offer a m odel of
com prehension that incorporates the distinction
between controlled and autom atic processing as
well as the active role of the listener in attention and
m onitoring. Thev propose an executive decision
m aker that decides how to deal with input, a n d a
feedback loop that allows the listener to m onitor
ongoing com prehension. T heir m odel is specifi­
cally in ten d ed to describe com prehension in a
second language. Thev m ake the point that while
com prehension is not exactly the same thing as
learning, successful com prehension makes m ate­
rial available for learning.
Principles for Listening
Comprehension in the Classroom
The above findings suggest a set of principles for
teaching listening in the second language classroom.
Increase the amount o f listening time in the second
language class. Make listening the prim ary chan­
nel for learning new m aterial in the classroom.
Input must be interesting, comprehen-sible, sup­
ported bv extralinguistic materials, and keved to
the language lesson.
Use listening before other activities. At begin­
ning and low-interm ediate levels, have students lis­
ten to m aterial before thev are required to speak,
read, or write about it.
Include both global and selective listening.
Global listening encourages students to get the
gist, m ain idea, topic, situation, or setting. Selective
listening points student attention to details of form
and encourages accuracy.
Activate top-level skills. Give advance organizers,
script activators, or discussions which call up stu­
dents' background knowledge. Do this before stu­
dents listen. Encourage top-down processing at
even proficiency level.
Work towards automaticity in processing. Include
exercises which build both recognition and reten­
tion of the material. Use familiar m aterial in novel
combinations. Encourage overlearning through
focus on selected formal features. Practice bottom-
up processing at ev e n proficiency lev el.
Develop conscious listening strategies. Raise stu­
dents' awareness of text features and of their own
com prehension processes. Encourage them to
notice how their processing operations interact
with the text. Prom ote flexibility in the m any strate­
gies thev can use to understand the language.
Practice interactive listening, so that thev can use
their bottom -up and their top-down processes to
check one against the other.
Skills and Strategies
Before p ro ceed in g with a developm ental de­
scription of listening proficiency, it is helpful to
d iffe re n tia te betw een th e follow ing term s:
listening process, listening skill, an d listening
strategy. T he m odels in the p reced in g section
p rese n t a view o f som e sim ultaneous, interactive
op eratio n s w hich are hvpothesizecl to constitute
th e successful c o m p re h e n sio n process. T hese
o p erations are m ade up o f various subprocesses:
chunking input into svllables, recognizing words,
recalling relevant schem ata, and m atching key
words to the sem antic structure of the text. These
subprocesses are the skills of the co m petent lis­
tener. If these skills are practiced enough, thev
becom e autom atic and are activated m uch m ore
quickly. W hen things are going well, the listener
is n o t conscious of using skills at all. At the point
w hen the com prehension process breaks down
for some reason, the listener becom es aware of
the need for repair and seeks an appropriate
strategy for com prehension.
A m ajor difference betw een skills and strate­
gies is that strategies are u n d e r the learner's con­
scious control; thev are operations which the
learner chooses to use to direct or check his or h er
own com prehension. C ham ot explains:
WITs d esirab le fo r basic cognitive
skills to becom e autom ated, the same
is not true for strategies, which n eed
to be controlled consciouslv if learners
are to m aintain awareness of different
lea rn in g co n d itio n s turd select the
strategies most appropriate for specific
tasks (1995, p.16).
C om petent listeners tend to m onitor their
com prehension rath er steadilv and, when neces-
sarv, to select appropriate strategies for the task at
hand. Field (1998) points out the com pensatoiv
nature o f strategies in that thev make up for a lack
of linguistic skill or topic knowledge. As the lis­
tener's abilitv improves, strategies mav be used less
frequendv (or mav develop into unconscious skills).
Students mav not im m ediatelv see the bene­
fits o f strategy use or thev mav feel that strategy
instruction takes time awav from the practice of
language skills. According to MacIntyre and Noels
(1996), teachers can motivate students bv showing
them how and w hen to use strategies. Teachers
m ust also show students how effective strategy
use can be th ro u g h successful experiences.
M endelsohn (1995) calls for strategy instruction to
be delivered gradually oxer an extended period of
time, and in a m anner appropriate to the learners’
proficiency lexel. Strategv train in g does not
replace language practice, but rather is inter­
spersed with practice th roughout a course.
In fact, u n tu to re d students use strategies
anyway, b u t thev do n ot alxvaxs choose wisely.
E astm an (1991) points o ut th at students som e­
tim es use ineffectixe strategies such as on-line
translation. T ranslation o f single words max- be
the only strategv that beg in n in g listeners th ink
to use, b u t it restricts listeners to the surface fea­
tures of the language and uses up all o f th eir
available processing capacity. T he urge to trans­
late is so natural at lower proficiencx lexels that
students m ust be explicitly e n co u rag ed to avoid
it. Teachers can help th eir students to practice
m ore productixe strategies such as atte n d in g to
longer chunks o f language a n d relating new
info rm atio n to what thev already know.
Types o f Strategies
Taxonom ies of learn in g strategies haxe b een
p ro p o sed for second language use in general
(O xford 1990). Strategies specific to listening
co m p reh en sio n are based on these general lists
and include the categories of metacognitix'e,
cognitive, an d socioaffectixe strategies.
M etacognitix’e strategies inxolxe planning,
m o n ito rin g , and evaluating c o m p re h e n sio n .
Cognitive strategies are used to m an ip u late
inform ation. Exam ples of cognitixe strategies
are rehearsal, organization, sum m arization, a n d
elaboration. Socioaffectixe strategies hax’e b een
less studied but are th o u g h t to be particularly
im p o rtan t xvhen the listening is two xvay and
m eaning can be n eg otiated betw een speaker
an d listener, as in conversations. Exam ples of
socioaffectixe strategies are cooperatix’e lea rn ­
ing. q u estioning for clarification, a n d m anaging
o ne's em otions in the learning situation. A com ­
plete list o f strategies w ould be quite lengthy,
since it xvould haxe to describe all the possible
actions that a le a rn e r could take in the face of
xvidelv different texts and tasks.
Strategx' use xaries xvith proficiencx1, a n d so
the relationship betw een strategx' use a n d profi­
ciency lexel is an im p o rta n t one. M ore advanced
learners use a g rea ter n u m b e r of strategies th an
beginners do, a n d they also use th em with m ore
flexibility, choosing strategies to fit a specific sit­
uation. O ’Malley, C ham ot, a n d K upper (1989)
fo u n d th at effectiye learners select strategies
ap p ro p riate to the processing phase. In the p e r­
ceptual phase, they use focused, selective a tte n ­
tion; in parsing, thev p refe r top-dow n strategies:
and in the utilization phase, they draw on p e r­
sonal experience an d world knowledge. Several
studies have fo u n d that advanced learners are
able to process larger chunks o f inform ation and
to draw on linguistic a n d w orld know ledge
sim ultaneously in building m ean in g (Rost and
Ross 1991; V andergrift 1998).
In contrast, beginning and low-interm ediate
listeners relv too m uch on inform ation at one
level, either at the top or at the bottom , a n d fail
to check one level against the other. Thev mat-
come to the listening experience with a fixed idea
of what thev will hear, and be unwilling to change
their idea as the text com es in. Thev are less
able to revise th eir schem ata w hen faced with
contradictory inform ation an d e ith e r ignore the
contradiction or shift their conceptual fram e­
works too frequently. Alternately, such learners
may be b o u n d to surface features o f the data,
m aking all th eir inferences at the local level and
lacking anv overall schem a for u n d e rsta n d in g
(V andergrift 1998).
A D EV E LO P M E N TA L V IE W
OF L IS T E N IN G SK ILLS
Profile o f the Beginning-Level
Student in Listening
True b eginners in a second language lack ade­
quate bottom -up processing skills because thev
have n o t yet developed the linguistic categories
against which the language m ust be heard. They
perceive the new language as und ifferen tiated
noise. They are not vet able to segm ent the
speech stream into w ord units — to tell w here
one w ord begins an d a n o th e r ends. T he new
p h onem ic svstem is an u n b ro k en code: Sounds
which native speakers consider sim ilar may be
perceived a n d classified as different; sounds
which native speakers consider d ifferent may be
perceived a n d classified as the sam e. If the stress
p attern s of words differ from those in the L I,
true b eginners may have trouble identifying L2
word boundaries. Thev h a te no idea ab o u t
phonological rules th at change sounds in cer­
tain environm ents o r cause reductions of sound.
To decode the sensory data as a native speaker
would, learners m ust first build a linguistic struc­
ture of im p o rta n t sou n d distinctions a n d cate­
gories. B eginners’ structural com p eten ce also
places lim itations on th eir bottom -up processing
skills. They are n o t fam iliar with rules for w ord
form ation, inflections, o r w ord order. T h eir
vocabulary store is practically nonexistent.
T h e novice stage is of very sh o rt du ratio n .
Alm ost im m ediately u p o n h e a rin g the new lan­
guage, learn ers begin to sift an d sort the acoustic
info rm atio n by form ing categories a n d building
a representation of the L2 svstem. If the teacher
follows principles o f com prehension training,
learners will have m any opportunities to work
with a lim ited am o u n t o f language th at is focused
on dearly illustrated subjects. T he sim plified code
that is used in the classroom at this point helps
learners direct their attention to the im portant
features of the message. .After a few hours of
instruction, the learners know a tiny bit o f the
language very well an d can use th eir em erging
u n d e rsta n d in g o f linguistic categories to decode
new utterances.
Despite its brevity, the notice stage is im por­
tant for the developm ent of positive attitudes
toward listening. Learners should be encouraged
to tolerate ambiguity, to venture inform ed guesses,
to use their real-world knowledge and analytical
skills, and to enjov their success in com prehension.
The world outside the classroom asks, Do you speak
English? and ignores the verv form idable accom ­
plishm ent of skilled com prehension. Rarely does
anyone ask, Do you understand English ?Teachers can
help correct this situation bv attaching value to stu­
dents' progress in listening skills.
True beginners are found in beginning classes
for immigrants to English-speaking countries and
in F.FL classes abroad. Many of the teachers in the
second setting are not native speakers themselves,
and some ntav lack the confidence to provide stu­
dents with the kind of global listening experiences
thev need (see Medgyes’s chapter in this volume).
Yet, considering the great value of exposure to spo­
ken English, all teachers should attem pt to provide
this im portant input. The following suggestions
are m eant to encourage such teachers.
1. Global listening selections should be short—
one to three m inutes in duration.
2. The teacher does not have to speak as if he or
she were addressing colleagues tit a professional
meeting. Teachers' m onologues are most effec­
tive at beginning levels if thee- are delivered in a
simplified code. Such language involves short,
basic sentences, d e a r pronunciation, repeti­
tion o f ideas, limited vocabularv. and risual or
situational support for new words.
3. It is best to ad d new m aterial (vocabularv
a n d structures) graduallv. E xperience with
recom binations of fam iliar m aterial builds
lea rn ers’ confidence and lessens the am ount
of totallv new texts the teacher m ust prepare.
4. Global listening exercises such as short teacher
m onologues can be given to large classes,
which are often found in the EFL setting
w here it is m ore difficult to proride speaking
activities for the same n um ber of students.
Students should be kept active with a task to
perform while listening, so the teacher can be
sure that he or she is using class time wiselv.
5. Selective listening exercises, which focus on
structures o r sounds in contrast, are relatively
easv to prepare. Most EFT teachers have come
through educational svstems w here gram m ar
was em phasized and are quite com fortable
with this kind o f task. Listening discrim ination
tasks can focus on tenses, singular/plural dif­
ferences, w ord order, or new vocabulary; there
are manv possibilities.
Techniques for Global Listening O n e im p o r­
tan t use of global listening is the p resen tatio n of
new m aterial. Until students are skilled readers,
it is best to p rese n t new m aterial orallv. T he
teach er may select anv p art o f the lesson for a
global listening experience, o r he or she may
write a text based on the lesson. In tro d u ctio n of
new m aterial th ro u g h global listening is com ­
m on to m anv o f the new er com p reh en sio n
approaches, vet the tech n iq u e is n ot described
in language textbooks. O nce the teacher has
m astered a few sim ple principles and routines,
he o r she can use the tech n iq u e daiiv
Texts for global listening should be short, and
preceded bv a prelistening actiritv. W herever pos­
sible. the them e and situation of the story should
be presented risuallv bv drawing on the chalk­
board. overhead projector, or a large poster. If the
new material is a dialogue, draw- the participants
and tell their ages and relationships to each other.
Setting the scene in this wav activates the learners’
background knowledge and encourages them to
make predictions about the text. New vocabularv
can be used in short, illustrative sentences before
learners hear it as part of the lesson. If possible, use
new vocabularv in a personal wav, supported by the
context of the classroom, so its m eaning is clear.
Descriptive words, colors, num bers, sizes, shapes,
action verbs, and spatial relations are easv to m odel
and to support with tangible examples.
T he prelistening stage should develop learn­
ers' curiositv about how all the phrases and words
thev have heard will fit together in a context. The
new text should be m odeled at norm al speed, b ut
with pauses betw een natural phrase groups.
Teachers should not slow their speech, because
the students' short-term m em orv capacitv is too
lim ited to rem em ber sentences w hen they are
ex tended bv slow speech. T he psvcholinguistic
processing m odel described above indicates that
short phrases can be held in working m em ory
until the next pause: d u ring the pause, the
phrase is anah zed. in terp reted , related to the rest
of the message, and com prehended.
If objects a n d actions are d em o n strated
clearlv an d if the message contains a clear dra­
m atic structure, even beginners will soon begin
to perceive p attern s o f sound. Vocabulary from
the prelisten in g phase will stand out especially
clearlv from the rest o f the speech stream , p ro ­
viding listeners a pleasant experience of recog­
n itio n . W orking with a few c o n te n t words,
learners can use top-down processing to fill in
the gaps a n d guess the general m eaning o f the
text. C om prehension of every function word
a n d gram m atical m arker is really n ot necessary
w hen the goal is simple to get the gist.
It should be clear from this description of
global listening that com prehension at the begin­
ning stage is not total— rath e r real-life com pre­
hension does not d e p e n d on u n d erstanding
even- word. Students on the first dav of class will
be able to u n d erstan d some words o f the storv
through use o f these techniques. They will not
rem em ber the words o r be able to produce them ,
but the\’will quite likely recognize the words when
they h ear them again in a familiar context. At the
least, they have been exposed to three to five m in­
utes o f the new language with its own distinctive
'o u n d svstem, intonation patterns, pause system,
and word order. C om prehension theorists such as
Xida (1957) point out that during this time a great
deal o f active processing has been going on just
below' the students' level of conscious awareness.
Selective Listening Techniques T he o th er half of
the listening plan is to bring some of the new con­
trasts a n d p attern s into conscious awareness
through selective listening exercises. H ere are the
listening goals for beginners with exercise types.
T he classification of exercises as bottom -up
or top-down does not indicate that onlv one kind
of cognitive activity can occur during each exer­
cise, but rather that some foster predom inantly
bottom-up responses, and some exercises prom ote
predominant!}' top-down processing. An exercise
is classified as bottom -up if focus is on form and
the exercise deals with one of the structural sys­
tems of English. Alternately, this designation mav
indicate selection o f specific discrete items from
the listening text such as listening for details. .An
exercise is classified as top-down if the focus is on
m eaning and the listener uses global listening
strategies. Alternately, this designation mav indi­
cate a reliance on extralinguistic skills which the
learner brings to the listening task. All listening is
to some degree interactive due to the nature of
the processing m echanism . An exercise is classi­
fied as interactive if the listener must use inform a­
tion gained by processing at one lev el to check the
accuracy of his or her processing on an o th er level.
Bottom-Up Processing Goals and
Exercise Types, Beginning-Level
Listeners
Goal: Discriminate between intonation contours in
sentences
■ Listen to sentences with e ith e r rising or
falling in to n a tio n a n d m ark th em with
a p p ro p riate p u n c tu a tio n for statem ents (.),
questions (?), surprise (??), or excitem ent
(!) (Rost a n d U ru n o 1995, p. 54).
■ Listen to pairs o f sentences spoken by a
driver a n d a policeofficer. In each case the
police officer’s words are the sam e as the
driv er’s. Use the in to n a tio n p a tte rn o f the
policeofficer to d e te rm in e w h eth er he is
rep eatin g o r q u estioning w hat the driver
said (Foley 1994a, p. 83).
Goal: Discriminate between phonemes
■ Listen to the tea c h e r read pairs o f words.
Each p air differs by one sound. T h en listen
again as the tea c h e r reads onlv one o f the
w'ords in each pair a n d circle the word you
h e a r (Benz a n d Dworak 2000, p. 126).
■ Listen to th ree words a n d d e te rm in e which
w ord is different from the o th e r two (Rost
an d U ru n o 1995, p. 55).
Goal: Listen for morphological endings
■ Listen to a num ber of verbs that end in -s or
-es. For each verb, note the pronunciation / s / ,
/ z / . or / 3 Z / (Benz and Dworak 2000, p. 189).
■ Listen to sentences a n d decide if the verb is
in the p rese n t tense o r the past tense. T h en
listen to a list o f verbs that en d in -ed an d
note the p ro n u n cia tio n / t / , / d / , o r / a d /
(Benz a n d Dworak 2000, p. 226).
Goal: Recognize syllable patterns, number of syllables,
and word stress
■ Listen to a short radio commercial. In each
word, count and note the num ber of sylla­
bles, and underline the stressed syllable.
T hen practice reading the com m ercial aloud
to vour partner, preserving the stress pattern
(Benz and Dworak 2000, pp. 47-48).
Goal: Be aware of sentence fillers in informal speech.
■ Listen to sentences and identify' sentence
fillers such as: "well," "I m ean," "like,” “vou
know" (Folev 1994b, p. 82).
Goal: Select details from the text
■ L isten to a re c o rd e d te le p h o n e m en u
about the movies playing, the theaters, and
th e show times. Circle the n u m b e r th a t you
m ust press at each p o in t to work down the
m enu (Benz and Dworak 2000, p. 69-70).
■ Listen to som e conversations about sick­
ness. R efer to a list o f sym ptom s and check
 those symptoms which are m entioned in the
conversation (Benz and Dworak 2000, p. 112).
Top-Down Processing Goals and
Exercise Types, Beginning-Level
Listeners
Goal: Discriminate between emotional reactions
■ Listen to a statem en t a b o u t a vacation and
decide w h eth er o r n o t the speaker enjoved
the vacation (Richards 1995, p. 29).
Goal: Get the gist or main idea of a passage
■ Listen to a dialogue an d decide what tvpe o f
w eather is being described. Find the picture
th at shows the w eather (Benz and Dworak
2000, p. 80).
■ Listen to a series o f short conversations and
for each one m ark a picture that shows
w here the conversation took place (Rost
a n d U ru n o 1995, p. 49).
■ Listen to a n u m b er of short biographies and
for each one write a title that expresses the
m ain idea o f the passage (Benz and Dworak
2000, pp. 142-143).
Goal: Recognize the topic
■ From a list of possible topics predict the
topics that people will discuss when they
d o n ’t know each other well. Listen to a series
o f short conversations in different settings
and note which topics are actually discussed
(Benz and Dworak 2000, pp. 71-72).
■ Listen to a series of process descriptions,
telling how to do so m eth in g a n d m ark a
pictu re th a t tells the topic of the descrip­
tion (Rost an d U ru n o 1995, p. 78).
Interactive Processing Goals and
Exercise Types, Beginning-Level
Listeners
Goal: Use speech features to decide if a statement is
formal or informal
■ Look at five pictures which show people
m eeting each other. Based on extralinguistic
inform ation such as setting, age. and profes­
sions of the people, predict w hether the lan­
guage will be form al or inform al. Listen
to the sh o rt dialogues to confirm your
prediction. Analvze features of the speech
(tone, speed, w ord choice) to d eterm in e
w hat m akes an in tro d u c tio n m ore form al
(Benz a n d Dworak 2000, pp. 5 -6).
Goal: Recognize a familiar word and relate it to a
category
■ Review the nam es of objects th at are sold in
differen t stores. Listen to statem ents that
tell w hat people want to buy and select a
picture of the store thev will visit. T h e n
m ark the picture o f the item thev will buy
(Rost a n d U runo 1995. p. 41).
Goal: Compare information in memorу with incom­
ing information
■ Read a sentence and th e n listen to a sen­
tence on tape to decide if the m ean in g is
the same or different (Foley 1994a, p. 71).
■ Listen to a passage that describes a dram atic
event such as a natural disaster. T hen listen
to a sentence from the passage a n d rem em ­
b er its m eaning. O n a w orksheet, read two
se n te n c e s a n d d e c id e w hich se n te n c e
w ould best follow the sentence you heard
(Foley 1994b. p. 107).
Goal: Compare information that you hear with your
own experience
■ Listen to statem ents about receding in the
U nited States Com pare them with recycling
in vour countrv. Tell w hether your country' is
the same or different (Foley 1994b, p. 116).
Profile of the Intermediate-
Level Learner
Interm ediate-level learners co n tin u e to use lis­
ten in g as an im p o rtan t source o f language input
to in crease th e ir vocabularv a n d stru ctu ra.
u n d erstan d in g . A lthough they have internalizec >
the ph o n em ic system o f the language fairly well
they mav have little u n d e rsta n d in g of the com ­
plexities of phonological rules that govern fast
speech: reductions, elisions, assim ilation, a n d S'
forth. Thev n e e d practice in word recognition
in discrim inating fine differences in w ord orde:
a n d gram m atical form , in registers o f speakinc
an d in em otional overtones. !
 Interm ed iate-lev el lea rn ers have m oved
beyond the limits of words a n d short phrases:
their m em orv can retain longer phrases a n d sen­
tences. Thev can listen to sh o rt conversations or
narratives that are one o r two paragraphs in
length. Thev are able to get the gist, to find the
m ain idea an d som e su p p o rtin g detail (ACTFL
Proficiency G uidelines 1988). Thev are reach to
practice m ore discourse level skills: p redicting
what will h a p p e n next and explaining relations
betw een events an d ideas.
Techniques for Global Listening At the in te r­
m ediate level, it is no longer necessary to pro-
tid e learners with sim plified codes and m odified
speech. In d eed , learners n eed to h ear authentic
texts with red u c e d form s, fast speech features,
false starts, hesitations, errors, som e n o n stan ­
dard dialects, and a variety o f different voices.
T here are several definitions of authenticity
in materials. Porter and Roberts (1987) state that
authentic texts are those "instances of spoken lan­
guage which were not initiated for the purpose of
teaching . . . not intended for non-native learners"
ip. 176). Rogers and Medlcv (1988) use the term
authentic to refer to till language samples which
"reflect a naturalness of form, and an appropri­
ateness of cultural and situational context that
would be found in the language as used bv native
speakers" (p. 468). With this definition, verv good
teacher-m ade or adapted materials mav qnalifv as
authentic.
Techniques for Selective Listening At the
interm ediate-level, students n e e d a well-organ­
ized p rogram of selective listening to focus their
atten tio n on the systematic features of the lan­
guage code. Accuracy in discrim inating gram ­
m atical features is verv im p o rta n t at this level. If
learners c a n n o t h e a r certain unstressed endings,
articles, inflections, and function words, thev are
less likelv to in co rp o rate them into th eir gram ­
matical com petence. Interm ediate-level students
who were train ed with sim plified codes a n d with
clearly p ro n o u n c e d m odels mav not recognize
the sam e words and phrases in norm al fast
speech. G ilbert (1995) suggests th at som e p ro ­
nunciation training has an im p o rta n t place in
the listening class — to draw stu d e n ts’ conscious
atten tio n to the features o f natural speech.
Finally, the interm ediate level is an appro­
priate tim e to teach explicitly some strategies of
interactive listening: how to use one's knowledge
of form al gram m ar to check the general m eaning
of a speaker’s statem ent and how to use o n e ’s
background knowledge to predict and direct the
process of com prehension.
Bottom-Up Processing Goals and
Exercise Types, Intermediate-Level
Listeners
Goal: Differentiate between content and function
wonts by stress pattern
e Read a series of sentences and predict which
words will be stressed (content words) and
which will be reduced (function words.)
Listen to the sentences and confirm vour
predictions (Hagen 2000, p. 8).
Goal: Find the stressed syllable
* Listen to a list of multisyllable words. Repeat
each one and check w hether the stress is on
the first, second, or third syllable. Note which
syllables were m ore frequently stressed
(Carlisi and Christie 2000, pp. 153-154).
Goal: Recognise words with reduced vowels or dropped
syllables
Listen to a series of statem ents ab o u t sports
activities and use word stress to d eterm in e
w h eth er the speakers are saving "can” or
"can't" (Gill and H artm an n 2000, p. 81).
Read a list o f polysyllabic words and predict
which syllabic vow el will be d ro p p ed . Listen
to the words an d confirm vour predictions
(H agen 2000. pp. 6-7).
Goal: Recognise words as they are linked in the speech
stream
* Listen to a series o f short sentences with
c o n so n an t vowel linking betw een words.
M ark the linkages on the answ er sheet
(H agen 2000. p M 6 ).
Goal: Recognise pertinent details in the speech stream
* Listen to a short dialogue between a boss and
a secretary regarding changes in the daily
schedule. Use an appointm ent calendar. Cross
out appointm ents that are being changed and
write in new ones (Schecter 1984, p. 36).
 Listen to a short telephone conversation
between a custom er and a service station m an­
ager. Fill in a chart which lists the car repairs
that must be done. Check the part of the car
that needs repair, the reason, and the approx­
im ate cost (Schecter 1984, p. 26).
Top-Down Processing Goals and
Exercise Types, Intermediate-Level
Listeners
Goal: Discriminate between registers of speech and
tones of voice
■ Listen to sentences with e ith e r flat o r varied
in to n a tio n a n d d e te rm in e w h e th e r the
speaker is enthusiastic, friendly, o r sincere
by the am o u n t o f pitch change an d energy
in the voice (Gill a n d H artm an n 2000.
pp. 120-123).
Goal: Listen to identify the speaker or the topic
■ Listen to fo u r short conversations with p e o ­
ple m aking small talk and m atch each to a
picture o f the speakers an d the setting (Gill
an d H a rtm a n n 2000. pp. 10-11).
■ Read the headlines for live different news
stories on th e topics o f e n v iro n m e n t,
health, an d lifestvie. Listen to the news
stories an d m atch each one with the a p p ro ­
priate h eadline (Gill and H a rtm a n n 2000,
pp. 187-189).
Goal: Find main ideas and supporting details
■ Listen to a short conversation betw een two
friends. O n vottr answer sheet are scenes
from television program s. Find and write the
nam e o f the program and the channel.
Decide which speaker watched the program
(Schecter 1984, p. 22).
Goal: Make inferences
■ Listen to a wom an an d a m an o rd erin g
d in n e r in a restaurant. Based on the food
choices thev m ake, tell which person is
m ore conscious o f health concerns (Gill
and H artm an n 2000, p. 72).
Interactive Processing Goals and
Exercise Types, Intermediate-Level
Listeners
Goal: Use word stress to understand the speaker’s intent
■ Listen to a series of statem ents about m onev
problem s. In each statem ent, circle the
words that are em phasized. With a partner,
discuss what is im p o rtan t to the speaker
a n d how the speaker feels about it (Garlisi
and C hristie 2000. p. 116).
Goal: Recognize missing grammar markers in collo­
quial speech and reconstruct the message
■ Listen to a series of short questions in which
the auxiliary verb and subject have been
deleted. Lse gram m atical knowledge to fill
in the missing words: "(1 lave vou) got some
extra?" (H agen 2000. pp. 9-10).
«* Listen to a series of questions with assimilated
verb auxiliary and subject, and use gram ­
matical knowledge to identify the missing
verb (does d/is it). Example: "Zit need m ore
salt?" and "Zit Ok?" (Hagen 2000, p. 17).
Goal: l 'sc context and knowledge of the world to build
listening expectations: listen to confirm expectations
* Based on vour know ledge o f o th er cultures,
predict w hether their topics of conversation
in an academ ic setting will be personal or
im personal, direct or indirect. T hen listen to
a new com er describe his experience in that
culture and note what kind of culture shock
actually occurred. After listening, discuss
with a p a rtn e r w hether vour initial idea was
correct and how vou have to revise vour
ideas because of to u r added knowledge
(Garlisi and Christie 2000. pp. 4 0 -4 2 ).
Profile of the Advanced Learner
T h e re is evidence that in the learn in g c o n tin u ­
um . som ew here betw een high-interm ecliate and
advanced levels, a qualitative shift occurs in the
le a rn e r's p ro cessin g stvle (C um m ins 1981).
C um m ins notes that truly proficient bilinguals
are able to use th eir second language skills fully
to acquire knowledge: Thev h a te cognitive and
academic language proficiency (CALP). Advanced
students are no longer simply learning to listen or
listening to learn the language. They are listening
in the language to learn about the content of other
areas. To build toward this level, curriculum and
program planners have established courses in
English for Specific Purposes (ESP), English for
Academic Purposes (EAP). and adjunct courses in
which m ainstream content classes offer language
support (see chapters bv Jo h n s an d Price-
M achado. and Snow in this volume).
The ACTFL Proficiency Guidelines (1988)
list the following com petencies for advanced
listeners: Thev can listen to longer texts such as
radio and television program s and academ ic
lectures. T heir vocabulary includes topics in cur­
rent events, history, and culture: thev can deal with
a certain degree of abstraction. The listeners begin
to fill in gaps and can make inferences when the
text is incom plete or their background knowledge
is lacking. How сл ег, their understanding of the lan­
guage rem ains on a iairlv literal plane, so that thev
may miss jokes, slang, and cultural references.
Academic lectures in English-speaking coun­
tries mav employ a m uch less form al delivery style
than the lectures that international students know
from their hom e countries. Instead of the rcad-
aloud lecture. Am erican lectures tend to be con­
versational a n d even interactive (Flowerdew
1994). Professors mar include jokes, cultural ref­
erences, asides, and digressions: thev mar allow
interruptions from students who ask questions,
which ther then go on to weave into the inform ­
ation structure of their lecture. T he non-native lis­
ten er needs to determ ine what is relevant and
what is not. Rost (1994) suggests strategies for
learning from lectures, including form ulating
questions to ask the lecturer, searching lecture
notes for logical relationships, and building a list
of'kev term s to form a lexical base.
Manv advanced learners are m ore skilled at
read in g than ther are at listening. This is partic­
ularly tru e of students who h are learn ed th eir
English in a foreign language context and whose
trainin g has em phasized gram m ar, vocabulary,
an d reading. Such students mar learn to com ­
p re h e n d spoken discourse m ore easily if thev
can activate th eir know ledge bv com pleting the
assigned read in g before the lecture (M ason
1994). Som e experts also suggest judicious use
of lecture transcripts in listening classes as a
m eans o f using students' fam iliarity with w ritten
text to m ake an explicit co n nection with the spo­
ken form of the language (L ebauer 2000).
For m anv in te rn atio n a l students, red u c­
tions in norm al speech p resen t a m ajor co m p re­
h e n sio n p ro b le m . L isten in g classes at th e
advanced level mar- n eed to include a systematic
p ro g ra m o f e x p o sin g le a rn e rs to re d u c e d
speech. A review of stress, pause, pitch, a n d into­
nation patterns can serve to unlock m vsteries of
discourse structure and p o in t students toward
recognition of organizational m arkers, cohesive
devices, and definitions in context.
For listening to fit the interactive m odel of
the skilled native speaker, both top-down an d
bottom -np processes m ust be learned. T h e fol­
lowing reco m m en d atio n s for advanced listeners
assum e an intern atio n al stu d e n t p o p u latio n th at
needs to develop cognitive an d academ ic lan­
guage proficiency for effective study in English.
Bottom-Up Processing Goals and
Exercise Types, Advanced-Level
Listeners
Goal: Use features of sentence stress and intonation to
identify important information for note taking
a L isten to a n u m b e r o f se n te n c e s a n d
extract the c o n ten t words, which are read
with g rea ter stress. W rite the c o n te n t words
as notes (Lint an d Sm alzer 1995, p. 50).
Goal: Recognise contractions, reduced forms, and
other characteristics of spoken English that differ from
the -written form
® Listen to sentences c o n ta in in g red u c e d
form s an d write the sentences as they would
ap p ear w ithout reduction in form al, w ritten
English (Leshinskv 199.5, pp. 1-6).
Goal: Become aware of common performance slips
that must he reinterpreted or ignored
* Listen to and look at sentences that contain
fillers (hesitation p h en o m en a such as “u h ,”
"er." and "um") and phrases such as “I
m ean." "you know," "sort of,” and “like.”
Rewrite the sentences w ithout the fillers;
 om it any words that d o n 't add to the infor­
m ation (Leshinskv 1995. pp. 6- 8 ).
Goal: Become aware of organizational cues in lecture
text
■ Look at a lecture transcript and circle all
the cue words used to e n u m e rate the m ain
points. T h e n listen to the lecture segm ent
an d note the organizational cues (L ebauer
2000, pp. 14-15).
Goal: Become aware of lexical and suprasegmental
markers for definitions
■ Read a list o f lexical cues that signal a defi­
nition; listen to signals o f the speaker's
in te n t such as rhetorical questions: listen to
special in to n atio n pattern s a n d pause pat­
terns used with appositives (L ebauer 2000.
pp. 52-54).
Goal: Identify specific points of information
■ R ead a skeleton outline of an interview
a b o u t s o u th gangs a n d n e ig h b o rh o o d
watch clubs in which the m ain categories
are given but the specific exam ples arc left
blank. Listen to the interview and take
notes on the inform ation which belongs in
the blanks (X um rich 1995. p. 51).
Top-Down Processing Goals and
Exercise Types, Advanced-Level
Listeners
Goal: Use knowledge of the topic to predict the content
of the text
■ Before listening to a conversation about
food, write a description about the was that
food is p rep ared and eaten in so u r culture:
share this inform ation with others. Use sour
ideas to write questions that sou think mav
be anssvered in the listening text (Leshinskv
1995, pp. 27-28).
Goal: Use the introduction to the lecture to predict its
focus and direction
■ Listen to the introductory section of a lec­
ture. T hen read a n u m b er of topics on so u r
answer sheet and choose the topic that best
expresses w hat th e lec tu re will discuss
(L ebauer 2000, pp. 49-51).
(dial: Use the lecture transcript to predict the content
of the next section
■ Read a section of a lecture transcript. Stop
reading at a juncture point and predict what
will com e next. Then read on to confirm
vour prediction (L ebauer 2000. pp. 18-20).
Goal: Find the main idea of a lecture segment
■ R ead a skeleton outline for a lecture about
A m erican svork habits, noting the n u m b er
o f m ain ideas and digressions. W hile listen­
ing to the lecture, fill in the outline and
identify the m ain points and digressions
(Lim an d Sm alzer 1995. pp. 24-25).
Goal: Recognize fwint of view
Take notes on a debate about w hether or not
it is ethical to keep dolphins in captivity.
Afterwards, organize vour notes u n d e r two
headings: the argum ents for keeping dol­
phins and the argum ents against keeping
them (Leshinksv 1995. p. 95).
Interactive Processing Goals and
Exercise Types, Advanced-Level
Listeners
Goal: Use knowledge of phrases and discourse markers
to predict the content in the next segment of the lecture
*» Identify the lec tu re r's in te n tio n bv his
choice of discourse m arkers and predict the
kind of inform ation that will follow (Ваше
1995. pp. 221-224).
Goal: Make inferences about the text.
Listen to a conversation about restaurants,
ethnic cuisine, and good food. Read a num ber
of statements about people's food preferences
and decide if thee are possible inferences
based on the text (Leshinskv 1995, p. 22).
Directions for Future Research
Recent re\iews of research in the field of listening
com prehension have pointed to the need for
additional research in a n u m b er of areas. A com ­
m on them e is the link betw een proficiency level
and strategy use. We need to know m ore about
what good listeners do and how thev learn th eir
strategies. Introspection, self-report, an d in te r­
view m ethods show great prom ise in this elusive
area. Rubin (1994) calls for a prioritization of
the im p o rtan ce o f elem ents in bottom -up and
top-down processing that affect listening at each
proficiency level.
Since the selection of strategies can also be
influenced by factors o th er than proficiency level,
it seems im portant to investigate some of these
variables as well: learning stvle, personality type,
previous educational experience, task constraints,
and text ty pe. M uch o f the research to date has
concentrated on schem a use and top-level pro­
cessing. However, given the im portance o f auto-
maticity in perceiving and parsing, it would also be
helpful to know about the effects of m ore inten­
sive classroom practice on bottom -up processing.
O ne of the difficulties of comparative studies
with low and high proficiency groups is that there
is no com m only accepted m easure of proficiency
in ESL listening. Thus, it is difficult to com pare
the results of studies; some use TOEFL1*, CELT,1 or
MLA test scores, some use teacher assessment, and
some use the ACTFL Oral Proficiency Interview
as a global m easure. Rubin (1994) reports that
ACTFL and the Interagency Language R ound­
table are working on tests that mav sen e as a stan­
dard in future listening com prehension research.
O ther research areas include the effect of
social, cultural, and affective factors on listeners.
Me need to know m ore about the dem ands placed
on students bv formal and informal classroom
styles, interactional teaching styles, and group
work. As m ultim edia resources becom e m ore avail­
able, and as we come to value the visual elem ent in
listening com prehension, a studv of the effects of
\ideo and other visual m edia is of growing interest
(Rubin 1995).
Finally, it would be verv instructive to repli­
cate a studv do n e bv B erne (1998) in which she
asked practicing foreign language teachers about
their areas o f research interest. T he list from
teachers onlv partly overlaps with the topics given
by academ ic researchers. Teachers w anted guide­
lines for setting appropriate goals for different
levels of proficiency; for using the appropriate
am o u n t of repetition; for in co rp o ratin g support
m aterials such as visual aids and physical activities
into listening tasks; for choosing the LI or L2 in
assessing co m p re h en sio n ; fo r re d u c in g the
am oun t o f m ental translation that students do;
for assessing the level of difficulty of a listening
text; for incorporating authentic and culturally
relevant texts; and for com bining listening with
o th er skills. How7 m any o f these issues would
em erge from a similar survey o f ESL/EFL teachers
and what additional issues would the responses of
ESL/EFL teachers raise?
SUMMARY
ESL/EFL teachers have several responsibilities
with respect to the listening skill. First, they must
understand the pivotal role that listening plays in
the language learning process in o rd er to utilize lis­
tening in wavs that facilitate learning. Second, they
must understand the com plex interactive nature of
the listening process and the different kinds o f lis­
tening that learners m ust do in ord er to provide
their students with an appropriate variety7 and
range of listening experiences. Finally, teachers
m ust und erstan d how listening skills typically
develop in second language learners— and m ust
be able to assess the stage of listening at which their
students are — so that each student can engage in
the most beneficial types of listening activities
given his or h er level of proficiency7.
D IS C U S S IO N Q U E S T IO N S
1. In a group, recall the stages that you went
th rough in listening when vou learned a
second language. W hat elem ents did you
h ear first? MTiat elem ents took a long tim e to
hear? W hat part did m em ory play in your
listening at each stage?
2. In vour o p in io n and based on vour experi­
ence, what is the m ost effective relationship
betw een teach er talk an d stu d en t talk in the
L2 classroom?
3. D escribe the differences in texts with sim pli­
fied codes an d au th en tic language. MTiat
purp o se does each text type have in the L2
classroom?
4. T he learner proficiency profiles given in this
ch ap ter are loosely based on the ACTFL
Proficiency Guidelines for listening. T he pro­
files assume a certain learning context, one in
which the target language is n o t spoken out­
side the classroom (similar to an EFT co n tex t).
 Discuss wavs in which context variables m ight
lead to a different learner proficiencv profile at
each level. (Consider class size, age of learners,
am ount of exposure to the language, length of
instruction, and similar factors.)
5. Review the results of Berne's studv, listed in
the last section o f this chapter. Survev vour
classmates a n d /o r colleagues and find out
w h e th e r these issues are o f in te rest to
ESL/EFL teachers. Do vour classmates and
colleagues have o th er issues to add to the list?
S U G G E S T E D A C T IV IT IE S
1. Prepare a presentation o f new m aterial from
an ESL/EFL text. Choose a short dialogue or
narrative passage. Plan a prelistening phase in
which you use visual and situational support to
teach the new words and concepts. T hen pres­
en t the text orally. Your presentation should
last no longer than three to five m inutes.
2. Prepare a selective listening exercise which
focuses on language form and guides students
to discrim inate between structural features.
3. Choose a listening com prehension text that has
been published in the last five tears. Select a
typical chapter and analvze the cognitive pro­
cessing dem ands of its exercises. How many
are top-down? How manv are bottom-up? Inter­
active? W hat is the plan for sequencing the
exercises?
4. R ecord one or two m inutes o f authentic text
from the radio or television. Develop a fram e­
work of language support for the text and
show how you could use it in an interm ediate-
level class.
5. W ith a partner, conduct an experim ent to dis­
cover your (or vour p a rtn e r’s) preferred lis­
tening strategies. O ne of you trill act as the
investigator and the o th er trill serve as the
consultant. Choose a language which you both
know but which is not native to the consultant.
T he investigator trill prepare a one- to three-
m inute tape in that language and transcribe
it, noting junctures w here there are natural
pauses (approximately evert' two or three sen­
tences). The investigator will plat the tape,
pausing at the junctures, and ask the consultant
to report what he or she is doing mentally to
com p reh en d the tape. Make note o f all the lis­
tening strategies m entioned and classify them
as cognitive, m etacognitive, or socioaffective.
W hat does this tell to n about vour listening
strategies? W hat hat e t on learned about doing
this kind of research?
FU R T H ER R EA D IN G
Blair. R.. ed. 1982. Innovative Approaches to Language
Teaching. New York: Xewburv House.
"Learning to Listen." the third chapter of Nida’s
(1957) hook, is reprinted in Blair, pp. 42-53.
Also, this anthologv includes representative
articles bv Asher. Postovskv. Xord, and Krashen.
Xagle. S.. and S. Sanders. 1986. Comprehension
Theorv and Second Language Pedagogy. TESOL
Quarterly 20(1 ):9-26.
Presents the information-processing model of
listening comprehension with suggestions for
classroom applications.
Flowerdew. J.. ed. 1994. Academic Listening: Research
Perspectroes. Cambridge: Cambridge L’niversitv Press.
A collection of chapters bv experts in the field
of English for Academic Purposes, with insights
into the structure of various tvpes of lectures
and information on how students understand.
Joiner, E. 1997. Teaching listening: How technology
can help. In M. D. Bush and R. M. Tern-, eds..
Technology Enhanced Learning (pp. 77-120).
Lincolnwood. 1L: National Textbook Companv.
Describes the kinds of technology that are avail­
able for teaching listening (audio, video, radio,
computers, videodisc, multimedia workstations 1
and how to use them.
Mendelsohn. D.. an d j. Rubin., eds. 1995. A Guide for
the Teaching of Second Language Listening. San
Diego. CA: Dominie Press.
.An excellent collection of articles on the full
range of listening issues, with consideration o:
teaching and assessment.
Vandergrift. I.. 1998. Constructing meaning in L2 listen­
ing: Eridence from protocols. In S. Lapkin, cd.
French as a Second Language in Canada: Recen:
Empirical Studies. Toronto: Toronto University Press
Presents the methodology" for a study of listen­
ing strategies and includes a lengthy taxonomy
of tvpes of listening strategies.
ENDNO TE
1 CELT is the Comprehensive English Language
Test bv Harris and Palmer (1986).
 Speaking
UNIT II В

Language Skills H
HH
z
Speaking p

This section focuses on how ESL/EFL teachers can facilitate their

students' acquisition of oral skills. Lazaraton's chapter draws on current
practice in oral skills pedagogy to show teachers how to develop the
speaking skills of their students through appropriate course design and
materials developm ent The chapter by G ood w in describes a principled
and systematic approach to pronunciation, recognizing that intelligible
pronunciation is critical for effective oral communication. She treats the
skills needed for comprehension, self-expression, and monitoring. Peck's
chapter discusses the teaching of listening and speaking skills to young
learners, emphasizing how' children differ from adults when learning
aural-oral skills in the classroom. According to Peck, these differences
require the use o f special resources and activities.
 Teaching Oral Skills
ANNE LAZARATON

In "Teaching Oral Skills," Lazaraton discusses current practice in o ral skills pedagogy in terms of how
to structure an oral skills class and determine its content, along with implementing a variety of
classroom activities that prom ote skills development, anc understanding issues related to classroom
evaluation of speaking skills and testing via large-scale о ’'a examinations.

IN T R O D U C T IO N This is one reason whv m anv o f us were shocked

For m ost people, the ability to speak a language
is synonym ous with know ing that language since
speech is the m ost basic m eans ok h u m an com ­
m unication. N evertheless, "speaking in a second
o r foreign language has often been s iev ed as the
m ost d e m a n d in g of the lo u r skills" (Bailev and
Savage 1994. p. vii). W hat specifically makes
speaking in a second o r foreign language diffi­
cult? Brown (1994) m en tio n s a n u m b e r of
features that interact to m ake speaking as chal­
lenging a language skill as it is. To start, fluent
speech contains red u ced forms, such as contrac­
tions, vowel red uction, a n d elision, so that lea rn ­
ers who are not exposed to or who do not get
sufficient practice with red u c e d speech will
retain th eir ra th e r form al-sounding full forms.
T he same can be said for the use of slang and
idiom s in speech: W ithout facility in using these
ubiquitous features o f spoken language, learners
are apt tea sou n d bookish. Students m ust also
acquire the stress, rhvthm . a n d in to n atio n of
E nglish, a c o m p lic a ted task for m anv (see
G oodw in's c h a p te r on teaching p ro n u n ciatio n
in this volum e). Perhaps the m ost difficult aspect
o f spoken English is that it is alm ost always
accom plished via interaction with at least one
o th e r speaker. This m eans that a variety of
d em ands are in place at once: m o n ito rin g and
u n d e rsta n d in g the o th e r speaker(s), thinking
ab o u t o n e ’s own con trib u tio n , p ro d u cin g that
c o n trib u tio n , m o n ito rin g its effect, an d so on.
and disap p o in ted when we used o u r second or
foreign language for the first tim e in real in te r­
action: We had not been p rep a re d for sponta­
neous com m unication and could not cope with
all of its sim ultaneous dem ands. T hat is. speak­
ing is an "activity req u irin g the in teg ratio n of
mans' subsystems. . . . all these factors com bine to
m ake speaking a second or foreign language a
form idable task for language learners. . . . vet for
mans people, speaking is seen as the central
skill" (Bailev and Sasage 1994. p. s i—s ii).
O ral skills base not alsvass figured so cen­
tralis in second and foreign language pedagogy.
In classes th at utilize co m p re h en sio n -b a se d
approaches to language teaching, listening skills
are stressed b efore speaking, if speaking is
stressed at all (see the section on listening skills
in this solum e). Esen in a production-based
approach such as the Silent Was; student speech
is carefully controlled for structure and content.
And while audiolingualism stressed oral skills (evi­
d enced bv the am ount of time spent in the
language laboratory practicing drills), speech
production was tightly controlled in o rd er to rein­
force correct habit form ation of linguistic rules.
But with the advent of the theory o f com ­
m unicative com petence (Hvmes 1972) a n d the
practice of com m unicative language teaching
(see Savignon's c h a p te r in this so lu m e), the
teaching o f oral com m unication skills as a con­
textualized sociocultural activity has becom e the
focal point in mans' ESL classroom s. Briefly,
C anale a n d Sw ain's (1980) a d a p ta tio n of
Hym cs's theory o f com m unicative com petence
proposes that the ability to com m unicate in a
language com prises four dim en sio n s:1 grammati­
cal competence (including rules of phonology,
orthography, vocabulary, w ord form ation, and
sen te n c e fo rm a tio n ), sociolinguistic competence
(rules for the expression an d u n d e rsta n d in g of
a p p ro p riate social m eanings and gram m atical
form s in different contexts), discourse competence
(rules of both cohesion — how sentence ele­
m ents are tied to g eth e r via reference, repetition,
synonymy, etc. — a n d c o h eren ce — how texts are
co n stru cted ), and finally, strategic competence, (a
rep e rto ire o f com pensatory strategies that help
with a variety of com m unication difficulties).
T he im pact of com m unicative com petence
theory on second an d foreign language teaching
c a n n o t really be overstated: few ESI. m aterials
published in the last decade or so fail to claim
th at th eir m aterials reflect "the com m unicative
a p p ro a c h .” W hat features of this theoretical
ap p ro ach are relevant to teaching oral skills?
P erhaps the m ost obvious wav in which oral skills
pedagogy has evok ed as a result of this theory is
th at it is no longer acceptable to focus on!у on
developing the gram m atical com petence of o u r
students, as was the case with a n u m b er o f lan­
guage teaching m ethodologies which were p o p ­
u lar in the past. Todav. teachers are expected to
balance a focus on accuracy with a focus on
fluency as well. A ccording to H edge (1993. pp.
275-276) the term fluency has two m eanings.
T he first, which is “the ability to link units of
speech to g eth e r with facility an d w ithout strain
o r in ap p ro p ria te slowness o r u n d u e hesitation."
is w hat is com m only u n d e rsto o d as fluency in
language teaching m aterials and in language
assessm ent procedures. But H edge proposes a
second, m ore holistic sense of fluency that of
“natu ral language use," which is likelv to take
place w hen speaking activities focus on m eaning
a n d its negotiation, w hen speaking strategics are
used, a n d w hen overt correction is m inim ized.
This second, b ro a d e r definition is certainly c o n ­
sistent with the aims of m any ESL classroom s
todav w here the negotiation o f m ean in g is a
m ajor goal.
A second im plication is that m ultiple skills
should be tau g h t w henever possible. In fact,
M urphy (1991) believes that oral skills teachers
should always co nnect speaking, listening, an d
p ro n u n cia tio n teaching although the focus in
an\- one class or activity mav highlight one or
another. M ore broadly oral skills classes m at- use
reading an d writing activities as the basis or follow­
up for speaking activities.
T raining learn ers to use strategies a n d
enco u rag in g strategy use is a n o th e r p ro m in e n t
feature o f today's oral skills classroom . Books
such as Language Learning Strategies: What Lx’ery
Teacher Should Know (O xford 1990) discuss this
topic in detail: while the utility of teaching "com ­
m unication strategies" is a deb ated theoretical
issue (see Dornvei 1995). it is clear that language
le a rn e rs m ust b eco m e c o m p e te n t at using
strategies, such as circum locution, hesitation
devices, an d appeals for help, and that the oral
skills teach er should at least advocate and m odel
their use.
A final feature which characterizes the cur­
ren t ESI. classroom is that students are e n co u r­
aged to take responsibility for their own learning.
No longer is learning seen as a one-wav transfer
of know ledge from teacher to student; todav we
u n d erstan d that students learn from teachers,
from classmates, and from the world outside the
classroom , and the m ore the lea rn er seeks these
opportunities, the m ore likelv he or she will learn
to use the language. In the oral skills classroom ,
students should be allowed and en couraged to
initiate com m unication w hen possible, to d e te r­
m ine the co n ten t of their responses or co n trib u ­
tions. and to evaluate their own p roduction and
learning progress.
The Oral Skills Class
In deciding how to structure and what to teach
in an oral skills class, questions such as the fol­
lowing should be considered: W ho are the stu­
dents? Whv are thev there? W hat do thev expect
to learn? W hat am I expected to teach?
O ne basic consideration is the level o f the
students an d th eir perceived needs. Level mav
be d e te rm in e d bv a p lacem ent test adm inistered
bv the institution o r by a diagnostic test given bv
the teacher. Info rm atio n on lea rn er needs c an
be o b tain ed bv m eans o f a stu d e n t inform ation
sheet on which tliev rep o rt the am o u n t of lim e
they spend speaking English, th eir fu tu re goals,
th eir goals for the course, a n d th eir assessm ent
(p erh ap s a four-point scale from “poor" to
“excellent") o f th eir overall speaking abilitv. co n ­
fidence in speaking English, th eir p ro n u n cia ­
tion, social conversation, and listening abilitv
W ith low level adults, the teach er nun need
to find El speakers to help him or h er get infor­
m ation on stu d e n t experiences, ed ucational
background, and needs. It will be especially
im p o rtan t with this student group to build on
th eir experiences, to share expertise, and to use
realia in o rd e r to keep learning as concrete as
possible. M ore often than not. oral skills courses
for n o n a c a d e m ic adults focus on survival
English a n d basic co m m u n icatio n functions
based on a strong struc tural com ponent.
On the o th er hand, academ ic learners will
n eed practice with different sorts of activities.
Based on su n e v responses from university faculty.
Ferris and Tagg (1996a. 1996b) suggest that, in
general, what academ ic ESL students need most
is extensive authentic practice in class participa­
tion, such as taking part in discussions, interacting
with peers and professors, and asking and answer­
ing questions. In fact, these students mav be facing
some sort of exit exam ination at the conclusion of
the course that will determ ine w hether or not thev
are com petent to teach in English, to take other
academic courses for credit, and so on. As a result,
these learners take their course work seriously and
have high expectations of the teacher. Yet even
these students can probable benefit from (and
mav even ask for) some instruction on the m ore
interpersonal aspects of oral com m unication.
Nowadays, oral skills classes at all levels are
often structured around functional uses of lan­
guage. In a nonacadem ic context, these m ight
involve basic greetings, talking on the telephone,
interacting with school personnel, shopping, and
the like. In Xeie \'islas: (ielting Started (Brown
1998), a multiskills book for beginners, students
learn to introduce themselves and greet other
people; give and request personal inform ation,
directions, and prices; talk about family m em bers;
tell time; give and accept invitations; describe
clothing; and give and accept com plim ents.
With academ ic adults, practice in activities
such tts leading a n d taking p art in discussions
and giv ing oral reports is n e e d ed to be done. For
exam ple, in Speaking of Business (E ngland a n d
Crosse 1993). a text for high-advanced learners
in business Helds, students learn to plan and
conduct business m eetings, give speeches, m ake
oral presentations, participate in conferences,
and socialize with colleagues. With (prospective)
in tern atio n al teaching assistants, course activi­
ties mav be even m ore specific— sim ulations of
teaching a lab section, h o ld in g office hours, or
in teractin g with regular faculty.
In m ore inform al conversation courses, the
c o n ten t can be stru ctu red a ro u n d speech acts,
which are actions such as g reeting an d apologiz­
ing that are en co d ed in language in "ro u tin ized ”
form s (e.g.. "hi" and "hello" for greeting, “sorrv”
for apologizing). O ne of the stan d ard text­
books for this purpose is Speaking Xalurally:
Communication Skills in American English (Tillitt
and Bi n d e r 1983). which has chapters covering
o p e n in g an d closing a conversation, in tro d u cin g
a n d a d d re ssin g p e o p le , giving invitations,
expressing thanks, apologizing, com plim enting,
getting atten tio n and in te rru p tin g , agreeing a n d
disagreeing, controlling the conversation, and
getting inform ation.
Teachers mav. o r mav not, be given text­
books or m aterials for teaching the oral skills
class. Buver beware: N ot all m aterials live up to
th eir claims about what thev p ro m o te or teach in
term s of language content, teaching m eth o d ­
ology. and textual task authenticity. In an analy­
sis of a n u m b e r of ESL speaking texts published
betw een 1(176-1993. L azarato n a n d S k u d er
(1997) found that even the m ost recen t texts
fell short on the authenticity criteria used (for­
mality. turn taking, quantity o f talk, etc.). For this
reason, teachers need to becom e critical con­
sum ers of published m aterials bv asking questions
such as the following: Is the text appropriate for
the level audience being taught? W hat sorts of
c o n te n t topics are used, an d are thev a p p ro p ri­
ate for this group of students? Is the focus on
a u th en tic com m unication? Does th e text in te ­
grate speaking, listening, an d p ro n unciation?
M ore often than not, teachers will decide to pick
a n d choose activities from a variety o f sources
a n d create som e o f th eir own m aterials as well.
Activities
T here are m any ways to p rom ote oral skills in the
ESL/EFL classroom. T he discussion below cen­
ters on the m ajor types o f speaking activities that
can be im plem ented: discussions, speeches, role
plays, conversations, audiotaped oral dialogue
jo urnals, and o th er accuracy-based activities.
Discussions
Discussions are probably the m ost connnonlv
used activity in the oral skills class. Tvpicallv. the
students are in tro d u c ed to a topic via a reading,
a listening passage, o r a videotape and are th en
asked to get into pairs or groups to discuss a
related topic in o rd e r to com e up with a solu­
tion, a response, o r the like. Teachers m ust take
care in p lan n in g an d setting up a discussion
activity. First, p lan n e d (versus ran d o m ) g ro u p ­
ing o r p airing of students mav be necessary to
ensure a successful discussion outcom e. W hile
th e re is no one "right way" to g roup students,
considerations such as gender, ethnicitv, back­
g ro u n d , talkativeness, etc. mav com e into plav.
Second, students n eed to be rem in d ed that each
p erso n should have a specific responsibility in
the discussion, w h eth er it be to keep tim e, take
notes, or re p o rt results; these decisions can, and
should, be m ade by the g roup m em bers. Finally,
students n e e d to be clear ab o u t what thev are to
discuss, why they are discussing it, an d what out­
come is expected. In o th e r words, it is insufficient
to tell students, “G et in groups a n d discuss this
to p ic.” T h ere should be guidance b e fo re h a n d
a n d follow -up afterw ard. T h in k a b o u t how
success o r completion can be defined for the activ­
ity a n d ob serv ed in th e g ro u p s. G reen ,
C hristopher, a n d Earn (1997) believe th a t stu­
dents will be m ore involved with and m otivated
to participate in discussions if they are allowed
to select discussion topics an d evaluate th eir
p eers' perfo rm an ce: this idea is in line with the
principle o f students taking responsibility for
th eir own learning.
Books such as T he Son-stop Discussion
Workbook and Let's Start Talking (Rooks 1988,
1994) contain mans' excellent ideas for in terest­
ing and provocative discussions that can be m od­
ified to suit learners at different ability levels. A
well-known exam ple is the "D esert Island" dis­
cussion activity w here students are p resen ted
with the task of choosing five survivors out of a
g ro u p o f ten possible candidates to start a new
civilization after a nuclear war. O nce groups
reach a consensus, thev m ust p rese n t th eir
choices to the o th e r groups and argue for them
if the groups disagree.
A creative s atiatio n on the discussion is the
"Cocktail Parts " activity (Tester 1994), svhere an
actual social occasion is sim ulated. Students are
given nesv identities, which thev com m it to m ent­
ors. T hen thes' try to find th eir partner, th ro u g h
in tro d u ctio n s a n d questions, w ithout revealing
th eir osvn identity (for exam ple, Bill and Hillary
C linton; a vegetarian a n d a m an a g e r of
M cD onald's). .After partners are located, the stu­
dents can write a dialogue consistent with their
identities.
Speeches
A nother com m on activity in the oral skills class is
the prepared speech. Topics for speeches will sTaiv
d ep en d in g on the level of the student a n d the
focus of the class, but in anv case, students should
be given some leeway in determ ining the content
o f their talks. In o th er words, the teacher can pro­
vide the structure for the sp eech — its rhetorical
genre (narration, description, etc.) and its time
restrictions— while the students select the con­
tent. For exam ple, asking students to “tell us
about an unforgettable experience you had"
allows them to talk about som ething that is per­
sonally m ean in g fu l while at th e sam e time
encourages n arration and description.
Speeches can be frightening for the speaker
and, after a while, b o ring for the listeners, so it is
a good idea to assign the listeners som e responsi­
bilities d u rin g the speeches. This is an excellent
tim e to req u ire p e e r evaluation o f a classm ate's
speech. Generally, one o r two students can be
assigned beforehand the responsibility for evaluat­
ing a certain speech, using guidelines created bv
the teacher o r — with m ore advanced students—
by the learners themselves. W ho better to decide
what is or is not im portant w hen listening to a
peer's speech? At the speech's conclusion, the
evaluators can be asked to summarize its content,
note strengths or weaknesses, or relate the speech
topic to a personal experience.
V ideotaping o f speeches allows all evalua­
tors (the speaker, peers, and teacher) to do a
m ore in-depth critique at a later tim e with the
videotape. For self-evaluation, students th em ­
selves can com e up with their own evaluation
guidelines, use teacher-m ade criteria, or a com ­
bin atio n o f the two. Students are usually sur­
prised to see how thev ap p ear and sound on the
tape a n d can often com e up with their own ideas
about how to im prove th eir perform ances. If the
speeches are a u d io tap ed or videotaped, som e of
the language analysis activities described below
can be used to en courage learners to becom e
aware o f th eir individual problem s with p ro n u n ­
ciation, gram m ar, vocabulary, an d fluency.
T eacher evaluation of speeches can also
benefit from the availability o f videotapes since
thev allots' for m ore sustained a tten tio n to both
the overall speech and to the details o f p e rfo r­
m an c e th a n real-tim e ev aluation does. O f
course, the evaluation criteria used should be
consistent with the goals of the class: categories
o f p erfo rm a n c e that ntav he considered include
deliver (Was the volum e loud enough? Was the
speed appropriate? Did the speaker stay within
the tim e lim its?), interaction,/ rapport with audience
(How were the visual aspects of the p rese n ta ­
tio n — eve contact, posture, gestures, nervous­
ness?), content and organization (Was it easy to
locate a n d u n d e rsta n d the m ain event o r m ain
p oint of the talk? Was there an ap p ro p riate in tro ­
duction a n d conclusion?), a n d language shills
(Were there anv particular problem s with gram ­
mar, fluency, vocabulary, or pronunciation?).
A second tvpe of speech is the impromptu
speech, which can sen e several purposes in an oral
skills class. O f course, this actirity gives students
m ore actual practice with speaking the language.
but it also forces th em to think, an d speak, on
th eir feet w ithout the benefit of notes or m em o­
rization. A variation on this activity can be part
o f a lesson on using hesitation m arkers, such as
um. eh. well, sent of, and like. Students are told that
using hesitation m arkers is a speaking strategy
that is an acceptable, if not p refe rre d , alternative
to silence, which can cause em barrassm ent and
confusion and can also perm it o th e r people to
take over a conversation. .After going ewer a list of
hesitation m arkers and letting students practice
their pro n u n ciatio n and intonation, each learn er
is assigned a topic he or she is likelv to know little
about. For exam ple, in university academ ic
English classes, topics such as finding a derivative
in m athem atics or describing the m olecular struc­
ture of carbon are likelv to be unfam iliar to at least
some m em bers of the class. With nonacadem ic
learners, describing how a cam era works or
explaining how to p re se n e fruit or to change
spark plugs in a car mav be suitable topics. O nce
students understand the task and are familiar with
the markers, they are given a strip of paper with
the topic on it just before being asked to speak.
Thev are then asked to give a one-m inute, unpre­
pared response in which thee should keep talking
using the hesitation m arkers— not be silent, and
give as little actual inform ation as possible. This is
actually a quite a hum orous activity that students
enjov: it can be expanded bv basing students who
do know the topics give a short explanation of
their own after each attem pt.
Role Plays
A th ird m ajor speaking activity tvpe is the role
plav. which is particularh suitable for practicing
the sociocultural variations in speech acts, such
as com plim enting, com plaining, a n d the like.
D ep en d in g on student level, role plavs can be
p e rfo rm e d from p rep a re d scripts, created from
a set of prom pts and expressions, or written
using and consolidating know ledge gained from
instruction or discussion of the speech act and
its variations p rio r to the role plavs them selves.
O lshtain and C ohen (1991) reco m m en d several
steps for teaching speech acts. First, a diagnostic
assessm ent is useful fo r d e te rm in in g what
students already know about the act in question.
A m odel dialogue, p resen ted aurallv and or in
writing, serves as language in p u t, after which the
class is e n co u rag ed to evaluate the situation so as
to u n d e rsta n d the factors that affect the linguis­
tic choices m ade in the dialogue. Students can
listen to and practice prototvpical phrases used
in the speech act. and th en perform a role plav
(a fter c o n sid e rin g a p p ro p ria te in fo rm a tio n
ab o u t the participants and th eir ages, genders,
relationship, etc.) as a final practice.
Because sociocultural factors are so crucial
in the p ro d u c tio n o f speech acts. Lee a n d
M cChesney (2000) suggest that discourse rating
tasks, in which students rate dialogues or scenar­
ios on various co n tin u a of fo rm alin ’ and the like,
can raise awareness about language a n d can
h elp transfer this know ledge to p ro d u ctio n activ­
ities such as role plavs. Adclitionallv. requiring
students to observe native speakers interacting
can su p p le m e n t in-class p ro d u ctio n activities
such as role plat s. For exam ple, when teaching a
u n it on com plaints, one assignm ent m ight be to
have students go to places w here com plaints
m ight be com m on (the re tu rn desk at a discount
store, for exam ple). T h ere, thev can listen care­
fully for how com plaints are stated and re­
sp o n d ed to, perhaps using a checklist that the
students them selves create for observing that
particu lar speech act.
Conversations
O n e of the m ore recent trends in oral skills ped-
agogv is the em phasis on having students analyze
an d evaluate the language that thev or others
p ro d u ce (see. for exam ple. R iggenbach 1999).
In o th e r words, it is not adeq u ate to have stu­
d e n ts p ro d u c e lots of language; thev m ust
b ecom e m ore m etalinguisticallv aware o f the
m any features o f language in o rd e r to becom e
c o m p e te n t speakers a n d in te rlo c u to rs in
English. O ne speaking activitv which is p articu­
larly suited to this kind o f analysis is conversa­
tio n , th e m ost fu n d a m e n ta l form o f oral
com m unication. Alm ost till ESL/EFL students
can benefit from a unit o n 2 an d practice with
inform al conversation, but few students rep o rt
having e ith e r the o p p o rtu n ity o r the confidence
to engage in u n p la n n e d conversations with
native speakers. A conversation assignm ent car.
be helpful in this regard.
O ne wav to approach this activitv is to
assign students to find a native speaker (or near­
native speaker) thev know — a friend, room ­
m ate. or colleague — and arrange to taperecord
a 20- to 30-m inute interaction with this person.
O f course, not all of the discourse that results
from this e n c o u n te r will be trulv "natural con­
versation"— the native speaker mav fall into the
role of "interview er" and ask all the questions
while the non-native speaker m erely responds;
therefore, the instru cto r mav want to encourage
the lea rn er b e fo re h a n d to com e up with a few
questions to ask the native speaker. In anv case,
the resulting interaction will provide a sam ple of
sp ontaneous p roduction from (and for) the
lea rn er to analyze.
The next step is for the students to tran­
scribe a p o rtio n of th e ir in te rac tio n . T ran­
scription involv es a faithf ul reproduction of what
was said on the tape onto paper and can provide
a genuine awareness of what speech is rcallv like.
O ne can "see" speech the wav one can "see” writ­
ing. and students mav be surprised to discover
that native speaker speech is far from "perfect.”
Students are shown an exam ple o f a tran ­
script and its no tatio n before starting, an d are
rem in d ed that transcription is tedious an d frus­
trating for native speakers, too. T h ere is no need
to require a very detailed transcript although
som e students mav want to use p h o n etic svmbols
for th eir p ro n u n ciatio n . Students should be
w arned not to correct gram m ar o r p ro n u n cia ­
tion mistakes, an d to include all the hesitation
m arkers, false starts, and pauses.
O nce the transcript is produced, there are
various activities that can be pursued. O ne that
works well is to have students find several instances
of "com m unication difficulties.” Thev can be
asked to define and exemplify the ones, on their
own tapes and then ask them to determ ine what
happened, whv. and how the difficulty’ could have
been avoided or repaired. In a class where stu­
dents feel com fortable with each other, tapes can
be switched and critiqued, or the teacher can use
critical incidents from each for a group or whole-
class activitv on com m unication breakdow n and
repair. Additionally, the tea c h e r can highlight
several in terestin g sections in each stu d e n t tra n ­
script a n d th en ask th e students to analyze the
in te ra c tio n a n d d e te rm in e why th e te a c h e r
p o in te d them o u t as interesting.
In a variation of the conversation assign­
m ent, learners are req u ired to tape-record an
interview with native speakers on a topic o f their
choice a n d th en re p o rt the results to the class.
For exam ple, students can b rain sto rm som e c o n ­
troversial issues (abortion, gun control, illegal
im m igration), choose the topic th at m ost in te r­
ests them , a n d th en alone, in pairs, o r in groups,
survey native speakers ab o u t th eir opinions. T he
results o f th e survey can th en be p rese n ted in
the form o f an oral p resen tatio n which in tu rn
can be au d io tap ed a n d /o r videotaped for self-,
peer, an d tea c h e r evaluation.
Audiotaped Oral Dialogue Journals
T he activities discussed so far have em phasized
fluency a n d m ean in g neg o tiatio n ra th e r th an
accuracy. O n e activity that lends itself well to
b o th concerns is the oral dialogue jo u rn a l (Allan
1991; Foley 1993). Like w ritten jo u rn als, which
are used extensively in w riting classes, the oral
dialogue jo u rn a l has m uch to offer both the
tea c h e r a n d the students in the oral skills class­
room . O ral dialogue jo u rn a ls are one form at
w here practice with fluencv an d atten tio n to
accuracv can be accom plished at the same tim e.
Ordinarily, the student gives an audiocassette
tape to the teacher, who starts the oral jo u rn a l on
the tape by giving some directions for the assign­
m en t an d perhaps suggesting a topic, such as Tell
me about yourfirst day in the United States. Be sure to
rem in d students to speak extem poraneously and
explain why; some students will w ant to write their
entries an d read them , or tu rn the tape recorder
on an d off so that they can sound “p e rfe c t.”
R em ind th em th at the purp o se o f the activity is
to work on u n p la n n e d speaking; also give them
som e guidance as to the exp ected len g th o f th eir
responses.
T h e tape is th en re tu rn e d to the student,
who reacts to the tea c h e r p ro m p t, an d th en
retu rn s the tape to the teacher, who can resp o n d
in various ways. It is always nice to m ake some com ­
m ents about the co n ten t of the response to rein­
force that what is said is as im portant as how it is
said. Nevertheless, these audiotapes are an excel­
lent resource for the teacher to provide individual
feedback and instruction on pronunciation or
gram m ar problem s since the student has a record­
ing o f speech to which he or she can refer.
In a small class, it is n o t unrealistic for the
teach er to listen to all the tapes on a regular
basis: perhaps five o r six tim es a semester. A
large class, on the o th e r h an d , m akes this u n fea­
sible, so several variations are possible. T h e tapes
can be tu rn e d in on a ro tatin g basis, som e one
week, an d som e the next. O r students can switch
tapes with each o th e r a n d provide feedback,
given som e guidance from the instructor. Even
in a small class, this sort of p e e r exchange can be
useful. Lucas-Uvgun (1994) describes an activity
called “Secret A udio Pals,” in w hich students are
paired anonvm ously a n d exchange tapes for sev­
eral weeks before trying to guess who th eir p art­
ners are. She suggests th at the activity can be
e x te n d e d to students from o th e r classes, o r to
exchanges o f videotapes. Finally, a grad u ate stu­
d e n t may be willing to resp o n d to the stu d e n t
tapes in o rd e r to have access to th e m for
research purposes (M arianne Celce-M urcia, p e r­
sonal com m unication, 8/ 1 / 00).
O ther Accuracy-Based Activities
Still o th er classroom activities can be used for
accuracv practice.3 In the past, speaking activities
that focused on accuracy inv ariably involved drills
(com m onlv uncontextualized p a tte rn practice
exercises), which have, for the m ost part, fallen out
of favor in language teaching. Brown (1994) rec­
om m ends that if drills are to be used, they should
be short, simple, and snappy, they should be used
sparingly, and they should lead to m ore authentic
co m m u n icatio n activities. In th e activities
described below, a drill using the particular struc­
ture may prove useful as the first step towards
m ore com m unicative output.
Activities th at pro m o te stu d e n ts’ getting
acquainted with each o th e r lend themselves to
practice with specific structures b u t in a realistic
context. For exam ple, W ong (1994) recom m ends
an activitv called “Two-Minute Conversations: “If I
W ere . . in which students becom e acquainted
with each o th e r by taking on the identity of vari­
ous foods, anim als, buildings, etc. using the struc­
ture “If I were (a /a n ) ____ , I would be (a /a n )
_____ because . . . M ore advanced students
w ould be expected to produce m ore than just the
structure; lower-level students would probablv
benefit from som e preteaching o f the vocabulary,
a n d all students could benefit from some instruc­
tion on the p resent unreal conditional!
A n o th e r early course activity is a stru ctu red
interview in which students talk to th eir class­
m ates using an interview form which requires
th e use o f wh- a n d /o r ves-no questions. A varia­
tion on this is an activity in which students n eed
to “Find som eone who . . . .” H ere, thev are given
a sheet of habits or characteristics (smokes a
pipe, runs m arathons, has a tattoo) a n d m ust
find at least o n e o th e r classmate who can answer
yes to th e question “Do you . . . ?” T h e first stu­
d e n t to “find som eone who" can answ er each
question wins th e gam e.
Before closing this section, a word about
e rro r correction is in order. In the m eaning-
cen tered activities discussed here, explicit erro r
correction will probablv be out o f place because it
disrupts the com m unication that is going on.
Teachers may note errors that occur at these
times for som e later instruction to the class as
a whole or to individual students, as necessarv.
During accuracy-based activities, the basic deci­
sion to be m ade is w hether to treat anv actual
erro r o r to ignore it, which will d ep en d on several
factors, including the erro r being m ade and the
context in winch it occurs. In the unreal condi­
tional activity above, it may be instructive, if not
necessary, to correct errors in the conditional
form , b u t n o t errors in subject-verb agreem ent.
Som e teachers choose to correct onlv those errors
which im pede com m unication (such as incorrect
w ord order) and ignore less serious errors (such
as th ird person singular -s or p h o n em e confu­
sion). Teachers m ust determ ine, perhaps in con­
sultation with their students, how these errors
sh o u ld be co rre c te d , an d by w hom . Brown
(1994) presents som e useful guidance on the
topic o f e rro r co rrection, b u t he stresses th a t
teachers should strive for “optim al feedback,”
which shows that learner contributions are valued
in their own right rath er than representing im per­
fect native speaker speech that needs rem ediation
(see also Pica 1994 for a sum m ary o f research on
erro r correction and language learn in g ).
Teaching Oral Skills
in an E F L Context
This c h a p te r is prim arilv w ritten with the ESL
teach er in m ind, teaching a h etero g en eo u s (by
native language an d ethnicitv) class of learners
in an English-speaking environm ent. However,
hom o g en eo u s EFL classes, w here all students
speak the sam e first language an d English is not
used outside the classroom , p resent certain addi­
tional challenges for the teacher. In a survey of
EFL teachers, X u n an (1993) fo u n d the biggest
challenges in the EFL classroom to be lack of
m otivation, getting students to speak (a cultural
issue for som e w here speaking in class is p ro h ib ­
ited except w hen called o n ), an d the use o f the
first language. In addition, large classes are often
the n o rm overseas, lim iting b o th stu d en t o p p o r­
tunities to talk and teacher o p p o rtu n ities to pro ­
vide feedback. O th e r problem s may arise if the
curriculum does n o t stress speaking skills or
views them solelv as an avenue to gram m atical
accuracv; fu rth e rm o re , if the tea c h e r is a n o n ­
native speaker of English, he or she may n o t be
c o m p e ten t o r con fid en t in speaking English.
W hile solutions to these problem s are
bevond the scope of this chapter, some general
suggestions can be m ade. W hen teaching speak­
ing skills, EFL teachers need to be particularlv
adept at organizing class activities that are authen­
tic, motivating, and varied. T he use of authentic,
engaging materials should be the basis for in-class
activities. If the necessan' technology is available,
showing movies or recorded television program s
and placing audiotapes o f program s can be enjoy­
able for students and can provide them with
authentic practice in listening to native speaker
speech. T he teacher can also assign out-of-class
learning activities, such as watching a n d /o r listen­
ing to an English-language film, television show, or
radio program . This m aterial then becomes input
for subsequent in-class activities such as oral
reports or discussions. Students can be encouraged
or assigned to go to English-speaking businesses or
em bassies/consulates to find native speakers to
observe or interact with. Thev can also be encour­
aged to start an English club or to find a English-
speaking conversation partner. Finallv, the teacher
can incite native English speakers to the class to
give speeches, talks, or presentations, followed bv
questions from the students: learners can also be
assigned to inteniew or interact with the guest
speakers.
Assessment
T he oral skills teach er mac be req u ired to m ake
decisions about two kinds o f oral assessment.
T he first, evaluation of classroom p erform ance,
has b e e n discussed above along with various oral
skills class activities. Brown an d Yule (1983)
m ake several useful reco m m en d atio n s for class­
room oral assessment. First, w henever possible,
e x te n d e d chunks of speech that have a purpose
an d that are stru ctu red o r organized should be
elicited. This m eans that isolated sentences,
spontaneous p ro d u ctio n with no p lan n in g time,
and decontextualized tasks do not m ake for the
best p erfo rm an ce. A second im p o rtan t sugges­
tion is that the in p u t given to students, w hether
it be visual (e.g., a picture for description), aural
(e.g., a directive to "tell m e about the most excit­
ing clay vou have h a d "). or interactive (e.g., ques­
tions in an interview ), be consistent for all
exam inees. This can be especially problem atic in
an interview situation w here the interviewer must
respond to the turn-bv-turn interaction taking
place and, in the process, may inadvertently devi­
ate from the in te n ie w agenda (see Lazaraton
1996 for m ore on this issue). Finally, the results of
oral assessment should be rep o rted using term s
that are clearlv defined for an d u n d erstan d ab le
to students. For exam ple, term s such as commu­
nicative effectiveness d o n 't m ean m uch unless they
are o p erationalized in wavs th at are consistent
with course goals, the student level, a n d the
speaking task itself. N ote the difference in speci­
ficity betw een “generallv effective com m unica­
tion” and "can answer questions about hom e,
familv, and work with a range of simple vocabu­
lary and accurate linguistic structures with confi­
dence and can find o th er wavs o f expressing
m eaning th ro u g h parap h rase.” Obviously, learn­
ing how to write these operational definitions, to
create assessment procedures which test such
constructs, an d to elicit language which d em o n ­
strates this com m unicative abilitv takes a great
deal of training (but see C o h e n ’s chapter on lan­
guage testing in this volum e and U n d erh ill’s
[1987] useful guide to oral testing techniques).
A second assessm ent situation with which
the oral skills teacher mav be c o n fro n ted is
p rep arin g students to tak e— in te rp re tin g results
fro m — large scale oral exam inations, successful
p erform ance on which has becom e increasingly
com m on as a req u irem e n t for adm ission to u n i­
versities. as a m inim um standard for teaching
assistantships. and as a qualification for various
tvpes of em plovm ent. O ral skills exam inations
from fo u r intern atio n al testing organizations
are described here: in terested readers should
consult the websites for m ore inform ation.
T he Universitv of Cam bridge Local Exam ­
inations Svndicate (UCLES: www.cambridge-
efl.org) offers two large-scale speaking tests (which
are in d ep en d en t parts of larger test batteries in
o th er language skills). O ne is the Oral Interaction
test in the Certificate in Communicative Skills in
English (CCSE). in which candidates take p art in
three task-based interactions, lasting about 30
minutes: an in ten iew with the exam iner, a pre­
sentation with an o th er candidate, a n d a discussion
with the exam iner and the second candidate. The
test can be taken at one of four levels; at any given
level the test taker is aw arded a Pass or Fail based
on the degree of skill in five areas: accuracy,
appropriacv, range, flexibilitv, a n d size of c o n tri­
butions. T he second test is p art o f the Business
Language Testing Service (BULATS), a language
assessm ent p ro ce d u re for businesses an d o rgani­
zations to assess the English language skills of
th eir em plovees. jo b applicants, o r trainees. T he
1 2 -m inute face-to-face speaking test, consisting
o f an interview, a presen tatio n , a n d a discussion,
is co n d u c te d bv a tra in ed ex am in er a n d th en
rated bv the ex am in er and a n o th e r assessor.
Results are re p o rte d on a five-point scale of over­
all speaking abilitv and are su p p lem en ted with a
detailed abilitv profile which describes w hat the
candidate should be able to do in English in the
w orkplace.
 T h e E d u c a tio n a l T esting Service, who
ad m inister the TOEFL* (Test of English as a
Foreign Language; www.toeIl.org), offers the
Test of Spoken English (TSE). a test of overall
speaking abilitv, whose scores can screen p o te n ­
tial in te rn atio n a l teaching assistants and health
professionals, am o n g o th e r uses. T he 20-m inute
test is co n d u cted a n d rec o rd e d on audiotape
and is com posed o f 12 speech-act based tasks
th a t are p rese n ted in a p rin te d test booklet and
on the audiotape. C andidates are given some­
tim e to plan what to sav. an d th en given 30-90
seconds to resp o n d to each task. T he test answer
tapes are scored in d e p e n d e n th bv two trained
raters using the five-point TSE rating scale of
com m unicative effectiveness; each point c o n ­
tains descriptions of functional abilitv. response
appropriaev, cohesion and coherence features,
and linguistic accuracv. Results tire reported to
candidates as a single score on a scale of 20 to 00.
T he Educational Testing Service also provides
institutions with the Speaking Proficiency English
Assessment Kit (SPEAK), an ''off-the-shelf version
o f the TSE, that can be adm inistered and scored
bv institutional staff.
A third large-scale oral exam ination, adm in­
istered by the .American Council on the Teaching
of Foreign Languages (ACTFL: tvww.actll.org). is
the ACTEL Oral Proficiency Interame. The interv iew
can be used to assess the language com petence of
teachers, workers, and students in a num ber of lan­
guages, including English. The 10- to 30-minute
tape-recorded interview is adm inistered (either
over the telephone or face-to-face) bv a trained
Oral Proficiency Interview (OPI) tester who care­
fully structures the interaction to elicit the best pos­
sible perfo rm an ce from the candidate. T he
interviewer and a different tester independenth
rate the tapes bv com paring the speech perfor­
m ance with the ACTEE Proficiency Guidelines—
Speaking (Revised 1999); (Breiner-Sanders et al.
2000), which define proficiencv at ten lev els, from
S u p e rio r to Novice Low. Each level in the
Guidelines is accom panied bv an extensive descrip­
tion of what the speaker can do in various settings
and with various tasks.
Finally, a relativelv new spoken English test is
PhonePass (www.ordinate.com), which provides
an assessment o f English speaking and listening
ability that can be used to place students in ESL
courses, screen international teaching assistants,
and judge the English language abilitv of (poten­
tial i employees in the health care, hospitalitv, and
inform ation technology industries. T he 10-minute
test, which is given over the telephone and graded
bv a com puter svstem. presents the candidates
with a n u m b er of interactiv e tasks, such as reading
aloucl. repeating sentences, producing antonvm s
of cue words, and answering questions. .An overall
sum m ary score on a two- to eight-point scale is
reported, along with subscores in listening vocab-
ularv, repeat accuracv. pronunciation, reading
fluency and repeat fluency
Conclusion/Future Trends
Oral skills are not onlv critical for com m unication
in the ESL classroom, thev are necessarv for com ­
m unication in, and with, the English-speaking
world. As a result, all ESL EFL teachers will want
to do whatever thev can to prom ote the develop­
m en t of speaking, listening, and pronunciation
skills in their students. This chapter has given an
ov erv iew of the theoretical basis for teaching oral
skills com m unicatively described some features
of the oral skills class, detailed a n u m b er of speak­
ing activities that prom ote oral skills develop­
m ent. and discussed some considerations that go
into oral assessment and some large-scale oral
exam inations that ESL EFL students mav be
required to take at some point in their learning.
While it is difficult to predict with certainly
what the future holds for language teaching in
general, and oral skills pedagogy in particular, it is
reasonable to assume that the focus on the socio-
linguistic and sociocultural dim ensions of oral
com m unication will continue. .As we learn m ore
about how people behave in real life and how this
behavior is encoded in speech (bv accum ulating
research on speech acts and different varieties
of English, for exam ple), we will be in a better
position to teach and design materials based on
authentic language and com m unication patterns.
Content- and task-based teaching seem cer­
tain to rem ain im portant aspects of oral skills
pedagogy as well. In particular, teaching materials
for specific speaking contexts will likelv becom e
m ote prevalent. For example. Tarone and Kuelm
 (2000), in their studv of non-native speaker ( \ \ S )
perfom iance in a social services oral intake inter-
\ie\v, found that the XXS used little or no backchan-
neling (uh huh. right) and fewer responses,
suggesting lack of understanding. Thcv point out
that m isunderstandings in this context can have
potentiallv serious consequences, such as the
applicants' failing to receive needed funds, or in
the worse case scenario, inadvertentlv com m itting
welfare fraud. Thev suggest developing teaching
materials for this specific context, which m ight
include a description of the purpose and the
nature of the encounter, actual forms used during
the interview, audiotapes and transcriptions of
sample interactions, and exercises based on these
m aterials. Clearlv. these suggestions can be
applied to o ther special purpose situations as well
and we can expect m ore such teaching materials
and courses to suit the special needs in these inter­
actional contexts.
But perhaps the most p ro fo u n d im pact on
language teach in g will com e from the never-
en d in g developm ents in technologv. Video tech­
nology allowed the Czech a n d G erm an KFI.
learners in Gersten and Tlustv's (1998) studv to
u n d e rta k e stu d en t-g en erated video exchange
projects, which prom oted learning in a num ber
o f areas including practice with self- and peer eval­
uation, fluency in using English, and increased
cultural sensitivitv. Various forms of technologv
have also m ade recording and analvzing large cor­
pora o f spoken English m ore easilv accom plished.
As a result, we have a m uch better idea of what
“spoken gram m ar" is like (see. for exam ple.
McCarthy [ 1998j for a corpus-based account of
spoken English gram m ar). How will we as ESI.
EFI, teachers deal with this spoken grammar?
Should we teach it alongside o u r rules
of written grammar? Will features of written gram ­
m ar be seen as incorrect in speech as features
o f spoken gram m ar tire in writing toclav?
Furtherm ore, because recorded sound can now be
transm itted over the Internet, it will be possible for
learners to com m unicate with teachers and other
learners w ithout having to use audiotapes.
Distance learning courses alreach' perm it teaching,
learning, and interaction with others who are not
present in the actual classroom. .Aid it is probablv
not too far in the future that speech recognition
software will allow actual oral com m unication
betw een a student and a com puter to take place.
As language educators, we must rem ain open to
these new developm ents in o rd er to provide the
best possible instruction for our students.
D IS C U S S IO N Q U E S T IO N S
1. T h in k about a foreign o r second language
class von have taken. How were oral skills
addressed? How do you ju d g e your speaking
abilitv as a result of the class? How could the
class have been im proved so th at your ulti­
m ate a tta in m e n t m ight have been better?
2. W hat are the advantages and disadvantages of
having (a) a native English speaker or (b) a
non-native English speaker as the teacher in
an oral skills class (see Medgves's chapter in
this volume)?
3. W hat role, if anv, should the first language play
in the ESI. oral skills class? Would vour answer
change if the class were in an EFL, context?
4. W hat would vou tell a student who asks you to
correct all of his or her oral language errors
(pronunciation, gram m ar, lexical choice) in
till of his or her oral production work?
5. W hat considerations go into g ro u p in g or
pairing students lo r speaking activ ities?
6. How would von prepare vour students to take
anv one of the large-scale oral exam inations
m en tio n ed in this chapter?
S U G G E S T E D A C T IV IT IE S
1. You teach an ESI., oral skills class w here som e
students, perhaps due to th eir personalities
a n d or cultural backgrounds, are the m ost
talkative an d d o m in a te class discussions,
while others never speak up in class and,
even when called on. m erelv agree or claim
thev have no opinion. Develop a set of con­
tingencies vou can chaw on to equalize
o p p o rtu n ities for class participation.
2. Imagine that vou hav e access to audiotapes and
transcripts of authentic native speaker/native
speaker and native speaker/'non-native speaker
conversation, such as the excerpts from taped
 tele p h o n e closings shown below. W hat sorts
o f activities could be developed based on this
type of m aterial?
(1) B ro th er a n d sister (native speakers of
A m erican English); T elephone
1 B: okav Viola. Em g o n n a get going,
2 S: okay.
3 B: alright?
4 S: alright.
5 B: see vou this evening.
6 S: okay bve bye.
7 B: bye.
8 ( (clicks))
(2) MATESL stu d e n t (NS) and universitv
ESL course stu d en t (NNS); T elephone
(B argfrede 1996)34
1 NS:right, right, well it'll com e, d o n 't
worry.
2 NNS: okay, th an k vou. (.5) oh alright.
I will (.8)
3 finish mv conversation.
4 NS: okay
5 NNS: okav? u h have a good tim e.
6 NS: okay
7 NNS: bye bve
8 NS: bye
9 ((clicks))
3. You suspect th at the classroom text that vou
have b een assigned to use in your 1M. I l l
oral skills class presents dialogues containin g
stilted, awkward language. How could vou
test this assum ption? In o th e r words, what
criteria w ould vou use to evaluate dialogue
authenticity?
4. Im agine vou have b een assigned to teach a
university-level oral skills class for in te rn a ­
tional teaching assistants. You are req u ired
to cover m aterial specificallv tailored to th eir
fu tu re teaching needs, b u t vou find that
nearly all the students n e e d practice with
a n d ask for m aterial on inform al conversa­
tion. W hat should vou do in such a situation?
Ask at least two e x p erien ced ESL/EFL teach ­
ers w hat thev w ould do. Did vou offer sim ilar
solutions?
5. You have been h ired to tu to r two rank begin­
ners, m arried w om en who are highlv educat­
ed in th eir native languages but have alm ost
no abilitv in English. Thev w ant to learn how
to m ake travel plans over the telep h o n e for
an anticipated trip to Disney W orld in Florida
with th eir families. How would you go about
teaching oral skills to these learners? P repare
a course outline for this teaching situation.
^ ^ FU R T H ER R EA D IN G
Bailee, К. M., and L. Savage., eds. 1994. Sew Ways in
Teaching Speaking. Alexandria. YA: TESOL.
A useful "how-to" book containing over 100
speaking activities developed bv professional
teachers which focus on fluencv. accuracv. pro­
nunciation. and speaking in specific contexts.
\Iurphv. J. M. 1991. Oral communication in TESOL:
Integrating speaking, listening, and pronuncia­
tion. TESOL Quarterly 25(1):51-75.
One of the most comprehensive journal articles
on teaching oral communication. The "concep­
tual framework" Murphv proposes is accompa­
nied bv an extensive list of activities that focus
on accuracv and or fluencv lor beginning- to
advanced-lev el ESL students.
Riggenbach. H. 1999. Discourse Analysis in the Language
Classroom. Volume 1. The Spoken Language. .Ann
Arbor. MI: Universitv of Michigan Press.
This book is designed to assist ESL EFL teach­
ers in becoming familiar with discourse analysis
as a both of knowledge and as a language anal­
ysis technique. It presents various student activ­
ities that focus on many aspects of spoken
language.
Underhill. X. 1987. iTesting Spoken Language: A
Handbook op Oral Testing 'Techniques. Cambridge:
Cambridge Universitv Press.
A practical, teacher-friendlv gttide to the testing
process which covers numerous testing tech­
niques and suggests how to elicit and rate spoken
language and how to evaluate tests themselves.
ENDNO TES
1 Canale and Swain's model did not include dis­
course competence until Canale (1983a), and it
has since been modified a n d /o r expanded; see. for
example, Bachman (1990) and Celce-Murcia.
Dornvei, and Thurrell (1995).
2 Of course, students can also benefit from some
explicit instruction about the structure of conversa­
tion. Markee (2000) presents a theoretical overview
of the nature of conversation and its relevance to
SLA theon and research; Dornvei and Thurrell
(1994) highlight the basics of conversational struc­
ture and suggest some ways these issues can be cov­
ered in the ESL/EFL classroom.
-1 A number of useful resources are available for
teaching grammar in contextualized, interesting
wavs; see Rinvolucri and Davis (1995) and the
end-of-chapter “Teaching Suggestions” in Celce-
Murcia and Larsen-Freeman (1999); Celce-
Murcia, Brinton, and Goodwin (1996) contains
m am valuable and innovative techniques for
teaching pronunciation.
 Teaching Pronunciation
A N E T G O O D W I N
In "Teaching Pronunciation." the goal of instructor s t - 'e e 'c c: to e^ab'e our (earners to understand
and be understood, to build their confidence in enter rg c c ' - o c i i ,e situations, and to enable them
to m onitor their speech based on input from the e w re-m em . To accomplish these goals, G oodw in
describes the tools we need to teach pronunciat c r
“/ feel that I am judged hv my way of talk­
ing English. In other classes, teachers often
treat me as inferior or academic disability
because of my muttering English."
U n d e rg ra d u a te stu d en t in an ESL
p ro n u n ciatio n course
“Sometime when I speak to native American.
I guess because of my Chinese a sense or m/s-
pronunciate the word, they ask me wind
did you say. can you repeat, or I beg your
pardon. Sometime my face turn red. and
become so embarrassed in front of them. I
remembered once my tears were in my eycc "
G raduate student in an ESL
p ro n u n ciatio n course
IN T R O D U C T IO N
The above quotes highlight whv the teaching of
p ro n u n ciatio n is so crucial to o u r students.
P ro n u n ciatio n is the language feature th at most
readily identifies speakers as non-native. It is a
filtet th ro u g h which others see them a n d often
discrim inate against them . W hen we witness o th ­
erwise proficient learners who are barely intelli­
gible while speaking, we can u n d e rsta n d their
frustration an d the h o p e then place in us.
In the past, p ro n u n ciatio n instruction usu­
ally focused on the articulation of consonants
and vowels an d the discrim ination o f minimal
n a s-stemate and pr'rc p ed wav.
pairs.] In recent vears. the locus has shifted to
include a b ro ad e r em phasis on suprasegmental-
features. such as stress and intonation. How­
ever. m am teaching m aterials still do n ot m ake
d e a r that pronunciation is just one piece of
the whole com m unicative com petence puzzle. As
Seidlhofer (lT.fifi) states, '’p ronunciation is newer
an end in itself but a m eans of negotiating m ean­
ing in discourse, em bedded in specific sociocul­
tural and interpersonal contexts" (p. 12). Indeed,
pronunciation instruction needs to be taught as
com m unicative in teractio n along with o th e r
aspects of spoken discourse, such as pragm atic
m eaning and nonverbal com m unication.
T H E SEG M EN TA L/
SU PR A SEG M EN TA L D EBATE
Pronunciation instruction historicallv has em pha­
sized masters of individual sounds. With the
advent of Com m unicative Language Teaching
(see Savignon's chapter in this volum e), the focus
shifted to iluencv rather than accuracv, encourag­
ing an almost exclusive emphasis on supraseg-
m entals. However, just as ESL. teachers have
acknow ledged that an emphasis on m eaning and
com m unicative intent alone will not suffice to
achieve gram m atical accuracv pronunciation has
em erged from the segm ental suprasegm ental
debate to a m ore balanced view, which recognizes
that a lack of intelligibilitv can be attributed to
both m icro and m acro features. It is clear that
learners whose com m and of sounds deviates too
I 17
broadiv from standard speech will be h ard to
understand no m atter how targetlike their stress
and intonation m ight be. Thus, it is no longer a
question of choosing between segmentals and
suprasegm entals but of identifying which features
contribute most to kick of intelligibility, and which
will be most useful in the com m unicative situa­
tions in which our learners will need to function.
S E T T IN G R E A L IS T IC G O A LS
M orley (1999) has ou tlin ed four im p o rta n t goals
for p ro n u n cia tio n instruction: functional intelli­
gibility, functional com m unicability, increased
self-confidence, and speech m o n ito rin g abilities.
For o u r purposes, intelligibility is defined as
spoken English in which an accent, if present, is
n o t distracting to the listener. Since learners
rarelv achieye an accent-free pro n u n ciatio n , eve
are setting o u r students up for failure if we striye
for natiyelike accuracy. Eradication of an accent
should not be our goal; in fact, some practi­
tioners use the term accent addition as opposed to
accent reduction to acknowledge the indiyidual’s
first language (L J) identity w ithout dem an d in g it
be sublim ated in the new second language (L2 ).
Functional com m unicability is the learner's
ability to function successfully within the specific
com m unicatiye situations he or she faces. Be
exam ining the discourse ou r students will need to
use in real life, we can see which features of pro ­
nunciation m ight be particularly im portant for
them to master. Ideally, this entails obserying
or videotaping the target com m unicatiye situa­
t io n ^ ) , be it a bank transaction, a friendly
conversation with neighbors, a patient-doctor
interview, or some o th er situation. At the very
least, it is useful to distribute a survey to students
at the beginning of instruction that elicits their
needs and interests. This inform ation guides us
b oth in the features we choose to em phasize and
in the co n ten t into which the pronunciation prac­
tice should be em bedded.
Dalton and Seidlhofer list six com m unicathe
abilities related to pronunciation:
■ Prom inence: how to wake sat.lent the important
points we make
? Topic m anagem ent: how to signal and recog­
nize where one topic ends and another begins
* Inform ation status: how to mark what we
assume to be shared knowledge as opposed to
something nrw
■ Turn-taking: when to speak, and when to he
silent, how <not) to yield the floor to somebody else
■ Social m eanings and roles: how to position
ourselves vis-a-vis our interloeutor(s) in terms
o f status, dominance/authority, politeness,
solida)ity/separa te>iess
■ D egree o f involvement: how to convey our
attitudes, emotions, etc. (1994, p. 52)
If we teach learners how to em ploy pauses, pitch
m ovem ent, an d stress to achieve the above com ­
m unicative goals, th en thev will have attain ed a
great deal of "functional com m unicability.”
As ou r students gain com m unicative skill,
thev also need to gain confidence in their ability to
speak and be understood. To accom plish this, we
can design ou r materials aro u n d the situations
learners will actually face, move carefully from
controlled to free production in our practice activ­
ities. and provide consistent targeted feedback.
Bv teaching learners to pay a tte n tio n to
th eir own speech as well as th at of others, we
help o u r learners m ake b e tte r use o f the in p u t
thev receive. G ood learners "atten d ” to certain
aspects of the speech thev h e a r and th en try to
im itate it. Speech m on ito rin g activities help to
focus learn ers' atten tio n on such features both
in o u r courses a n d bevond them .
A D E S C R IP T IO N O F T H E
S O U N D SYSTEM O F E N G LIS H
Traditionally, the sound svstem has been described
and taught in a building block fashion:
sounds "» syllables phrases and
thought groups extended discourse
T hough this mav m ake sense from an analytical
point of view, this is n ot how our learners experi­
ence language. As speakers, we d o n 't usually think
about what w e're saying sound bv sound, or even
syllable bv sellable unless com m unication breaks
dow n. So the bottom-up approach of m astering one
sou n d at a tim e a n d eventually stringing them
all to g eth e r is being replaced by a m ore top-down
a p p ro a c h , in w hich th e so u n d system is
addressed as it naturally occurs— in the stream
of speech. In this m ore balanced approach, both
suprasegm ental and segm ental features can be
addressed th ro u g h a process akin to that of a
zoom lens. Global aspects are addressed first: vet
w henever the "picture” of speech is unclear, we
"zoom in" to exam ine it at a m ore m icro level.
This approach recognizes that all features of the
sound svstem work in tandem .
Thought Groups
In natural discourse, we use pauses to divide ou r
speech into m anageable chunks called thought
groups.-’’ Ju st as p u n c tu a tio n helps the rea d e r
process w ritten discourse, pausing helps the
listener to process the stream of speech m ore
easily. L earners u n d e rsta n d the co ncept of paus­
ing b u t do not alwavs m anage to pause at a p p ro ­
priate junctures. In fact, the m ost com m on erro r
o f less fluent speakers is pausing too frequently,
thereby overloading the listener with too m am
breaks to process the discourse effectively.
Since th o u g h t groups usually rep resen t a
m ea n in g fu l gram m atical un it, the sen ten ce
helow could be divided up like this:
I was speaking to him /on the phone \este>rla\.
b u t not like this:
I was speaking to/him on the/phone yesterday.
Som etim es utterances can be divided in m ore
th an one way. This is illustrated nicelv bv G ilbert
(1987), who m akes use of am biguous phrases to
show how pausing in different places can cause a
change in m eaning. Read these exam ples aloud
to vourself. Gan von figure out echo is stupid )412
1. Alfred said/the boss is stupid
2. Alfred/said the boss/is stupid
(G ilbert 1987. p. 38)
T h ought group boundaries are also influenced
bv the speaker's sp eed — faster speakers pause
less frequently and have fewer but longer tho u g h t
groups. Public speakers, such as politicians and
m em bers o f the clergy, ten d to pause m ore fre­
quently in o rd e r to em phasize th eir ideas m ore
strongly a n d m ake them easier to process. In a
speech, a politician m ight u tte r as a conclusion:
Ms fellow eilizens/this/is/our/moment.
O r a fru strated p a re n t m ight sav to a recalcitrant
child:
Come/here/ right/ now!
In each case, the speaker has a clear com m unica­
tive reason for w anting to em phasize each word.
Prominence5
W ithin each th o u g h t group, th ere is generally
one prominent elem ent, a sellable'5 th at is em p h a­
sized. usually bv len g th en in g it and m oving the
pitch up or down:
I was SPFAKing to him/on the PHONE
sesterdas.
T he p ro m in en t elem ent depends on context b u t
generally represents inform ation th at is eith er
a. new:
(I got a postcard from Sue.)
She's in MEXieo.
b. in contrast to som e o th e r previous­
ly m en tio n ed inform ation:
(Are sou leaving at five thirty?) No,
SIX thirty.
c. o r simplv the m ost m eaningful or
im p o rta n t item in the phrase:
He's studying ecoNOMies.
Keep the following phrase in your m in d for
a m om ent: "I am rea d in g .” Now, answ er these
questions:
What are you doing? I am reading.
Who's reading? I am reading.
Whs aren't sou reading?!! I am reading.
W hat word did y o u emphasize most in each reply?
It should have been reading, I, and am respectively.
Each question provided a context for the reply.
Since the speaker chooses the p ro m in e n t e le m en t
b ased on th e c o m m u n icativ e c o n te x t, this
feature should be p resen ted and taught only in
context.
Intonation
Tims far, we have looked at how speech is divided
up into thought groups m arked bv pauses, and
how within each thought group one prom inent
elem ent is usually stressed. Each thought group
also has an o th er distinctive feature, namelv its
intonation — the m elodic line or pitch pattern.
T he interplay o f these pronunciation features
becom es evident as we note that the pitch move­
m ent within an intonation contour occurs on the
p ro m in en t elem ent:
Going Out
T ed : Are yo u /r EAD y vet?
L ee : N o , I n e e d to call/D A \T first.
T ed : Whv's/TElAT?
L ee : B ecause/HE'S [the o n e
w ho's giving tts a/LII
In tonation patterns do vary but certain general
patterns prevail.' G eneral rules about intonation
patterns are not m eant to denv the regional and
individual variation of authentic speech. Still, by
offering o u r learners at least some generalized
patterns for specific contexts, we give them an
appropriate option, if not the sole appropriate
one. Certainly, it is crucial to provide continued
exposure to real speech for listening analysis so
th at students can be aware of the contextual
m eaning o f intonation choices.
A lth o u g h in to n a tio n c e rta in ly c arries
m ean in g , it is d a n g e ro u s to m ake one-to-one
associations betw een a given e m o tio n an d an
in to n a tio n contour. O ften, in to n a tio n is one
facto r am o n g m any th at co m m u n icate an atti­
tude. W ord choice, gram m atical structure, the
situational context, facial expressions, and body
m ovem ent all c o n trib u te to infusing an u tte r­
ance with em otion.
Rhythm
Just as lo n g er and sh o rter notes m ake tip a m usi­
cal m easure, longer and sh o rte r syllables occur
in speech. This altern atin g of longer (stressed)
a n d sh o rte r (unstressed) syllables can be a p p re ­
ciated in poem s read aloud. Even if not as
noticeable as in poetrv. regular spoken English
has rhvtlnn as well. English speech rhythm is
usually referred to as stress-timed, i.e.. with stiesses
or beats occurring at regular intervals:
• • •
She would 've liked to have gone to the movie.
(11 syllables but only 3 beats)
This contrasts with so-called syllable-timed lan­
guages. such as fre n c h and Japanese, in which
each syllable receives roughly the same tim ing
and length.
In reality, natural English speech is not p er­
fectly stress-tim ed an d the "one syllable, one
beat" explanation for svllable-timed languages is
also an oversim plification. N onetheless, the
highlighting of certain syllables over o thers in
English th ro u g h syllable length, vowel quality,
and pitch is a crucial road m ap for the listener.
How can a learn er of English predict which
words should be stressed and which unstressed:
In general, content words (words that carrv more
m eaning, such as nouns, m ain verbs, adjectives,
and some adverbs) are stressed whereas function
words (structure words, such as articles, pro­
nouns. auxiliary verbs. and prepositions) are not.
A point of clarification should be made
here. Rhvthm . or sentence stress, refers to ALL
the syllables that receive stress in a though:
group, typically the c o n ten t words. Prom inence
refers to ONE of those stressed elem ents, the
one which receives the m ost em phasis within
the th o u g h t group:
•
She attends the University of MARy/and.
(of the th ree stressed syllables, the th ird
is p ro m in en t)
Traditionally, p ro n u n cia tio n m aterials haw
included analytical exercises in which learner-
look at w ritten utterances and carefully analyze
the part o f speech o f each word in o rd e r n
d eterm in e which syllables will be stressed anti
w hich unstressed. A lthough such an exercise can
help an analytical le a rn e r u n d e rsta n d the con­
cept of rhythm , th e speaker does n o t have tim e
to do this d u rin g a conversation.
C hela Flores (1998) rec o m m e n d s th at
teachers help learners develop an awareness of
rhythm by highlighting rhythm ic patterns apart
from words and m eaning. To rep resen t rhythm
graphically, she uses written dots and dashes to
em phasize the short and long syllables. To intro­
duce a new pattern orallv, she uses spoken n o n ­
sense syllables, such as ti for unstressed syllables,
ТА for stressed syllables, a n d TAA for the prom i­
n e n t elem ent in a th o u g h t group. H ere are two
possible four-syllable patterns a teacher m ight
present:
Pattern A Pattern В
Teacher writes
on board: . ___ . . __ . . ___
While clapping
or stretching a
rubber band, the
teacher says: “ti ТАЛ. ti ti" “ТА ti ti TAA"
First, the teacher pronounces one o f the two pat­
terns that students distinguish bv pointing to it on
the board. O nce students are able to hear and also
reproduce the selected patterns themselves using
the nonsense syllables, thev can trv to distinguish
actual phrases (adapted from Chela Flores 1998):
Listen and circle the pattern you hear.
Student hears: Student circles:
1. (A little one) a. . __ . . b. __ . . __
2. (Lots to be done) a. . __ . . b. __ . . __
3. (It’s marvelous)8 a. . __ . . b. __ . . ___
By first divorcing rhythm from its c o n tex t and
co n ten t, we can draw the le a rn e rs’ a tte n tio n to
it, help th em internalize it, a n d th en , finally,
practice m eaningful phrases with it.
Reduced Speech
W hen we speak in th o u g h t groups in a rhythm ic
way, we find wavs to highlight im p o rtan t syllables
and to de-em phasize others. L earners will have
less difficulty7stressing syllables than they will ми-
stressing them . O n e wav to w eaken unstressed
syllables is to sh o rten them . A n o th e r is to relax
the m o u th w hen articulating the vowels a n d to
use less energy or m uscular tension. Because we
are not spreading o u r lips so widely or letting
the jaw d ro p so far, these reduced vowels can be
spoken m ore quickly, help in g us to m aintain a
m ore or less regular interval betw een stressed
syllables.
T he m ost com m on red u c e d vowel is called
schwa / э /. This is the vowel vou m ake w hen your
m outh is com pletely relaxed with no p articular
effort to raise or lower your jaw or to spread o r
ro u n d vour lips. Exam ples include the unstressed
vowels in the words ban an a and police.9
Since m any function words are unstressed,
thev have b o th a citation form (also know n as
full, strong, or stressed) a n d a reduced form
(unstressed o r weak). H ere are two exam ples:
Citation Form Reduced Form
HAS He has? Inez ' What has he done
now? / э г /
TO Do vou want to?/tuw, a ticket to Tucson Д э /
T he red u c e d form of has exhibits two tvpes o f
reduction: ( 1 ) loss o f full vowel quality (the
vowel fe has been red u c e d to a schwa / э / ) an d
(2) loss of a sound, the initial h. In the second
exam ple, to, onlv the vowel ,/u w / has b een
reduced.
Linking
Words that non-native listeners can co m p reh en d
easily in isolation can som etim es be unrecogniz­
able to them in connected speech. T he b o u n d ­
aries betw een words seem to disappear. Linking is
a general term for the adjustm ents speakers m ake
betw een words in connected speech. Say to your­
self: Why don 7 you fin d cm/ / ? W hen you say find out,
it probable sounds a lot like fine doubt. In o th er
words, you have linked the syllables to g eth er (and
m ade them easier to p ro n o u n ce ) by shifting the
final c o n so n an t o f fin d to the next syllable,
w hich begins with a vowel. Som e speakers, p ar­
ticularly in N orth A m erican English, also p ro ­
n o u n c e don’t you so th at it sounds like don-chew.
In this form of linking, sounds b len d to g eth e r to
form a th ird sound.
M orphological inform ation (plurals, verb
form and tense, possessive, etc.) can be conveyed
bv endings, which are often easier to pro n o u n ce
an d becom e m ore salient to the listener when
linked:
She change-dit is easier to p ro n o u n ce
th an She changed-it.
If learners simple leave off an ending, im portant
inform ation can be lost. Instead, we need to focus
learn ers’ attention on the linked sound, which, in
the exam ples below, provides the listener with the
distinction betw een present and past:
P resen t They live in Miami.
(T he e should be linked clearlv
betw een live an d in)
Past They live-din Miami.
(T he d should be linked
to the next sellable in)
We n eed to m ake learners aware that all of
these pronunciation features (thought groups,
p ro m in e n c e , in to n a tio n , rhythm , red u c e d
speech, linking) work together to package our
utterances in a wav that can be processed easily by
o u r listeners. So, rath e r than being m ore com ­
prehensible bv speaking each word separately,
o u r learners actuallv becom e less fluent a n d less
intelligible.
Consonants
C on so n an t sounds are characterized by place of
articulation (where the sound is m ad e), manner
o f articulation (how the sou n d is m ad e), and
voicing (w hether the vocal cords are vibrating or
not). These three dim ensions are com m only
illustrated in a consonant chart (see A ppendix 1).
T he place of articulation is usually illustrated in
a diagram called a sagittal section diagram , often
refe rre d to as "The O rgans of Speech" (see
A ppendix 2).
To teach consonants, we first n eed to decide
w hether phonetic symbols are necessarv. In m ost
cases, the orthographic letter is the same as the
p h o n etic rep resen tatio n . However, for certain
sounds (this, thum b, shop, decision, b u tch er,
p ageant, lo n g ). a single lette r th a t represents
the m ost com m on spellings is n o t available. T he
In te rn atio n a l P honetic .Alphabet uses the fol­
lowing svmbols for these sounds:
this / 5 / . th u m b / 0 / , shop /J 7 ,
decision / 3/ . b u tc h e r / t j / ,
p agean t / d j / . long / 1] /
A com plete p h o n etic alp h ab et for English can
be fo u n d in A ppendix 3.
A second consideration is that the articulation
of a consonant varies, depending on its environ­
ment. For example, the sound / р / occurs twice in
the word paper, but the first / p / is accom panied bv
a small puff of air called aspiration while the second
p '' is not. This and other examples of positional
variation reflect sound svstem rules that native
speakers have com m and of but rarely any conscious
knowledge of until it is pointed out to them.
Clustering is a third feature of English conso­
nants that presents a challenge to our students.
Since mans o ther languages never allow two.
m uch less three or four, consonants in sequence,
learners from such a language background
struggle with words like strengths or texts. Our
learners need to know how consonant clusters
function in English and also that there are accept­
able cluster reductions for some forms. For example,
in the phrase: The facts of the case are . . . , mans
speakers would pronounce facts as fax, omitting'
the / t without ans- loss of intelligibility.10
Learners will usuallv have difficulty7 with
sounds that d o n ’t exist in their LI, such as the twc
th sounds o r the 1and the r sounds. Despite these
isolated difficulties, instruction should alwav
focus on sounds in context. How a particular
sound is articulated in real speech, or how7crucial
it is to intelligibilitv, will becom e evident onh
w hen em b ed d ed in spoken discourse.
Vowels
W hereas consonant sounds in English occur at the
beginning or end of a syllable, vowel sounds arc
the se llable core, the sound within the syllable that
resonates and can be lengthened or shortened
In fact, a vowel can even constitute a syllable or a T he following phrases from M orlev (1979,
word, as in eye. Unlike consonants, vowels are p. 116) help learn ers initially associate each
articulated with a relatively7 u n o b stru c te d air­ vowel with a key word ra th e r than a p h o n etic
flow, i.e., there is usually7 no contact betw een symbol:
articulators. As a result, vowels are often defined
in relation to one a n o th e r ra th e r than to some SEE IT SAY YES a FAT BIRD
fixed point. Thev are distinguished bv tongue iy i /еу/ s /ж? /зг/
position (front c e n tra l/b a c k ), tongue and jaw 1 4 3 4 5 б
height (high 'micf'loyv), degree o f lip ro u n d in g
and the relative tension of the muscles involved a BUS STOP TW O BOOKS
(tense versus lax vowels). Some of this inform a­
л a uyy- /о/
tion is conveyed in a vowel chart, representing the
7 8 9 10
space within the oral cavity (see A ppendix 4).
W hat are the challenges in teaching vow­ XO LAW MY COWBOY
els? First, English has m ore vowels than many OW 0 a y /aw/ h y !
o th e r languages. Japanese has 5 voyvels; English
11 12 13 14 15
has 14 (or 15. if you include the /-colored voyvel
sound in bird). Also, there is a great deal of vari­
ation in vowels betyveen dialects ( Oh. you pro­ Together, students should rhythmically repeat
nounce the vowel in "doll" and "ball" differently? I these phrases until they can rem em b er them .T he
pronounce it the same!). Unlike the "pure" vowels teacher can also attach a n u m b er to each key
o f m anv o th er languages, several English voyvels word (as shown above) w ithout introducing anv
are accom panied bv a glide m ovem ent. Try- phonetic symbols at all. It is easier to tefer to the
saving eye slowlv. Do you notice lioyv your jaw "it" vowel or the #2 vowel rath er than the /4 /
glides upward? This glide feature is especially vowel, since many listeners will not be able to dis­
im p o rta n t for English diphthongs.11 tinguish iv and : when h eatin g either sound
A nother challenge for learners is the fact that in isolation.
most voyvels can be spelled in many different yvavs.
Learners who are used to a strict sound spelling
correspondence in their El will often be misled by- Word Stress
English spelling. For EEL learners, yvlio often
depend m ore on the written text than on what T he discussion of vowels provides a good fo u n ­
they- hear, this can cause many pronunciation dation for u n d ersta n d in g word stress. Just as
errors (see Olshtain's chapter in this volume). th o u g h t groups can have m ore than one stressed
Finally, voyvel sounds are usually- red u c e d in syllable but only one p ro m in e n t elem ent, m ulti­
unstressed sy llables: notice the difference in the syllabic words can also have m ore than one
p ro n u n ciatio n of the two a s in madam or the nvo stressed sy llable, but only one o f those syllables
as in motor. In both cases, the first syllable is receives prim ary stress ( • ) . T he o th er(s) receive
stressed an d the second is not. As a result, the secondary stress (•) o r alm ost no stress (•):
first vowel has its full voyvel quality, so the first
syllables sound like mad and moat, respectively.
com man i ca lion
T h e second vowel in each word is red u c e d so the
second sy llables do N O T sound like clam atrd tore
This can be com pared to the cognate word in
(as they w ould if they yvere stressed) b u t instead
French where the stress is m ore equal, n ot alter­
like dumb a n d ter. As m en tio n e d earlier, the
nating. with slightly m ore stress on the final
process of re d u c in g o r w eak en in g a vowel
syllable:
involves a relaxing of the articulators, i.e., using-
less effort to raise or lower one's jaw o r to ro u n d • • • • •

or spread o ne's lips. com mini i ca lion

English w ord stress p attern s are som ew hat com ­ T hese stages are sim ilar to a presen tatio n , prac­
plex a n d can d e p e n d on several factors: the his­ tice, an d p ro d u ctio n sequence. K eeping such a
torical origin o f a word, the p a rt of speech, an d fram ew ork in m ind helps us to plan lessons th at
affixation.12 In very general terms: m ove the students forw ard in a p rin cip led tvay,
b uilding the fo u n d atio n for m ore intelligible
1. Stress falls m ore often on the root o r base o f
sp o ntaneous pro d u ctio n .
a w ord an d less often on a prefix:
beLIEVE, preDICT, comPLAIXT
1. Description and Analysis
2. C om pound nouns ten d to take prim ary stress
on the first elem ent and secondary stress on Initially, the teacher presents a feature showing
the second: w'hen and how it occurs. T he teacher m ight use
charts (consonant, vowel, o r organs o f speech) or
A IR p ia x e , BUS sto p, comPUter d is k he or she m ight p resen t the rules for occurrence
e ith e r inductively or deductively. For exam ple,
3. Suffixes can eith e r
the teacher can e ith e r p resent the rules for -ed
a. Have no effect on stress
endings o r provide m ultiple exam ples and ask
BEAUty — BEAUtiful the learners to figure o u t the rules them selves.14
deEI\rer — ► deLIYerance
perFORM -* perFORMer
2. Listening Discrimination
b. Take the prim ary stress them selves
L istening activities include contextualized m ini­
(m any of these are from French):
m al pair discrim ination exercises such as the fol­
picturESQUE, trusTEE, enginEER, lowing from G ilbert (1993, p. 20). T h e speaker
balLOON (who mav be the teach er o r a n o th e r student)
c. Cause the stress p a tte rn in the stem p ro n o u n ces e ith e r sentence a or b. T he listener
to shift to a different sellable: responds with the a p p ro p riate rejoinder.
PERiod —* periODic a. He wa n Is to b uy 11 ill у о и sell it ?
SEquence seQUEXtial mv boat.
ORganize —► organi/Ation b. He wants to buy T hat’s against
my vole. the law!
While our students may still need to look up the
stress of an unfam iliar word in the dictionary', these In a n o th e r discrim ination activity, the student
basic rules will aid them in understanding how7the listens for e ith e r rising o r falling in to n a tio n in
system of word stress can function in English. utterances w here e ith e r is possible.
Instructions: Circle the arrow which corresponds tc
the intonation you hear at the end of the uttercmc,
either rising or falling:
A C O M M U N IC A TIV E Rising Falling
FRA M EW O RK FO R
The plane's leaving s 4
T E A C H IN G P R O N U N C IA T IO N
Sam finished it A 4
Celce-M urcia, B rinton, a n d G oodw in (1996)
p rese n t a fram ew ork for the sequencing of activ­ You can 7 V
ities within p ro n u n cia tio n instruction. T h eir five
teach in g stages include description an d analysis, L'sing a transcript with a short listening pa-
listen in g discrim in atio n , c o n tro lle d practice, sage, learners can m ark the pauses a n d /o r circT
g u id ed practice, an d com m unicative p rac tic e .13 the pro m in en t elem ents they hear. In general, tlw
listener's task should be clearly defined and
focused on only one o r two features at a tim e.
At this stage, we want to focus le a rn e rs’ a tten tio n
directly on a feature that they m ight n o t be rec­
ognizing yet.
T he th ree final stages, which involve prac­
tice an d p ro d u ctio n , actuallv progress on a co n ­
tinuum . It is less im p o rta n t to define an exercise
as strictly controlled, guided, o r com m unicative.
Rather, it is im p o rta n t to sequence our oral
p ro d u ctio n activities so th at thev move forw ard
systematicallv.
3. Controlled Practice
At the beginning, in m ore co n tro lled activities,
the lea rn er's a tten tio n should be focused alm ost
com pletely on form . Any kind o f choral reading
can work if the learn er's atten tio n is clearly
focused on the target feature. Poems, rhvmes.
dialogues, dram atic m o n o lo g u es— all o f these
can be used if the c o n te n t and level engage a
le a rn e r’s interest. W hen p e rfo rm e d with student
p artners, contextualized m inim al pair activities
(as m en tio n e d above) are a com bination of con­
trolled practice for the speaker an d listening
discrim ination for his or h e r partner.
4. Guided Practice
In guided activities, the learn er’s attention is no
longer entirely on form. T he learner now begins
to focus on m eaning, gram m ar, and com m unica­
tive intent as well as pronunciation. Teachers need
to develop a continuum of bridging activities,
which shift attention gradually to a new cognitive
task while the learner attem pts to m aintain con­
trol of the pronunciation target. As an example,
Hewings and Goldstein (1998. p. 127) m ake use of
a m em ory activity while practicing -s endings.
Students are instructed tea stuch a picture contain­
ing a n u m b er of com m on objects for one m inute
(two bridges, three suitcases, four glasses, etc,.).
With the picture hidden, thev then try to recite
the correct n u m b er of each item, while concen­
trating on p ronouncing the plural -s correctly.
5. Communicative Practice
In this stage, activities strike a balance betw een
form and m eaning. Exam ples include role plays,
debates, interviews, sim ulations, a n d dram a
scenes. As the activities becom e gradually m ore
com m unicative, the le a rn e r’s attention should
still Ire focused on one o r two features at a time. It
is overw helm ing to suddenly m onitor all p ro n u n ­
ciation features at once. Set an objective, which
can be different for different learners, and let stu­
dents know it in advance. For exam ple, “W hen
p erform ing this role play, Marco, pay special
attention to linking between words.” Feedback
should then be focused on the stated objective.
SOME T E A C H IN G T E C H N IQ U E S
A wealth of good m aterial has been published
fo r tea c h in g p ro n u n c ia tio n . This is n o t an
exhaustive list o f techniques; instead, ju st a b rie f
overview of possibilities with sources for the
tea c h e r to investigate.
Contextualized Minimal Pair Practice
Bowen (1975) was one o f the first to stress the
im p o rtan ce o f teaching p ro n u n cia tio n in m ean ­
ingful contexts. R ather than just distinguishing
pen and pan as isolated words, Bowen em b e d d e d
these m inim al pair contrasts into contextualized
sentences and rejo in d ers:1'1
This pen leaks. Then, don't write with it.
This pan leaks. Then, don’t rook with it.
(p. 17)
C ontextualized m inim al pair drills include m ore
th an individual sou n d contrasts as shown, for
exam ple, in Clear Speech (G ilbert 1993):
Word stress
Is it elementary? Лo, it’s advanced.
Is it a lemon tree? No, an orange tree.
(p. 69)
 Prominence
I didn 7 know I thought she
she urns out there. was inside.
I d id n ’t know I thought it
she was out there. was ju st him. (p. 117)
Cartoons and Drawings
C artoons an d drawings can be used to cue p ro ­
du ctio n o f particu lar sentences or an entire story
as well as for showing language in context.
Rhythm and Role Play (G raham a n d A ragones
1991) uses h u m o ro u s cartoon stories to illustrate
sh o rt plays to practice rhythm in English. In the
description a n d analysis stage o f teaching a p a r­
ticular feature, cartoons can be shown on an
overhead for the students to read a n d analyze:
W hat’s going on here? W hat’s funny?
Gadgets and Props
To help learners u n d e rsta n d the rhythm ic pat­
te rn in g o f stressed an d unstressed syllables,
G ilbert (1994) suggests using a thick ru b b er
b a n d . T h e te a c h e r holds th e ru b b e r b a n d
betw een two thum bs. W hile p ro n o u n c in g words
or phrases, the teach er stretches the ru b b er
ban d widely ap art for the stressed syllables and
lets it relax for the unstressed ones. As kines­
thetic rein fo rcem en t, students each ttse a sim ilar
ru b b e r b a n d to stretch while speaking, first at
the word level an d th en with phrases.
G ilb ert (1994) also rec o m m e n d s using
kazoos to highlight in to n a tio n patterns. Since
learners can have difficult} a tten d in g to in to n a ­
tion, the tea c h e r can speak into a kazoo, which
focuses the le a rn e rs’ atten tio n on the m elodv o f
speech ra th e r th an the m eaning.
C uisenaire rods, often used in the Silent
Way, can illustrate various p ronunciation features.
These rods (each color is a different length) can
illu strate rh v th m bv u sin g lo n g e r rods for
stressed syllables an d sh o rter rods for unstressed
syllables. L in k in g b etw een syllables can be
shown by m oving the rods nex t to each other.
F or tactile learners, m an ip u latin g objects p ro ­
vides a pow erful learn in g tool.
Rhymes, Poetry, and Jokes
Nursery rhymes, lim ericks, a n d mans poem s all
have strong p attern s o f stressed and unstressed
syllables th a t help o u r learners h e a r (and to a
certain ex ten t feel) the rhvthm o f English. O ne
well-known use of rhythm ic chants is G ra h a m ’s
jazz Chant series. These short, easy to learn
chants have a strong beat an d can be ttsed with
adults as well as c h ild re n .10
Vaughan-Rees (1991) has devised poem s to
illu strate a n d re in fo rc e som e o f th e basic
spelling rules in English. Since English spelling
is usually p rese n ted as com plex, he deliberately
presents exam ples w here p ro n u n cia tio n an d
spelling are predictable so that learners can
begin to internalize these associations:
“W hat's the m atter!" said the H atter
to his m ate bv the gate.
"The cat ate mv hat
a n d notv it's m ade m e verv late.” (p. 36)
Jokes can also be used in the p ro n u n cia tio n
classroom . Noll (1997) suggests using knock-
knock jokes to illustrate an d practice linking and
red u ced sp eech :1'
A: Knock Knock.
B: Who's there?
A: Jamaica.
B: Jamaica who?
A: Jamaica mistake? (=l)id you make a
mistake?)
Drama
D ram a is a particularly effective tool for p ro n u n ­
ciation teaching because various co m p o n en ts o f
com m unicative com petence (discourse in to n a ­
tion, pragm atic awareness, nonverbal com m uni­
cation) can be practiced in an in teg rated wav.
Stern (1980) proposes a m eth o d for using
eight- to ten-m inute scenes, usually involving two
characters. Each pair o f students receives the
script to a different scene. R ather than m em o­
rizing the lines, they are sim ple to provide a d ra­
m atic re a d in g — looking u p frequently at their
p a rtn e r an d read in g with feeling. T he teach er
helps th em p rep are bv m odeling each line and
having students repeat, draw ing a tten tio n to
aspects of p ro n u n ciatio n as they appear. After
rehearsing, the pairs are videotaped p erfo rm in g
the scene. Following this, the pair o f students,
rem ain in g in character, are first interview ed bv
the audience a n d th en perfo rm a sh o rt im provi­
sation based on the scene.
Kinesthetic Activities
“We speak with our voral organs, but we converse
with our whole bodies. "
(A bercrom bie 1968. p. 53)
O ne im p o rtan t wav to effect change in p ro n u n ­
ciation is th ro u g h kinesthetic techniques. In
addition to relaxation and b rea th in g exercises.
C han (1987) m akes use of basic h a n d gestures to
teach p ro n u n c ia tio n .14 Svllables are shown bv
the n u m b e r of fingers one holds up or b\ tap­
ping out the n u m b er with o n e ’s hand. An open
h a n d indicates stress while a closed h an d shows
a lack of stress. Linking th u m b and forefingers
betw een both hands illustrates linking. A sweep­
ing h a n d m otion for rising a n d falling pitch illus­
trates in tonation. O nce students are fam iliar
with the gestures, the teach er cam use them as
silent correction techniques.
In the film. The Wizard of Uz. Dorothv. the
Tin Man, and the Scarecrow walk arm in arm
down the vellow brick road worriedlv repeating
the phrase. "Lions. Tigers, and BEARS. O h MY!"
G rant (2000) suggests a technique in which
learners stand up and take a step in svnchronv
with each stressed sellable while repeating the
above phrase at least three times. In the next
stage, learners create new phrases in the same
four-beat pattern. For example:
1 2 3 4
HyEXas and CROC.oddes and PYthons oh M Y
L earners should take steps at regular, natural
intervals regardless o f the n u m b e r o f syllables
betw een beats. In this wav. thev begin to in ter­
nalize the rhvthm of English.
A cton (1984) m akes the p o in t that to “p ro ­
n o u n c e like a native one m ust move like a native
as well" (p. 77). T he technique of mirroring involves
trving to imitate the both movements, gestures,
and facial expressions of an o th er speaker, w hether
face-to-face or on video. Acton recom m ends this
approach for helping fossilized learners develop
m ore acceptable rhvthm patterns.
A N IN T E G R A T E D W H O L E -B O D Y
A P P R O A C H TO T E A C H IN G
P R O N U N C IA T IO N 19
D eveloped out of Isaac's (1995) spoken fluenev
ap proach an d Stern's (1980) use of dram a, the
basis of this in teg rated ap proach is spoken in te r­
action. W h eth er one is co n trib u tin g to a class
discussion, giving instructions to an em plovee,
o btaining directions to the bank, or simple ch at­
ting. the intelligibility of one's p ro n u n ciatio n is
m easured bv the success of the interact ion.
This approach involves using short (60 to 90
second) videotaped interactions as the spring­
board for instruction. O ne possibility would be
actual videotaped interactions of communicative
situations vour learners face. Otherwise, clips from
film or television can be used (with copvright
perm ission).
T he class analv/es the video, first shown
silently for general nonv erbal cues an d then with
sound to confirm predictions about the content.
O nce a context has been established, each line is
carefully analvzecl (th ro u g h rep eated listening)
for prosodic features, accom panying gestures,
and pragm atic m eaning. Students m ark pauses,
p ro m in en ce, and in to n atio n on a copy o f the
transcript and note gestures. This intensive lis­
tening focus is followed bv intensive speaking
practice in which learners trv to im itate the p ro ­
n u n ciation as well as the m ovem ents o f each
line. C horal and individual rep etitio n of lines
allows the instru cto r to provide feedback on
errors. Individual practice is particularly effec­
tive in a co m p u ter lab using software th at allows
the lea rn er to b oth h e a r each line a n d see a visu­
al pitch trace of its in to n atio n p attern . Learners
com pare both the sound of their utterance and the
visual contour of it with the m odel. In the next
stage, learners work in pairs to rehearse the inter­
action while the teacher m onitors p erfo rm an ce
a n d provides m ore feedback. T h en , the teach er
videotapes each pair p e rfo rm in g the interaction.
S tudents review th eir p erfo rm a n c e outside of
class (if a video lab is available) a n d fill in a guid­
ed self-analysis sheet. T he p erfo rm a n c e is evalu­
ated bv the instructor, who m akes decisions
a b o u t w hat p ro n u n cia tio n features to cover in
m ore d ep th . Finally, pairs are given role cards
for a situation sim ilar to the original interaction
a n d asked to p erfo rm it w ithout a script. This
allows the instru cto r to see if learners can trans­
fer w hat they have le a rn e d to a new b ut sim ilar
in teraction.
M EDIA A N D T E C H N O L O G Y
Audio
A udio rec o rd in g is the m ost basic way to capture
s o u n d — e ith e r a m odel or the student's own
sp e e c h — for the le a rn e r to review. Tapes from a
variety o f textbook series can be m ade available
in a language lab o ra to ry e ith e r for use in class
with teach er supervision o r as self-access.
Bevond com m ercial atidio program s, learn­
ers should p e rio d ic a ls record th eir hom ew ork
on tape for the instructor to respond to. As a p er­
sonal resource, learners can create a p ro n u n cia­
tion tape log bv bringing in a blank tape and a
short w ritten list of words and phrases thev find
hard to p ro n o u n ce. T he teacher or a tu to r aide
th en records each student's phrases (the teacher
should em b ed any individual words the student
requests into a phrase) onto the cassette. This
m otivates learners to m ake choices about what
they want to learn and gives the instructor insight
into learners' needs a n d interests.
If vou hold office hours or if learners have
access to p ro n u n c ia tio n tu to rin g , encourage
them to rec o rd the session. T utoring can be very
effective, b u t w ithout a reco rd in g of the advice
a n d corrections it will be nearlv im possible for
th e le a rn e r to co n tin u e w orking with the feed­
back on his o r h er own.
Sim ilar to w ritten dialogue jo u rn a ls, stu­
dents can reco rd oral entries on an audiocas­
sette in an exchange with the teacher. T he
entries can be stru ctu red bv the teach er o r left
com pletely to the student's choice. Such oral
jo u rn a ls can be an effective wav of h elp in g stu­
dents to locate e rro r patterns, review the instruc­
to r ’s feedback, direct th eir own learning, an d
note progress over time.
Video
A growing n u m b er of com m ercial videotape pro ­
gram s focus on p ro n u n c ia tio n -0 an d usuallv
involve the a u th o r teaching pronunciation lessons
o r actors perform ing a scene with exercises. Such
videotape program s serve as additional m odels
that the instructor can bring into class: most les­
sons are no m ore than 15-30 m inutes long.
As suggested earlier in this chapter, vou can
videotape local com m unicative situations th at
vour learners m ight face. If vou teach in te rn a ­
tional teaching assistants (ITAs), tape skilled
teaching assistants in the same disciplines at
vour universitv. If vou are teaching recent im m i­
grants. find out what th eir em ploym ent goals are
an d trv to set up a m ock job interview and
reco rd it. If vou are teaching voting adults in an
intensive program , trv to find a g roup of th eir
“age-mates" from vou r area an d record a conver­
sation. R ecordings can provide m otivating p e e r
target m odels for vour learners.
C om m ercial films a n d off-air television
recordings can be used to teach p ro n u n cia tio n
but are subject to copvright law. T he showing of
short clips from a film to illustrate a p o in t in a
lesson is perm issible if the instructor uses a p u r­
chased video and not an illegal copy. Off-air
recordings for educational purposes are subject
to a tim e lim it from the date of recording. For
m ore inform ation on ITS. copv right code, check
the following websites:
http: / vwwv.nolo.com/encyclopedia/
articles pet/nn72.html
http: / vvYvw.law.cornell.edu topics
copyright.html
A video cam era is a w onderful tool for
reco rd in g stu d en t perform ances. It allows the
lea rn er to see the en tire com m unicative p e r­
form ance. not just the sound. T he teach er can
also evaluate the p erfo rm a n c e in m ore d e p th
than would be possible from notes taken d u rin g
the p erfo rm an ce. In a class w here students are
v id eo ta p ed regularly, class m em bers can be
trained to operate the camera.
Computer Software
A n u m b er of CD-ROM program s now exist that
target pro n u n ciatio n . These w in1 in scope, price,
type of hardw are needed, platform (Mac or
W indows), a n d ease o f use. Some program s focus
prim arily on sounds, whereas others visually dis­
play the length, pitch, and loudness of an u tter­
ance. Some program s have a u th o rin g systems in
which the instructor can upload his or h er own
c o n ten t to the program : others com e with a stock
set of utterances for the lea rn er to practice.
In some cases, the visual feedback that is
provided is hard for students to in terpret or is
inconclusive, i.e., even native speakers cannot
m atch their pitch trace to the m odel. Most teach­
ers who use com puterized visual feedback stress
that it is necessarily useful in and of itself— the
learner m ust be trained to make effective use of
these visual representations of speech.
O th e r program s function m uch like a tradi­
tional language lab — students record their voice
and th en press a button to plav it back— but thev
still use their own perception to hear the differ­
ence betw een their production and the m odel
utterance.
An overview of mans' of the software p ro ­
gram s available for teaching p ro n u n ciatio n has
been com piled bv D eborah Hcalev and can be
found at this website:
h ttp ://o su .o r st.e d u /d e p t/e li/
junel998.htm l
This overview contains a b rie f description of
each program with ap p ro x im ate cost a n d con­
tact inform ation.
Internet
The In tern et offers a wide array of resources for
both teachers and learners o f pronunciation.
W hile not replacing CD-ROM program s, the
Internet protides a continually expanding num ­
ber of websites which can be m ined for pronunci­
ation instruction. These include articles about
teaching, lesson plans, charts, diagram s, audio
and video listening tasks, dictionaries with p ro ­
nu n ciatio n features, and so on. B rinton an d
I.aBelle (1997) created an a n n o ta ted list o f p ro ­
n u n ciatio n websites. It is available at:
http: / / www.sunburstmedia.com/
PronWeb.html
Using voice-encoding technology, the in­
structor can e-mail sound files back an d forth
with students. This type of software com presses
the speech signal into a com pact digital fo rm at.21
For activities such as oral dialogue journals, the
p ro n u n ciatio n log, and oral hom ew ork exercises,
this option elim inates the n eed for exchanging
audiocassettes.
O ne of the m ain stum bling blocks for ou r
learners is access. Although we may have sophisti­
cated com puters and Internet connections where
we teach, m am of the new websites require exten­
sive plug-ins. In general, the m ore interactive the
site, the m ore powerful the hardw are and plug-ins
need to be. In addition to a fairlv sophisticated
com puter with Internet capability, m any sites will
require a sound card, headphones, speakers, and a
m icrophone.
A SSESSM EN T
In this section we will exam ine three types of pro ­
n u n ciatio n assessm ent: diagnostic evaluation,
ongoing feedback, and classroom achievem ent
testing. (See C ohen's ch ap ter in this volume.)
Diagnostic Evaluation
T h e m ost com m on form s o f diagnosing a learn ­
er's p ro d u ctio n are the use o f a diagnostic pas­
sage an d a free speech sam ple. In the first,
learners read a passage designed to co n tain a
variety o f features a n d sounds. In the second,
learn ers are p ro m p te d by a topic, a series of
questions, or an illustration. In o rd e r to obtain
the truest sam ple o f speech proficiency, learners
should have tim e to form ulate a th o u g h tfu l
resp o n se — however, thev should not write it o u t
a n d read it aloud. A n o th e r possibility includes
an oral interview rec o rd e d for later evaluation.
Ongoing Feedback
Feedback during instruction gives learners a sense
of their progress and indicates where they need to
focus their attention for improvement. With a
growing awareness of progress, learners also gain
confidence in their pronunciation. There are
three main wavs of providing ongoing feedback.
Self-Monitoring
O n e wav to guide learners to self-correct is to
point out their errors silentlv (rather than sim­
ply p r o n o u n c in g it correctly for them ). We can
use various means to cue correction:
1. G estu res As m entioned earlier, hand ges­
tures can represent different aspects of pro­
nu n c ia tio n (e.g.. n u m b e r o f syllables,
linking, rising or falling intonation, etc.).
2. P ronunciation co rrection signs Signs can be
placed around the room, displacing the fea­
tures that you have taught. Once learners
understand what is meant bv each sign, it
becomes shorthand for error correction. O ne
sign might sac -ed. which cues a learner to
think about past tense endings in his speech
(which he might have either omitted or pro­
nounced incorrectly). O ther signs might sac:
-s Intonation
3. Charts Ifvou have introduced a vowel chart
(see Appendix 4) and have a lai ge version of
it hanging in the classroom, t on can point to
the vowel con hear the learners making and
guide them toward the correct one. An
understanding of the vowel chart can guide
learners toward raising or lowering their jaw,
gliding, or spreading or rounding their lips
to better approximate a particular vowel.
A second way to encourage self-monitoring
is to record student speech, in either audio or
video format. Learners can m onitor their own
perform ance with the guidance of a self-analvsis
sheet. This is particularly effective if the learners’
first task is to transcribe their speech (not ph o n et­
ically, just regular orthography). Working with
their transcript while listening to their tape, learn­
ers can monitor for a specific feature. For example:
Think about the rules we have learned con­
cerning -word stress. Listen carefully to your
tape white looking at your transcript. On
the transcript, underline any words that
you think you stressed incorrectly and draw
an arrow to the syllable that you should
have stressed. Here is an example:
f\
My name is Lee and I study economics.
Peer Feedback
During a traditional minimal pair activity, rather
than Inning students onlv work in pairs (one
speaker and one listener who responds with the
appropriate rejoinder), students can be placed in
groups of four. In this scenario, the first speaker
reads one of the two minimal pair options and
the three o ther group m em bers each mark what
thev hear. If onlv one listener is giving the feed­
back. it is less reliable a n d convincing to the
speaker since that listener might have difficulty
hearing that particular distinction.
If a role pla\ betw een two students is recorded
on tape, then the two can transcribe it together and
also fill in the analysis form together. In this case, it
would be good to pair students together who don':
necessarily share the same pronunciation difficul­
ties. Learning from someone who is onlv a little fur­
ther along than vou can be an effective alternative
to instructor feedback alone.
Teacher Feedback
During class, the teacher can use gestures or pr< -
nunciation correction signs to provide feedback
silently. Out-of-class feedback can be provided
th ro u g h audiocassettes or c o m p u te r sound file-
in an e-mail exchange.
Which errors should we correct? Rathe:
than overwhelming the student with feedback or.
even' possible error, follow the guidelines below:
1. Errors which cause a breakdown in commu­
nication
2. Errors which occur as a pattern, n o t a-
isolated mistakes
3. Errors which relate to the pronunciatior.
points we are teaching
This last point is not to be viewed as the least
important; it is related to the first two in an inte­
gral wav It is the errors that learners make that
guides ns toward what to teach. Thus, what we
a ttend to in o u r lea rn ers’ speech is the feedback
we m ust have in o rd e r to navigate o u r teaching
in a targeted wav.
Classroom Achievement Tests
Classroom achievem ent tests evaluate learners'
progress according to what has been taught and
are consequentlv m ore focused than diagnostic
assessment. T he testing tasks should resemble
the classroom teaching tasks in o rd e r to reduce
the effect of an unfamiliar format on learner
perform ance.
Am oral p erform ance to be evaluated for a
grade should be recorded on tape. This is not
only to m ake the teacher's evaluation of it easier
(although this is the case); it also allows the
learner to review and revise the tape before tu rn ­
ing it in. In fact, since one of ou r goals is to help
learners m o n ito r their own speech, this step is
crucial. A lthough our ultimate goal is intclligi-
bilitv du rin g spontaneous speech, for assessment
purposes it is also critical to know w hether learn­
ers can control their p ro n u nciation du rin g a
communicative task when thev are m onitoring
for specific features. This abilitv to determ ine
what m ight have gone wrong in their p ro n u n c i­
ation allows learners to recover from a c o m m u ­
nication breakdown in real life. In o th e r words,
w hen thev notice the puzzled look or blank
stare, thev can mentallv run through what thev
just said and in all likelihood, reform ulate the
same utterance intelligible.
C O N C L U S IO N
The discussion of assessment brings us full circle
back to the goals we have set lor ourselves an d our
learners. These goals are realistic— the ability of
our learners to understand and be understood in
the communicative situations they face, the confi­
dence to enter these communicative situations
with ease, and the abilitv to m onitor their speech
in ord er to make adjustments and improvements
based on input from the environment. If we con­
sider the frustration expressed by the learners
quoted at the beginning of this chapter, we now
have tools to respond to their pronunciation
needs in a systematic and principled way.
D IS C U S S IO N Q U E S T IO N S
1. T hink about a foreign language vou have
learned. How good is vour accent? W hat fac­
tors have contributed to how well you p ro ­
nounce this language?
2. T hink of one communicative situation vou
engage in even’ day. W hat kinds of language
do vou use? What aspects o f p ro n unciation
do you n e e d to know to function well in this
situation?
3. W ho is better eq u ip p e d to teach p ro n u n c ia ­
tio n — a non-native who speaks the LI of her
learners or a native English teacher who
does not? U pon which factors m ight vour
answer depend?
4. W hich aspect of p ro n u nciation is the hardest
to teach? Whv?
S U G G E S T E D A C T IV IT IE S
1. Consult one o f the references listed below
that contain contrastive analyses a n d sum ­
marize the inform ation for a language that
vou know well (other than English). W hat
are the predicted pro n u n cia tio n errors for
learners from that language w hen learning
English? How does this com pare with your
knowledge of the sound svstems o f the two
languages?
Averv. P., and S. Ehrlich. 1992. Teaching
American English Pronunciation. Oxford:
Oxford Lhiiversitv Press. (Chapter 8)
Deterding, D. H., and G. R. Poedjosoedarmo.
1998. The Sounds of English: Phonetics and
Phonology for English Teachers in Southeast
Asia. Singapore; Prentice Hall.
Swan, M.. and B. Smith, eds. 2001. Eearner
English. 2d ed. Cambridge: Cambridge
Lhiiversitv Press.
2. Choose one pronunciation teaching point
(e.g., word stress in c o m pound nouns, / 1/ ver­
sus / г / , one rhythm pattern). Develop one or
two activities for each of the five stages of the
communicative framework to teach this point.
3. Interview a non-native speaker of English
who has a good accent. How did this person
achieve good pronunciation?
4. Exam ine a textbook for teaching p ro n u n c i­
ation a n d evaluate it in terms of
■ Layout: Is it user-friendly? Are the diagrams,
charts, and explanations clear?
■ Use of phonetic symbols
■ Focus: segmentals, suprasegmentals, or both?
■ Exercises: logical progression from con­
trolled to communicative? .Are the instruc­
tions clear? Is the language authentic?
(See Byrd’s chapter in this volume as you
do this activitv.)
FU R T H ER R EA D IN G
Teacher References
Avery, P., and S. Erlich. 1992. Teaching American English
Pronunciation. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Celce-Murcia, M., D. Brinton, and J. Goodwin. 1996.
Teaching Pronunciation: .4 Reference for Teachers of
English to Speakers of Other Languages. Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press.
Dalton, C., and B. Seidlhofer. 1994. Pronunciation.
Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Morlev, J., ed. 1987. Current Perspectives on Pronun­
ciation. Washington, DC: TESOL.
---------, ed. 1994. Pronunciation Pedagogy and Theory.
Washington, DC: TESOI..
Student Texts
Dauer, R. 1993. Accurate English: A Complete Course in
Pronunciation. Engleyvood Cliffs, X }: Prentice Hall
Regents.
Gilbert, J. 1993. Clear Speech. 2d ed. Neyv York:
Cambridge University Press.
---------, 2001. Clear Speech from the Start. Neyv York:
Cambridge University Press.
Grant, I.. 2001. Well Said: Pronunciation for Clear
Communication. 2d ed. Boston, NLA. Heinle & Heinle.
Heyvings, M. and S. Goldstein. 1998. Pronunciation Plus:
Practice through Interaction. Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press.
Miller, S. 2000. Targeting Pronunciation. Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin.
Collections o f Pronunciation Activities
Boyven, T., and J. Marks. 1992. The Pronunciation Book:
Student-Centered Activities for Pronunciation Work.
London: Longman.
Hancock, M. 1995. Pronunciation Смит. Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press.
TESOL Speech and Pronunciation Interest Section
Contains information about pronunciation
issues, resources, activities, articles, and links to
relevant sites.
http: / / www.public.iastate.edu/~jlevis / SPRIS
LATEFL Pronunciation Special Interest Group
.At international site for teachers of English.
Contains links, articles, bibliography, and infor­
mation about SPEAK. OUT! (the neyvsletter for
this group).
http: / / m em bers.aol.com /pronunciationsig/
Prolinks
John Murphv's list of sites related to phonology
and teaching pronunciation. Includes Murphv's
annotated list of resource books, journal articles
classroom texts, etc.
http: / /www. gsu.edu/~esljm m /ss / prolinks.htm
The Internet TESL Journal's pronunciation links
This site includes a variety of links for botf.
learners and teachers.
http: / / w w w .a itech .a c .j p / - ite s lj /lin k s /E S L
/Pronunciation/
Dave's ESL Cafe Web Guide for Pronunciation
Dave Sperling's source of annotated pronuncia­
tion links.
yvww.eslcafe.com search Pronunciation
Lessons
A nice selection of lesson ideas and links T
both British and American English.
h ttp:/ / eleaston.com /pronunciation/
Pronunciation
Information and resources covering British ..
yvell as American resources. Well organized :
learners and teachers.
http: / / esl.about.com /hom ew ork / esl / msuh
17.htm
ENDNO TES
1 A minimal pair is a set of two words that are alike
except for one sound, e.g., bet and bat, or great and
crate.
- The term segmentals refers to the actual consonant
and vowel sounds. The term suprasegmentals refers
to the features which occur “above the segments."
e.g., the stress, rhvthrn, and intonation.
3 Other terms for this include tone units, breath
groups, and intonation units.
4 1. Alfred said, "The boss is stupid.” 2. “Allred."
said the boss, "is stupid."
° Other common terms for this include nuclear
stress, tonic syllable, focus word, emphasis, and primary
phrase stress.
8 When words of metre than one sellable are promi­
nent, it is onlv the sellable receiving primarv stress
that is prominent (e.g.. SPEAKing. ecoXOMics).
' See Bolinger (1986); Brazil. Coulthard. and fohns
(1980); Celce-Murcia, Brinton, and Goodwin
(1996) for descriptions of intonation patterns.
8 The correct answers are a, b, a.
9 In many North American learner textbooks, the
schwa / э / svmbol also represents the full stressed
vowel / л / , as in "bus." This pedagogical simplifi­
cation thus describes the two vowels in the word
“above" as being similar in quality if not in length.
10 See Celce-Murcia. Brinton. and Goodwin (1996).
for further explanation of cluster reduction.
11 A diphthong is a sound that combines two vowel
sounds in one vowel nucleus.
12 See Dickerson (1989). (1994) or Celce-Murcia.
Brinton, and Goodwin (1996) for further expla­
nation of word stress rules.
13 These stages are not necessarily meant to occur in
one 50-minute lesson. They simply represent a
pedagogical sequence which could take place
over several lessons.
14 The -ed ending has three realizations in English,
depending on the sound preceding the ending.
Following any voiceless sound except / X/ , the
ending is pronounced / X/ . Following am voiced
sound except / d / , the ending is pronounced / d /
and following the sounds /X/ or / d / , the ending
is an extra syllable: /э й / or /id /.
l j Good sources for minimal pair contrasts include
Bowen (1975), Grate (1987), Henrichsen et al.
(1999), and Xilsen and Nilsen (1987). A very
thorough list of minimal pairs for British
Received Pronunciation can be found at
http :/ www.stir.ac.uk/departm ents/hum an
sciences / ce lt/sta ff/h ig d o x / w ordlist/index.htm
1,1 The series includes: fritz Chants (1978), Jazz Chants
for Children (1979), Crammarrhants (1993), Small
Talk (1986). Mother Goose Jazz Chants (1994).
1' Noll has many more examples in her book,
American Accent Skills: Intonation, Reductions and
Word Connections, available at
http: / / www.anieri-talk.coin /books.htm l
18 Videos bv Marsha Chan include “Using your
hands to teach pronunciation” and “Phrase by
Phrase." both available from Sunburst Media:
http: / / www.sunburstmedia.com
19 I am indebted to Anne Isaac for a workshop she
gate at UCLA in 1998. Her presentation, “An inte­
grated approach to teaching spoken fluency” and
the video "The rhythm of language” (1995)
inspired mv version of the approach described
here.
2n These include Phrase by Phrase by Chan,
Pronunciation for Success bv Mevers and Holt, and
Breaking the Accent Banierhs Stern.
21 One such technology is "PureYoice,” available for
download at
http:/ www.eudora.com /purevoice
 P la c e of A r t ic u la t io n

Manner of Bilabial Labio­ Dental Alveolar Palatal Velar Glottal

A rticulation * dental
P t к
Stop
b d 9

Fricative
f e s I h
V б z 3

Affricative tj
d3

Nasal
m n q

Liquid
1 r

Glide
w У

N o te: the voiceless sounds are in the top p a rt o f each box, voiced sounds are in the lower half.

Ma n n e r o f A r t ic u l a t io n *
W h at happens to the air stream as the sound is articulated

Name How the Sound Is Pronounced Example

Stop A ir stream is blocked completely before it is released /р/

Fricative A ir stream is compressed and passes through a small

opening, creating friction Ы

Affricative Combination of a stop followed by a fricative /tj*/

Nasal A ir passes through the nose instead of the mouth. /m/

Liquid A ir stream moves around the tongue in a relatively

unobstructed manner /г/

Glide Sound is close to a vowel /у/

 A P P E N D IX 2
Organs of Speech

A. nasal passage
B. alveolar (tooth) ridge
C. hard palate
D. velum/soft palate
E. lips and teeth
F. tongue
1. tip
2. blade
3 . body
4 . root
G. uvula
H. jaw
I. pharynx
J- trachea
K. larynx and vocal cords

P o in t s o f A r t ic u l a t io n
(from the front of the mouth to the back)

N am e W h e r e th e Sound Is P ro n o u n ced E x a m p le

Bilabial Two lips together /Ы

Lab io d e n tal Lower lip and upper teeth /V/

D e n ta l Tongue tip and inner edge of upper teeth /0/

A lv e o la r Tongue tip on tooth ridge /d/
Palatal Body of tongue on hard palate /У

V e la r Back of tongue on soft palate /д/

G lo tta l Throat passage /h/
 A P P E N D IX 3
The Phonetic Alphabet for English

The Consonants of North American English

1. /р/ pat, clap 13. /JV shy, dish

2. /Ы boy, cab 14. /3/ leisure, beige

3. /t/ tan, sit 15. /h/ his, ahead

4. /d/ dog, bed 16. /tj/ cheek, match

5. /к/ cry, side 17. М3/ just, bridge

6. /д/ go, beg 18. /m/ me, trim

7. /f/ fine, safe 19. in/ not, van

8. /v/ vein, glove 20. /ц/ sing(er), long

9. /0/ thumb, bath 21. /1/ last, ball

10. /5/ this, bathe 22. /г/ rib, tar

1 1. /s/ sun, class 23. /w/ win, away

12. /z/ zoo, does 24. /у/ yes, soya

The Vowels of North American English

1. /iy/ bee, seat 8. /ow/ code, low

2. /i/ gr|n, fix 9. /и/ put, book

3. /еу/ train, gate 10. /uw/ boot, threw

4. /е/ set, then 1 1. /ау/ line, fight

5. /ж/ fan, mad 12. /aw/ pound, foul

6. /а/ hot, doll 13. /оу/ noise, boy

7. /0/ taught, walk 14. /л/ gun, but

15. /зг/ bird, curtain

g Pronunciation 1 37
 Developing Children’s
Listening and Speaking in ESL
SABRINA PECK
In "Developing Children's Listening and Speaking in E SL .1 Peck addresses teachers of adult ESLVEFL
who are beginning to work with children. She ouhmes how children differ from adults as classroom
learners of oral language. She also discusses how со maire use of resources such as songs, chants,
drama, and storytelling.
IN T R O D U C T IO N
Perhaps you have taught ESL or EFL before, but
never to children. You mav have some hunches
about how child second language learners could
differ from adults. In manv wavs, children who
are learning ESL are different from adult stu­
dents. Consider these anecdotes:
1. An ESL teacher instructs a group of 7 children
even- dav for 45 minutes. Thev sing "I'm a
Little Teapot" over and over again. Standing,
they use on e arm as the spout of the teapot.
Bending, they use the o th er arm to show the
tea p o u rin g out. It feels like an eternitv to
the teacher: “I ’m a little teapot, short and
stout, he re is mv handle, he re is mv spout.
W hen I get all steam ed up, he a r me shout,
just tip m e over an d p o u r me out." And then
the g roup starts again.
2. A kindergarten child, alreadv in school for six
months, still declines to speak in English. She
hides u n d e r the table during group lessons.
She speaks u n d e r her breath in Japanese to
the other children, who speak English a n d / o r
Spanish.
3. In visiting the class o f a n o te d a n d successful
ESL teacher, you are struck that each activity
lasts no m ore than ten minutes, that chil­
d r e n are usually in m o v e m e n t— m aking
s o m e th in g , h o ld in g s o m e th in g , m oving
their h ands or walking somewhere. T he class
looks like an art class.
There are a few major contrasts that we can
make between child and adult ESL learners.
Children are m ore likely to play with language
than adults are. Children can be m ore effectively
engaged through stories and games. Younger
children are less likely to notice errors or correct
them. In general, children are m ore holistic
learners who need to use language for authentic
com m unication in ESL classes. In this chapter, I
explain some wavs in which children often differ
from adults as developing listeners and speakers
of a second language. I suggest listening and
speaking activities and ways to focus on gram m ar
within the authentic and communicative language
of a children's ESL class.
H O W C H IL D R E N D IFFER
FROM A D U LT S AS
L A N G U A G E LEA RN ERS
In an ESL class for adults, the materials are books,
papers, the blackboard, an overhead projector,
and little else. In a children’s class, all sorts of
materials are used— magnets, hamsters, stuffed
animals, art supplies, costumes, and so on.
Activities n e e d to be child c e n te re d a n d
c o m m u n ic a tio n sh o u ld be a u th e n tic . This
m eans that children are listening or speaking
about som ething that interests them , for their
own reasons, and n o t merely because a teacher
has asked them to. Many authors (e.g., E nright
1991; Enright a n d Rigg 1986; Genesee 1994:
Phillips 1993; Rigg a n d Allen 1989; McKeon and
Samwav 1993; Scott an d Ytreberg 1990: Mile
1995) advise teachers to teach ESL holistically
a n d to focus on the whole child. Several themes
repeatedlv com e up:
■ Focus on m eaning, not correctness. Eight-
vear-olds, in groups, decide on themes for a
class partv: cowbovs. dancing, or dinosaurs.
Each group makes a poster and presents an
argum ent for their theme. Children speak,
write, listen, or draw according to their abil­
ity. T he teacher does not correct errors.
■ F o cu s on the valu e o f the activity', not the
value o f the lan guage. Advanced beginners
each receive a potato. Each child has to
nam e his or h e r potato, p rep are an oral
introduction (e.g., "This is mv potato. H er
nam e is Patricia."), a n d make a poster with
an image of the potato that could be used if
the p o ta to were to get lost. (Activitv
described bv Perros 1993.)
■ Focu s on collaboration and social develop­
ment. Twelve-vear-olds form groups in which
thev compare maps of North America that
were drawn in different centuries. Thev dis­
cuss the comparison as a group, prepare an
oral report, and do a written report. Each
child has a role in the group.
■ Provide a rich context, including m ove­
m ent, the senses, objects and pictures, and
a variety o f activities. Six-vear-olds learn
terms for c om m unin' occupations such as
doctor, teacher, and police officer. Thev
wear appropriate hats, line up in order, fol­
low directions bv the teacher, act out brief
scenes, an d sing a song while moving and
pointing. Note that in this wav teachers
accom m odate the kinesthetic and visual
learning slvles favored bv most children
(Keefe 1979).
■ T each E S L holistically, integrating the fo u r
skills. Seven-vear-olds listen to the storv of
Tittle Red Riding H ood. Later, thev repeat
a refrain in the storv a n d supplv some miss­
ing words. Thev help the teacher retell the
storv, and discuss the qualities of each char­
acter. Thev label cards with the names of
the characters and read aloud a version of
the storv written on word cards an d sentence
strips. Eventuallv, some will copy their own
version of the storv and make a small book
to take home.
« T reat learn ers ap p ro p riately in light o f
their age and interests. At the e n d of an
ESL co n te n t unit on volcanoes, eleven-year-
olds plav bingo using vocabulary a n d pic­
tures from the unit.
* T reat language as a tool fo r children to use
fo r their own social and acad em ic ends.
Eight-vear-olds enjov being part of a group
as thev sing an d chant the same pieces in
ESL class. Tiles' enjov activities that allow
them to work with friends in the class.
■ U se language fo r authentic com m unication,
not as an o bject o f analysis. Eleven-vear-olds
in one class do not know the term modal
verb, but enjov making up role plays in
which characters are polite to each other.
(Activitv from Ur 1988, p. 178).
Thus, the principles that underlie children’s
ESL classes are those of progressive education:
that teachers adjust to the child's developmental
level, use materials and techniques that appeal to
children, and stress com m unication a n d the
expression of authentic meaning. This progressive
stance is not alwavs carried out in schools.
H O W ESL C H IL D R E N
APPROACH ORAL LAN GU AGE
In some wavs, children approach oral language
differentlv than adults do. T h e role of language
plav within language learning is e xam ined bv
Cook (2000). C hildren a ppear m ore likely than
adults to plav with language (Peck 1978) and
mav learn th ro u g h language plav (Peck 1980;
Tarone 2000). Thev enjov rhythmic a n d repeti­
tive language m ore than adults do. Thev plav
with the intonation of a sentence, an d m ost are
willing to sing. Thev enjov repeating a word or
an utterance in a plav situation. With less aware­
ness of the wavs in which languages can differ,
children are m ore likelv to laugh at the sounds
of a second language, or to be rem inded of a
word in the first language. Young children such as
kindergartners mac comfortably talk to them ­
selves, perhaps as part of a fantasy role plav.
T E C H N IQ U E S A N D R ESO U R C ES
Using Songs, Poems, and Chants
Given c h ild re n ’s greater ability to plav with lan­
guage, teachers n e e d to use songs, poems, and
chants m ore than thev would with adults. Mam-
children do n o t tire of practicing a repetitive
and rhythmic text several times a dav, manv davs
a week. They build up a repertoire of songs or
chants an d delight in reciting them , or plavfullv
altering them . O ften thev incorporate gestures
and m ovem ent into their songs an d chants.
Some suggested poem s are M other Goose
rhymes. Anthologies of children's poem s from
language arts anthologies for children are also
useful (e.g., dePaola 1988). A guiding principle
in choosing poems, chants, a n d songs is to pick
the ones that you like, both as a teacher an d as
an individual. This is im portant because vou will
find yourself listening to them again and again!
Sometimes the line between poems and
chants can be thin. In general, chants have a
strong a n d catchv rhythm. Manv are written for
two parts, with a call an d a response, such as for
two groups or an individual an d a group. Manv
reflect jazz or rap rhythms. Carolyn G raham
originated the term jazz chants an d has p u b ­
lished several books of chants for children and
for adults (am ong them , G raham 1978; 1979;
1993). Mans- c urrent EST materials for children,
such as Into English! (Tinajero a n d Schifmi
1997) include a chant (and a song an d poem ) in
each them atic unit. In the following example,
note the two voices or parts and how simple past
forms o f irregular verbs are practiced.
Y o u D id It A gain !
You did it again!
W hat did I do?
You did it again!
W hat did I do?
I told you n o t to do it, an d you did it again!
I ’m sorry. I’m sorry.
You broke it!
W hat did I break?
You took it!
W hat did 1 take?
You lost it!
W hat did I lose!
You chose it!
W hat did I choose?
I told vou not to do it, a n d you did it again!
I ’m sorrv. I'm sorrv.
You score it!
W hat did I wear?
You tore it!
W hat did I tear?
I told vou not to do it, a n d you did it again!
I'm sony. I’m sorrv
(Graham , Jazz Chants
for Children , 1978, p. 25)
Written collections of children’s folklore
(for example, Opie and Opie 1959) are an o th er
source of chants. You will need to make sure that
the values conveved in a folk chant fit with your
own values and the overall requirem ents of your
school. Much of this folklore conveys rebellion
against authority, put-downs of various ethnic
groups, and joking about body parts and sexuality.
Still, as vou read Opie and Opie, you may rem em ­
ber less offensive rhvmes from your own child­
h o o d that sou s\ ill be able to use. Chants and
ju m p rope rhvmes overheard on vour own school
plavground might also be used in EST lessons.
Printed versions of these chants mav exist, but
children usuallv learn them from their class­
mates. In the process, ESL students become
familiar with the culture of their English-speaking
classmates. H ere are some examples from my
childhood and from a child in the year 2000:
Made vou look,
You clirtv crook,
Stole vour m o th e r ’s pocketbook.
(Massachusetts, LTSA, 1950s)
Down bv the banks o f the hanky panky
W here the bullfrogs j u m p from bank
to bankv
 With an eeps, opps, soda pops,
Down by the lilies and 1 got vou.
(California, USA, 2000)
G randm a, G randm a, sick in bed,
Called the doctor an d the d octor said,
L e t’s get the rhvthm of the head:
ding-dong [touch head],
L e t’s get the rhythm of the hands:
clap-clap,
L e t’s get the rhvthm of the feet:
stomp-stomp.
L e t’s get the rhvthm of the H O T DOG
[move hips].
Put ’em all together an d what've vou got?
Ding-dong, clap-clap, stomp-stomp.
H O T DOG.
Put it all backwards and what've vou got?
H O T DOG, stomp-stomp. clap-clap,
ding-dong.
(California, L’SA. 2000)
C hants b uild c h ild re n 's proficiencv in
English in manv wavs. Thev build vocabularv.
Learners he a r pronunciation m odeled and then
they practice the same sounds repeatedlv. Often
the rhythm, intonation, and stress patterns of the
chant exaggerate a tvpical pattern in English.
Learners h e a r and produce the same gram m ar
structures again and again. In addition, thee are
exposed to culture. For instance, in "You Did it
Again,” cited earlier, learners pick up the u n d e ­
sirability' of breaking, tearing, or losing objects.
They learn to apologize as well: "I'm sorrv. I'm
sorry.”
A five- or ten-minute session of chanting or
singing for an ESL class with varied levels can be
fun and effective. T he beginners mav mostly lis­
ten. They will get the gist of the chant if you intro­
duce the vocabularv and context clearly. Providing
visuals and objects, and having other students
role-plav the chant will all help. The beginners will
probably enjoy the rhvthm of the language, and
enjoy being part of a larger group. Intermediate
a n d advanced children can participate fully if thev
desire. Many will take part in the chanting and
singing, thus memorizing the text. Students that
choose only to listen can still benefit.
T h e re are several issues to consider when
you choose songs for children's ESL instruction.
First, vou n e e d to like the song vourself. For
exam ple, I could happilv sing “T h e Eensv
Weensv Spider'' (also known as “T he Itsv Bitsy
Spider”) or “Twinkle Twinkle Little Star” almost
every day for an entire school t ear. Those songs
speak to m e of persistence an d ho p e an d of
looking u p to see beautv. But I quickly tire of
“O ld M acDonald H ad a Farm ” an d have seldom
taught this song to ESL learners. Your feelings
ab o u t a song will c a n y over to the children, so it
is im p o rta n t to consider vour own likes a n d dis­
likes. After all, there are manv songs available.
You could also choose to set some new and
appropriate words to a familiar tune.
You might choose songs because they fit with
your ESL or interdisciplinary thematic focus. For
instance, if vour class is stitching water, t on may
want to teach them songs featuring rivers, oceans,
or the rain.
Rivers i "Shenandoah")
O h. S henandoah. I long to he a r vou
Awav. vou rolling river
Oh. S henandoah. I long to he a r vou
Awav. I'm b o u n d awav.
'Gross the wide Missouri.
(Boni 1947)
Oceans ( "Sk\e Boat Song”)
Speed, bonnv boat like a bird on the wing,
Onward, the sailors civ.
Carry the lad who's bo rn to be king,
Over the sea to Skve.
(Boni 1947)
Rain ( "It's Raining. It's Pouring'')
It's raining, it's pouring
T he old m an is snoring,
Went to bed with a cold in his head
And he c ouldn't get up in the m orning.
(source unknown)
In the U nited States, a good source of folk
songs is the Wee Sing series edited bv Beall and
Xipp. Each title includes a book a n d cassette
tape. Some o f the titles are Wee Sing Children's
Songs and Fingerplays (1979), Wee Sing Sing-alongs
(1990), Шг Sing Silly Songs (1982), Wee Sing Fun
‘n ’ Folk (1989), and Wee Sing and Play: Musical
Games and Rhymes for Children (1981). A British
source is Jingle Bells (Byrne a n d W augh 1982),
which includes a book of songs for children and
an accom panving cassette.
Sometimes the language o f a song or poem
seems archaic or unusual (“the lad,” “I ’m b o u n d
away.”) Some teachers do not teach songs witli
lines such as "Meat n o r drink n o r m oney have I
n o n e ,” a n d some teachers trv to m odernize the
language, substituting "food” for “m e a t,” for
instance. O th e r teachers (and I am one) go
ahead and teach songs with archaic language.
In singing an u n altered folk song, children can
pick up language, vocabulary, an d culture in
combination. Students usually sense that the
archaic vocabulary is not appropriate in their
own speech. For example, voting children learn
the nursery rhvme "Jack and Jill." but I have
never h e a rd a child complain that som eone has
broken his or h e r "crown." Children realize that
the language of songs and nurserv rhvmes is not
the language o f evervdav life. It is a n o th e r regis­
ter a n d not for use with family or classmates.
Choose songs with bodv m ovem ent and
h a n d motions. Mans' children are kinesthetic
learners: They learn best th ro u g h lessons that
involve m ovem ent. Just as Asher proposes with
his Total Physical Response A pproach (1969).
they- seem to learn language quicklv and thor­
oughly w hen the brain an d the bods svork
together. You can find songs, particularly for
soung children, that base m ovem ents set to
them (Beall a n d Xipp 1979), or sou can make
up the m ovem ents sourself.
O n e way of teaching a poem , chant, or
song is to start with the context and vocabulary,
and gradually move the students from listening
to r e p e a tin g to i n d e p e n d e n t rec ita tio n or
singing. This m e th o d is similar to traditional
m eth o d s for in tr o d u c in g a u d io lin g u a l dia­
logues. H ere is a suggested sequence of steps:
1. Familiarize the children svith the vocabulary
a n d co n te n t by using pictures and objects.
For instance, in teaching "The F arm er in the
Dell,” sou could start svith a picture of a
farm , s o u r osvn drawings, o r dolls a n d
stuffed animals representing the characters
in the song. You m ight also ask children to
svear hats or masks that correspond to the
characters. Your goal here is for the children
to understand the socabularv while you use
the visuals.
2. Recite the poem or chant. Sing or play a
tape of the song. You mas point to a poster
or oserheacl transparencs as you sing. The
children listen.
3. Recite (sing, plav) about o n e line at a time,
an d hase the class repeat after you.
4. Recite the whole text svith the class.
5. If the text has tsvo parts, you now take one
part, an d the class takes the other.
6. Dis ide the class in tsvo groups an d have the
children pe rfo rm both parts on their own.
7. Practice the chants (poems, songs) for
about fise m inutes a dav.
8. Make costumes an d props.
9. Hase the class present the chants, poems,
or songs to o th er children.
In sum m ars. EST teachers w ho have
svorked svith adults n e e d to keep in m in d that
mans' children enjoy playing with language an d
svelcome the repeated a n d rhythmic language of
songs an d chants. Teachers n e e d to choose texts
svith care a n d be p re p a re d to work with them
repeatedly ewer a long period of time.
Dramatic Activities
Children can be engaged in a lesson th ro u g h
dram a m ore easily than th ro u g h explanations or
instructions. Som e shv c h ild re n will speak
th rough a p u p p e t but are reluctant to speak on
their osvn. Dramatic actisities can be beneficial
for children svhether tiles' has'e a big or small
part in the production. Even if a child has a n o n ­
speaking role, he or she mav listen intently while
silently playing the part of a tree or a river. All in
all, children are m ore willing to take p a rt in
dram a actisities than are adults.
Commercially published skits an d plays are
available in magazines for children. W ithin the
U n ited States, a children's magazine called Plays
an d others such as Cricket a n d Ladybug are good
sources.
 Role plavs can grow out of a story read or
told in class. Alter the children are familiar with
the story, assign them parts. C hildren m ight act
out the story itself, or react in character to a sit­
uation that you describe for them.
G raham 's Jazz Chant Fairy 1'alrs (Graham
1988) are dramatic retellings of favorite fairy
tales bv a chorus and individual parts. Then are
suitable both for a mixed-level or a h o m o g e ­
neous class. Mane' are appropriate for younger
children (e.g., "Little Red Riding Hood") and
two (“Rumpelstiltskin,” "The Fisherman and His
Wife”) have them es that appeal to children up to
eleven or twelve years old. Before introducing
the jazz chant fairv tale, the teacher needs to tell
or read the traditional version so that everyone
in the class is familiar with the tale.
C hildren enjov the rhvthmic language, the
repetition, a n d the call an d response structure
of the dialogue. Many adults enjov the jokes and
productions. Graham has e m b ro id ere d the fairv
tales with h e r sense of rhvtlnn. For instance, in
“Goldilocks an d the T h re e Bears." this chant
details preparations for breakfast before the
bears go for a walk:
Papa Bear: I'll make the porridge.
Mama Bear: I'll p o u r the milk.
Babv Bear: I'll set the table.
I'll set the table.
Chorus: And thev did (clap clap).
A nd thev did (clap clap).
Babv set the table.
M ama p o u re d the milk.
Papa m ade the porridge.
And thev all sat down.
Narrator: W ho set the table?
Chorus: Babv set the table.
Narratin': W ho p o u re d the milk?
Chorus: M ama p o u re d the milk,
[continues]
(Graham 1988. p. 4i
Rehearsals of jazz chant fain tale' could
take place over several weeks or month.', mj that
the children can easily perforin with notes or
without. T h e class should make costum e', props,
an d perhaps a backdrop for the final pn Auction.
Reader's theater takes m uch less time and
preparation. In reader's theater, children read
aloud a store- (usually from a children's book)
that has been rewritten in plav form. You can
write vour own reader's theater script by basing it
on a children's book that is interesting to your
students a n d at a suitable level for them. Your
script can be almost the same as the book, except
that eon will have several narrators (for example,
narrators 1 . 2 . and 3) to spread out the parts and
give each child enough to read. A m ore difficult
task is to use a store such as a Greek nrvth, a folk­
tale familiar to vour students, or an event that
h a p p e n e d in the c h ild ren ’s neighborhood. T h e n
eon will need to write out the store at the chil­
dren's level, making sure to divide the narration
a m o n g several children.
You m ight want to read the original story
first with the class a n d then, if necessary, to read
the script aloud to them. To include the whole
class, groups of children can be assigned to each
part. As a culm ination, children can make cos­
tumes and p e rform the reader's theater for
a n o th e r class. You can purchase reader's theater
scripts from Reader's T h e a tre Script Service
(PO Box 178333. San Diego. GA 92177). Scripts
are also available on some of the websites listed
at the e n d of this chapter. Ghilclren can also
make up their own skits orallv or in writing.
Some teachers assign groups to m ake up skits at
the e n d of a unit. For instance, after the class has
studied recycling, groups are asked to dramatize
( 1 ) an a rg u m e n t between people who want to
recycle a n d those who don't, or (2 ) a ne ig h b o r­
h o o d that learns about recycling.
Storytelling
Stories are a powerf ul m eans o f language teach­
ing. A skillful teacher can use stories to develop
“m ore efficient listening, m ore fluent speaking
and the ability to read and write easily an d com­
petently" (Garvie 1990, p. 161). Ghilclren usual!'
enjov hearing the same store mans' times. The
teacher cam easily vary the presentation. Fo:
instance, sou can tell the story using a picture
book, or a flannel board and movable character'
You can tell or read the store while children
move puppets or dolls, or as they wear masks and
act out the store. You can tell the story while chil­
dren draw it. You can tell a version of a familiar
store such as "Bille Goats G ru ff’ by a different
a u th o r and illustrator. Children may listen to a
tape-recorded store to g e th e r o r inclieidualle.
using earphones. Mane follow-up activities are
possible. When thee have he a rd a store' several
times, children can retell it. act it out, or write a
script for the store.
As described be D onna Brinton (personal
com m unication) and others, store activities can
also be games. For example, the teacher chooses
a brief store, such as a fable be' Aesop, and
rewrites it so that there is one sentence for each
student to memorize. After the teacher checks
each student's abilitv to recite his or h e r sen­
tence, the students must first decide how to line
up in order, and then recite the entire store. In
an o th er activitv. three students leave the room,
and the teacher tells a short anecdote or store to
the rem aining students. When m em bers of the
class are able to tell the store themselves. student
X (who eras in the hall) comes back to the class­
room, and the o th er students tell him or her the
story. Next, student Y rejoins the class a n d stu­
dent X tells the store’, and so on. Afterwards, the
class can discuss how the store changed in the
retelling.
Wright (1995) provides activities to use
before, during, and after a store as well as stories
and lesson plans for children of different ages.
Ur a n d Wright (1992) describe brief activities
that include stories, such as a chain store : O ne
student begins a store and others take turns
adding sentences, w hether orallv or in writing.
Gesture and Movement
C hildren n e e d to move a r o u n d m ore than
adults do. As m en tio n e d above, e c u can com ­
bine gesture and m ovem ent evith songs, poems,
or chants, with dram a, a n d with stories. You cam
ask children to answer a question th ro u g h move­
ment: for instance, to sav yev bv raising one h a n d
and no by looking at the floor. With voting chil­
dren, some teachers break up the lesson even
five or ten m inutes for a m inute or two of phvsi-
cal exercise or dancing.
Total Physical Response (TPR)
T he best known F.SL a pproach involving move­
m en t is Total Phvsical Response (Asher 1969). In
TPR. the teacher gives com m ands, models them,
an d gradually weans the student from watching
the teacher's model. Soon students are able to
carrv out a variety of com m ands. Thev u n d e r­
stand most of what is said, a n d in the process
acquire receptive language, especially vocabu­
lary and grammar. A lesson m ight start like this:
Teacher: Stand up. (pauses, then
stands up)
Touch vour shoulder, (pauses,
then touches shoulder)
Sit down, (pauses, then sits
down)
Stand up. (continues modeling)
I.ater. some students und e rsta n d an d follow the
teacher's c o m m a n d s :
Teacher: Touch vour head.
Erika. Jose.
M ahmoud: (Touch heads)
Most o ther
students: (follow others an d touch
heads)
Teacher: Good! Great job, Erika and
Jose a n d M ahmoud!
TPR fits within comprehension-based approaches
such as the Natural Approach (Krashen and
Terrell 1983). G ram m ar is not overtlv taught, the
locus is on com prehension, and the input is sup­
posed to be comprehensible.
While books of TPR com m ands are avail­
able. manv teachers write their own com m ands,
perhaps relating them to the topic of study. For
instance, if children art' studying the water cycle,
com m ands such as Touch/Poirl to/Pirh up the
Cloud/Paver/Raindrop can be carried out using
pictures or word cards. With a series of com ­
mands. teachers can ask students to e a rn out a
simple process such as making a terrarium in
which water will evaporate and condense: lake
the glass terrarium. Put mater in the pool. Sprax water
on the sides Put plastie wrap on lop. Pul the terrarium
hу the window.
Total Physical Response (TPR)
Storytelling
TPR storytelling (Rav an d Seelv 1998; Seely and
Romijn 1998) is a m e th o d o f second o r foreign
language teaching that includes actions, p a n ­
tom im e, an d o th er techniques. Much is taught
th ro u g h stories. T he instructor begins by teach­
ing the words of a store th ro u g h associated ges­
tures. Each word has its own gesture, perhaps a
sign in Am erican Sign Language (the language
of the de a f in the U nited States) or perhaps a
gesture that the teacher invents. Students then
practice the vocabulary in pairs: O n e speaks and
the o th e r makes the gesture. After the vocabu­
lary has b e e n covered, the teacher tells a m ini­
story to the students, trving to incorporate the
students' nam es and characteristics. .After about
a m o n th o f instruction, a teacher m ight tell a
mini-story, such as the one below, m uch of which
students would u n d e rs ta n d because o f the previ­
ous stories, gestures, and pantomimes:
Tamm}' has a cat in the chair. T he cat
runs away. Tammy looks everywhere for
the cat. She comes back and sits down.
Oh! T he cat is asleep in the chair.
(Seelv a n d Romijn 1998. p. 42)
Later on, students are able to tell the storv th em ­
selves, while others act it out. In the next step,
the teacher tells a m ain storv which students
later retell a n d revise. Last, students create their
own stories an d tell them. Tests focus on vocab­
ulary. In the second or third vear, g ram m ar is
tau g h t by telling the stories from a n o th e r point
o f view, thus requiring the lea rn er to change
tenses, pro n o u n s, and so on.
Teaching Grammar
Younger children are less likely to focus on the
vocabulary or pro n u n cia tio n errors of others, or
to correct them . As children grow older, their
metalinguistic awareness (ability to analyze lan­
guage) grows, an d thev do te n d to notice errors
m uch the same as adults do.
As you work with children who are devel­
oping their oral language, you will notice many
grammatical errors. How are vou to respond? In
EFL situations, where time is short an d class is
perhaps the onlv place where the child speaks
English, manv teachers are careful ab o u t noting
errors, a n d plan lessons a n d h o m ew o rk in
response. Some of the strategies an d materials
that Celce-Murcia an d Hilles (1988) present for
g ram m ar lessons could be used with children.
U r ’s g ra m m a r practice activities (1988) are
a rranged bv grammatical category (adjectives,
negative sentences) a n d manv can be used as is or
adapted.
In the U nited States, where manv teachers
favor the Natural Approach, errors are often
seen as indicators of the child’s knowledge, but
n o t as invitations to correct. Teachers of younger
children (ages 5—10) often ignore errors. These
teachers respond to the child's ideas, perhaps
rephrasing the incorrect language in correct
form.
All in all, w hen teachers notice errors in
grammar, vocabulary, an d pronunciation, they
can choose from a range of strategies: ignore the
error, m ake a m ental note, rephrase the sen­
tence. rephrase a n d expand, or present a lesson
to a gro u p or the whole class later on.
SUMMARY A N D FU TU R E
D IR E C T IO N S
I have focused here on activities that are usually
associated with ESL or EFL children's instruc­
tion: songs, poems, chants, dram a, stories, ges­
ture. m ovem ent. TPR. a n d TPR storytelling. At
the same time, manv activities associated with
co n te n t classes can also give children oral lan­
guage practice. Some examples are class discus­
sions. pairwork. cooperative group work, oral
reports, interviews an d lectures.
The main point of this chapter is that chil­
dren's ESL instruction needs to parallel their
developmental levels. Since plav is a child's suc­
cessful work, the programs allow for m am kinds
of plan with talk built in. Since children learn
from each other and crave interaction with peers,
group activities are provided. Since children
often enjov language plav, am ple time is given
for rhvmes, chants, and jokes. Since children are
restless a n d n e e d to learn th ro u g h m ovem ent,
gestures a n d m ovem ent are inco rp o rate d into
songs and games. In addition, TPR along with
TPR storvtelling are used. C hildren also move
a ro u n d as they work on experim ents an d art
projects, a n d as thev h andle objects that relate to
their topic of study. Stories, told with various
kinds of visuals and sometimes supplem ented
with dram atic activities, provide children with a
context for the language thev are learning.
These are examples for just some of the princi­
ples given at the beginning of this chapter. In
addition, ESL materials published for children
often reflect sensitivity to different learning stvles
(Peck 1995).
Since the 1960s. oral language has been
emphasized m ore than written language in chil­
d re n 's ESL. In the U n ited States, children
would often take part in listening and speaking
activities in ESL classes, but would get most of
their reading a n d writing instruction in English
in a m ainstream class.
Currently, in the schools of test-driven
states such as California, reading seems to be the
skill most taught and tested. G overnm ent agen­
cies test children's reading a n d publicize scores.
Publishers m a rk e t "teacher-proof" m aterials
such as Success for All and Open Court, asserting
their usefulness with all children, including
English-language learners. It is likely that pub­
lishers will decide that m ore work on oral lan­
guage needs to go along with reading and
writing activities. At the same time, materials
such as Into English! mav start to incorporate
m ore written language. In all, the pen d u lu m
mav swing back to oral language a n d then to an
u n d e rsta n d in g of how all four skills can be
taught so that thev nourish each other.
O f curre n t ESL m ethods, TPR storytelling
seems ripe for further developm ent a n d dissem­
ination. W hen additional materials are p ro ­
duced and m arketed — teachers’ guides, student
books, tra in in g videos — m o re tea c h e rs can
learn to use this a pproach on their own, as well
as t h ro u g h the existing tra in in g program s.
Research mav fu rth e r d o c u m e n t the success of
an a pproach that relies on gesture, movement.
h u m o r an d stories. Perhaps o th e r techniques
will em erge in which students learn stories, act
them out. retell, and v a n them.
Teachers who move from ESL instruction
for adults to ESL for children mav find that their
focus on the structure of English changes to a
focus on the interests and characteristics of chil­
dren. Teachers' knowledge of English grammar,
of the children's native languages, of lesson plan­
ning. and of the contrasts between their own cul­
ture and the children's native cultures will stand
them in good stead. Thev also mav need to spend
time observing some children, w hether language
learners or not. to become sensitive to ch ild ren ’s
classroom behavior and preferences. In a way,
their task is to adapt tasks that children already
enjov (such as guessing games or ju m p rope
rhvmes) to the language classroom. They also can
take advantage of some excellent published
materials, as well as books and materials written
for child native speakers of English.
So. if vou are starting a new position as a
teacher of ESL or EFT to children, vou bring at
least th re e resources: your know ledge of
English, vour experience with language teaching
techniques, and vour intuitions about children.
As vou learn m ore about children, you will see
them m ore cleavlv as language students. You will
note their learning stvles, their n e e d for work in
listening and speaking, and their openness to
language plav: in the process, vour work as a lan­
guage teacher of children can be increasingly
successful a n d enjoyable.
D IS C U S S IO N Q U E S T IO N S
1. T hink of an incident when the oral language
of a child surprised vou. Write down, as far as
vou can rem em ber, what the child said. Was
there language plav? How can you describe
the unusual qualities of the c h ild ’s language?
2. Are there other wavs that vou can think of in
which children's oral language (both listening
and speaking) differs from adults’ language?
3. Games, such as jum p rope rhvmes a n d guess­
ing games, can be used with children who are
learning a language. In one game, children
 line up according to the m onth and year in
which they were born. T hen each is invited to
tell about his or her birthday. The teacher
accepts correct responses and understandable
ones: “I was born on March 23” is accepted as
well as “Me, September." What oral language
games did vent enjoy as a child? Which ones
could you use or adapt with child EST learners?
4. Consider an oral language game such as
“Simon Savs” or “Mr. Wolf." How would you
adapt it to a class, for instance, with beginners
and intermediate learners?
5. W hat three stories would y o u most like to
learn to tell to a class of ESL children? The
stories could come from children's literature
or be your own experiences. What visuals
would you use?
S U G G E S T E D A C T IV IT IE S
1. Talk with some children between six and ten
years old. Ask them to teach y o u their favorite
b oard games. Examples m ight be "Clue."
“Candvland,” “M onopolvjr." (United States),
o r “P a rch e e si” a n d “Snakes, C hutes an d
L adders” (worldwide). Tape record the play­
ers’ language during one of these games.
Write a paragraph or two explaining what
ESL level (s) m ight plav this game a n d why.
2. Choose a storv, a poem , or song that tells a
story. O btain or m ake three sets o f objects
which you could use in presenting the storv
Types of objects or visuals could include p u p ­
pets, masks, dolls, pictures, posters, over­
h e a d transparencies, props, craft activities,
art activities, an d so on. Tell the story to vour
classmates, using each set of objects in turn.
3. Observe an intermediate- or advanced-level
ESL class for children. Take special note of the
grammatical errors in writing and in speaking.
List them. Write a brief report listing the most
frequent errors. Suggest two communicative
activities that would be worthwhile to use in
addressing the most com m on error.
4. Write a brief p a p e r (one or two pages) about
an adult's m em ory o f studying a second or
foreign language as a child. You may inter­
view som eone else or write about your own
memories. What feelings are rem em bered?
How do you think learning occurred? In addi­
tion, how m ight a person's past experience
influence his or her approach as a teacher?
5. Choose a storv to teach to a group of chil­
dren. Draw a picture or make a collage, using
pictures from magazines and newspapers,
that will help children to learn the story.
FU R T H ER R EA D IN G
Each book can be adapted to an EFL/ESL context.
Claire, E. 1998. ESL Teacher’s Activities Kit. Englewood-
Cliffs. XJ: Prentice Hall.
Experienced or inexperienced teachers can draw
from this variety of games and activities.
Directions and materials are clearly spelled out.
Some unusual categories are Total Physical
Response activities and activities in which stu­
dents build social contacts.
Law. B.. and M. Eckes. 2001. The More-Than-Just-
Surviving Handbook: ESL for Even Classroom
'Teacher. 2d ed. Winnipeg, Canada: Peguis
Publishers.
This comprehensive guide covers all four skills
and is useful for teachers who have two or three
ESL students, or a whole class. The book is prac­
tical, concise, and filled with examples. The
authors discuss how child ESL learners feel and
how their language proficiency grows. Their dis­
cussion of assessment is practical and realistic.
Phillips. S. 1993. Young Learners. Oxford: Oxford
L'niversitv Press.
Phillips provides children's EFL activities in sev­
eral categories: listening, speaking, reading,
writing, vocabulary and grammar, games, songs
and chants, creative activities, and videos. The
last chapter. "Putting It All Together,” deals with
the content and planning of lessons as well as
with classroom management.
Scott. W. A., and L. H. Ytreberg. 1990. Teaching
English to Children. London: Longman.
A concise, practical and easv-to-read book about
children's EFL. The authors also provide a help­
ful discussion of how voting children differ
from older people as language learners.
Ur. P. 1998. Grammar Practice Activities: A Practical Guide
for 'Teachers. Cambridge: Cambridge University
Press.
 Communicative activities are provided to remedv
grammatical errors in areas such as adjectives,
interrogatives, and tag questions. Thirtv-four
areas are given, and Ur provides several activities
for each one. While written with the needs of
secondare and adult students in mind, mam of
the activities can be adapted to children.
W E B S IT E S
Young Learners: Web Resources (Young Learners
Special Interest Group. International
Association of Teachers of English as a Foreign
Language) (LATEFI.)
This organization is based in the United King­
dom. The site contains more than 150 links to
sites in several countries relating to ESI- and
EFL for voting learners. This is the most
detailed and complete site that I have seen
relating to children's ESI..
http: / / www.countryschool.com
ylresources.htm
TPRS (Total Phvsical Response Stomelling)
http: / /www. tprstorytelling.com/story.htm
This page is sponsored bv Education World and shares
a site with pages on foreign language resources.
http: / / www.education-world.com/
foreign lang/classroom/esl.shtml
Aarmi Shepard's Reader's Theater site.
http: www.aaronshcp.com rt indcx.html
An index of websites dealing with reader's theater,
drama, stomelling. etc.
http: falcon.jmu.edu/~ramseyil/drama.htm
E-mail Discussion Group
TESI.K-12 (Teachers of English as a second language
to children) is an e-mail discussion group
(newsgroup) for teachers of children ages 5-18
(kindergarten through 12th grade).
To subscribe send a message to
LIST SER V ta C U N Y V M .C G N Y .E D U
Or on BIT NET to LIST SER V ta CU N YV M with а
message consisting of one line:
Subscribe TESLK-12 vour name
 R eading
UNIT II С

II C :
Language Skills

UNIT
Reading
Teaching reading skills to non-native speakers of English involves unique
problems and challenges at all conceivable levels of instruction. ESLTEFL
teachers working with young children will be greatly assisted by Ediger's
chapter, which provides background and review of issues and standards
while also recommending many helpful teaching activities and
techniques.The chapter by Weinstein is addressed to teachers of adult
ESL learners; such teachers must start by understanding the special
contexts in which adult literacy is taught. Weinstein synthesizes current
curricula and pedagogical approaches, including a number of promising
practices. In the final chapter of this section, Grabe and Stoller cover
theory and practice as they apply to reading for academic purposes. After
a discussion of curriculum-related issues, they recommend specific
practices for facilitating effective academic reading.
 Teaching Children Literacy Skills
in a Second Language
A N N E EDIGER
“Teaching Children Literacy Skills in a Second Language" describes the background factors and issues
influencing children's literacy development in a second language, Ediger brings together unique needs
of child L2 learners, contributions of various instructional methods and recent ESL and English
Language Arts literacy standards. She recommends a wide range of specialized approaches and
techniques for teaching ESL/EFL reading and writing.
IN T R O D U C T IO N
In recent rears, there has been increased focus
on the teaching of reading an d o th er literacy
skills to c h ild ren (Pre-K-6 ). both in N orth
.America an d abroad. Part of this mav relate to
the recognition that reading is probable the
most im p o rta n t skill for second language (L2 )
learners in academ ic contexts (Grabe 1991).
and part of it mas come from tin increase in the
num bers of children worldwide who are learning
English as a second or foreign language (here­
after ESI. or EFL). It m ar also be a result of the
recent im plem entation of standards in m uch of
public education in North America, a movement
built upon the belief that basic literacy instruction
should be a fundam ental c o m ponent of public
education. In the last few years, m any states and
provinces in the U nited States and Canada have
established literacy standards and im plem ented
large-scale standardized testing of literacy skills.
.Another possible factor contributing to an
increased focus on literacy instruction to chil­
d ren in EFL contexts mav be the growing n u m ­
bers of countries that are moving toward m aking
English language instruction m andatory from a
younger age. For example, in Korea an d Taiwan,
English is now a required subject, beginning in
the third grade. Given the portability o f books
and o th e r reading materials (as well as the
increasing availability of reading material over the
Internet), reading is gradually being recognized
as a valuable source of language input, particu­
larly for students in learning environm ents (as
in some EFL contexts) in which fluent speakers
of English are generally not available to provide
o th e r kinds of language input.
Notions of literacy are exp a n d in g as well.
Although many different definitions of literacy
can be fo u n d in the literature on the subject,
and reading still seems to be prim ary to most
of them (see U rq u h a rt a n d Weir 1998 for a dis­
cussion of this), the teaching of writing and oral
skills is increasingly being integrated with rea d ­
ing instruction for both native English speakers
(NFS) a n d English language learners (ELLs).
Manx of the new standards, both for EI.Ls and
NFS children, also integrate expectations for the
development of all four language skills— reading,
writing, listening, and speaking (see examples of
standards provided later in this chapter). In fact,
increasingly, the large-scale standardized tests
ask students to bring together all of these skills,
requiring students to dem onstrate com petence
in synthesizing in fo r m a tio n fro m m u ltip le
sources, or b ringing in form ation they have
he a rd or read into written responses (see Board
of Education of the Gits of New York 1997 for
examples). This chapter, then, takes a similar
approach: It investigates the developm ent o f L2
reading, addressing writing and oral skills to the
extent that thev are also involved in literacy
developm ent.
R EA D IN G A S A C O M P LE X ,
IN T E R A C T IV E P R O CESS
Various theories exist to explain what is involved
w hen we read, an d m u ch of what we know about
reading an d literacy comes from research on
first language (LI) learners. However, c u rre n t
research generally views reading as an interac­
tive, sociocognitive process (B ernhardt 1991),
involving a text, a reader, an d a sorted context "with­
in which the activity of reading takes place. In
reading, “an individual constructs m e a n in g
th ro u g h a transaction with written text that has
been created bv symbols that represent lan­
guage. T h e transaction involves the reader's act­
ing on o r i n te r p r e tin g the text, a n d the
interpretation is influenced bv the reader's past
experiences, language background, a n d cultural
framework, as well as the reader's purpose for
reading" (H udelson 1994, p. 130). However, our
expectation an d intent when we read is to make
m eaning, to c o m p re h e n d what we read (Grabe
1991; Rigg 1986).
W ithin the com plex process of reading, six
general c o m p o n e n t skills an d knowledge areas
have been identified (Grabe 1991. p. 379):
1. Autom atic recognition skills — a virtually
unconscious ability, ideally requiring little
m ental processing to recognize text, espe­
cially for word identification
2. Vocabulary and structural know ledge— a
sound u n d e rsta n d in g of language structure
an d a large recognition vocabulary
3. Formal discourse structure knowledge — an
un d e rsta n d in g of how texts are organized
and how information is put together into
various genres of text (e.g.. a report, a letter,
a narrative)
4. Content/w orlcl background knowledge —
prior knowledge of text-related inform a­
tion an d a shared u n d e rsta n d in g of the
cultural inform ation involved in text
5. Synthesis an d evaluation skills strategies —
the ability to read and compare information
from multiple sources, to think critically
about what one reads, and to decide what
information is relevant or useful for one's
purpose
6. Metacognitive knowledge and skills m oni­
to rin g — an awareness of o n e ’s m ental
processes and the ability to reflect on what
one is doing and the strategies on e is
employing while reading
W h e n flu e n t rea d e rs read, they b rin g
to g eth e r all of these c o m ponents into a com plex
process. Exactly how thev do this is som ething
that is still the subject of great discussion an d
research; however, we know that all of these sys­
tems play a part in the process. Fluent readers
recognize a n d get m eaning from words they see
in print, an d use their knowledge of the struc­
ture of the language to begin form ing a m ental
notion of the topic. Thev use the semantic an d
syntactic inform ation from the text together
with what thev know from personal experience
a n d knowledge of the topic to form hypotheses
or predictions about what thev are reading and
what thev are about to read. As they continue
reading, thev trv to confirm or reject these pre­
dictions. asking. Does this make sense? Does what
I'm seeing on the page fit the ideas in my head?
If thev are able to confirm their predictions, they
read on. If not. thev mat- reread the text, paying
closer attention to the print, and reformulating
their predictions. .And thus the process of sam­
pling text, making hypotheses, a n d confirming
them continues. W hen some part of the process
breaks down, and begins not to make sense, the
reader often must re-examine the process being
used, and must call upon strategies to trv to repair
the process and facilitate com prehension again.
Some of the strategies mav involve compensating
for a lack of content or language knowledge by
making m ore use of the print or of o n e ’s back­
ground knowledge: others mav involve changing
one's wav of leading: slowing down, rereading
part of the text, or looking for key words.
T hese are things flu e n t rea d e rs do.
Similarly, for ELLs to read fluently, they m ust
develop the ability to bring all of these elem ents
together simultaneously a n d rapidly. However,
sometimes there arc gaps in their knowledge of
the language o r culture. Thus, it is the task o f an
effective reading program to provide inform a­
tion and practice in all of the systems which con­
tribute to m aking the process work.
B EC O M IN G LITER A TE
IN A S E C O N D L A N G U A G E
There are many similarities in the process of
learning to read for ELL a n d NES children, and
as will be seen later in this chapter, similar
approaches are often used in classes o f both
native an d non-native readers; however, there
are also some im p o rtan t differences (H udelson
1994; Aebersold a n d Lield 1997). Thus, while
some researchers argue that 1.2 learners should
not be segregated from L.1 learners (Laltis and
Hudelson 1994: Van den Branden 2000), teach­
ers of ESL students need to be specially p re ­
pared an d may need to adjust their instructional
strategies in certain wavs in o rd e r to teach 1.2 lit­
eracy skills effectively.
Oral Language Skills
and Academic Literacy Skills
First of all, NFS an d ELL children often differ in
terms of the language background thev bring to
the task o f acquiring literacy. Children learning
to read in their LI generalh are already faith
fluent in speaking and u n d e rstanding the target
language when thev begin school, and can build
on the oral language thee already have. Often,
words that they are learning to read are already
present in their oral language vocabularies.
ELLs, on the o th er hand, do not necessarily
have oral ability in the L2 vet and generalh can­
not fall back on an oral knowledge of what thee
are learning to read o r write. Thus, the language
or vocabulary thee e n c o u n te r in reading is often
completely new to them. At the same time,
research shows that ELLs' informal oral lan­
guage skills usually develop m ore quickly than
their academic language and reading writing
abilities (Collier 1989). While teachers can build
on this growing oral language ability thev need
to keep in m ind that some aspects of it are still
developing. Furthermore, when initially assessing
students' com petence in reading and writing,
particularly with children who are a little older,
teachers must be careful not to assume that oral
language proficiency is necessarily an indicator of
reading and writing abilities. In o th e r words, it is
im portant to assess b o th oral an d "written lan­
guage abilities in d ep endently in o rd e r to obtain
a true u n d e rsta n d in g of a child's overall lan­
guage proficiency level.
Research suggests, however, th at even
though ELLs are at a beginning level in their L2
developm ent, thev ma\ not n e e d to wait until
thev are orallv fluent to begin learning to read
and write. First of all. children living in English-
speaking environm ents have been shown to be
able to acquire a substantial am ount of English
from dealing with the English thev are exposed to
in their dailv lives; thev are often able to begin
reading what thev see in the environment around
them. For example, children have been able to
identify the meanings of words on packaged prod­
ucts. signs, and in comic books thev h ate seen
(Hudelson 1984). Also, children have shown that
thev are able to develop L2 knowledge from writ­
ten language input, in addition to oral input
(Eller and Mangubhai 1983), suggesting that
[t]he relationships am o n g listening,
speaking, reading and writing during
developm ent, then, are com plex rela­
tionships of m utual support. Practice
in anv one process contributes to the
overall reservoir of L2 knowledge,
which is then available for o th er acts
of listening, speaking, reading, or writ­
ing. For this reason, it is im p o rta n t to
provide a b u n d a n t exposure to func­
tional. m eaningful uses of both oral
and written language for all learners
( P e re g o v a n d Bovle 1997. p. 102).
The Role of the First Language
in Literacy Development
Just as XES children bring valuable oral lan­
guage knowledge to learning to read and write,
the LI and literacy b a c kground that ELLs may
bring with them is a valuable asset to their L2
an d literacy learning. Even if teachers cannot
speak the 1.1 (s) of their students, their accept­
ance of the child's LI and support of its use can
greatly benefit students learning the L2 (Lucas
an d Katz 1994; Fallis and H u delson 1994).
F urtherm ore, although the research presents
mixed findings on the transferability of specific
LI reading skills to L2 l eading (Bernhardt 1991),
there is clear evidence of a strong relationship
between children's prior native language literacy
and their developm ent of English literacy (Lucas
an d Katz 1994: Cum m ins 1991). If children
already understand the symbolic role of charac­
ters or letters or are familiar with some of the
functions of print in society, this awareness
can help them move to the next stages in their
1iteracy developm ent.
Varied Experiences,
Background Knowledge,
and Cultures o f E S L Students
In ESL learning contexts, teachers must be cau­
tious about m aking a m assumptions about the
cultural or language backgrounds of F.LLs. In a
single ESL class, students mat have widely dif­
fe r e n t LI b a c k g ro u n d s, e d u c atio n a l back­
grounds, language proficiency levels, cultures, or
prior experiences with literacy. This has several
implications for teachers of ESL literacy. First of
all, this mav mean that ELLs bring differing world
and background knowledge, as well as different
degrees of topic familiarity, to the task of reading
and writing, something that is likely to iniluence
their c o m p re h en sio n of what tliev read
(Steffensen andjoag-dev 1984). This variability of
background in the classroom also suggests several
things. First, teachers need to incorporate
“responsive teaching" (Faltisand Huclelson 1994).
bv being prepared to employ a variety of teaching
approaches and techniques with ELLs. It also sug­
gests the importance of learning as much as pos­
sible about the students' cultural backgrounds
and experiences. Furthermore, it means using var­
ious m ethods to activate the students' schemata.
i.e., their knowledge of and beliefs about events,
situations, and actions, based upon their experi­
ences (Rumelhart 1980). through such activities
as prereading discussions, pictures, diagrams,
drawings, videos, or role-playing. Finally, it also
suggests choosing (or haying the children choose)
reading material on topics that are familiar, which
they can identify with because they relate to
their own cultures, backgrounds a n d present
lives, or which are of high general interest
(Faltis a n d Huclelson 1994; Dav and Bamford
1998). (See Opitz 1998 for a list of m ulticultural
c h ild r e n ’s b o o k s.)
First Language Literacy
ESL learners often com e with very different
prior experiences with literacy in their native
cultures, an d tliev mav have experienced differ­
ent values and functions ascribed to literacy. O r
they may even have had y e n little exposure to
literacy in the LI and may be learning to read
and write for the first time in their L2, English.
Some mav have had their formal schooling
inte rru p ted bv yvar or the econom ic or political
situation in their country, with the result that
they first e n c o u n te r learning to read and yvrite
as somewhat older students. Children yvho arrive
at a voting age mav have an easier time fitting
into a neyv environm ent than older children.
T here are several reasons for this. First, yvith
younger ESL children, their NFS peers are also
developing literacy skills for the first time, and
they have less far to go to "catch up" to their
peers' level of academic language an d literacy
developm ent in English (Hamavan 1994). Also,
classes for younger children are usually oriented
toward facilitating the natural em ergence of lit­
eracy. whereas classes for older XES children
tend to assume that some literacy background
already exists and treat the learning of language
m ore abstractly and m ore th rough the p rinted
text th a n orally (Lucas an d Katz 1994).
However, older first-time literacy learners may
bring greater cognitive developm ent, m ore real-
life experience, or even m ore maturity to the
task of learning to read and write. For older
beginning ELLs. then, it is im portant to provide
reading materials that appeal to their age level
and interests, even if they are at beginning levels
of reading and writing ability. For this, it will be
helpful to find reading materials at lower levels of
difficulty, but which are not overly- childish in
their content. (See Huclelson 1993 for lists of low-
level. high interest materials that are appropriate
for these students.) Teachers n e e d to be careful,
though, not to assume that children with low-
literacy backgrounds will com e with the same
understandings about literacy or p rin t as thev
do. Children learning to read a n d write for the
first time (including some beginning NES read­
ers) may n e e d assistance with developing an
un d e rsta n d in g of notions such as the following:
So m e A ssu m p tio n s We M ake about Print
■ Pictures go with text.
■ We read from left to right, from to back, top
to bottom.
* Words are written separated from each other.
■ Quotation marks m ean that someone is
speaking.
■ Punctuation marks separate notions or ideas
from each other.
■ Written language has different rules and
cont entions from oral language.
IS T H E R E A N O P TIM A L W AY
TO T E A C H R EA D IN G
A N D W R IT IN G ?
Over the vears. num erous approaches to teaching
beginning reading have appeared. Wear er (1994)
divides these approaches into two larger cate­
gories: part-centered (also called code-emphasis or
bottom-up) approaches, which view reading instruc­
tion as moving from learning the "parts"
and building u p to the "whole": an d .socio-
bsycholinguistic (also called meaning-emphasis or
top-down) ap p ro a c h e s, which em phasize the
overall construction of m eaning from connected
or whole texts, and draw on the rea d e r’s and
writer’s schem ata and personal experiences.
Several of the more com m on approaches in each
group are reviewed here.
Part-C en tered (Code-Emphasis)
Methods
Part-centered a p p ro a c h e s include phonics ap-
oroaches, so-called linguistic approaches, a sight
word approach, and a basal reader approach.
A phonics approach generallv emphasizes
teaching children to match individual letters of
the alphabet with their specific English p r o n u n ­
ciations, with the idea that if children can
"sound out" or "decode" new words, they will be
able to re a d inclependentlv. In a p h o n ics
approach, children are explicitlv taught sound-
symbol patterns, and often the conscious learn­
ing of rules. T he belief underiving this approach
is that if children first learn individual sounds,
thev will be able to put them together into com ­
binations. and then into words. .Although phonics
approaches varv. most teach the following basic
concepts in approxim ated this order:
C onsonants (C)
s for which there is a single sound
b. d. f. j. к, 1. nr. n, p. r. s, t, v, /
* for which there is m ore than one sound
c. g. h. w, v
• which occur in two-letter combinations,
or "blends"
with /: bl. cl. fl, gl, pi, si
with n br. cr, dr, fr. gr. pr, tr
with v: sc. sk. sm, sn. sp. st. sw
к which occur in three-letter blends
scr. spr. sir. squ
« which com bine to form a new sound,
or digraph
ch. sh. th. wh. gh. -nk. -ng
Vow els (V)
long vowels CY be
CYe ate, like, rote
(A AC paid, boat
short vowels \ < or cat; it, hot
/-controlled
vowels Yr or CAT art. car, her
digraph
d ip h th o n g \A ’ saw, book;
boil, out
Phonics, then, generallv involves teaching
students the sound-letter relationships used in
reading and writing. A related tvpe of knowledge,
phonemic awareness, invokes a student's u n d e r­
standing that speech is m ade tip of individual
sounds, including such things as the ability to tell
if two words begin or en d with the same sound,
and the ability to focus on the form of speech
apart from focusing on its m eaning or content
(Strickland 1998). Although there is some dis­
agreem ent over which of these two kinds of
awareness children really need, phonemic aware­
ness is also considered im portant for literacy
developm ent and frequently taught with phonics.
A linguistic approach utilizes a scientific
knowledge of language a n d exposes children to
certain carefully selected words containing teg­
ular spelling patterns so that they can infer the
letter-sound relationships in those words. For
example, similar looking word groups such as
take-bake-lake-cake or went-cent-tent-bent an d com ­
m on rhvme or word-ending patterns such as -ate.
-ell, or -ight are used to teach the sound patterns.
O n e linguistic approach uses a special alphabet
(the i.t.a., or “initial teaching alphabet") con­
tain in g 44 u n iq u e letters to re p r e s e n t the
approxim ately 44 individual p h o n e m e s of the
English language. It was believed that if children
could be taught using a m ore regular sound-
symbol system (with exactly one svmbol for each
sound), they could learn to read m ore easily
Books were prin te d using the i.t.a.. a n d mam '
children learned to read using this system.
A sight word or look-sas m eth o d teaches chil­
d ren to recognize whole words, comm only using
flash cards or o th er techniques to help children
quickly identify such c om m on words as op, and,
an d the. It is based u p o n the notion that if chil­
d ren can recognize about 100 of the most fre­
quently occurring words, they will be able to
read about half o f the words thev e n c o u n te r in
most texts. Teachers who use this m e th o d often
do so because thev believe that knowing the
most fre q u e n t words will help students learn to
read m ore efficiently. T he sight word approach is
often included with phonics approaches, with
many p ro p o n en ts emphasizing rapid recogni­
tion or “decoding"; however, notions of co m p re ­
hension are generally not addressed, possibly
because it is assumed that once children can rec­
ognize words, com prehension takes care of itself.
A basal reader approach is based upon the
notion that children should be taught to read
through careful control and sequencing of the
language a nd the sounds that they are exposed to.
As a result, basal readers are carefully graded,
sequenced to present sounds, vocabulary, and
individual skills at increasing levels of difficulty,
and also to provide carefully controlled practice,
recycling, a n d testing of the language an d skills.
In many cases, the reading texts are specifically
written to have exactly the right com bination of
vocabulary structures, a n d skill practice de te r­
m in e d necessary for optimal learning at each
level of ability Present-dav basal readers g e n e r­
ally com e in com plete series which seek to pro­
vide a total reading a pproach from beginning to
adv a n ce d levels. Thev are often "eclectic,”
including phonics, regularly p a tte rn e d words,
an d basic sight words, a n d view reading as the
masters of individual reading skills.
Socio-Psycholinguistic (Meaning-Emphasis)
Approaches
T he socio-psschohnguistic m ethods included here
are the Language Experience Approach (LEA), a
literature-based approach, an d the Whole Language
approach.
T he Language Experience Approach (LEA)
builds upon the notion that if children are given
material to read that thev are already familiar
with, it will help them learn to read. This
m eth o d is based on two related ideas; that learn­
ing should move from the familiar to the
unknown, and that readers whose world knowl­
edge or schemata are similar to that underlying
the text thev are reading will be more able to
make sense of the text. In fact, this approach goes
one step further, proposing that if the actual lan­
guage and content of the stories is familiar to
readers, thev should be able to learn to read it
even m ore easily The LEA accomplishes this bv
having students generate their own stories; tran­
scripts of these stories then becom e their read­
ing material. Typically a class would follow a
series of steps like this:
1. The student or class dictates a "story" usually
based upon an experience thev have had. that
the teacher writes down on a large sheet of
paper. The teacher tries to maintain the exact
wording and expressions that the children
 have dictated (if it contains errors, the chil­
dren can correct them later as their profi­
ciency increases).
2. T he teacher then either reads the store to
the class (if the children are beginning read­
ers), or has the class read back the store thee
h a te com posed, proeiding any help thee
n e e d along the xvax to figure out indieidual
words. This "reading" may be re p e a te d
seeeral times, be different people o r the
whole class, until the children are familiar
with what thee hat e written. Eventually, the
children should be able to read the store
themselves.
3. D e p e n d in g on their level of ability and
needs, the class will then engage in various
e x te n d e d activities based u p o n the original
store, in c lu d in g focusing on indieidual
words, letters (e.g.. those at the beginnings
o f words or rhem ing endings), or meanings
of various noteworthy parts. The children
mat also select some of the words to write on
cards to practice later individually. In each
case, the material comes out of. and is dis­
cussed within, the b ro a d e r context of the
original store. Additional exercises mat also
be constructed from the original reading,
such as cutting the store up into sentence
strips, or even into individual words, and
having the children put them back in order.
4. Ultimately, the children are expected to
move from the stories thee have dictated
toward being able to read those written be
others. (See Dixon an d Xessel 1983 for m ore
about the LEA).
The LEA can be used with ее re beginning
readers and writers because thee onlv need to dic­
tate the stories oralle. and even this can be done
collaboratieele. bringing together the combined
abilities of the entire class. Because it involves sto­
ries that are first dictated, the LEA allows children
to see a direct link between oral and written lan­
guage. In essence, it involves "writing to read."
Because the children hat e "composed" the stories
themselves, there is a close match between their
knowledge or experience and the texts thee read.
A litem Iи re-based approach is one that uses
children's literature with the intention of focusing
on m eaning, interest, and enjoym ent, while
addressing indieidual children's needs in teach­
ing them to read. In this approach, children
often select their own books (generally, regularly
published books) an d read them on their own
or with others. If the children are b e g inning or
nonreaders, the teacher or a metre proficient
p e e r mae read the book to them . Alternately, if
the reading is done individually, the teacher may
follow up be holding an indieidual conference
with the child, asking the child questions about
what he or she und e rsto o d from the store or
how he or she felt about the store. Children may
also be asked to read portions of their stories
aloud, and the teacher mae take notes on the
tepes of miseries thee make as thee read (as one
m eth o d of diagnosing areas to address in the
future). Some p ro p o n e n ts o f this ap p ro a c h
maintain that individual skills should not be
taught — the\ will em erge as the child reads. In
am case, the overall focus is on the child's
u n d e rsta n d in g of the store. Latter, the same
books mae be used as springboards for writing,
dram a, or discussion activities, such as writing
alternate endings to the store, role-plaeing parts
of it. or describing one of the characters in m ore
detail. Sometimes m ore than one book on the
same them e or genre or multiple books be the
same a u th o r (an "author study") may be read
and com pared. Use of this approach generally
requires that students have access to a collection
of books on a range of topics a n d at varying lex-
els of difficultx (either in the classroom or in a
libraiw). Teachers xvho use a literature-based
approach can greatle facilitate their stu dents’
success and skill dexelopm ent bx helping them
find books which best fit their interests an d are
either at or just slightly abox e their reading level.
T he idea is that if children find that thex can be
successful at reading, an d their interest is held
bx the books thee hax e selected, thex will want to
continue reading.
The Whole Language approach is a philoso­
phy of learning. Proponents o fW h o le Language
believe that thex are not just teaching reading;
rather, thex are guiding and assisting learners to
develop as in d e p e n d e n t readers, writers, and
learners. Thex- beliexe that language s e n e s per­
sonal. social, and academ ic aspects of c h ild re n ’s
lives, an d that children becom e literate as they
grapple with the m eaning an d uses of print in
their environm ents. T h ro u g h such activities as
storvbook reading (being read to or reading the
same stories multiple times) an d writing their
own texts, children become aware of storvbook
structure, a n d can identify (and use) the specific
language tvpicallv used to tell stories. In fact,
researchers have found that children go through
a variety of developm ental stages as thev create
th eir own written texts: ( 1 ) scribbling, and
ascribing m eaning to it (as if it were writing): (2 )
seeing print an d drawing as the same: (3) using
letters of the alphabet, often in continuous
strings, without realizing that letters have a rela­
tionship to sounds; (4) using one or two letters
(usually consonants), each representing a whole
word (but still not segm ented into words); (5)
using letters to represent one or two of the
sounds in a word, including vowels, and often
applying a strategy of using names of letters
instead of the sounds the letters make: (6 ) using-
transitional spelling, in which some words use
conventional spellings a n d some do not: and
finally, (7) using conventional spelling
(Hudelson 1994; G underson 1991). LEA activi­
ties a n d literature, though described as separate
approaches above, are often used along with
o th er activities and content within the Whole
Language approach. Whole Language incorpo­
rates all of the language skills, based on the belief
that as stories are read to children, as children
recount what they have heard (and he a r others
do so), and as thev e xperim ent with putting their
ideas in writing, thev wrestle with sound-letter
correspondences and with the structure of writ­
ten material. T h ro u g h these activities, children
figure out how written language works a nd how it
relates to oral language; through these attempts
at written language, in fact, they also learn how
reading works. In W hole Language, the use of
“au th e n tic ” texts from various genres is vital. This
comes from the belief that only th rough e n c o u n ­
tering a n d attem pting to deal with ''real" texts
an d functions of literacy can children learn effec­
tive strategies and techniques for understanding
an d using them themselves. (See Heald-Tavlor
1991 for m ore about Whole Language for ELLs.)
The Phonics/Whole Language Debate
N u m erous studies have a ttem pted to d eterm in e
the relative effectiveness of manv of these m e th ­
ods. U nfortunately, results have often b e e n
inconclusive or even contradictory. How does
each approach work for ELLs? Phonics approaches
presuppose that learners already know the sounds
of the language, and that once a word is sounded
out, thev onlv need to match it up with a word they
know. But ELLs don't vet know mane of the words,
even if thev can sound a word out. thev will still
probably not understand what it means. Even
m ore difficult, if thev can't hear the difference
between two sounds, for example. / 1/ in hit and
i in heal, thev niav have a hard time learning the
letters that represent or distinguish these sounds.
Phonics approaches have also been criticized
because thev don't address issues of com prehen­
sion. Rigg (1986) found that the children in her
studv who were most concerned about pronounc­
ing words "right" showed less comprehension of
what thee had read. Another reason a pure p h o n ­
ics approach mac cause difficulty for ELLs is that
mans of the most comm on -words in English con­
tain sounds and patterns which do not follow basic
sound-svmbol correspondences that the children
niav have been taught, e.g.. come, or through.
A sight word approach to reading, like pho­
nics, gives little focus to getting m eaning from a
text. As eve can see from Grade's (1991) six com­
ponents of leading that were identified earlier,
vocabulary recognition is but one small piece o:
what it takes to be able to read. Also, common
words encountered in a sight word approach,
e.g.. have. of. or do d o n 't provide learners muck,
assistance, either with recognizing or with sound­
ing out less frequently encountered words.
Criticisms of an id. a. approach include the
finding that children who learned with thi-
approach had difficulty making the transition tr
conventional spelling (Bond and Dvkstra 1997), a-
well as the lack of sufficient material written in thi'
alphabet (Gunderson 1991). Basal leadershcwe pri­
marily been criticized because in the process o:
sequencing all the language, vocabulary, and skill-
so carefully, m am end up with boring and artificial
readings; thev contain stilted sentences, pieces o:
stories, and literature p resented out of context
F u rth e rm o re , thev take a “one-size-fits-all"
approach to the teaching of reading. As for indi­
vidual skiUs-lxised teaching approaches, Strickland
(1998) reports that teachers have found that their
students have difficultv transferring skills learned
in isolation to real reading and writing activities.
Some of the findings concerning these initial
teaching approaches are promising, however. In
the 1960s. the large-scale Cooperative Research
Program in First-Grade R eading Instruction,
comprising 27 studies comparing manv of the
m ethods and materials described above, was con­
ducted. Among the conclusions Bond and Dvkstra
(1997) t eached from their review of these studies
were:
1. Regardless of what re a d in g instruction
a pproach is used, svstematic emphasis and
teaching of word studv skills is necessarv.
2. Eclectic program s p ro duced better results
than did o rth o d o x approaches.
3. Not all reading programs work equallv well
in all situations. Within particular programs,
factors such as teacher and learning situation
characteristics rather than m ethod mar- be
m ore important to students' ultimate success
in reading.
4. Children are able to learn to read bv various
methods and materials. With each approach,
some students were successful, but others
experienced difficultv. \ o single approach
was so clcarlv better than the others that it
should be used exclusivelv.
5. A writing co m p o n e n t is likelv to be an effec­
tive addition to a reading program .
6. "The relative success of the Xonbasal pro­
grams com pared to the basal programs
indicates that reading instruction can be
improved. It is likelv that improvements
would result from adopting certain elements
from each of the approaches used in this
studv" (p. 416).
In recent times, the debate over m ethods
has con c en tra te d mostly on the choice between
the n e e d for phonics instruction a n d / o r p h o n e ­
mic awareness on one side and Whole Language
on the other. Part of the difficultv in this debate
lies in the fact that p ro p o n en ts of each side cite
different kinds of research to support their
m ethod: Phonics supporters cite experimental
studies assessing perform ance on standardized
tests: W hole L anguage supporters cite basic
research on how children learn to read and write,
as well as classroom-based studies looking at long­
term effects (Weaver 1994). Strickland (1998)
concludes that "the debates about phonics and
phonem ic awareness have less to do with their
value than with the am ount and type of instruc­
tion thev require" and suggests that even in this
controversv. there are points of agreement. She
explains.
Educators on both sides of the phonics
debate agree that, ultimatelv, reading
and writing for m eaning is param ount.
Both sides are keenlv aware of the
im portance of good literature in the
lives of children and the n e e d for
responsive adults who support chil­
d re n 's na tu ra l inclinations toward
making sense of print. Needless to say,
both sides recognize the im portance of
the alphabetic code in learning to read
and write (p. 8 ).
Increasinglv. the evidence seems to support
addressing such a complex process as literacy with
less simplistic solutions. Hamavan (1994) argues
that because ESL students represent a very diverse
g ro u p of learners, thev require a range of
approaches. Faltis and Hudelson (1994) sat- that
teachers need to be flexible, taking their cues
from students and adapting their pedagogies to
meet students' needs. O ther reading researchers
(e.g.. Weaver 1994: Strickland 1998) are increas­
ingly advocating a more "balanced a pproach” or
"whole-to-part-to-whole" a pproach— one that is
engaging and rich with meaning, but focuses sys­
tematically on specific textual features so that chil­
d ren can draw their own conclusions about
language and applv them to their reading and
writing. Strickland provides the following instruc­
tional guidelines for such an approach:
1. Skills and m eaning should alwavs be kept
together. Children need instruction focusing
on the alphabetic code to be taught together
with that which stresses com prehending,
thoughtful responses to literature, and the
creation of m eaning in writing.
 Instead of rigid, systematically predeterm ined
instruction that is identical for all learners,
such acti\ities as word recognition skills and
phonics, as well as invented spelling, can be
systematically integrated into programs that
take learner variability into account.
3. Intensity instruction on individual skills or
strategies should only be provided to those
children who dem onstrate clear need for
them.
4. Regular doc u m e n tatio n and assessment of
students' learning are still the best war to
dete rm in e how skills should be addressed
and to what degree.
5. Language arts instruction must be integrated
with a school's or district's standards and the
specific curricular objectiyes of the target
grade lcyel, as well as of the grades below and
aboye it.
STA N D A R D S A N D S E C O N D
L A N G U A G E L IT E R A C Y
D E V E LO P M E N T
In recent years, as a m easure designed to ensure
accountability for learning and to set up uni­
formly high expectations for all learners, many
states, proyinces. school districts, and profes­
sional organizations have established standards
for their students to attain. In setting up these
standards, m uch has been accom plished simply
th ro u g h the yen difficult process of bringing
together stakeholders in the educational system
to sit down and come to some agreem ent about
what reasonable expectations m ight be. For
m anv teachers, finally seeing a list of standards in
writing has greatly helped to clarify the objectiyes
toward which they should guide their students.
At the same lime, while the establishment
of these standards represents a ye n yaluable first
step in improying the overall quality of educa­
tion for many students, they hare also d e m o n ­
strated that they are not the end point in the
process of proyicling an equitable a n d uniform
quality of education for everyone. First of all.
manv of the standards dealing with the various
c o n te n t areas covered in public edu c atio n ,
including language arts, social studies, m ath,
an d science, have been developed with the
assum ption that students are able to u n d e rsta n d
a n d use English well e n ough to engage yvith
their respective content. In fact, while some of
th e m recognize that th e ir stu d e n ts have
extremely diverse cultural, ethnic, an d linguistic
backgrounds, m am do not address the kev role
of language in the acquisition of content. T he
large-scale standardized tests that are often
based on these standards a n d that d o c u m e n t
their achievem ent (or lack of it), m ake it diffi­
cult to obtain a true picture of the academic
achievement of many FLLs because the tests do
not take into account the interaction between
c ontent knowledge and language proficiency. In
o th er words, if ELLs are not able to read, u n d e r ­
stand. yvrite. or respond to tire test questions and
content, the test results will very likely not pres­
ent an accurate picture of their true abilities. An
incorrect answer on a test, for example, cannot
distinguish yvhether the student did not know
that concept, or yvhether he or she simply did not
hav e the necessary language ability or test-taking
strategies to answer correctly. As such, the cur­
rent plethora of standards that now exist, while
providing useful goals to aim for, may also lead to
the unfair assessment or treatm ent of ELLs.
Second, although there tire поуу finally some
standards to teach to. the task of designing cur­
riculum and instruc tion to meet them is still a
complex task. This is partly because, depending
on where one is. there are поуу multiple standards
that one may be expected to meet simultaneously.
For example, teachers of ELLs in New York City
schools who wish to apply the Pre-K-12 ESL stan­
dards developed bv the professional organiza­
tion. Teachers o f English to Speakers of O th e r
Languages (TESOL), поуу must synthesize three
different sets of standards because they must
also teach to the standards of Xcw York state and
those of Neyv York City as well (see Charts 1 and 2
(pp. 164—165) for the TESOL Standards an d the
English Language Arts Standards used in Neyv
York City schools).
O ne o ther issue relevant to the im plem enta­
tion of literacy standards for ELLs is the fact that
many of the standards, because of their likely
application to a wide variety of types a n d levels
of students, do not specify in detail the level of
com petency n e e d ed for “m ee tin g ” the standard.
This means that teachers who attem pt to teach
to them must still apply a great deal o f judgm ent
in identifying exactly to what degree o f sophisti­
cation or accuracy a child must, for example.
“ [ d e m o n s tr a te a basic u n d e rsta n d in g o f rules of
the English language in written a n d oral work"
(see Chart 2. English Language Arts Standards
Used in \ e w York City Schools, Standard E4a on
p. 165). This is not to sat' that having the stan­
dards is not worthwhile: simply knowing the range
of types of competence a child should be able to
demonstrate is immensely useful. However, this
raises serious questions about the degree to which
assessments of the achievement of the standards
are reliable (see Stotskv 1997 for a critical evalua­
tion of 28 current standards documents).
Nevertheless, given the variety of standards
relevant to the teaching of literacy skills to EI.L.s
which are now available, a look at a few of these
may be helpful here. O ne docum ent which specif­
ically addresses the needs of ETI.s is the TESOL
Standards for Pre-K-12 Students (TESOL 1997).
These standards recognize the special needs of
ETI.s. providing a continuum of descriptors for
docum enting the developm ent of all of the skills
for students at beginning, intermediate, and
advanced levels lor each grade range (Pre-K-3.
4 - 8 , and 9-12), as well as for those with limited
formal schooling. T he TESOL Standards are
designed to p ro tid e educators with directions
and strategies to assist ESL learners to attain the
language thev need for learning content. In
o th er words, thev are in te n d e d to be used as a
“bridge" to o th e r general education standards
(See Chart 1 [p. 164] and TESOL 1997 for m ore
information about the c ontent a n d im p lem e n ta ­
tion of these standards). A n u m b e r of states and
districts also h a te established their own special
standards for ELLs (see California D e partm ent
of Education 1999 for an exam ple of this). T he
use of special standards for ETI.s varies: Some
states and school districts use TESOL’s stan­
dards, some have designed their own, building
u p o n those fro m TESOL, a n d som e have
designed their own apart from TESOI.'s (see
Short 2000 for m ore inform ation on wars in
which standards have been a d o p te d bv various
states an d school districts).
It is also helpful for ESL teachers to be famil­
iar with the standards designed for NES learners,
given the fact that m am districts and states, at least
for the time being, have opted to hold ELLs to the
same English Language Arts standards expected
of NES. .Although many of these standards do not
take into account the unique developmental
needs of ELLs, ESL teachers nevertheless can b e n ­
efit from knowing the kinds of expectations their
ELLs will eventually be required to meet. O ne
exam ple is the New Standards Perform ance
Standards— English Language Arts (Elementary),
presently being implem ented in New York City
school districts (Board of Education of the City
of New York 1997).
S T R A TE G IE S T O FA CILITA TE
S E C O N D LA N G U A G E
L IT E R A C Y D EV E LO P M E N T
A N D H ELP S T U D E N T S
A C H IE V E STA N D A R D S
T he following strategies can help ELLs develop
their literacy abilities as well as provide practice in
some of the areas required bv literacy standards.
Expose Students to the Many Uses
o f Print around Them
* Label items in the room. Hat e students (with or
without help) make the labels themselves, in
multiple languages, each in a different color.
■ Foe us attention on the print around the class­
room, school, or neighborhood.
■ Manage aspects of classroom business in writing.
Include attendance lists, classroom chores,
or charts showing the n u m b er of books read.
■ Establish a regular place to post announcements
or messages.
■ Record class discussions on chart paper; keep
these posted as long as a theme is being studied.
■ Create areas in the room for specific literacy pur­
poses. A reading, listening, or writing corner.
 CHART I
T E S O L ’s P re-K -12 E S O L Standards

Goals for E S O L Learners

Goal I : To Use English to Communicate in Social Settings

Standards for Goal I
Students will:
1. use English to participate in social interaction
2. interact in, through, and with spoken and written English for personal expression
and enjoyment
3. use learning strategies to extend their communicative competence

Goal 2: To Use English to Achieve Academically in All Content Areas

Standards for Goal 2
Students will:
1. use English to interact in the classroom
2. use English to obtain, process, construct, and provide subject matter
information in spoken and written form
3. use appropriate learning strategies to construct and apply
academic knowledge

Goal 3: To Use English in Socially and Culturally Appropriate Ways

Standards for Goal 3
Students will:
1. use the appropriate language variety, register, and genre according to audience,
purpose, and setting
2. use nonverbal communication appropriate to audience,
purpose, and setting
3. use appropriate learning strategies to extend their sociolinguistic
and sociocultural competence

(So u rce: T ESO L 1997, pp. 9-10)

Display different genres of reading and writing printed-out inform ation from the Internet,
material or books. C h ild re n ’s books, newspa­ and students' own writing— display every­
pers, magazines, dow nloaded messages or one's work, not just the “best” papers.
 CHART 2
English Language Arts Standards Used in New York City Schools

New Standards Performance Standards— English Language Arts (Elementary)

E I . Reading
EI a Read at least twenty-five books of the quality and complexity illustrated
in the sample reading list,
Elb Read and comprehend at least four books on the same subject,
or by the same author, or in the same genre.
E lc Read and comprehend informational materials.
EI d Read aloud fluently.

E2. W riting
E2a Produce a report of information.
E2b Produce a response to literature.
E2c Produce a narrative account (fictional or autobiographical).
E2d Produce a narrative procedure.

E3. Speaking, Listening, and Viewing

E3a Participate in one-to-one conferences with the teacher.
E3b Participate in group meetings.
E3c Prepare and deliver an individual presentation.
E3d Make informed judgments about TV, radio, and film.

E4. Conventions, Grammar, and Usage of the English Language

E4a Demonstrate a basic understanding of rules of the English language in written
and oral work.
E4b Analyze and subsequently revise work to improve its clarity and effectiveness.

E5. Literature
E5a Respond to non-fiction, fiction, poetry, and drama using interpretive
and critical processes,
E5b Produce work in at least one literary genre that follows the conventions
of the genre.

J:_ rc e : B o ard of Education in the C it y o f N e w York 1997, p. 23)

Provide Opportunities for Children
to Read More Extensively
on a Subject
Use c ontent study as the context tor literacy
developm ent; have students investigate topics of
interest related to the co n te n t or them e being
studied, writing up their findings or presenting
them orallv to the class. Extensive reading can
also be very effective for increasing reading skills
of children in EFL contexts (Mee and Moi
1999). In te rn e t research an d projects are excel­
lent sources of extensive reading material.
Provide Authentic Purposes
for Reading and Writing
Use stu d e n ts ’ natural urge to com m unicate
w hen they n e e d inform ation for authentic p u r­
poses; set up g enuine com m unication contexts
involving e-mail messages, dialogue journals, or
research projects, or develop class-to-class infor­
m ation exchanges th ro u g h the In te rn e t (see
Ediger a n d Pavlik 2000 for m ore on this).
Provide Scaffolding for Learning
Scaffolding involves the setting up of “tem porary
supports, provided bv capable people, that p e r­
mit learners to participate in the com plex
process before thcv at e able to do so unassisted”
(Peregov an d Bovle 1997, p. 81). As students
becom e able to do m ore com plex language
tasks, supports can be decreased or removed.
Use predictable books; have children write their
own stories using the same structure as one they
have read in a book; provide sentences that stu­
dents then com plete or elaborate on (e.g.. "I
think (character from book) is (adjective). T he parts
of the book that make me think this a r e _____ .")
Use Oral Skills to Support Reading
and Writing Development
Van den Branden (2000) found that when chil­
d ren were allowed to “negotiate the meaning" of
an original text thev were reading, either through
whole class discussion with facilitation bv the
teacher or with a peer of a different level of lan­
guage proficiency thev were able to c o m p re h en d
what they read better than if the text had been
simplified for th e m to rea d on th eir own.
Encourage cooperative groups of mixed-level stu­
dents to work together to read or write various
texts. Also, har e students first explain orally what
thev will later be asked to write. Or, after working
together in groups on a task, have students from
each group report back to the class what their
group discovered or accomplished. T h e n have
them put the same information into written form.
Focus Students’ Attention
on Reading and Writing Strategies
First, call attention to anv strategies students are
alreadv using, e.g., ( 1 ) thinking about what thev
alreadv know about a topic; (2) asking, Arc there
anv o th er words I know which are similar to this
word in some wav?; (3) looking backward and
forward from a word or phrase thev d o n ’t u n d e r ­
stand (using the context) to see if that can give
them m ore inform ation for c o m p re h en d in g
what thev are reading; (4) m onitoring whether
thev understand what thev are reading and, if
not, changing how thev are reading. Then, mode!
some of these strategies for students bv thinking
aloud the thoughts going through vour m ind a-
vou use them.
SUMMARY
This has been just a brief introduction to teach­
ing literaev skills to ELTs. It has described three
elements involved in reading: the text, the reader
and the context that the reading activity take-
place in. It has also presented the various com­
p o n e n t knowledge areas which readers use, anc
which children learning to read in their L2 ah
need to master, as well as c om m on characteri-
tics of L2 readers a n d writers. In addition t
u n d e rs ta n d in g the reading process and com­
m o n characteristics of their students, teacher-
n e e d to be familiar with various approaches to
teaching reading so that thev can m ake wise
choices about how to teach. It is ultimately the
te a c h e r’s challenge to p u t to g ether this inform a­
tion a n d what has b e e n lea rn ed from research
on literacy developm ent with a knowledge of lit­
eracy standards and effective teaching strategies
in ways that will allow the teacher to address the
various needs of individual ESL students.
D IS C U S S IO N Q U E S T IO N S
1. As p art of your assessment process for vour
second grade class, vou have asked one child
if she can read you a book she has chosen.
W hen vou sit down with her, she reads it verv
carefully a n d deliberately; vou notice that
she is able to read almost all of the words
accurately. However, when vou later ask her
what the store was about, she has trouble
explaining it to vou. How would vou account
for this? How would vou describe her overall
reading ability? What are some other reading
activities vou might ask h e r to do in order to
assess her ability m ore thoroughly?
2. If children who are taught to read using the
Language Experience A pproach are able to
dictate the c ontent of the storv. have the
teacher write it down for them, and assist
them with reading it back, are thev really
reading and writing? Whv? What is the real
value of this m ethod? W hat o th er learning
concepts from this c hapter does the LEA
illustrate or m ake use of? If vou were to use
the LEA to write a n d then read som ething in
a language vou d o n 't know verv well, what do
you think vou would learn?
3. If teachers do activities to elicit students' back­
ground knowledge before thev read a text,
isn’t the teacher merely helping them handle
the particular text thev are working on? Will
this help students be able to read or handle
the next text thev encounter any m ore easily?
W hat else could a teacher do to help students
better handle future reading tasks?
4. Do vou think having literacy standards can
help teachers improve instruction in literacy?
Whv ? Look at the two examples of standards
in this chapter. What kinds of special instruc­
tion or adaptations might a teacher use to
help ELLs achieve these standards?
S U G G E S T E D A C T IV IT IE S
1. O ne wav to familiarize children with different
tvpes of print is to show them that literacy
sen es a variety of functions in society (adapted
from Hallidav 197o). including:
■ Providing wavs people learn ab o u t the
world and share these experiences with
others
* Accomplishing various tasks of living
* Establishing an d m aintaining commu-
nic-ation with others
■ Expressing differences an d similarities
a m o n g people
■ Reflecting and acting u p o n personal and
social problem s
■ C hanging conditions in p e o p le ’s lives
* Enjoving the beautv of language
* Recognizing different people's cultural
heritage
■ U n d e rs ta n d in g what it m eans to be
hum an
For each function, identify an activity or reading/
writing task which vour students might be able to
perform to learn more about that literacy function.
For example, in order to teach students that liter­
acy "provides ways people learn about the world and
share these experiences with others, ” vou could have
them read and discuss a news story, or have them
write a report about a Field trip thev took recently.
Can vou think of some others?
2. For one or m ore of the following, select a
book or storv that vou think would be partic­
ularly suitable for it, and which would allow
vou to develop a teaching lesson to illustrate
that particular concept to vour students.
T h e n design the actual lesson. Explain whv
vou think vour chosen b o o k /sto rv is suitable,
a n d whv vou designed the lesson in the m a n ­
n e r that vou did.
 a. Scaffolding
b. Eliciting students' world knowledge
c. Identifying qualities that characterize a
particular genre of text (Some possible
genres: a letter, an invitation, a report, a
description of a process, a film review, etc.)
d. Identifying the way a text is organized
A storv (narrative)
A piece of non-fiction
3. Ask two beginning-level ESL/EFL children to
write a story ab o u t an e x p e rie n c e they
recently had together. If thev have difficulty
writing, have th em draw a picture to illus­
trate their experience, then have them dic­
tate the story to yon while you help them write
it, using the Language Experience Approach.
W hen they/you are finished, either ask them
to read the story or read it for them, d e p e n d ­
ing on their abilitv. W hat did vou learn from
this activity?
4. Read aloud a story to some children learning
ESL, stopping at several points along the wav
to ask them to predict what will happen next.
Do their predictions give you anv eridence
about w hether they have understood the storv
so far? T hen read further and ask them to tell
you when thev hear something in the story
that confirms or disconfirms one of their pre­
dictions. T hen discuss with them how well they
were able to predict what would happen. Were
the children able to make reasonable predic­
tions? Were they able to identify’ information
later in the reading which dealt with their pre­
diction? W hy or why not?
FU R T H ER R EA D IN G
Day, R., and }. Bamford. 1998. Extensive Rending in the
Second Language Classroom. Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press.
Discusses die value of extensive reading and pro­
vides many ideas on incorporating such activities
into literacy instruction.
Hudelson, S., ed. 1993. Teacher Resource (,uirh for ESL.
Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press.
Provides tremendously practical information
about elementary ESI. curriculum development
and literacy teaching, lists of books, and an
actual sample curriculum.
Crotchett, K. 1997. .4 'teacher's Project Guide to the Internet.
Portsmouth. XH: Heinemann.
Prorides manv useful ideas for developing literacy
projects using the Internet.
Fulwiler, T.. ed. 1987. The Journal Booh. Portsmouth,
XH: Heinemann.
Explains wavs to incorporate journals into literacy
development.
O'Malley J. M., and E. Valdez Pierce. 1996. Authentic
Assessment for English Language Learners.
Reading. МЛ: Addison-Weslev.
Describes classroom-based assessment of all skill
areas: provides numerous samples of authentic
assessment rubrics and methods of document­
ing literate development.
W E B S IT E S
On-line Reading and Whiting Opportunities
Intercultural E-Mail Classroom Connections
www.stolaf.edu/network/iecc/
E-Pals (electronic penpals)
wvcvv.epals.com
Global SchoolXefs Internet Projects Registry
Listing of collaborative Internet projects. Leant
about ongoing projects or post vour own idea'
and invite collaboration.
http: / / www.gsn.org/pr/index.html
Children’s Literature
The Children's Literature Web Guide
http: www.acs.ucalgary.ca ~dkbrown/
Internet Public Library
http: //wwvv.ipl.org/
Multicultural Book Review Homepage
www.isomedia.com/homes/jmele/homepage,
html
Teacher Resources
Teaching with technology
h ttp ://ilt.colum bia.edu/kl2/livetext/
International Reading Association
http:/ /www.ira.org
Kathy Schrock's Guide for Educators
A wonderful Internet site for teachers, with
manv project ideas and ways to use them in the
classroom.
h ttp :// discoveryschool.com/schrockguide /
Website providing a downloadable (.pdf) version of
the 1999 California ELD (ESL) and Language
.Arts standards.
www.cde.ca.gov/statetests/eld/eld.html

Language Arts/Literacy Standards

Information about ESL literacy and teaching: ENDNO TE
links to other related websites.
www.cal.org
1 thank Evelvn Hatch and Barbara Hawkins for the
ideas used here which originally appeared in their
I.istserv for communicating with others about ESL chapters in earlier editions of this book.
standards. To subscribe, send an e-mail message to
the above address. In the subject of the message,
ripe ''subscribe": lease the remainder blank.
eslstds-requestla caltalk.cal.org
 Developing Adult Literacies1
GAIL W E IN S T E IN
In "Developing Adult Literac es," W einstein invres ’‘e?.ders no examine the role of language and
literacies in learners' lives, examines critical contexts Am ESL Itemc-/ instruction, and provides a
synthesis of orientations to cummuium and teaching. See concludes with fve "promising practices"
that challenge both new anc ex p eo e rcec eeacners to --efect individual's and collectively on their
potentially life-transforming woi'k.
IN T R O D U C T IO N
Profiles in Diversity and Strength
Socorro Tinajerowas born in Mexico and is raising
h e r c h ild ren in the "borderlands" betw een
Mexico and the U nited States. Described as tin
energetic an d efficient woman, she works long
hours in the family restaurant u n d e r difficult
conditions. H e r fatalism is quickly revealed: "A
cada quien lo que toca" [Everyone has their lot
in life]. Researcher Valdes tells us that this is a
fairlv c o m m o n belief a m o n g those in S ocorro’s
com m unity— that life simply deals different luck
to different people.
Socorro rem em bers with some nostalgia
h e r davs in Juarez, where neighbors were able to
watch out for each other. Given h e r h a rd work
and determ ination, one thing to which Socorro
will not resign herself is that h e r children are
being held back in school and are getting into
trouble. She did not have an opportunity to go
to school in Mexico. She wants to develop the
language and literacy she needs to be able to
intervene m ore successfully with their teachers
(Valdes 1996, p. 91).
Pao Joua Lo was a retired soldier an d was
considered a war hero in his own community.
Like 70,000 o th e r H m o n g refugees who reset­
tled in the U nited States in the 1970s, he lied the
hills of Laos in the throes of the wars of
Southeast Asia. In his Philadelphia hom e. Pao
Jo u a was often s u rro u n d e d bv his many g ran d ­
children and guests, and until his d eath in 1998,
was considered both an elder an d a leader bv
many H m o n g th ro u g h o u t the U nited States.
Pao Jo u a ha d atte n d ed classes at the local
com m unity college but d ro p p e d out after only
one semester. His English literacy skills, while
minimal, allowed him to scan the newspapers for
articles about Southeast Asia, which he then
passed along to m ore literate m en in the com ­
munity. Besides keeping cu rre n t on events in his
hom eland. Pao J o u a was also interested in devel­
oping literacy skills to be able to record tradi­
tional H m o n g courtship songs so that first his
sons and later his grandsons could find desirable
brides (Weinstein 1997).
Michel a Stone works as an accountant at a
comm unity center serving immigrants from her
native Byelorussia, as well as from the Ukraine
a n d Lithuania. Many who frequent the center
are university professors, businesspeople, doc­
tors. or scientists who hope to be able to resume
their professional lives when they have acquired
the language nee d ed in their new hom e. Michela
teaches Russian on the side, both for some extra
m oney and also for the chance to interact with
Americans. She likes soap operas an d reads
People magazine. Bv reading up on movie stars,
Michela figures she can start conversations with
A m erican friends an d practice h e r English.
Although she has little time to study between her
two jobs an d caring for her aging father, she
hop e s to p r e p a r e for A m erican citizenship
(Nesbit 1997).
 Adults like these have different histories, cir­
cumstances. and purposes for wanting to develop
and improve language and literaev skills. To
understand the possibilities for language and lit­
eraev instruction, it is necessarv to know some­
thing about learners, their resources, their needs,
and their goals for learning English.
What is English as a Second
Language (ESL) Literacy?
f h e learners described above bring different
needs and resources to their desire to learn
Knglish language a n d literaev. Soccoro. who teas
born in .Mexico, tom es from a societv with a rich
litcrarv tradition, but she herself has had little
access to the formal education or native language
literaev that others in her countrv mat enjov.
Learners in this situation have been described in
the literature as iioulilerate. Pao Joua Lo. on the
o th e r hand, comes from a farm ing societv where
subsistence living posed verv little need for print.
In fact, the H m o n g language did not have a writ­
ten form until just a few decades ago. when mis­
sionaries created a writing svsteni to teach the
Bible. Learners in this situation are often called
preliterate, because then come from a society that
does not have a tradition with prim. Michela illu­
minates vet an o th er dimension of a complex lin­
guistic picture, since she has higlilv developed
literaev skills in her native language, but has not
h a d prior experience with the Roman alphabet.
She has m am strategies for learning in formal set­
tings, and is comfortable with the format and dis­
course of formal teaching situations. As she adds
English to her repertoire. Michela will become
biliterate, or proficient with prim in two languages.
Until fairlv recentlv, little attention teas
given to the role of native language literaev in
lea rn er acquisition of English. Research on sec­
o n d language learners either assumed native
language literact or did n o t investigate native
language literaev as a factor in learner needs and
strategies. In the 1970s. w hen a huge inllux of
Southeast Asian refugees found their wan to our
classrooms, teachers knew that this go mo wets
different. Rural Vietnamese, Khmer. Lam. and
H m o n g learners who were not literate in. their
native languages were not m anaging as well as
their literate counterparts in the language class­
room. Techniques that had been used in the past
were no longer effective. In the 1980s, with the
passage o f the Immigration Reform and Control
Act (IRCA). a second wave of u n d o c u m e n te d
learners flocked to our classrooms to qualifv for
"amnestv." These students had limited literacy in
their native languages and could not access infor­
mation the wav we provided it, without first
acquiring literaev ESL classroom teachers were
a m o n g the first to raise to national conscious­
ness the unique characteristics of this g roup of
learners.
Those of us who worked closelv with these
two groups of newcomers were struck bv their
resourcefulness. We learned that the Southeast
Asian refugees had escaped through jungles, run
th rough minefields, e n d u re d starvation, and
crossed lit ers on ru b b er tires at night with their
children. In short, thev were extraordinary sur­
vivors. Me saw that most u n d o c u m e n te d amnestv
applicants had been living on the margins, m an­
aging to take care of their families while staving
invisible from authorities who could deport
them. Me began to see the kinship a nd social net­
works that people relied on for solving problem '
and for helping one a n o th e r navigate a new set­
ting. While eve became aware of these enorm ous
resources, it was also clear that som ething critical
was lacking— literaev skills that would provide
these adults with access to the English language,
and through English, to o th er information and
education.
Many Learners, Many Literacies
While teachers of ESL were grappling with liter­
aev issues face-to-face in their dailv work, mam
changes were gating on in the field of adult liter­
aev (also called Adult Basic Education, or ABE
as well. Am ong these were attempts to movt
bevond the problem atic notion of ''grade level
in o rd e r to define a n d m easure literacy in waw
that were m ore informative and accurate fo:
adults. T he most com prehensive a ttem p t ir
recent historv to survev the literacy levels o:
adults in the United States was the Xationai
Adult Literacy Survey (NALS). This instrument
was designed to measure three areas of knowledge
or skill:
■ prose literacy (u n d ersta n d in g texts such as
news stories, poems, etc.),
■ document literary (locating and using infor­
mation found in docum ents like job appli­
cations, transportation schedules, etc.), and
■ ejuantitative literary (applying arithm etic
operations using n um bers fo u n d in printed
materials like o rd e r forms, etc. (Kirsch et
al. 1993, p. 3).
T he problem for English language educators was
that this assessment tool could only measure
English literacy— the results do not distinguish
between the Cam bodian peasant farm er who
had never held a pencil and the Russian engi­
n e e r with a Ph.D. who had not ret added the
Roman to the Cyrillic alphabet in h e r repertoire
of symbol systems.
T he portraits of Socorro. Pao Joua. and
Michela are the result of e thnographic studies in
which the researcher seeks to m ake explicit how
an individual or group makes sense of the
w orld— in this case, with a focus on functions
and uses of language and literacy in learners'
lives. Ethnographic research can illuminate many
forms of diversity am ong learners regarding their
language and literacy resources. Mans Asian for­
eign students in the United States, for example,
are highly literate in their native language and
have facility with written academic English, but
have trouble com m unicating orally. In contrast,
many Latino learners with fluent spoken English
struggle with writing, particularly in academic
genres. A new set of issues has begun to emerge
with a growing population of immigrants who
came to the U nited States as older children.
Many of these voting m en and wom en do not
speak “targetlike" (standard) English, ret are
n e ith e r literate n o r are thev any longer orally
proficient in the language of their parents. We
do not yet have labels to neatlv nam e what we
see. Learners v a n - along dimensions of profi­
ciency in English versus a n o th e r language, spo­
ken versus written proficiency, an d academic
versus social language, a m o n g o th e r dimensions
of literacy
While there is not vet a universally accepted
definition of literacy, there is a growing consensus
that to be literate entails different things in dif­
ferent situations. .All of us, including those of us
who consider ourselves to be fairly literate,
e n c o u n te r situations in which we m ust master a
new literacy genre, such as learning HTM L for
Web design, writing for a particular journal for
the first time, or reading a p a p e r from a differ­
ent discipline. While there is no a g re e m e n t on
one definition of literacy, there is growing recog­
nition that there are many literacies, a n d in the
case of im m igrant learners, there are potentially
biliteracies with many dimensions.
C O N T E X T S FO R L IT E R A C Y
IN S T R U C T IO N
Literacy for What?
In 1991 the United States Congress created a set of
educational goals for the nation, including Goal 6
for Literacy and Lifelong Learning: “By the year
2000. even adult American will be literate and will
possess the knowledge and skills necessary to com­
pete in a global economy and exercise the rights
and responsibilities of citizenship." To explore
what this would entail, members of the Equipped
for the Future Initiative asked adult learners what
thee hoped to gain from formal learning opportu­
nities. From the responses of more than fifteen
h undred adults, four themes or purposes for lan­
guage and literacy learning emerged:
■ Access: to inform ation [as well as jobs and
resources] so adults can orient themselves
in the world:
■ Voice: to be able to express ideas a n d o p in ­
ions with the confidence thev will be he a rd
a n d taken into account;
■ Independent Action: to be able to solve p ro b ­
lems a n d m ake decisions on o n e ’s own, act­
ing independently, without having to rely
on others;
■ Bridge to the Future: learning how to learn so
adults can keep up with the tvorlfi as it
changes (Stein 1997, p. 7).
A National Literacy Sum m it followed by m eet­
ings th ro u g h o u t the U nited States resulted in
the following Call to Action:
Bv 2010, a system of high quality adult
literacy, language and lifelong learn­
ing services will help aclidts in every
com m unity make m easurable gains
toward achieving their goals as family
members, workers, citizens and lifelong
learners (National Literacy Summit
2000, p. 1 ).
This section briefly provides models for instruc­
tion that currently speak to those roles and raises
issues specific to each context that must be con­
sidered if this vision is to be achieved.
Basic Adult ESL/Literacy
and Lifelong Learning
Adults have pursu e d their desire to improve
language an d literacy skills for personal, profes­
sional, or academ ic reasons th rough a wide
range o f venues such as adult schools, co m m u ­
nity colleges, communitv-based organizations,
libraries, workplaces, or in their own hom es
th ro u g h one-on-one volunteer program s. Nearly
50 pe rc e n t of the learners enrolled in federally
fu n d e d adult education program s are English
language learners, a n d most adult education
program s (70%) offer some ESL instruction
(TESOL 2000).
Trends in imm igration, attitudes toward
immigrants, a n d educational a n d labor policies
all have an impact on ESL/literacy instruction,
no m atter the context in which it occurs. In the
1990s, for example, the U.S. Congress began a
series of efforts to cut, com bine, an d streamline
federal program s. O n e result was a bill that com ­
bined literacy efforts with workforce training.
Literacy initiatives for the first time were linked
directly to adult employment, j o b training, and
retraining. This bill has been followed bv several
legislative initiatives that place a he aw emphasis
on jo b preparation. T he cluster of initiatives pop­
ularly known as welfare reform, for example,
places enorm ous pressure on families t<> get off
welfare a n d find jobs. T he result' are telt not
only in workplace program s, but abo m General
ESL, family literacy and o th er program s that are
pushed to incorporate em ploym ent preparation
into their curriculum and provide evidence of
job outcom es to m aintain their funding.
Family or Intergenerational Literacy
T he terms family literacy and intergenerational lit­
eracy have been used to describe how literacy is
\a lu e d and used in the lives of children and
adults. These terms h a te also been used to
describe e d u c atio n a l pro g ra m s de sig n e d to
strengthen literacy resources bv involving at
least two generations for a variety of stated goals
(Weinstein 1998). In the U nited States, the term
family literacy has gained recognition through
the growth o f private initiatives such as the
Barbara Bush Family Literacy Foundation and
Tovota Families for Learning, as well as federal
program s such as H ead Start and Even Start.
Family Literacy Program Goals
and Models
Many initiatives state that their goal is to support
parents in prom oting children's school achieve­
m ent. with an emphasis on parental involvement
with schools. Promising programs resist a model
that is unilinear— that is, they recognize that it is
not onlv that parents must understand and sup­
port schools, but also that school personnel have
an obligation to understand and better respond
to patents and families. With greater reciprocal
connection as a goal, while parents learn about
schools, teachers learn a b out families, anc.
schools respond to the realities of the com m uni­
ties they serve (McCaleb 1994).
A second goal often found in family literacy
program s is to foster a love of reading amonc
both adults and children, or m ore specifically, tc
help adults transmit a love of reading to thei:
children. In the case of immigrants, experience
shows that parents are rarclv in a position tc
know m ore English than their children, o r thin
to read comfortably to them in their newlv devel­
oping language. Innovative program s may use a
variety of wavs to encourage reading and foster
love of literature while minimizing the stresse'
on adults. T h e re is evidence, for example, tha:
older children learn as m uch by reading aloud to
their parents as bv listening to their parents read.
This allows adults to support their children's
development without losing face. In other pro­
grams, Latino adults practice reading Spanish
children's literature in order to read to their chil­
dren, thus fostering native language literacy along
with pride in the heritage language.
A third goal put forth for some programs is
to provide literacy to support adults in addressing
family concerns. These programs attend to the
role of hom e language and culture, and include
activities to enable adults to develop a critical
understanding of schooling to "evaluate and
rehearse appropriate responses and develop net­
works for individual or g ro u p advocacy"
(Auerbach 1992. p. 35). Learners are supported
in reflecting collectively on parenting, developing
a voice in the education of their children, and in
advocating for their families (Nash et al. 1992).
Finally, some programs aim specifically to
rec o n n e c t the generations in positive wavs.
Children of immigrant families who have more
exposure to English are often placed in a position
of translating and solving other problems for par­
ents, reversing traditional roles and creating addi­
tional stresses for all involved (Weinstein 1998).
W hen the goal of imergenerational work is to
restore channels for transmission of culture and
values, children and adults can be resources for
one another. In one family literacy class, for
example, participants create a family Web page:
adults proside stories of their past which children
illustrate a n d input into the c o m p u te r
(Hovanesian 1999). Projects like these draw on
the resources of children (for English and com­
puter facility), while tapping the memories and
knowledge of adults.
Issues and Agendas
in Family Literacy
While the goal of mans family program s is to
improve c h ild re n ’s school achievements, th ere is
clearly m ore to famih' life th an school success.
T he work o f Valdes, cited at the beginning of this
chapter, is o ne of mans ethnographic studies that
illustrate tensions when the culture of schooling
violates the norm s of family s’alues. O th e r studies
illustrate the ways in which teachers a n d o th er
school personnel can inadvertently u n d e rm in e
parental authority— by valuing certain kinds of
knosvledge. svhile discounting the knosvledge of
the hom e culture.
Second, a majority of family literacy p ro ­
grams are designed in a was- that seems to foster
participation primarily of children an d their
mothers, to the exclusion of fathers or o th e r sig­
nificant caretakers who mat be equally critical in
children's lives. Elders continue to be an u n d e r­
tapped resource with a wealth o f knowledge that
can help to a n c h o r children in their own culture
an d history at a time of en o rm o u s change and
poten tia l disc o n n e c tio n . Such g r o u n d in g is
especially critical at a time w hen children long
for connection an d belonging so that they do
not n e e d to seek it in o th er forms such as gang
m em bership.
Finally, famih literacy programs often grow
from sources in earls childhood education. If pro­
grams grew directly from the needs of adults and
their own priorities as parents, how would thev be
different? When adults are asked about the family
issues that concern them most, thev rarelv m en ­
tion their toddlers— the targeted participants of
most federally funded family literacy programs.
Rather, uprooted adults tend to be most con­
cerned about their older children who face the
perils of adolescence, such as drugs, gangs, and
other dangers associated with coming of age in
m odern times.
As fu n ding and support c ontinue to grow
for famih literacy programs, there will be many
challenges a h e a d to e n s u re that p ro g ra m s
strengthen families, h o n o r the authorin' of par­
ents. recogni/e and celebrate the wisdom o f eld­
ers. an d address the needs that adults themselves
see in the challenging work thev have to raise a
famih' in a complex world.
PRE-EM PLO YM EN T A N D
W O R K P L A C E L IT E R A C Y
In the 1970s. the influx of guest workers in west
E uropean countries caused British educators to
reevaluate the efficacy of grammar-based and
audiolingtial m e th o d s an d tu rn th eir focus
instead to the linguistic tasks required on the
job. At the same time, the U nited States was cop­
ing with an influx of almost 1100.000 refugees
who n e e d e d language and literacy for work
m ore urgently than they n e e d e d bookish accu­
racy in pro d u cin g carefully sequenced gram m ar
structures.
This laid the groundwork for a growing shift
toward employment-related ESI., which mat be
woven into a general ESL course or offered in
pre-workplace classes on the job. by a union, or bv
a consortium of several partners. Programs gen­
erally entail a needs analysis of participants, an
analysis of tasks entailed in a giv en job or setting,
a plan for instruction, and an evaluation proce­
dure (see chapter bv Johns and Price-Machado in
this volume).
Goals of Pre-employment
and Workplace Programs
It has been suggested that there are goals for
learners that cut across settings. Bv synthesizing
literature from across the manufacturing, techni­
cal, service, and agricultural domains. Grognet
(1997) proposed a set of competencies that are
useful in ant workplace setting. Below are exam­
ples of language functions associated with each of
three goals.
To get a job:
■ read want ads and com plete application
forms
■ give personal information
■ answer an d ask questions (etc.)
To survive on a job:
■ follow oral and written directions
■ u n d e rs ta n d a n d use safety language
■ ask for clarification (etc.)
To thrive on a job (and h a te job mobility):
■ participate in group discussions
■ give as well as follow directions
■ state a position (etc.)
O th e r goals identified grow from research
on skills required for the workplace. In 1992. the
Secretary of Labor's Commission on Achieving
Necessary Skills (SCANS) issued a report based
on the collaborative work of business and educa­
tion leaders. The Commission identified five
competencies and three foundation skills needed
for success in the workplace, which have been
ada p te d to adult workplace curriculum in many
settings. This framework is one that is supported
and e x p anded upon bv the E quipped for the
Future initiative, which identifies skills n eed ed
bv adults in their roles as workers, as well as
those underlying areas of knowledge and skill
that cut across roles a n d contexts (Stein 1997).
Issues and Agendas in Literacy
for Workers: Workplace
or Workforce Education?
In the two decades when workplace instruction
was developing, the techniques used for needs
assessment primarily involved surveys and inter­
views with employers, managers, and supervi­
sors. Inform ation from workers generally was
gathered from the most successful employees to
break down the functional and linguistic com ­
ponents of a given task or job in o rd e r to teach
it m ore effectively to new workers. This implicit
goal is to make employees m ore productive and
efficient in meeting the needs of their employers
(McGroartv and Scott 1993).
However, the agendas of workers may be
different from that of their employers. Many
workers want to improve their language and lit­
eracy skills to get out of low-paving or dead-end
jobs, to get better jobs within an organization, or
to better support their roles in family life. In
addition, workers may n e e d skills to cope with
dow nsizing, layoffs, an d o th er jolt dislocations in
o r d e r to find new em p lo y m en t (Macias in
press). T he recognition o f the needs of learners
themselves has fostered a distinction between
workplace education, to improve productivity in a
given job, an d workforce education, which is more
oriented toward education of the whole person in
his or her roles as a parent, community member,
and even as a union member. This approach
assumes that the workplace may be a good venue
lor addressing literacy needs, but that curriculum
should be driven bv the needs of the learner,
w hether for a particular job, for upward mobility,
or for o th er personal goals as a lea rn er and as a
h u m a n being.
Clearly, those programs that prove most suc­
cessful will be the ones that take into account the
agendas of all constituencies a n d that create
opportunities for those agendas to be negotiated.
Employers need to see the value of program s to
be willing to fund and support worker participa­
tion in them: workers need to feel that their own
needs will be met if the\ are to participate and
benefit from language and literacy instruction.
Civic ESL/Literacy Education
Civic education lor newcomers is almost as old as
immigration. Earlv in the twentieth e e ntun. for
example, "settlement houses" were created to
assist immigrants in assimilating to life in the
United States and to prepare them for citizenship.
What does it m ean for am adult to be a "good cit­
izen"? What skills, knowledge, or values should a
person demonstrate to be accepted as a nets citi­
zen? These are questions that have been around
as long as there have been neighbors and as long
as there h ate been newcomers.
While it has long been required that new cit­
izens be able to speak some English, it is a recent
development that literacy was added to the list of
requirements. In 1930. a reading and writing com­
ponent teas added to screening procedures for
prospective nets citizens. Today, the Immigration
and Naturalization Service (INS) administers an
examination that evaluates the applicant's knowl­
edge of U.S. history and government bv quizzing
applicants from a list of 100 questions, as well as
testing basic knowledge of spoken and written
English (Becker 2000).
Goals of Civic ESL/Literacy
Education
O n e goal of citizenship classes is simply to assist
learners in prep a rin g to take the naturalization
exam. Public monies, as well as private support
from sources such as the Soros F oundation's
Em m a Lazarus Fund, have m ade it possible to
provide assistance to immigrants through educa­
tion program s and com m unity or social service
organizations. The classes m ar constitute distinct
"citizenship” classes or thev may be woven into
the general ESL curriculum. Citizenship classes
are sometimes taught bilinguallv, especially in
community-based organizations.
Classes focusing on naturalization test prepa­
ration. according to Nixon and Keenan (1997), are
most effective when thee use a variety of materials,
when thev provide as much context for learners as
possible, and when thee use authentic materials
and Usual aids, especially for low-literacv learners.
Classes m a t include traditional EST activities
geared to naturalization test preparation, such as:
Question Division — learners arrange the
100 INS questions according to them e
Inform ation gap activities — learners match
questions with answers
Flash cards — learners create their own flash
cards with questions on one side, answers on
other to facilitate hom e studv. etc. (Nixon
and Keenan 1997. p. 2).
A second goal related to civic and citizen­
ship education is to encourage learners who have
been naturalized to exercise their newlv earned
franchise with the vote. Л no Citizens Vote, for
example, is a voter education kit developed
"to increase the skills and self-confidence of
participants regarding voting a n d o th e r local
decision-making processes" (Northern California
( .ra in m a k e rs 1998). T h e kit. available in
English. Chinese. Vietnamese, or Spanish from
ywvw.ncg.org. contains interactive exercises
including, a m o n g others
a mock election to illustrate the importance
of each individual's vote:
voting basics: eligibility requirem ents, regis­
tration. and voting procedures:
t how and where to find inform ation about
political parties, issues, a n d candidates.
Л third goal focuses more broadly on many
forms of civic participation. In Civic Participation
and Communis Action Sourcebook (Nash 1999), for
example, a group consisting primarily of teachers
share activities that move learners into action
bevond voting. With this expanded notion of civic
engagement, the sourcebook presents a range of
tools that are aimed at helping readers
■ exam ine their beliefs about community,
citizenship, democracy, etc;
■ identify and analyze issues that concern
them; and
■ build skills an d strategies to take inform ed
action (Nash 1999. p. ix).
These materials provide accounts bv teach­
ers o f projects they have done, such as a group of
formerly homeless women studying the history
of welfare policy a nd th e n teaching others about
the issue, or an ESL class that rallies to help a
family that has been b u r n e d out of their hom e.
T h e teacher-authors discuss the challenges of
trying to incorporate com m unity action into the
culture of adult education.
Issues in Civic E S L Literacy
Education
There are some poignant ironies that em erge in
the conflict between preparing learners to be
active, engaged citizens in their communities and
the stresses of preparing learners for the INS nat­
uralization test. This conflict is exemplified in
SHINE, Students Helping in the Naturalization of
Elders, a project I codirect in San Francisco.
T h ro u g h SHINE, we train a n d place volunteer
university student “coaches” in citizenship classes
to support older learners who are preparing for
naturalization, as well as in o ther ESL literacy
classes (Weinstein et al. in press).
We aim to incorporate learner-centered
them atic units into o u r coaching curriculum
th ro u g h the “First A m e n d m e n t Project." for
which we collect narratives from learners and
teachers ab o u t their personal experiences with
freedom of expression. O u r personal stories of
standing up (or not) to parents, bosses, and
o th e r authority figures, participating in d e m o n ­
strations, a n d suffering censorship cut to the
core of civic engagem ent. We find enthusiasm
for this initiative from participants across the
ESL literacy an d academ ic spectrum. o\rqM for
participants in citizenship classes, whose overrid­
ing c oncern is to cram, as quickie and efficiently
as possible, for the naturalization test. Given the
high stakes, this comes as no surprise.
This schism illuminates the irons' that the
citizenship exam, as it is currently conceived and
administered, does little to prom ote engagem ent
for learners in the life of their communities. It
continues to be a challenge for c o n c ern e d ESI,
teachers to p rep a re learners for a test that has
grave consequences for their lives, while also
e n c o u ra g in g th e m to develop a voice and
becom e inform ed and active m em bers of their
communities.
O R IE N T A T IO N S TO
C U R R IC U LU M A N D
IN S T R U C T IO N
T here are a wide variety of approaches to ESL
instruction, each with underlying assumptions
about teaching and learning, as well as associated
techniques and procedures. While it is problem ­
atic when a program pursues one approach with
such rigidity that it precludes responding to
lea rn er styles or changing learner needs, Wrigles
a n d Guth (2000) caution that there is equal
cause for c oncern when program s becom e so
“eclectic" that tliev have no philosophical coher­
ence or unifying vision.
This section briefly examines two general
orientations to ESL literacy instruction, as well as
a variety of approaches a n d activities consistent
with those orientations. A set of questions to
investigate "what works" is provided, along with
a set of dichotomies (or continua) for observing
characteristics of E S L T iteracv classrooms.
Finally, the section concludes with a discussion ol
assessing learner success, an d some of the chal­
lenges that face the field in terms of accountal>
ility in the decade ahead.
Mastery or Transmission
o f Knowledge
Most program s aim to help students learn facts,
concepts, a n d skills (procedural knowledge
through guided a n d sequenced practice. In adult
ESL, a “M asteiy’-based orientation is exemplified
bv focus on linguistic structures, language skills,
specific content, a n d / o r competencies.
 T h e teaching of language structures is as old
as language teaching itself. From earlv tech­
niques such as g ram m ar translation to c o n te m ­
porary textbooks organized bv verb tense and
language form, mastery of language structures
appears in most curricula to a greater or lesser
extent. A glance at the table o f contents of am
ESL textbook will reveal the degree of prom i­
nence that language structures h a te in the
organization of material that is taught.
Language skills are also featured in most cur­
ricula, with varying degrees of attention to the
tour skills of listening, speaking, reading, and
writing. Focus on listening and speaking activi­
ties, a c c o rd in g to the “W hat Works" study
Pelavin R esearch C e n te r an d A m erican
Institutes for Research 1999). constitute an ESL
Acquisition Model, and mav include vocabulary,
oronunciation. language functions, and strate­
gies to engage in oral com m unication with native
speakers. In contrast, an ESL Lileraes Model.
according to this study, is constituted bv reading
and writing skills development. This mas email
providing ESI. literacy learners with op p o rtu n i­
ties to engage with print, skills and strategies for
fluency in reading, and the goal of automaticitv
in decoding. Fluency skills include practicing let­
ters o f the alphabet, letter and word recognition,
recognizing sound svmbol relationships, and
blending sounds. Activities frequently associated
with developing these skills include supported
or choral reading and using "environmental"
print (signs that su rro u n d us in daily life).
Content-based approaches to F.ST literacy
instruction are those in which the language and
literacy curriculum is woven a round specific sub­
ject matter. While this approach was initially
developed to prepare refugee children for school
subjects, there are many applications to adult con­
texts. Workplace literacy programs have long
incorporated the specific vocabulary and lan­
guage functions needed for a given job or profes­
sion into their curricula. Family literacy programs
often provide language for teaching childhood
development or an orientation to the structure of
schools in the United States. Citizenship classes
may provide English language vocabulary and
skills in the context of the citizenship exam, such
as the H7/-construction needed to understand the
"]00 questions.” Even the alphabet mav be taught
and practiced through kev words in U.S. history
(e.g.. "/us for Flag”). (For m ore on content-based
approaches, see Snow’s chapter in this volume.)
Competency-based education (CBE) em e rg ed
in the late 1970s in a shift awav from grammar-
based curriculum w hen nevvlv arriving refugees
n e e d e d English for im m ediate application in
their new lives. A com petency is an instructional
objective described in task-based terms such as
"Students will be able to . . . e n d in g with a verb
phrase describing a dem onstrable skill such as
"find information in a bus schedule.” During the
p eriod of intense refugee resettlem ent, this
approach was aimed at helping learners use pub­
lic transportation, shop, interact with a doctor, etc.
The goal was not only to teach learners about lan­
guage and grammar, but also to enable them to
use language to accomplish a nonlinguistic end
(Crandall and Pevton 1999). Competencies for
earlv literacy might include items such as “can rec­
ognize letters of the alphabet" or “can write tipper
and lower case English letters."
Meaning-Making or Constructivism
A constructivist orientation to teaching and
learning is one in which it is assumed that knowl­
edge is not only transm itted to learners from
teachers or books, but also that both m eaning
and knowledge can be created collectively by
learners or bv learners an d teachers. A variety of
approaches, m ethods, and techniques mav1 be
associated with this orientation. This section
m entions a few. including participatory and
whole language approaches. Learners' Lives as
Curriculum (LLC). an d project-based learning.
These approaches have significant overlap, dif­
fering primarily in emphasis.
A participators, or "Ereirian ” approach, to adult
literacy education revolves a ro u n d the tenet that
education and knowledge have value insofar as
thev help people recognize and liberate them ­
selves from the social conditions that oppress
them. Paolo Freire was a Brazilian educator who
helped initiate, develop, and im plem ent national
literacy campaigns in a n u m b e r of developing
countries. In his classic Pedagogy oj the Oppressed,
Freire (1972) outlines an approach to teaching lit­
eracy in which researchers studv the conditions in
a community and identify generative words to
describe situations familiar to learners, and then
literacy teachers develop materials using these gen­
erative words to help learners decode the syllables
as well as deconstruct their social conditions.
Most ESL educators who relv on a Freirian
ap p ro a c h do not have the luxury of reiving on
social scientists to study learners' communities,
n o r do they focus on the analysis of syllables as
the only wav to attack the m echanics of lan­
guage. However, those who ascribe to the pri­
m ary tenets of participatory education (see
A uerbach 1992), tend to agree on
■ Use of generative words and them es draw n
from learners' experiences
■ T h e notion o f teachers as facilitators rather
titan transmitters of knowledge
■ Use of “problem-posing," a technique in
which learners look at pictures or objects to
discuss their situation and explore solutions
to problems encoded in those situations,
(see Auerbach 1992).
T he whole language approach, a movement
bo rn in U.S. elementary classrooms, grows from a
perspectiye on language learning and teaching in
which language is seen as social, and is learned in
interaction with other speakers, readers, and writ­
ers. In whole-language o rie n te d classrooms,
learners work together to read and write for and
with each o ther and evaluate products together.
While phonics or o ther bottom-up m ethods that
break down language are not precluded, they are
used in service of larger communicative events.
As my colleague Carole Eclelskv once explained
to me, ‘You teach the sound 'IT not because it is
‘H tveek,’ but rather, because som eone wants
to write instructions for how to take care o f the
hamster.” The Language Experience Approach, or
LEA, a technique related to the whole language
tradition, enables adult ESL literacy learners to
engage with print from the outset by drawing on
stories that they dictate to a teacher or m ore able
classmate, either in the native language or in
English. These stories becom e the basis for a lan­
guage or literacy lesson (see Ediger's chapter in
this volum e).
An extension of the principles behind these
techniques is found in a m odel called Learners’
Lives as Curriculum (Weinstein 1999), in which
learner texts (e.g.. language experience, dicta­
tion, poem, storv, folktale, or interview) are used
as catalysts for discussing them es of interest or
concern to learners. A thematic unit, according to
this model, provides learners with personal sto­
ries of others like themselves, along with an
opportunity to respond to those stories, generate
their own narratives, and prepare for a collective
project while learning specific language skills
and structures. In a predesigned thematic unit
on neighborhoods, for example, Tekola Beyene
com pares his new ho m e in Virginia, where
"houses are verv far apart" and “people are afraid
of me because I am a Black m a n ” with his neigh­
b o rh o o d in Ethiopia, ■where “mv sons played in
neighbors' houses every day. . . . if vou n e e d ed
help, som eone was alwavs there!" This narrative
is used to invite discussion about the learners’
own neighbors and neighborhoods, with a focus
on the them e of giving and getting help. The
unit leads toward a project in which learners
compile a local c o m m u n in ’ resource directory,
incite a guest speaker from a sendee that is of
interest to the group, and then create a classroom
trading post to swap skills and sendees within
their classroom community. According to LLC,
thematic units include four main components:
■ Narratives with a contextualized focus on
themes and "hot topics" of interest to learners
■ Language skills, structures, and competencies
■ O pportunities to d o c u m e n t cu rre n t lan­
guage use an d m o n ito r progress towards
learner-selected goals
■ O pportunities to build a classroom com ­
munity in which learners get acquainted,
solve problem s together, and engage in
authentic projects (Weinstein 1999)
C ertain projects f u r t h e r illustrate the
potential w hen learners are invited to collec­
tively construct knowledge th rough telling sto­
ries for real readers or listeners outside the class­
room. Mien hill tribe women work in groups to
describe photos of village life in Laos. With help
from a bilingual aide, they create a book that will
be given to their children born in the United
States. Newly arrived immigrants at the cite college
develop a handbook for new(er)c.omers on how t<>
survive the first semester in the United States,
complete with a campus resource guide and tips
for handling homesickness (Weinstein 1999).
Students at El Barrio Popular investigate neigh­
borhood problems that thev themselves hav e iden­
tified, and compile their research for collective
advocacv (Rivera 1999). In an Internet project
that draws many "hits." English language learners
from across the countrv contribute to a Web page
lor folk remedies, thus pooling their knowledge to
the benefit of all. (Gaer. http: www.otan.dni.us
webfann/emailproject re m .h tm ).
These activities illustrate project-based learn­
ing, in which learners investigate a question,
solve a problem , plan an event, or develop a
product (Moss an d Van Duxer 1998). Learners
not onlv receive knowledge from a teacher or
book, but also, thev collectiv elv share and create
knowledge. A m ong the potential benefits are
effective advocacv. support for problem-solving,
and intergenerational transmission of culture.
In addition, materials created bv learners are
often m ore powerful and compelling tor future
learners than anvthing the most dedic ated m ate­
rials writer can dream up.
What Works? Continua for
Observation and Inquiry
English as a Second Language program s are the
fastest growing c o m p o n e n t in federallv funded
adult education efforts. Notwithstanding a gen­
eral sense of "prom ising practices" (Wriglev
1993), there is a dearth of empirical research
about what works for whom and nuclei' what cir­
cumstances. T he National (llearinghou.se for
ESL Titeracv Education (1998) proposed an
agenda for adult ESL literacv. including research
on the efficacv of different approaches in differ­
ent circumstances. T he "What Works” stuclv,
m en tio n e d earlier, svstematicallv explores one
set o f contrasts within a Masters orientation, that
is, the efficacv of focusing on oral com m unica­
tion versus reading writing skills in ESL literacv
instruction. O th e r variables which the stuclv
seeks to investigate pose useful questions for
observation of ESL/liieracv classes an d food for
thought for ESL literacv teachers both within
and across orientations.
What is the relative emphasis on reading,
writing, listening, and speaking?
How m uch emphasis is given to linguistic
versus nonlinguistic outcomes?
What is the extent of focus on structure
versus m eaning-m aking (i.e.. on activities
associated with masterv versus constructivist
o rie n ta tio n s )?
What is the extent of "language practice"
versus authentic com m unication?
f o r how m uch time in the class do learners
actuallv use language and literacv?
Is curriculum p re d e te rm in e d or does it
reflect evolving learner interests?
To what extent do learners know the objec­
tives of the lesson and have an opportunitv
for input?
Teachers (and teacher trainees) do not
have the luxurv of waiting for federal studies to
come in with answers. With observation and
reflective practice, these questions can guide
our own inquirv. as we observe "what works" for
different learners in different situations.
Setting Goals, Monitoring Progress
In am language or literacv program , there are
several sets of "stakeholders." each of which want
to know certain things about how things are
going. Learners want to know how well thev are
doing vis-a-vis o ther students and if thev are mov­
ing toward their own learning goals. Teachers
want to know which m ethods work (and which
ones don't) with various learners. Program staff
need inform ation in o rd e r to place learners in
appropriate levels or classes, decide course offer­
ings. plan the curriculum , and generallv find out
if thev are m e e tin g th eir p ro g ra m goals.
Funders as well its taxpavers are interested in the
retu rn on investment of literacv dollars and mav
be interested in com paring learner achievement
across programs. Policvmakers want to know
which practices are successful e n o u g h to repli­
cate as guidelines for allocating future funds.
Stakeholders from the learner's c o m m u n ity
family, a n d / o r workplace mat also want to know
if the time spent bv the learner is paving off. and
if so, in what wav (Van Duzer a n d Berdan 2000).
Assessing success has been verv problematic
in the fields of both ESL and adult literacy, partly
because of the different inform ation needs of
the different stakeholders, a n d partly because of
an absence of a coherent, com parable system.
Such a system would require ag re e m e n t on the
nature of language a n d literacy, the goals of
instruction, an d a resulting a greem ent on a
com parable way to m easure progress toward
those goals. N one of these agreem ents is yet in
place, which creates e n orm ous challenges to
programs lor d ocum enting progress in a way that
is specific to the needs of stakeholders within
their program s while providing information for
funders that is comparable with other programs.
The Equipped for the Future Initiative (EFF) has
worked to build consensus a ro u n d these areas in
o ld e r to create a perform ance-based system
which aligns student, program , and policymaker
goals within one framework. With a growing
emphasis on accountability, this is going to be a
kev area for the future of the field in the decade
to come.
In general, there are two broad categories
of assessment — general a n d program -based.
General assessments are those that allow com pari­
son across programs. Standardized tests such as
CASAS or BEST- are com m only used, a n d have
several advantages an d limitations. Some advan­
tages of standardized general assessments are
that they
■ Have construct validity and scoring reliability
* Are cost effective and relatively east’ to
adm inister
■ Are a c c e p te d bv fu n d e rs for p ro g ra m
accountability
■ Allow for comparisons of learner progress
within an d across program s
Some disadvantages are that they
■ D on't reflect what has been taught, or cap­
ture what has been learned
■ D on't capture changes in language use and
literacy practices beyond the classroom
■ D o n ’t discriminate well at the lower e n d of
literacy achievement
■ May be inappropriately used for "gatekeep­
ing” purposes, especially in the workplace
(Wriglev and G uth 2000, p. 135)
Program-based assessments, on th e o th e r
hand, reflect the a pproach of the program and
the co n te n t of the curriculum . They may be |
based on comm ercial materials used in the p ro ­
gram (e.g.. “Heinle 8c Heinle's Collaborations
Assessment Package); or they mav be developed
bv teachers th ro u g h checklists o f skills an d com ­
petencies, surveys, teacher observation forms, as
well as th ro u g h learner writing, reading, and
speaking logs. Some advantages of well designed
program -based assessments are that thev
* Reflect a program 's underlying philosophy
of instruction
» Are learner centered, reflecting strength'
a n d goals of individual learners
is Are done "with” not "to” learners, who par­
ticipate in setting goals, discussing interest'
and reflecting on their accomplishments
« Involve a variety o f tools, giving a m ore com­
plete picture of each learner a n d his or he:
needs and progress (Van Duzer and Berdar.
2 0 0 0 . p. 2 2 1 ) .
Unfortunately, without guidelines a n d rigo:-
ous procedures, until a system is agreed upon
alternative assessments do not vet produce reh-
able hard data and are difficult to compare aero"
programs. This is a serious drawback for funders
who are extremely im portant stakeholders.
PRO M ISING D IR E C T IO N S
IN A D U L T ESL L IT E R A C Y
IN S T R U C T IO N
Anyone who goes into adult ESL literacy instrtu-
tion for the m oney o r prestige is tragically m;-
guidecl. Those who are adventurous, curiom
able to tolerate ambiguity, anxious to m ake a d e ­
ference. a n d willing to learn about the won:
from others' eves, however, are in for an extr. -
ordinarily rich experience. For those who wis:
to take on the adventure, there are several
prom ising directions for effective practice that
can su p p o rt if not transform all involved.
1. Take an Inquiring Stance
Practitioners who learn about learners are in the
best position to help th em address their evolving
needs. If teachers do not have the luxurv of
m eeting with learners on their h o m e tu rf (bv
doing eth n o g ra p h ic research, visiting learners at
hom e, a tte n d in g com m unitv events, etc.), there
are many tools for bringing inquire into the
classroom. Learners can talk about their prac­
tices, concerns, a n d needs (and successes!)
using a variety of tools associated with anv of the
orientations an d approaches outlined in this
chapter. By identifying needs as learners th em ­
selves define them , practitioners can work to
address those needs, either th ro u g h the curricu­
lum or, if necessarv, between the cracks when
institutional constraints m ake it impossible to do
so directly. Those who m ake it a practice to learn
about learners bv observing a n d listening may
be in for some inspiring surprises.
2. Balance Skills and Structures
with Meaning-Making and
Knowledge Creation
Those who were trained in structural linguistics
or in competency-based approaches tend to be
good at teaching language structures a n d func­
tions b u t less practiced at starting conversations
with students about things that they care about
deeply. O n the o th er hand, experienced partici­
patory educators an d com m unity advocates tend
to know how to engage learners in exploring
“h o t” issues, but may be less skilled in presenting
the mechanics of language a n d literacy in a sys­
tematic way. To gain proficiency with language
a n d literacy, it is necessary to have both the build­
ing blocks as well as the opportunity to use them
for a d e e p e r purpose. T he linguists would do
well to learn how to invite heart-felt conversation
a n d collective problem-solving; the advocates
a n d organizers n e e d tools to help learners mas­
ter the m echanics of language an d literacy as an
integral p a rt o f th e ir project-based work.
Practitioners can also learn from an d collaborate
with peers who have com plem entary strengths in
skill-building an d m eaning-m aking— b o th essen­
tial parts of the language a n d literacy learning
enterprise.
3. Develop “ Vision-Making” Muscles
As we learn new techniques, follow new trends,
or react to changing pressures, it is easy to forget
what m oved us to becom e teachers. We may set­
tle into a m o d e of only reacting to outside m a n ­
dates, losing track of the m an d a te th at comes
from ou r own vision. W hat is o u r purpose? W hat
are ^ve ho p in g to m ake h a p p e n for learners who
e n te r o u r classrooms w hen they com e in and
after they’ve left? Articulating a n d p u rsuing a
vision is, in my view, work that m ust be d o n e on
several levels. This happens in the daily fabric of
lesson p lanning (What is the p urpose o f this les­
son?); in providing in p u t to the program s we
work for (How should ou r curricula change?);
in advocating for policies that s u p p o rt effective
learning a n d effective teaching (What are the
conditions that we a n d ou r learners n e e d to p u r ­
sue this vision?); as well as in how we assess the
degree to which we are moving toward o u r
vision. With too few full-time jobs a n d difficult
working conditions, it can be challenging to
re m e m b e r an d pursue such a vision an d to be
proactive rath e r than reactive to the day’s cir­
cumstances. I believe that, as educators, we all
n e e d m ore practice a n d su p p o rt in flexing ou r
“vision-making” muscles.
4. Demand Mutual Accountability
With a growing emphasis on “accountability,” it
will becom e increasingly im p o rta n t for practi­
tioners to have their own vision o f what they are
trying to accomplish th ro u g h their literacy work
a n d to seek wavs of assessing the degree to which
they are succeeding. Merrifield (1998) talks
ab o u t a svstem of “mutually accountable” rela­
tionships in which evert’ “player” would be both
accountable to o th e r players a n d held account­
able by th em . Learners would hold teachers
accountable for m eeting their learning needs,
but teachers would hold learners accountable
for a ttending an d doing their work, while also
holding p rogram directors an d funders account­
able for providing them with a dequate resources
such as materials, space, or training.
While Merrifield's vision is far from the cur­
rent reality, it is crucial for practitioners to know
an d articulate what thev are trving to achieve,
and to advocate for conditions thev need to
achieve it. Just as learners should not be asked to
“wait” for m ea n in g fu l c o m m u n ic a tio n until
“after” learning the m echanics of language, prac­
titioners m ust n o t wait for ideal conditions
before engaging in vision-making work. Articu­
lating ou r goals, inviting learners to articulate
theirs, finding ways to m easure how we are mov­
ing toward them , an d fighting for conditions to
m ake the process possible must be part of our
ongoing practice in ou r classrooms, in conversa­
tions with ou r colleagues, and in wider arenas.
5. Create Communities of Learners
and Communities o f Teachers
In many of the orientations described in this
chapter, attention is given to creating c om m uni­
ties o f learners who support one an o th er in learn­
ing language an d literacv while reflecting
collectively (and sometimes taking resulting
action) on their lives. Learner stories and experi­
ences are the raw materials that can begin the con­
versation for planning such actions. Teachers who
engage this wav with the adults in their classes
rep o rt enorm ous satisfaction when learners make
individual or collective strides. Learners who have
felt marginalized find strength a n d support in the
safetv of a n u r tu r in g classroom community.
Technolog}' provides new opportunities for learn­
ers to build com m unities both within the class­
ro o m as well as beyond its boundaries. The
examples are n u m ero u s an d continue to grow as
lea rn ers collaborate to com pile a n d create
knowledge.
Teachers are also learners. Thev must con­
stantly respond to new circumstances as the stu­
d e n t population, legislative m andates, program
constraints, a n d o th er conditions change. Like
language a n d literacv learners, teachers must
often m anage despite difficult conditions. And
like anv learners, teachers also n e e d time to tell
stories of their teaching and to com pare and
analvze their experiences, both within program s
an d across them.
Instruction will be strongest where teachers
are su p p o rte d in taking time to discuss program
goals, reflect collectively on their practice, frame
questions, explore them systematically, an d take
action based on what they’ve learned. Such shar­
ing mat take manv forms, w hether it is through
sharing lesson plans, pe e r observation, “studs
circles" about teaching issues, or collaboration
on projects. In addition, national electronic lists
such as those listed in the resource section belov.
create opportunities for teachers to reflect col-
lectivelv with a wider circle of colleagues without
the constraints of in-person m eeting time o r the
boundaries of geographic space. Communitie-
of teacher-learners, w hether in person or on-line
can provide support in one o f the most challeng­
ing but rewarding endeavors imaginable— that o:
fostering and witnessing transformations that are
associated with nurturing the developm ent o:
adult literacies.
D IS C U S S IO N Q U E S T IO N S
1. Who are some of the ESL literacv learners ir.
vour communitv? What language and literac
resources do thev bring, and what resource-
do thev need or want? What are their goal-
for language and literacv learning?
2. W hat kinds of program s are available in you,:
c o m m u n itv for ESL literacv le a rn e r'-
Brainstorm a list of programs. You may wis:
to investigate such program s m ore fully as .
term project.
3. What do vou think the qualifications shoulc
be for teaching ESL literacv? W hat should br
the salarv and benefits? Find out about qual­
ifications required an d working condition-
in program s in vour c o m m u n in ’. Were th e n
anv surprises?
4. What are some of the debates that are cu:-
rentlv on electronic literacv lists? Find a debatT
 or discussion and then summarize the kev
points from the c urrent list or from the
archives. What is vour opinion about this issue?
S U G G E S T E D A C T IV IT IE S
1. Learn m ore about a bilingual family or com ­
m u n in ’ in vour neighborhood. Investigate
language use in a varietv ol'wavs— through
interviews, observation, a n d / o r attendance
at c o m m u n in ’ events. Write up a family or
co m m u n in ' profile, including patterns of
who uses what language to whom and when.
2. A rrange to observe one or m ore classes in an
adult school or ESL literacy instruction in a
family, workplace, or c o m m u n in ’ literacy
context. Begin with a brief description of the
setting, the students, a n d the course content.
Note in nonjuclgmental log form at exactly
what the teacher does and what the students
do for the duration of the class. Write up the
log. along with a discussion of the questions
on page 181. or o th er questions sou develop
with s o u r class. Interview the teacher when
feasible. Find out as m uch as possible about
the program and the funding and how thev
shape instruction.
3. Find examples of teachers and or program s
which
■ Have learner input at the classroom
level (deciding topics, projects, etc.)
■ Have lea rn er input at the program level
(deciding curriculum , approaches, etc.)
■ Offer instruction in students' native lan­
guage literacy
■ Engage in project-based work
■ Proside opportunities for com m unity
building am o n g students an d teachers
What creates the conditions that enable these
programs to engage in promising practices?
4. Im agine that the Paradise F oundation has
g ran te d sou unlim ited funds to design a pro­
gram for the target group o f s o u r choice.
Identify a group of ESL literacy learners in
your community. Provide a description of
their n eeds and resources. Describe the ideal
program sou would create to m ee t their
needs, while tapping their resources.
FU R T H ER R EA D IN G
Auerbach. E. 1992. Making Meaning. Making Change:
Partiei/jatory Curriculum Development for Adult LSI.
Literary McHenry IF: Delta Ssstems. Inc. and
Center for Applied Linguistics.
Crandall. }.. and J. Pevton. eds. 1993. Approaches to
Adult ESI. Literacy Inst) action. McHenry 1L:
Delta Ssstems. Inc. and Center for Applied
Linguistics.
Weinstein. G.. ed. 1999. Learners' Lives as Curriculum:
Six Journeys to Immigrant Literacy. McHenry II.:
Della Systems. Inc. and Center for Applied
Linguistics.
Wrigles. H. S.. and G. Guth. 2900. BringingI.itmux to Life.
Res. ed. San Mateo. CA: Aguirre International.
W E B S IT E S
The National Clearinghouse for ESL Literacy
Education (NCI.L) provides information on
adult ESL literacy education to teachers and
tutors, program directors, researchers, and poli-
cs’inakers interested in the education of refugees,
immigrants, and other U.S. residents whose
liable language is not English. This site has scores
of ERIC Digests. О N As. annotated bibliogra­
phies. and other concise resources for ESI./liter-
acs' educators which can he downloaded for free.
http: /www.cal.org/ncle.
The National Institute for Literacy (NIFL) is the host of
the Literacy Information and Communication
Ss’stem (LINGS), an information retrieval and
communication netsvork for the literacy commu­
nity also presiding access to all published and
unpublished literacy related materials and major
literal's related databases. LINCS hosts several
lists and collections, including
• the XIEI.-ESL list, which focuses on topics
such as instructional practices, program design,
research, and policy.
http: wvcvv.nifl.gov lines/discussions/
nifl-esl about nifl-esl.html
• the LLXCS Adult ESL Special Collerliou. which
provides practitioners with curricular materials
and resources, news in the held, and a forum
for issues.
http: literacsiiet.org/esl/
 • UXCS FIFE Special Collection, which features
resources related to Equipped for the Future
(EFF). XIFL.'s standards-basecl svstem reform
initiative.
http://www.nifl.gov/lincs/collections/ e ff/
eff.html
NIFF also archives messages of the National Literacy
Advocacv (NLA) list. The focus of this inde­
pendent list, moderated bv David ). Rosen, is
national and slate level adult literacy public
policy information and advocacy, especially
concerning legislation and funding.
h ttp : / / w w w . n i f l . g o v / l i n c s / d i s c u s s i o ns
nifl-nla/nla.html
The National Center for the Studv of Adult Teaming
and Literacy (XCSALL). according to their
yvebsite. aims "to help the held of adult basic
education define a comprehensive research
agenda; to pursue basic and applied research
under that agenda: to build partnerships
between researchers and practitioners; and to
disseminate research and best practices to prac­
titioners. scholars, and policy makers." It con­
tains an on-line version of Focus on Basics,
yvhich has many useful articles for practitioners.
http: / /gsew eb.harvard.edu/-ncsall
Both the U.S. National Literacy Act of 1991 and the
U.S. Adult Education Act of 1991, along with
related policy resources, are available online at
w w w .nifl.gov/linc/collectio n s/p o licv /
resource.html
ENDNO TES
1 I am grateful to Man .Ann Florez, Joy Pevton.
Brigitte Marshall. .Amanda Enoch, and Andv Nash
for their helpful comments, and to David Rosen for
pointing me to several useful resources. Anv yvrong-
headed assertions or conceptual errors are strictly
mv (jyvn.
- CASAS is the acronvm for the Comprehensive Adul:
Student Assessment Svstem. BEST is the acronym
for the Basic English Skills Test.
 Reading for Academic Purposes:
Guidelines for the ESL/EFL Teacher
W I L L I A M G R A B E • c I E D R W K A L. S T O L L E R

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concextsAne a m o r s c o n e central concepts u" ie r;. "g acacem c readrg ard thee* implications for
nstructionA^e'. th e " hgnign: issues concern ng "e ce.e oomem o*’ reading curricula inducing the
ana-ys's of re e cs a:fo choosing apoi'opriate texts 5~d materials.T-e-. describe soecfic pwctices that
Dui'd co n erert ?wd e m c c .e "eacmg c o r c o a ,

IN T R O D U C T IO N Purposes for Reading

\ l a n \ have argued in the past 13 sears that read­
ing is the most im portant academic language
skill for second language students. Supporting
these claims are several student and facultv sur­
veys at post-secondars- institutions that highlight
the im portance of reading lor academic p u r­
poses. In academic settings, reading is assumed
to be the central m eans for learning ness infor­
m ation and gaining access to alternative expla­
na tio n s a n d in te rp re ta tio n s . R e ading also
provides the foundation for svnthesis and criti­
cal evaluation skills. In addition, reading is the
p rim arv m eans for i n d e p e n d e n t learning,
w hether the goal is perform ing better on aca­
demic tasks, learning m ore about subject matter,
or improving language abilities.
In this chapter, eve describe how reading-
abilities cum be developed and how teachers can
guide student learning. The c hapter opens with
brief com m ents on the purposes for reading, a
definition of reading, and implications for effec­
tive Knglish for Academic Purposes (EAP) read­
ing in stru ctio n . We th en h ig h lig h t m ajor
differences in first language (1 .1 ) an d second
language (1 .2 ) reading an d consider curricular
goals and instructional practices that support
reading. The c hapter concludes with ou r views
of future trends in L2 reading practices.
W hen we read, we read for a variety o f purposes.
We sometimes read to get the main idea but not
m uch m ore (e.g.. skimming a newspaper story),
an d sometimes we read to locate specific infor­
m ation (e.g.. scanning for a nam e, date, or
term ). Commonly we read texts to learn infor­
mation (i.e.. reading to learn), and sometimes
we are expected to synthesize inform ation from
multiple texts, or from a longer c hapter or
book, in o rd e r to take a critical position with
respect to that inform ation (i.e.. reading to inte­
grate and evaluate in fo rm a tio n ). Perhaps most
often, we read for general co m p re h en sio n (i.e.,
reading to u n d e rstand main ideas and relevant
supporting inform ation). We also read for pleas­
ure. with the intention of being en te rta in ed or
informed, but not tested.
In academic settings, almost evert m ajor
purpose for reading comes into plat. Thus, an
EAP reading curriculum must account for how
students learn to read for multiple purposes,
including at least the reading
1. to search for information
2. for general com prehension
3. to learn new information
4. to svnthesi/c and evaluate inform ation
Although these purposes might give the impres­
sion that there are very different tuns to read a
text, these differing purposes actually d e p e n d on
a stable set of processes and skills that underlies
all reading, though in differing combinations of
relative im portance. Thus, we can still talk about
reading in the singular and define it as such, as
long as we recognize that processes an d skills
com bine in differing wavs d e p e n d in g on the
re a d e r’s purpose (Grabe 1999a).
A Definition o f Reading
T h e abilitv to r e a d — taking general c o m p r e h e n ­
sion as the exam ple — requires that the reader
draw inform ation from a text a n d com bine it
with information and expectations that the reader
alreadv has. This interaction of information is a
com m on wav to explain reading comprehension,
though it does not reveal much about the specifics
of reading. Recentlv, research on T1 reading has
highlighted the n e e d for readers to develop
essential reading processes and abilities such as
rapid w7o rd recognition, vocabulary develop­
m ent, text-structure awareness, an d strategic
re a d in g (as o p p o se d to le a rn in g individual
strategies). Yet, all researchers recognize that the
actual ability to c o m p re h e n d texts comes about
th ro u g h reading, an d doing a great deal o f it, as
the core o f reading instruction.
A good wav to understand reading is to con­
sider wThat is required for fluent reading (see
Grabe 1999b). Fluent readers, especially good Tl
readers, typicallv do all of the following:
1. Read rapidly for c o m p rehension
2. Recognize words rapidly a n d automatically
(without seem ing to pay any attention to
them)
3. Draw on a verv large vocabulary store
4. Integrate text inform ation with their own
knowledge
5. Recognize the purpose(s) for reading
6. C o m p re h e n d the text as necessarv
7. Shift purpose to read strategically
8. Use strategies to m o n ito r c o m p rehension
9. Recognize an d repair m iscom prehension
10. Read criticallv a n d evaluate inform ation
Using these characteristics of a fluent rea d e r to
create an e x p a n d e d definition of reading reveals
the multiple skills a n d strategies that L2 learners
n e e d in o rd e r to becom e fluent readers.
General Implications from Research
for Reading Instruction
Based on these criteria for fluent reading and
findings from reading research in Tl and T2 con­
texts. we see ten kev implications for К А Р reading
instruction. Basicallv. EAP teachers can addres'
the academic reading needs of their students bv
doing the following:
1. H elping students build a large recognition
vocabulary
2. Providing explicit language instruction to
help students build a reasonable foundation,
in the T2
3. Addressing the range of skills n e e d e d for
successful com prehension
4. In troducing students to discourse-organiz­
ing principles th ro u g h the use of graphic
representations and o th er practices
5. H elping students becom e strategic reader'
bv focusing on metacognitive awarenes'
and strategv learning
6. Giving students mane opportunities to rear,
so that thcv develop reading fluency and
automaticitv
7. Making extensive reading and broad expo­
sure to T2 texts a routine practice, in and
out of class
8. M otivating students to read
9. Integrating reading an d writing instruction
10. Developing effective content-based instruc­
tion for authentic integrated-skills tasks
Bevoncl these ten implications is the overarching
principle that students becom e better reader'
onlv bv doing a lot of reading. There are no short­
cuts. .All researchers agree on this principle.
L 2 Readers and Sociocultural Factors
in Learning to Read
O u r definition of reading and the implication'
for in stru ctio n th a t e m e rgоe fro m curre n t
research reveal the complexity of reading and
corresponding instruction. A m ore complete
picture of EAP reading requires that we exam ­
ine the differences betw een L I a n d L2 readers
and the ways in which these differences influ­
ence instruction. L2 readers generally have
weaker linguistic skills and a m ore limited vocab­
ulary than do LI readers. They do n o t have an
intuitive foundation in the structures o f the L2.
and they lack the cultural knowledge that is
sometimes assumed in texts. L2 students nrav
also have some difficulties recognizing the wavs
in which texts are organized a n d inform ation is
presented, leading to possible com p re h en sio n
problems. At the same time. L2 students, work­
ing with (at least) two languages, are able to relv
on their LI knowledge an d LI reading abilities
when such abilities are useful (as opposed to
instances when LI knowledge could interfere).
O lder academically oriented L2 students typic­
ally (but n o t alwavs) have been successful in
learning to read in their LI and know that thev
can be successful with academic texts and tasks.
L2 students also have certain resources for read­
ing that are potentially strong supports: bilingual
dictionaries, word glosses, m ental translation
skills, a n d the ability to recognize cognates
' dep e n d in g on the LI and L2).
L2 students often come to class with a range
of motivations to read that mav be different from
many LI students' motivations. Another potential
L1/L2 difference stems from students' social and
cultural backgrounds. L2 students generally
come from a variety of family, social, and cultural
backgrounds. Some families read verv little, have
few7 reading materials available, and do not
encourage in d ependent reading. Some social set­
tings do not encourage reading. Lor example,
prior schooling mav not have emphasized read­
ing, o ther community institutions mav not have
encouraged reading, and libraries mav have been
'carce or inaccessible. Some cultures an d social
groups place m ore emphasis on spoken com m u­
nication for learning, and reading plavs a m ore
limited role there. In some cases, educational
and religious experiences mar- center m ore on
the un q u e stio n e d truth o f powerful texts, lead­
ing to the m em orization of kev text inform ation
rather than the evaluation of com peting infor­
mational resources. Because such issues have
the potential to cause problem s for students,
teachers n e e d to inform themselves ab o u t these
issues and adjust their teaching accordingly to
reach as many students as possible.
In addition to the varying linguistic and soci­
ocultural factors that distinguish L2 readers from
LI readers, differences between ESL and EEL set­
tings are worth mentioning. Prototvpicallv, one
thinks of ESL instruction as occurring in an LI
English-speaking country, tvpicallv with immi­
grant students in secondary schools and foreign
students in post-secondarv settings. In contrast,
EFL students mav be sitting in an English class in
China. Morocco, or Belgium, learning to read
English as part of a four-skills curriculum , with
three to six hours of English instruction per
week. In ESL and EFL settings such as these,
croals for language instruction varv, levels of
English proficiency differ, an d expected reading
outcom es are likelv to be different.
T h e differences in tr o d u c e d h e re plav
m ajor roles in establishing goals for reading
instruction a n d specifying the levels of reading
ability that constitute successful learning in a
given curriculum . Each instructional setting
defines somewhat different goals for reading
achievement, purposes for reading, an d uses of
text resources. These are issues that all teachers
must be sensitive to a n d that should guide the
developm ent of EAP reading curricula.
Goals for an Effective Reading
Curriculum
In this section, we consider curricular issues that
should be relevant across a wide range of EAP
settings. We recognize, however, that we cannot
anticipate every L2 reading context, and that
recom m endations must be adapted to teachers’
individual situations. Nonetheless, we feel that
there are at least six im portant goals that should
be considered in planning anv e x te n d e d EAP
reading curriculum:
1. C onduct needs analyses to in te rp re t institu­
tional goals an d expectations for learning
2. Plan (or fine-tune) reading curricula in rela­
tion to specific goals, topics, texts, an d tasks
3. Select appropriate text materials and sup­
porting resources
4. Diversify students' reading experiences
5. Work with texts bv m eans of a pre-, during-,
and postreading framework
6. Recognize the com plex na tu re of reading
th ro u g h m eaningful instruction
These goals, discussed in m ore detail in the
rem a in d e r of the chapter, offer a m anageable
structure for planning effective EAP reading
instruction in almost anv setting, t h e n where
curricular guidelines are p red e term in e d , explo­
ration of these goals can significantly impact stu­
d e n t learning outcomes.
Conducting Needs Analyses
Reading instruction, m uch like anv instruction,
needs to take into account institutional expec­
tations in addition to students' goals, language
abilities, an d Id and L2 reading experiences, ft
is especially im portant to exam ine students'
motivations a n d attitudes toward reading in gen­
eral, 1.2 reading m ore specifically, an d the par­
ticular goals of the curriculum (e.g.. topics to be
covered, material to be read, m eans for assess­
m ent). In some settings, a certain a m o u n t of
inform ation can be collected bv interviewing
students’ previous teachers an d bv becom ing
acquainted with institutional guidelines, assess­
m e n t expectations, a n d re a d in g resources
(including textbooks).
Teachers also have a responsibility to gather
information about students' goals, prior reading
experiences, and attitudes toward 1,2 reading
from o th e r sources, most comm only the stu­
dents themselves. O n e quick way to collect use­
ful inform ation is to co n d u c t a short survey and
have brief follow-up interviews with students.
Questions can focus on how m uch reading stu­
dents have done, what students like to read,
what thes have read, an d when thev read their
last book and for what reason(s). O th e r ques­
tions can be directed at de te rm in in g how stu­
dents feel about reading an d how successful
they perceive themselves to be as readers. Even
a simple set of questions gives teachers access to
useful inform ation that can be used to plan (or
fine-tune) a reading curriculum.
Planning (or Fine-Tuning) Reading
Curricula
After conducting a needs analysis, the goals of the
curriculum can be spelled out (or interpreted) it.
m ore detail. Because there are mans possible
goals for a reading curriculum, curricular priori­
ties need to be determ ined based on institutional
goals, n u m b e r of hours of instruction per week
available resources, and students' abilities, needs
and interests. (See Johns and Price-Machado -
c hapter in this volume.) Regardless of the n um ­
ber of student contact hours, all reading curric­
ula should focus on com prehension of key text'
but thee m ight also emphasize extensive react­
ing. the developm ent of strategic reading. ..
large increase in students' recognition vocabu­
laries. greater fluency in reading, svstematn
analyses of difficult material, an d the study < :
discourse-organization features. .After goals am
priorities are determ ined, texts a n d topics car.
be selected and tasks designed, with an ev-
towarcl creating a m eaningful, motivating, an:
challenging curriculum.
Selecting Appropriate Text Materials
and Supporting Resources
A reading curriculum is heavilv d e p e n d e n t o:
the reading materials used: T he choice of pr -
marv texts and textbooks, supporting resource'
an d classroom library materials have a m a j t .
impact on students' motivations to read an.
their e n g a g em e n t with texts. Text material -
should c o m plem ent students' intellectual level-
an d be at appropriate levels of difficulty; po ten ­
tial sources of difficulty for L2 readers incluci-
assum ed b a c k g ro u n d know ledge, culltuv.
assumptions, d e m a n d in g topics, grammatica
complexitv. length of texts, new conceptua
knowledge, organization, unusual formatting
an d vocabulary. T h e text materials selected fee
EAP settings should be interesting a n d coher­
ently linked (e.g., by topics, tasks, and overa.
themes) to simulate the dem ands of academi:
courses. Text materials a nd lessons should buif
in a degree of complexity th ro u g h the introduc­
tion of new. though related, inform ation and
differing perspectives so that students feel some
challenge and base the opportunity to develop
smne expertise an d pride in what thev are learn­
ing. Ideallv. free-reading materials should be
easily accessible, plentiful, attractive, an d avail­
able for learner use bevond class time (Dav and
Bamford 1998).
Diversifying Students’ Reading
Experiences
Effective reading instruction should not be limited
to activities done in the classroom. .Vn ideal read­
ing curriculum comprises reading in class, in a
lab (see Stoller 1994a). in a library, and at hom e,
in addition to reading for different purposes. As
noted earlier, reading can develop successfully
only if'students read a large am ount of material.
A major task of a reading curriculum, then, is to
guide students in doing as much reading as pos­
sible in the am ount of time available. Silent read­
ing should be part of even reading lesson:
extended silent reading should be a major com ­
p o n e n t of reading labs and libran visits, and stu­
dents must be encouraged to read at home.
Working with Texts by Means
of a Pre-, During-,
and Postreading Framework
If the heart of learning to read is the act of read­
ing itself, then the heart of reading instruction is
the set of tasks that students engage in to achieve
learning goals. Countless instructional tasks are
used in reading classes (Dav 1994): some are
m ore effective than others. Teachers" choices
should be guided bv instructional goals, student
readiness, text resources, and implications from
research and theory. O ne m ajor implication
from theory is a general framework based on
pre-, during-, and postreading instruction (see
Stoller 1994b. for practical applications).
Premiding instnu lion can serve live im portant
purposes. It helps students access background
information that can facilitate subsequent read­
ing, provides specific information n e e d e d for
successful c om prehension, stimulates student
interest, sets up student expectations, and models
strategies that students can later use on their own.
Some com m only used p re re a d in g activities
include the following:
1. Previewing the text (bv examining distin­
guishing features of the text such as the title,
subheadings, illustrations and captions, and
sections) to determ ine (or at least hypothe­
size) the general topic of the reading, rele­
vant vocabulary, and possible challenges
2. Skimming the text or portions of the text
(e.g.. the first and last paragraphs) to
decide what the main ideas of the text are
3. Answering questions about inform ation in
the text or form ulating questions for which
students want answers
4. Exploring kev vocabulary
5. Reflecting on or reviewing inform ation
from previously read texts in light of the
topic of the new text
I)un ng-icnding instruction guides students
th ro u g h the text, often focusing on u n d e rs ta n d ­
ing difficult concepts, m aking sense of complex
sentences, c o n s id e rin g rela tio n sh ip s a m o n g
ideas or characters in the text, a n d l eading pu r­
posefully and strategically. Some com m only used
dttring-reading activities include the following:
1. O utlining or summ arizing kev ideas in a dif­
ficult section
2. Exam ining emotions and attitudes of kev
characters
3. D eterm ining sources of difficulty an d seek­
ing clarification
4. Looking for answers to questions posed
du rin g prereading activities
5. Writing down predictions of what will come
next
Poslrcuding instruction tvpicallv extends ideas
and information from the text while also ensur­
ing that the major ideas and supporting informa­
tion are well understood. Postreading activities
often require students to use text information in
other tasks (e.g.. reading to write). Some com ­
monly used postreading activities are
1. C om pleting a graphic organizer (e.g., table,
chart, grid) based on text inform ation
 Expanding or changing a semantic m ap
created earlier
3. Listening to a lecture and com paring infor­
m ation from the text an d the lecture
4. Ranking the importance of information in
the text based on a set of sentences provided
5. Answering questions that dem onstrate com ­
prehension of the text, require the applica­
tion of text material, d e m a n d a critical
stance on text information, or oblige stu­
dents to connect text information to per­
sonal experiences and opinions
T h e pre-, during-, a n d postreading fram e­
work described here is easily ada p te d to differ­
ent classroom contexts. All three c o m ponents of
the framework m a t be integrated into a single
lesson (with a short reading passage on a famil­
iar topic) or thev ntav run across n u m erous les­
sons. T h e activities in tro d u c ed in the upcom ing
sections of this c hapter can also be integrated
into the pre-, during-, and postinstructional
framework.
Addressing the Complex Nature
o f Reading through Meaningful
Instruction
R eading is a complex skill— as d e m onstrated bv
o u r definition of reading, the abilities of fluent
readers, a n d the mans purposes for which we
read. Meaningful LAP reading instruction can
account for this complexity bv addressing the
following: vocabulary d e v e lo p m e n t, careful
read in g of texts, awareness of text structure and
discourse org an iz atio n , the ttse o f graph ic
organizers to support com prehension, strategic
reading, fluency developm ent, extensive rea d ­
ing, student motivation, a n d integrated-skills
tasks. Because it is virtually impossible to develop
each and even area with equal intensity, reading
teachers need to decide which areas to focus
m ore attention on, while n o t losing sight of the
prim ary m eans for rea d in g developm ent:
Students n e e d to read extensively.
Vocabulary D evelopm ent T here is overwhelm­
ing evidence that vocabulary know ledge is
closelv related to reading abilities Schoonert,
Hulstijn. and Bossers 1998). Students need t<
recognize a hu ge n um ber of words automatical!'
if thev are to be fluent readers. Some part o:
rapid word recognition skills comes from reading
extensively and learning new words while read­
ing. However, reading bv itself does not provide
full support for vocabulary developm ent. I:
addition to reading extensively, students bene:
from being exposed to new words throng:,
explicit instruction, learning how to learn word'
on their own. familiarizing themselves with the),
own word-learning processes, and becom iru
word collectors (see (.rates 2000: Stahl 1999
(See also D eC arrico’s c hapter in this volume.)
With so m am worth for students to learn. .
teacher needs to decide how mans and wliic:
words to focus on. Inexperienced teachers me
have difficulties selecting kev words for institu ­
tion. Rev words themselves should be the mo-'
im portant words for a text, the most useful f
organizing and working with o ther vocabulary
and the most likelv to be helpful to studen:-
bevond the text being read. Often textbook-
highlight specific words for instruction; howeve:
there m ar be o ther words that need attention. -
useful approach for teachers is to preview' tlw
text to be assigned and identify words likelv to b-
unlam iliar to their students. Words should b-
placed in one of three categories:
1. + + : Words that are critical for compre­
h e n d in g the text and useful in other setting-
2. + - : (Voids that are necessary for com pre­
h e n d in g the text, hut not particularly use­
ful in o th er contexts
3. - - : Words that are not necessary f e
c o m p re h e n d in g the text, n o r particular'.'
useful in o th er contexts
Words that fall into the + + and + - cate­
gories should he considered for direct instruc­
tion. Vet. when texts are difficult for students. .
teacher m ight identify 40 to 50 words in these
two categories. I he problem here is that trying
to teach a large n u m b e r of words directly at am
one time is not an effective teaching strategy. Ir.
am given lesson, it is m ore efficient to locus or.
four to five kev words, because that n u m b e r o:
words is likeh to be learned and re m e m b e re d i:
used multiple times a n d in multiple wavs. Mam
of the o th er useful an d im portant words in a text
can be built into exercises a n d activities (e.g\.
sem antic maps, tables, word families) an d
explored as p a n of discussions about the text
and what the text means. Icleallv, kev words can
be used to build tip sets of related words. For
example, the word comj)uter can bring up words
such as monitor, electricity, software, printers,
calculators, robots, e-mail. Internet, pro g ra m ­
ming. writing, and graphics. A semantic m ap­
ping activity mat place all of these words on a
blackboard just bv association with the keyword.
In this wav. students gain exposure to o ther
words without treating each one as a ke\ word.
Manv words that are difficult for students
mav be u n c o m m o n , specialized, u n im p o rta n t
for the text, or a nam e or place word. These can
be addressed simple b\ providing glosses, good
svnonvms. or practice in guessing word m ea n ­
ings from context. More generally', teachers and
students need to keep words active in the class­
room environm ent through explicit instruction
(see Figure 1 ) and the intentional recycling of
words, an d bv putting words on walls (see
Evraucl et al. 2000) and in notebooks, and incor­
porating them into larger learning projects.
Analysis of word parts
Associations
Cognate awareness
Definitions
Dictionary activities
Discussion of word meanings
Flashcards
Games
Illustrations, drawings, realia
Matching meanings and collocations
Mnemonic techniques
Parts of speech tables
Semantic mapping and semantic grids
Synonyms and antonyms
W ord family exercises
Figure I. Sampling o f Explicit V o cab u lary Teaching
Techniques
Students can also be taught how to learn
words on their own, using, for example, a dic­
tionary. yvorcl-part information, and context clues.
Students can be encouraged to take responsibility
for their oyvn yvord learning by collecting words
from texts (perhaps on index cards), recycling
vocabulary from past texts, discussing words that
they like, experim enting with yvords that have
m ore than one meaning, and bringing neyv words
to class to share with classmates.
Careful Reading o f Texts In academic settings,
the careful reading of texts is a c o m m o n task,
one that requires readers to dem onstrate a good
un d e rsta n d in g of details in the text, to learn
inform ation from it. an d to use that inform ation
for o th e r tasks. In FAP classrooms, careful read­
ing activities typically center on questions that
ask students to recognize main ideas an d analyze
supporting information, argum ents, or details
that explain the main ideas. Activities that
require careful reading often focus on unravel­
ing inform ation in long an d com plex sentences,
de te rm in in g e m b e d d e d definitions, exploring
inferences that connect sets of inform ation, dis­
tinguishing m ore im p o rta n t ideas from less
im portant ones, exam ining the discourse struc­
ture of parts of the text, a n d using text inform a­
tion for o th er activities (e.g.. filling in a table,
writing a summary, com paring inform ation from
one text yvith an o th er). Many of the postreading
activities listed earlier can be used to p rom ote
careful reading; others include the folloyving:
1. Filling in parts left blank in an e x tended
summary
2. D eterm ining the attitude of the yvriter, the
in te n d e d audience, an d the goal(s) of the
writer and identify ing clues in the text
3. Lasting examples that ap p e ar in the text,
adding o th er p e rtin en t examples to the list,
an d explaining one's reasons for doing so
4. M atching inform ation or evaluating possi­
ble true false statements
In carrying out careful reading activities,
there are some im portant guidelines to keep
in mind. If a text is too difficult for students,
additional support should be provided by, for
example, putting students into groups to work out
answers together. A second option is to provide
Mime of the an steers (and review strategies for
how other questions can be answered), thereby
m aking the re m a in d e r of the task easier.
Students, when reporting answers or working on
tasks, should occasionallv be asked to explain how
thev arrived at their answers and point out where
the\' found kev information in the text. These
confirming activities, though often quite time-
consuming, help students sharpen their strategies
for careful reading, give teachers insights into
how texts are understood, and provide op p o rtu ­
nities for discussions about strategic reading.
Awareness o f Text Structure and Discourse
Organization Students in academic settings are
often expected to learn new information from
difficult texts. It is im portant that L2 students do
not becom e confused bv the larger organization
of the texts (e.g.. comparison-contrast, problem-
solution, narrative sequences, and classification)
and features of different genres (e.g.. newspaper
stories, letters to the editor, "how-to" proce­
dures). A consistent effort to guide students to
see the wavs that texts are structured will help
th e m build s tro n g e r c o m p r e h e n s io n skills.
Activities that fonts spedficallv on the wavs in
which discourse is organized and on specific
aspects of text structure (e.g.. transition phrases,
words that signal patterns of text organization,
pronoun references, headings, and subheadings)
are often part of exercises that emphasize careful
reading. Some of these activities use graphic
organizers (discussed in the next section of this
chapter), but there are mane o ther tuns to
explore discourse organization and text structure:
1. IdentilYing the sentences that ccmvev the
main ideas of the text
2. Exam ining headings and subheadings in a
text and then deciding what each section is
about
3. Adding inform ation to a partiallv com plet­
ed outline until all kev supporting ideas are
included
4. U nderlining transition phrases and. when
thev signal m ajor sections of the text,
describing what the next section covers
5. Explaining what a set of p ro n o u n s refers to
in prior text
6. Examining an inaccurate outline an d adjust­
ing it so that it is correct
7. Reorganizing a scrambled paragraph and
discussing textual clues used for decisions
8. Creating headings for a set o f paragraphs
in the text, giving a label to each, an d dis­
cussing die function of each paragraph.
9. Identilving clues that indicate m ajor pat­
terns of organization (e.g.. cause-effect,
comparison-contrast, analvsis)
These text-analvsis activities, as rep re sen ­
tative samples of a larger set, help students
u n d erstand that texts have larger patterns of
organization bevond the sentence. Students
benefit from being aware of these patterns w hen
thev read for academic purposes.
U se o f Graphic Organizers to Support Compre­
hension and Discourse Organization Awareness
An effective was to e a rn out reading instruction
that focuses on careful reading c o m prehension
and discourse organization is th rough the use of
graphic organizers (i.e.. visual representations of
text inform ation). T he main goal of graphic rep­
resentations is to assist students in c o m p r e h e n d ­
ing difficult texts. B\ using graphic organizers,
students are able to see the kev inform ation in a
text, the organization of text inform ation, the
tuns that information is structured, a n d rela­
tionships am ong ideas presented in a text or a
portion of a text. Graphic organizers are some­
times generic: at other times, thev are tied to spe­
cific patterns of text organization. For example,
outlines and semantic maps can be used across a
large n u m b e r of texts regardless of the wav they
are organized. As graphic representations, simple
lines are versatile too. allowing students, for
example, to chart events chronologicalh or rank
characters' opinions on a continuum (Mach and
Stoller 1997). Grids (or matrices) lend th e m ­
selves nicelv to com parison and contrast texts.
Texts with causes and effects can be represented
in two-column grids, but thev can also be char­
acterized bv a series of unidirectional or bidirec­
tional arrows, indicating causes and effects. A
classification text (e.g., about different types of
whales) m ight be sketched out with m ajor cate­
gories to one side an d descriptors across the top,
with details in c o rresponding cells.
 Graphic organizers com e in many shapes
and sizes (e.g.. Grabe 1997; Parks an d Black
1990. 1992: and websites listed at the e n d ok this
chapter). But not all graphics work with all texts.
Thus, the te a c h e r n e e d s to rea d over the
assigned text carefully and d e term ine what types
of graphic representations will assist students
and what kinds of graphics-related activities will
e nhance learning and com prehension. There
are manv options for teaching with graphic rep­
resentations. including:
1. Using a circle with arrows flowing in a cir­
cular direction to show an iterative process
described in a text
2. Using a Venn diagram to highlight differ­
ences an d similarities between characters,
places, events, or issues in a text
3. Using a flowchart to trace events or steps in
a process highlighted in a text
Activities such as these tire effective means to help
students improve their reading comprehension.
Strategic Reading A m ajor goal for academic
reading instruction is the developm ent of strate­
gic readers (rather than the disconnected teach­
ing o f read in g strategies). Strategic leaders
u n d erstand the goals of a reading activity, have a
range of well-practiced reading strategies at their
disposal, apply them in efficient combinations,
m onitor com prehension appropriately, recog­
nize m iscom prehension, and repair c o m p r e h e n ­
sion problem s effectively. Strategic readers make
use of a wide repertoire of strategies in com bi­
nation ra th e r than in isolated applications.
Commonly used strategies include
■ Previewing a text
■ Predicting what will come later in a text
■ Summarizing
■ Learning new wot els th ro u g h the analysis of
word stems a n d affixes
* Using context to m aintain com prehension
** Recognizing text organization
• G e nerating a p p ropriate questions about
the text
■ Clarifying text m eaning
я Repairing m iscom prehension
T h e d e v e lo p m en t of strategic readers
requires a com m itm ent to teaching strategies.
The introduction of strategies, their practice,
and their uses should be part of even lesson.
Indeed, it is not difficult to talk about strategies
m class if everv session requires reading, focuses
on text com prehension, and includes discussions
about the text and how it is understood (see
Ja n ze n and Stoller 1998). Ultimately, the goal is
to develop (a) fairlv autom atic routines that
work to resolve m ore general reading c o m p re ­
hension difficulties and (b ) a m ore elaborate set
of problem-solving strategies that can be used
when routine strategies do not work well.
O ne instructional approach that is particu­
larly effective is known as Transactional Strategies
Instruction (TSI) (Presslev 1998). TSI is tvpicallv
characterized bv the following tenets:
1. Strategy instruction requires a long-term
com m itm ent from teachers.
2. Teachers explain and model effective com ­
prehension strategies. Tvpicallv onlv a few
are emphasized at am time.
3. The teacher coaches students to use strategies
as needed. Minilessons are О mven about when
it is appropriate to tise certain strategies.
4. Teachers and students m odel uses of strate­
gies for one another, explaining aloud what
strategies thev are using.
5. T he usefulness of strategies is emphasized
continually and students are re m in d ed fre­
quently about the benefits of strategy tise.
Issues of when an d where to use strategies
are discussed regularly.
6. Strategy instruction is included in discus­
sions about text com prehension, focusing
on not onlv what the text might mean but
also how students come to understand infor­
mation in the text.
A similar approach, known as (hiestioniug the
Author, centers on the internalization of com pre­
hension strategies through discussion focused on
texts and their meanings (see Beck et al. 1997).
T he goal of making every student a strategic
reader is central to academic reading instruction.
All reading instruction should be tied to reading
strategies, their development, and their use in
effective combinations. For any approach to
strategy developm ent, students n e e d to be intro­
duced to only a few strategies at a time. Each
strategy should be discussed, explained, and
m odeled. From that point on, the strategies
should be rein troduced on a continual basis
th ro u g h teacher rem inders, discussions, wall
charts, student modeling, and student explana­
tions. Certain strategies, such as summarizing,
stiggesl multiple activities. It is c om m on practice
to ask students to summarize a short text verballv.
In instructional contexts where reading and writ­
ing are combined, summarizing takes on a larger
role, integrating the two skills and leading to
m ore d e m anding types of writing tasks.
Aside from discussions centered on text
com prehension and strategv awareness, an o th e r
a p p ro a c h to b uilding strategic c o m p e ten c e
involves “elaborative interrogation.” This instruc­
tional approach involves the addition of “whv”
questions to class discussions, after students have
answered com prehension questions. The “why”
questions oblige students to explain their answers
and specifv where the text protides appropriate
support.
Fluency D evelopm ent O n e o f the m ost neg­
lected aspects of L2 reading instruction is the
developm ent of reading fluency, even though
research stronglv argues that fluency is one of the
central foundations for efficient reading. Fluency
involves rapid and automatic word recognition,
the ability to recognize basic grammatical infor­
mation, an d the rapid combination of word
meanings an d structural information to create
larger m eaning units. There are a n u m b e r of rea­
sons whv fluencv instruction is not prom oted in
L2 settings:
1. Reading fluency depends on knowing a
fairlv large n u m b e r of words so that a rea d ­
ing task itself is n o t too difficult. Manv L2
students do not recognize a large n u m b er of
words quickly or easily, so thev are verv slow
at initial efforts in fluency training. However,
the best way to develop these skills h through
methodical training in reading fluencv.
2. Teachers sometimes feel that iluer.cv n am ­
ing is too m echanical a n d not relevant to
reading com p re h en sio n instruction. O ther
teachers question the benefits of fluencv
training because it requires a long-term
co m m itm en t a n d students’ reading gain'
are not immediatelv obvious. However, the
developm ent of rapid a n d autom atic recog­
nition of words is an essential com ponent
o f skilled reading com prehension.
3. Fluencv training often involves readm e
aloud an d manv teachers believe that the'
should never prom ote reading aloud iit
class. However, fluencv training is one of the
areas in which oral reading is a helpful sup­
port for reading development.
4. Teachers are topically given few guideline'
for building reading fluencv into reading
curricula. T here are, however, a n u m b e r o:
wavs to pro m o te fluency without requiring
a significant investment in resources.
Fluencv activities— classified here as activi­
ties that develop overall fluencv, rate, and wort,
rec o g n itio n — can be in c o r p o r a te d into ait
reading program regularly. Extensive reading
(discussed m ore fullv in the next section) heh: -
students in all three areas. Activities that speci: -
cally target overall fluency include rere a d im
practice a n d re re a d in g for o th e r purpose -
Activities that p ro m o te reading rate induct
tim ed readings and paced readings. Activitie-
that develop rapid recognition skills incluch
word-recognition exercises, flashcard practice
te a c h e r reacl-aloucls (with stu d e n ts re a d im
along silently), an d rereading practice. Student
benefit from hearing about the advantages
such activities a n d the n e e d to work on the:
consistentlv to see long-range improvement-
T h e use of progress charts assists students ::
visualizing their gradual im provem ent. O n e pan
ticular advantage o f most fluency activities is tht
they take on a gamelike qualitv as students wo: •
against themselves rather than com pete wit.
o th e r students. (See Anderson 1999; Samue.-
Schermer, an d Reinking 1992.)
Rereading practice involves reading alou
an d should be done with texts that students cat
read without great difficultv or that have alreac
been read and used for c om prehension activitie-
Typicallv— though there are manv variations—
Uvo students work together. The first studeti
 reads aloud from the beginning of a text while
the second student keeps time an d helps with
anv difficulties. After o n e m inute, the first stu­
d e n t stops a n d marks the place in the text where
he or she stopped. T h e students may make a few
very quick com m ents on the difficulties e n c o u n ­
tered. T h e n thee switch roles. T h e second stu­
de n t reads from the beginning of the same text
for one m inute while the first student keeps time
a n d helps with anv difficulties. After one minute,
the second student stops and marks the stopping
point in the text. Thev switch roles again. At this
point, the first student starts reading from the
beginning of the text again for one m inute with
the goal of moving bevoncl his or h e r first stop­
ping point. T h e second student again keeps time
an d helps if needed. The process is repeated for
the second student. The students then note how
many additional words thev read the second time
through the text and note their gains on a chart.
R ereading texts for new purposes provides
a n o th e r option for general fluencv. .After read­
ing a text for com p re h en sio n purposes, a text
m at- be rere a d to decide what the author's p u r ­
pose is, to fill in a chart, or to com pare the infor­
m ation with a n o th e r source of inf orm ation (e.g..
a new text, a text read earlier in the course, or.
for that matter, a video or lecture). In all forms
of rereading, the goal is to give students enough
time to actuallv read the text again, rather than
simple skim the text to com plete the follow-up
exercise. Wh en students reread a text that thev
are alreadv familiar with, thev often read m ore
fluently, with h igher rates of com prehension,
thereby getting the feel for m ore fluent reading.
They also extend their reading experiences bv
reading for different purposes.
Reading rates can be directly improved
through two c o m m o n techniques: tim ed rea d ­
ings an d paced readings. In timed readings, stu­
dents time themselves while reading a passage
(typically not very difficult and of a reasonable
length) from start to finish. Tim ed readings are
usually followed bv a set o f fairlv simple c o m p re ­
hension questions that can be answered and
scored quickly. T h e results of timed readings are
e n tered o n a progress chart so that gradual gains
in reading rate and com prehension are notice­
able to students. Tim ed readings, w hen used as
part of a rate developm ent program , n e e d to be
a consistent activity th ro u g h o u t the semester or
r ear, usually once or twice a week. In this way, the
cumulative practice leads to rate improvements
as well as overall reading fluencv (sec Frv 2000).
Paced readings work on the same principle
but oblige students to read at a specified pace
(e.g.. 120 words p e r m inute) rath e r than at their
own pace. Tvpicallv. paced readings are shorter
than tim ed readings, ab o u t 400 words in length
(though shorter passages can also be used for
tim ed readings). Passages are o f a consistent
length, with marks of some sort (e.g., a check car
dot) in the m argin to indicate e v e n 1 100-word
segment. Thus, a 400-word text would have
three marks, the first indicating the first 100
words, the second indicating the second 100
words, an d so forth.
In a paced reading, students are directed to
read at a pace specified (and m aintained) by the
teacher. Fear example, at 100 wpnt, students
would h e a r a signaling noise (e.g., a light tap can
the desk bv the teacher) at regular intervals, in
this case even- 60 seconds, indicating that they
should either be at the first m ark or move down
to the first mark and continue reading front that
point. W hen the signal is repeated again, at the
next in crem en t of time, students move to the
second m ark if thev have n o t vet reached it.
Again, simple com p re h en sio n questions ap p e ar
after the text is completed. After answers are
corrected, students enter results on a graph.
Because paced readings are com pleted m ore
quicklv than timed readings, two or three are usu­
ally done in a row. sometimes with carving paces
(e.g.. the first at 150 wpnr. the second at 1 1 0 wpm,
and the third at 120 wpm). f \ 1 ten students are
familiar with the process, it is carried cant quickly
and three paced readings can be finished in less
than 20 minutes. (See Spargo 1989, 1998; Stoller
1994a.)
A n o th e r wav to develop reading fluencv is
th ro u g h practice in word recognition u n d e r
lime pressure. W ord-recognition exercises gen­
erally involve a set of about 20 key words or
phrases down the left-hand side of a page, each
one followed bv a row of four or five words — one
of which is identical to the key word, whereas the
others are similar in shape or are m orphological
variations o f the keyword (see Figure 2). Students
are asked to work as quickie as possible to mark
the exact match for each kcv word. Upon com ­
pletion, students check their work and record the
n u m b e r correct and the time spent on a chart.
Tvpicallv, a word-recognition lesson includes
three consecutive 20-word exercises and will take
no m ore than 7-10 minutes total after students
understand what is expected o f them. (See Stoller
1993 for suggestions on creating recognition
exercises and using them in ( lass. )
Two o ther activities for improving the speed
of word recognition involve (a) the use of flash-
cards for sets of keywords that appear in readings
for the week and (b) teacher read-alouds. Flash-
card practice mat' seem t e n traditional, but recent
research has shown that it works for fluency pu r­
poses (Nicholson and Tan 1999). Teacher and
students make up 20 cards per text, and for 7-10
minute intervals, the teacher works with the class,
or pait's of students work together, to read words
aloud that are Hashed t e n quicklv. usually within
one second. This flashcard practice should be
done once or twice per text, or two to three times
per week if time permits. Words that cause ongo­
ing difficulty should be recorded in a notebook to
be studied and used at later times in student pairs.
Extensive Reading Extensive reading, the prac­
tice of reading large amounts of text for extended
periods of time, should be a central c o m ponent of
am' course with the goal of building academic
reading abilities. T he sustained silent reading of
level-appropriate texts is the single best overall
activity that students can engage in to improve
their reading abilities, though it is not sufficient
by itself for an effective reading program . The
point is simple. O n e does not becom e a good
reader unless one reads a lot (see Anderson
1996; Ellev 1991). Extensive reading, however, is
Key word
1. direct directs
2. trial cruel
3. through through
F ig u re 1. S a m p le W o r d - R e c c g " :
npicallv not prom oted in 1.2 reading courses.
Teachers sometimes do not feel that thev are
teaching when students are reading silently in
class: the\ think that extensive reading is some­
thing that should onh be do n e tit hom e.
Sometimes there are limited re-sources for good
class or school libraries. In some cases, schools
have resources but thev do not include books that
interest students or thev do not allow students to
check out books to be read at home. There are
cases in which teachers do not believe that reading
large am ounts of level-appropriate text is an
appropriate goal for academic-reading develop­
ment. Finally, some teachers would like to invoke
their students in extensive reading but do not
know how to incorporate it into their lessons.
There tire several wavs to engage students in
extensive reading, both in and out of class. We
recogni/e that not everv teacher has access to all
possible resources for extensive reading, no r do
thev have unlimited time in their reading course'
to prom ote as m uch extensive reading as should
occur. Below we list ideal conditions for extensive
reading, though we expect that am teacher car.
pursue onh a subset of them.
1. Provide time for e x tended silent reading in
everv class session, even if it onh' involve'
reading from the textbook
2. Create opportunities for all tvpes of reading
3. Find out what students like to read and win
4. Make in teresting, attractive, a n d level-
appropriate reading materials available
5. Build a well-stocked, diverse class librar.
with clear indications of topic an d level o:
difficulty for each text
6. Allow students to take books and magazine'
hom e to read, and hold students account­
able for at-home reading in some simple vuv
donate direct detect desire
serial trail trial frail
though thorough borough thought
E x e rc is e F o r m a t
7. Create incentives for students to read at
hom e
8. Have students share and re c o m m e n d read­
ing materials to classmates
9. Keep records of the am ounts of extensive
reading com pleted bv students
10. Seek out class sets of texts (or at least group
sets) that evervone can read a n d discuss
11. Make use of g raded readers, provided that
thev interest students, are attractive, create
sufficient challenge, a n d offer a good
am o u n t of extensive reading practice
12. Read interesting materials aloud to stu­
dents on a consistent basis
13. Visit the school librarv regularlv an d set
aside time for browsing an d reading
14. C reate a reading lab and designate time for
lab activities
There are a n u m b er of specific instructional
practices to consider when engaging students in
extensive reading. In-class extensive reading is
most often carried out bv giving students 10-15
minutes of silent reading time. During this time,
students mav read a class reader: read a book or
magazine of their choice while the teacher circu­
lates to answer questions and offer assistance
(free-reading): or engage in sustained silent
reading (SSR). In SSR. the teacher does not cir­
culate; rather he or she reads silentlv th roughout
the entire SSR period, serving as a role model of
an engaged reader. (The teacher should not
grade papers or plan future lessons during this
time.) Students need to see that teachers reallv
do read and that thev enjov it. After an u n in te r­
rupted SSR period, the teacher an d students
should take a m inute or two to share ideas or
make recom m endations about their reading.
Students may be asked to keep a simple log of
what an d how manv pages thev read so that a
record of reading is built up over time. In SSR
periods, there should be no evaluation, no
instruction, and no interruptions.
Extensive reading, m uch like any new rou­
tine, is e nhanced when the teacher discusses the
goals with students and helps students find inter­
esting a n d readable materials. T h e tea c h e r
should recognize that extended free-reading time
or SSR mav generate resistance from certain stu­
dents. Over a n u m b e r of sessions, with support
from the teacher, students will becom e engaged
and even look forward to extensive reading.
Teachers also n e e d to u n d e rsta n d that extensive
reading is n o t an occasional end-of-the-week, or
end-of-the-dav “reward." It is fu n d am e n ta l to the
developm ent o f fluent reading abilities. If p u r­
sued as an instructional goal, it must be do n e
consistentlv or students will not believe the
teacher's rationale.
Extensive reading at school should be cou­
pled with extensive reading at hom e, with as
m uch reading as students can be persu a d e d to
do. At a m inim um , the books an d magazines
read at h o m e should be discussed in class, with
re c o m m e n d a tio n s m a d e to o t h e r students.
T h e re should also be an ongoing log of what is
read, how long the student read, a n d how manv
pages were covered; this log should be checked
regularlv bv the teacher. (See Dav and Bamlord
1998 for advice on prom oting extensive reading.)
Student Motivation Motivation is a n o th e r kev
to successful reading, one that is tvpicallv
ignored in discussions of reading instruction.
T h e m is. Iron ev er, a significant bodv of research
that argues that motivation has an im portant
impact on reading developm ent. Motivation is a
com plex concept with manv associated notions
(e.g.. interest, involvement, self-concept, sclf-
efficacv). We discuss motivation here (following
Guthrie et al. 1999) as an individual trait, related
to a person's goals an d beliefs, that is observed
though task persistence and positive feelings
toward an activitv. The kev idea for teachers is
that motivation makes a real difference in stu­
dents' reading development, and teachers need
to consider how to motivate students to engage
as activelv as possible with class texts and in
extensive reading.
T h e re are a n u m b e r of wavs to develop pos­
itive motivation to read. First a n d foremost,
teachers should discuss the im portance of read­
ing and the reasons for different activities used
in class. Second, teachers need to talk about
what interests them as read ers a n d why.
Students are often surprised to learn about what
a n d whv their teachers like to read. Likewise,
teachers should invite students to share interests
with classmates. Third, all class activities should
be related to course goals to which students have
b e e n introduced. Fourth, all reading tasks (short
and m ore extended) should have lead-ins (i.e.,
prereading activities) that develop initial interest.
Fifth, teachers need to build their students'
knowledge base so that students can manage
complex ideas and develop a level of expertise on
some topics. Sixth, teachers need to select texts
an d adapt activities with students' reading abili­
ties an d the inherent difficulties of the reading
passages in mind. Seventh, teachers should nu r­
ture “a com m unin' of learners" am ong students,
thcrebv ensuring that students learn to relv on
each o ther cl’fectivelv while working through
complex tasks and associated reading materials.
Finally, teachers need to look for wavs to
help students e n c o u n te r "flow" in their reading.
Flow is a concept (developed bv the psvchologist
Csikszentmihalvi [1990]) that describes optimal
experiences. People e n c o u n te r flow when thev
are engaged fullv in activities in which their
growing skills m atch well with task challenges.
Commonlv, the tasks have w ell-defined goals, the
m ea n s for d e te r m in in g success are d e a t h
understood, a n d the achievement of success is
not east but is possible. People h a tin g How expe­
riences typicallv lose track of time, do not get
distracted, and lose ant sense of personal p ro b ­
lems. Csikszentmihalvi has consistently fo und
(across many studies and h u n d red s of inter­
views) that a prim arv wav to e n c o u n te r flow is bv
becom ing engaged in reading. Thus, flow expe­
riences lead students to seek out reading as an
optim al experience, resulting in intrinsic m oti­
vation to read regularlv.
Integrated-Skills Instruction In academic set­
tings, a c o m m o n expectation of reading is that
it is used to e a rn out fu rth e r language- and
content-learning tasks, most topically in c o n n e c ­
tion with writing activities, th o u g h listening and
speaking activities m a t also be linked to reading.
A lth o u g h integrated-skills activities take on
greater significance as students move to higher
language proficiencv levels, a goal for EAP cur­
ricula should be the use of reading as a resource
for integrated-skills tasks.
Taking reading and writing as a primary
example, there are manv wavs in wTiich these skills
can be integrated and serve the developm ent of
reading, writing, an d academic skills. T he m ost
obvious a n d generic options — such as summary
writing, rep o rt writing, and o u tlin in g — should
not be downplavecl as too traditional. T h e re is
clear evidence that summary writing an d outlin­
ing. w hen taught well, improve both reading an d
writing abilities (Grabe 2001). A n u m b e r of
o th er writing activities can be developed from
read in g resources:
1. Students keep journals in which reactions to
readings are rec orded a n d elaborated upon.
Teachers collect journals periodically and
add comm ents.
2. Students keep double-entrv notebooks in
which thev summarize text ideas o f particu­
lar significance on one side of the page. In
later rereadings, students (and the teacher)
write additional com m ents on the opposite
side of the page.
3. Students write a simple response to some
prom pt (e.g.. a minilecture, an object, a short
video clip, a quick skim of the text to be read)
to prepare themselves for the upcom ing
reading.
4. Students create graphic organizers to iden­
tify main ideas from the text, restructure
inform ation, or com pare content from cari­
ous texts. Students then write an explanation
or critique of the reading(s) based on the
graphic organizer.
5. Students connect new texts to previously read
texts through speed writes, graphic organ­
izers, or discussions.
6. Students d e term ine the author's point of
view in a text and then adopt a different
point of view (not necessarily opposing).
Thee develop the alternative point of view
th rough an outline an d consultation with
o th e r resources, an d then write a critique of
the text a n d the author's viewpoint.
7. Students make a list of ideas from the text,
prioritize the list bv level of im portance, get
into groups a n d prioritize a group list, an d
th en develop a visual representation of their
response (in the form of, for example, a dia­
gram. outline, o r figure) to be shared with
classmates.
 T here are additional reasons for centering
EAP reading instruction within an integrated-
skills framework. Aside from the authenticitv of
integrated-skills activities for advanced students,
integrated activities op en up valuable o p p o r tu ­
nities for extensive reading (during which stu­
dents search for ad d itio n a l in fo rm a tio n i.
F urtherm ore, integrated-skills activities engage
students in complex tasks that co m p le m e n t their
academic goals and require strategic responses.
Finally, students inevitable learn a considerable
am o u n t of connected, coherent, and stimulating
content knowledge from complex integrated
tasks. T he resulting masters of a topic and sense
of expertise often motivate them to learn even
more. T he most logical extension, then, from a
reading course with integrated-skills activities
is a reading course centered on a content- and
language-learning foundation. In this wav. aca­
demic reading instruction leads naturallv into
various tvpes of content-based instruction.
C O N C L U S IO N
This chapter has outlined com ponents of effec­
tive academic reading instruction. W hen looking
across the range of com ponents ivocabularv. flu-
enev, strategies, graphic representations, exten­
sive reading, etc.), a natural response might be to
say that all of these ideas cannot possible lit into a
reading course that is coherent and focused. Yet.
over the past 20 vears. we have become firmlv con­
vinced that all of these com ponents can be draw n
together coherentlv and effectivelv in an appro-
priatelv developed content-based instruction
approach. (There is. wc must add. nothing magi­
cal about content-based instruction: it needs to be
g rounded in the criteria discussed above, just like
anv other program or course in reading.)
In a content-based approach to reading,
one can assume that reading multiple sources of
inform ation will be the norm and that there will
be many opportunities for m eaningful extensive
reading. Yocabularv instruction should grow in
complexitv an d there will be ongoing o p p o rtu ­
nities to rec e d e vocabularv as students explore
sets of related c ontent material. Similarly, there
will be m am occasions to reread texts for new
tasks, for new inform ation, for comparisons, and
for confirm ing inform ation. F urtherm ore, stu­
dents will have the chance to extend complex
learning, e a rn out purposeful integrated-skills
tasks, build expertise on a topic, an d becom e
m ore motivated. T he m ore com plex language
and c ontent learning that occurs in content-
based classrooms will also open tip opportunities
to discuss com prehension and focus on the
strategies that students use to build c o m p r e h e n ­
sion abilities. In brief, we see content-based
instruction as providing the best foundation for
academ ic reading instruction if it is p lan n e d and
carried out well (Stoller and Grabe 1997). It is
likelv that the developm ent of new wavs to
engage students through content-based instruc­
tion will be a major locus of advanced reading
instruction for the com ing decade. (See Snow’s
c hapter in this volume.)
Before closing this chapter, we would like to
address briellv three other future directions for
reading instruction. First, we see technology as
growing in importance, and related issues as cen­
tering on how to use technology to support read­
ing development. At the moment, the options for
computer-based reading instruction are not verv
advanced: in most cases, thev involve little more
than putting reading passages on the screen with a
few tricks and gadgets. We expect that in the next
live to eight vears. this situation will change, and
com puter tec hnologies and instructional software
will create new options for reading instruction.
Second, we have not addressed reading
assessment in anv wav. but it is an issue that can­
not be ignored. Although assessment m ight not
be considered a direct c o m p o n e n t of instruc­
tion. it certainly should be. Teachers n e e d to
know how to assess students' progress in addi­
tion to assessing the effectiveness of various
practices in a reading course. W hat works and
what does not work should not rest only with a
teacher's subjective judgm ent but should be
de te rm in e d th ro u g h both formal a n d informal
assessment procedures. (Good sources on rea d ­
ing assessment include Alderson 2000; Hamavan
1995. See also C ohen's c hapter in this volume.)
T hird, in addition to assessing student
progress, teachers need to evaluate course and
teaching effectiveness. T he most effective wav to
do this is th ro u g h teacher-initiated inquiry
(i.e., a ction re s e a rc h ). T h r o u g h systematic
reflection a n d data collection, teachers can
investigate aspects o f their own reading class­
room s to improve future instruction. They can
investigate aspects of reading (e.g., rate, recog­
nition, vocabulary, skimming) in relation to dif­
ferent instructional techniques or learning
activities (e.g., the use of graphic organizers, strat­
egy training, rereading) to determ ine their effec­
tiveness, or classroom materials to ascertain their
appropriateness, or a range of other issues. Action
research provides teachers with a nonthreatening
means for exploring what works best in their own
teaching contexts (Grabe and Stoller in press).
W h e th e r or not reading teachers design
content-based courses, engage in action re ­
search, or use technology in reading classes in
the future, we can be fairly certain that EAP
instruction will continue to be im portant for F 2
students. F2 teachers, w hether thev teach in ESL
or EFL settings, owe it to their students to make
the most of the time they have allotted for read­
ing instruction. If teachers are obliged to use
m an d a ted materials, as most teachers are, thev
should evaluate them carefullv, keeping in m ind
the complexities of fluent reading an d effective
reading instruction. T he goal should be to aug­
m e n t and improve m an d a ted materials so that
students have the fullest reading developm ent
experience possible. For teachers who are in a
position to create academic reading curricula
a n d select materials on their own, this chapter
provides m any of the “ingredients" needed. It is
tip to the teachers to put them together to m eet
students’ reading needs. Regardless of setting,
teachers must r e m e m b e r that students most often
rise or fall to the level of expectation of their
teachers. Thus, teachers should set high expecta­
tions for their students and assist them in achiev­
ing those expectations by m eans of purposeful
and principled reading instruction.
D IS C U S S IO N Q U E S T IO N S
1. Flow has your conception of reading changed
since reading this chapter? Identify three ideas
or concepts from the chapter that vou think
are im portant and rank order them. Provide a
rationale for vour decisions.
2. Consider the characteristics of a fluent FI
reader (page 188) as the ultimate goal for an F2
reading curriculum. What instructional prac­
tices would vou incorporate into an F 2 reading
class to move vour students toward that goal?
What activities would vou assign to address each
characteiistic or cluster of characteristics?
3. Reflect on vour own experiences in reading
for academ ic purposes. Which purposes for
reading have b e e n most im p o rta n t for you?
W hat have vou do n e to c o m p re h e n d texts
that have been challenging for vou? What
can vou applv from vo u r experiences to your
teaching?
4. Consider the constraints that vou m ight face
if vou were teaching reading for academic
purposes in an instructional setting of your
choice. W hat would vou do to maximize the
effectiveness of vour reading instruction?
5. In this chapter, Grabe an d Stoller assert that
there is a difference between facilitating the
developm ent of strategic readers an d teach­
ing r e a d in g strategies. How w ould you
explain the distinction thev are making?
6. W hat is the relationship between content-
based instruction (CBI) a n d reading devel­
o p m e n t in F2 settings? How can CBI
contribute to reading development?
S U G G E S T E D A C T IV IT IE S
1. Create a graphic organizer that depicts your
current view of reading for academic purpose^
2. Select a short text (e.g., from a magazine
newspaper, textbook) that m ight be of inter­
est to a class of F2 students.
a. Analyze the text from the perspective o:
these F2 students. W hat aspects of the
text m ight prove difficult to them?
b. Identify 10-15 words in the text that
m ight be unfam iliar to these students
Place each word into one of the follow­
ing categories: + +, н— , — . How woulc
vou introduce words falling into the + -
category?
c. Design three postreading tasks that will
oblige students to engage in careful read­
ing. Each task should focus on a different
 aspect of careful reading (e.g., recogniz­
ing main ideas: analyzing support infor­
mation. arguments, or details that explain
the main ideas: inferencing; unraveling
information in complex sentences: deter­
m ining author's attitudes: applying infor­
mation). Be prepared to explain the aim
of each task that von design.
3. Select three L2 reading textbooks. Examine
them carefully to determ ine their effective­
ness. Do thev include motivating readings?
To what extent are the following aspects
of reading covered: strategy development,
fluency training, opportunities for rereading,
graphic organizers, vocabulary building activ-
ities, different purposes for reading, exercises
on discourse organization and text structure,
integrated-skills activities, pre-. during-, and
postreading activities, etc.?
FU R TH ER R EA D IN G
A e b e r s o l d . J. A., a n d M. L. F ield. 1997. I m a m R e a d e r to
R ea d in g ’t e a c h e r : hum s
Language C lassroom s.
L’n i v e r s m Press.
.A nderson , X. 1999. E x p l o r i n g S e c o n d L a n g u a g e R e a d i n g :
I s s u e s a n d S t r a t e g i e s . B o s to n . MA: I le i n le X l i e i n l e .
Dav. R. R.. ed. 1993. New Vbns in Leaching Reading.
Alexandria, YA: TESOL.'
Oast R. R.. and J. Bamford. 1998. Extensive Reading in
the Second Language Classroom. Xew York:
Cambridge University Press.
S ilb erstein . .8. 1994. Techniques and Resources in
lea c h in g Reading. X ew York: O x fo rd U niversity
Press.
Urquhart. A. H.. and C. Weir. 1998. Reading in a
Second Language: fhocess. Product and Practice.
Xew York: Longman.
W E B S IT E S
R eposim ix to r in f o rm a tio n o n ex ten siv e re a d in g :
http: www.kyoto-su.ac.jp /inform ation/er /
I n v e n t o r y o f g r a p h i c o r g a n i z e r s , w ith m u l t i p l e links:
http: www.graphic.org goindex.html
http: w ww .sdcoe.kl2.ca.us/SCO RE/actbank/
torganiz.htm
http: www.ncrel.org/sdrs/areas/issues/stu-
dents learning lrigrorg.htm
http: www.macropress.com / lgrorg.htm
and Strategics ja r Seconal
N e w W)rk: C am bridge
T e a c h e r g u id e lin e s for d e s ig n in g g ra p h ic o rganizers:
http: "www.wm .edu/TTAC/articles/learning/
graphic.htm
 W riting
UNIT II D

I I D:
Language Skills

UNIT
Writing
T he ability to express one's ideas in writing in a second or foreign
language and to do so with reasonable coherence and accuracy is a
major achievement; many native speakers of English never truly master
this skill. Olshtain’s chapter shows how the teacher o f even beginning-
level ESITEFL students can provide practice in writing that reinforces the
language the students have learned while teaching the mechanics of
writing (e.g., the Roman alphabet, penmanship, spelling, punctuation,
formats) right from the start. Knoll's chapter gives the reader a
comprehensive overview of current theory and practice in teaching
writing to non-native speakers of English, with special focus on developing
courses for teaching writing to these learners. Finally, Frodesens chapter
explores the problematic area of grammar (i.e„ accuracy) in writing, which
plagues so many non-native speakers even after they have m ore o r less
mastered the m ore global features of written English such as organization
and coherence,
 Functional Tasks for Mastering
the Mechanics of Writing
and Going Just Beyond
ELITE О L S H ТА :N
Olshtain's chapter feats "".г vvvt-ng sk Is *cr сл -е.е ESl EFL !ea<rers. It sta-~ts with letter and word
recognition, discnnonatico anc prccrczor а-m т о .е а so bas c rules o* Eng1ish spelling, oanctuation, and
capitalization. W ith tocos on boon content anc acctnac.. ^ asson ct z~ese sklls tnen allows learners to
perform more comncmcat -e cases socn as roTing ,sss, messages, c arc ewnes, and school assignments.
IN T R O D U C T IO N
Within the communicative framework of lan­
guage teaching, the skill of writing enjovs special
'tatus— it is via writing that a person can com ­
municate a variety of messages to a close or dis­
tant, known or unknow n reader or readers. Such
comm unication is extremely im portant in the
m odern world, w hether the interaction takes the
form of traditional paper-and-pencil writing or
she most technologically advanced electronic
mail. Writing as a communicative activity needs
to be encouraged and n u rtu re d during the lan­
guage learner's course of stuch. and this chapter
'will attem pt to deal with the earlv stages of
ESL/EFL writing.
Viewing writing as an act of communication
'tiggests an interactive proc ess which takes place
between the writer and the reader via the text.
Such an approach places value on the goal of writ­
ing as well as on the perceived reader audience.
Even if we tire concerned with writing at the
beginning level, these two aspects of the act of
writing are of vital importance; in setting writing
tasks, the teacher should encourage students to
define for themselves the message thev want to
send and the audience who will receive it.
T he writing process, in com parison to spo­
ken interaction, imposes greater d e m ands on
the text, since written interaction lacks im m edi­
ate feedback as a guide. T he writer has to antici­
pate the reader's reactions and produce a text
which will adhere to Grice's (1975) cooperative
principle. According to this principle, the writer
is obligated (bv mutual cooperation) to trv to
write a clear, relevant, truthful, informative, inter­
esting. and m em orable text. The reader, on the
other hand, will interpret the text with due
regard for the writer’s presum ed intention if the
necessary clues are av ailable in the text. Linguistic
accuracy, claritv of presentation, and organization
of idea'' are all crucial in the efficacy of the com­
municative act. since thev supply the cities for
interpretation. Accordingly, while the global per­
spectives of content and organization need to he
focused on and given appropriate attention, it is
also most im portant to present a p roduct which
does not suffer from illegible handw riting,
num erous spelling errors, faulty punctuation, or
inaccurate structure, am of which niav re n d e r
the message unintelligible.
T he present c hapter focuses on the gradual
developm ent of the m echanics of writing, which
is a necessary instrumental skill without which
m eaningful writing cannot take place; the chap­
ter then moves on to earlv functional writing,
which can be carried out with a limited level of
proficiency in the target language. It is im p o r­
tant to re m e m b e r that in the ESL/EFL context,
writing, like the o th er language skills, needs to
be dealt with at the particular level of linguistic
a n d discourse proficiency that the in te n d e d stu­
dents have reached (Raimes 1985). T he pro ­
posed s e q u en c e o f activities wi 11 start with
prim ary locus on the m echanical aspec ts of writ­
ing, as the basic instrumental skill, and gradually
move on to a combination of "purpose for writ­
ing” and language focus. Eventually, the com m u­
nicative perspective will become m ore central to
such writing activities. (For teaching writing in
m ore advanced contexts, see Kroll's chapter in
this volume.)
EARLY W R IT IN G TASKS:
C O P IN G W IT H T H E M ECH AN ICS
W h a t D o W e Teach?
The first steps in teaching reading and writing
skills in a foreign or second language classroom
center a ro u n d the mechanics of these two skills.
Bv mechanics we usually refer to letter recogni­
tion, letter discrimination, word recognition, and
basic rules of spelling, punctuation, and capital­
ization, as well as recognition of whole sentenc es
and paragraphs. These activities are for the most
pari cognitively unde m a n d in g unless the learners
ha p p e n to come from a first language with a dil-
ferent writing system.
T he interaction between reading and writ­
ing has often been a focus in the methodology of
language teaching, vet it deserves even stronger
emphasis at the early stages in the acquisition
of the various co m p o n e n t mechanics. In order
to learn how to discriminate one letter from
a n o th e r while reading, learners need to practice
writing these letters; in ord er to facilitate their
perception of words and sentences during the
reading process, tliev might need to practice writ­
ing them first. It is therefore the case that writing
plavs an im portant role in earlv rea d in g — facili­
tating the developm ent of both the reading and
the writing skills. T he im portance of this early
stage of reading a n d writing is emphasized in a
study bv Ke (1996) on the relationship between
Chinese character recognition and production at
the earlv stages of learning. With the English
a lp h a b e t this stage is m uch simpler, vet it
deserves appropriate attention for learners ac­
custom ed to o th er script types an d for adult n o n ­
literate learners.
Sound-Spelling Correspondences
English presents the learner with a n u m b e r of
un iq u e problem s related to its orthographic
rules, even in raises in which the learner comes
from a first language that uses a version of the
Roman alphabet. Students and teachers alike
often throw their arms up in despair, reach to giv e
up on finding reliable rules for English orthogra-
phv: vet the English writing system is m uch more
rule governed than manv realize. In fact. English
has a verv systematic set of sound-spelling corre­
spondences (Chomsky and Halle 1968; Schane
1970: Ycnezkv 1970). These sound-spelling cor­
respondences enable the second or foreign lan­
guage te a c h e r to co m b in e the tea c h in g of
phonetic units with graphem ic units a n d to give
students practice in pronunciation along with
practice in spelling (Celce-Murcia. Brinton, and
Goodwin 1996).
The English Consonants T he first rule to
rem em ber about English orthography is that stu­
dents mav tend to look for a one-to-one letter-
sound correspondence and then discover that
tliev get into a lot of trouble bv doing this. For
most of the 21 consonant letters, this type of rule
works fairlv well (if we disregard allophonic dif­
ferences in pronunciation, such as an aspirated
initial t as opposed to a nonaspirated, iin re­
leased final t for m onosyllabic words in
English). Vet there are consonant letters whose
sound dep e n d s on the environm ent in which
tliev occur: Thus, the letter r can have the sound
/к when followed bv the vowel letters a, o, or и
or bv the consonant letters / or к but it has the
sound s wh e n followed bv the vowel letters e or
i. Although these rules mav ap p e ar confusing to
a learner com ing from a first language with a
sim pler p h o n e m e - g ra p h e m e c o rre s p o n d e n c e
system, tliev work quite consistently in English
an d need to be practiced from the verv start,
d he store of the letter r is not finished, however,
an d now we com e to the part that is less consis­
tent. This is the case when r is followed bv the
letter /; a n d can have the sound o f /с/ (chocolale)
or к (chair). T here is no help we can give our
students in this respect but to tell them to pay
special attention to such weirds and trv to rem e m ­
ber their sound according to the m eaning of the
word. T he letter c also occurs in quite a n u m b e r
of c om m on words followed bv the letter l; (not
initiallv, but in the m iddle or at the end of
words — such as chicken or lock). T h e sound in
this case is к an d the corre sp o n d en c e should
create no difficulty.
T he letter c in English dem onstrates that
сл еп for some of the consonants (such as g to o )
we need to alert students to the fact that the cor­
respondence in English is not between letter
an d sound but between the letter a n d its im m e­
diate environm ent and the most appropriate
sound. In many cases such correspondences are
quite predictable, while in others the rules do
not work as well.
Л helpful generalization for English conso­
nants is related to the letter h. which is v e n pow­
erful in changing the sound of the consonant
which it follows. Thus, the letter com binations
ch, sh. an d th re p re s e n t distinct con so n an t
sounds, and learners need to recogni/e these
graphic clusters as such.
To summarize, when teaching consonant
letters an d their sound correspondences, it
seems that for students whose own alphabet is
similar to that of English, we need to focus only
on the differences. Yet for students coining from
a completely different writing system, such as
Arabic. Hebrew. Chinese. Japanese, or Korean, it
will be necessary to work carefulh on the recog­
nition of every consonant letter. Here learners
m ight have difficulties similar to the ones
en c o u n te re d bv voting children who learn to
read an d write in English as their m o th e r
tongue, and thev might need some special exer­
cises for this pm pose (see A ppendix A).
The English Vowels The vowel letters in English
present m ore complex sound—spelling corre­
spondences. but again there is m uch m ore con­
sistency and predictability than many learners
realize. Thus, learners need to be m ade aware of
two basic types of environm ents that are very pro ­
ductive in English o rth ography; C o n s o n a n t
Vowel C onsonant (CYC) (often known as the
environm ent for short vowels) and CV or CYCe
(the latter ending in a silent letter e) (known as
the environm ents for long towels). T he terms
.shan't and long vowels are rather unfortunate,
since for the second or foreign language learner
it might, erroneously, becom e associated with
towel length rather than vowel quality. Thus, the
main difference between the vowel sounds in
the words pin a n d pine is not one of length (or
production timed but one of p honetic quality.
A difference in vowel length can be observed in
the words pi! and pin. where the quality of the two
vowel sounds is similar but the one preceding the
voiceless stop t is shorter than the one preced­
ing the voiced nasal n .
Although we often sav that the a vowel let­
ters of the English alphabet result in at least 11
or m ore towel sounds (d e p e n d in g on the p a r­
ticular dialect), these sound-spelling c orrespon­
dences are. at least in part, consistent and
predictable. What teachers a n d learners need to
take into account is the fact that in English we
must consider both the towel letter a n d the
environm ent in which it occurs. T he term envi­
ronment might be delimited here to those fea­
tures which mat influence the quality of the
towel sound. Thus, the environm ent CYC is
quite productive, and all 5 vowel letters a, /, e, o,
and и will occur as simple lax (pro d u c e d with
relatively relaxed muscles), nond ip h th o n g ize d
vowel sounds, as in the words pan, pin, pen, pol,
an d hut. However, the same 5 vowel letters occur­
ring in the CYCe environm ent will all becom e
tense and diphthongized, as in the words pane,
pine. Pete, rope, a n d cute. Similarly, those vowels
that can occur in the CY or Y e nvironm ent are
also tense and usually diphthongized: go, he, та,
I. I m (;ts in Lulu). H ere again tve have a very pro ­
ductive set of sound-spelling correspondence
rules, vet not all of these patterns are equally fre­
quent in English orthography. Thus, the letter e
does not often occur as the vowel in the CYCe
environment, and learners have to stuclv the
m ore com m on spellings as in meet and meat for
the sound iy . In other words, there are some
basic s o u n d —spelling c o rre sp o n d e n c e s in
English, knowledge of which can greatlv facilitate
the acquisition of these correspondences, but
there are also quite a n u m b e r of exceptions or
expansions of these rules that need to be learned
individually.
 In teaching the basic sound-spelling corre­
spondences in English, it is im portant to e m p h a ­
size the rules which provide the learners with
useful generalizations and which therefore help
them becom e effective readers. O nce students
have assimilated an d internalized the basic fea­
tures of such correspondences — namelv, the
distinction between CYC and CY or CYCe sv 11a-
bles— this will work well not onl\ for all m ono-
svllabic words but also for polvsvllabic ones, in
which the stressed sellable can act as a monosvl-
labic e nvironm ent for lette r-so u n d towel corre­
spondences (e.g., dispose).
Furthermore, some of the more advanced
spelling rules related to English morphologv c an
be facilitated bv this knowledge. In polvsvllabic
verbs with the final sellable stressed, the spelling
rules for adding the inflection -ing work in the
same m an n e r as for monosvllabic ones. Thus,
learners echo know the rule for consonant letter
doubling when changing sit to s/7//gg will be able
to applv the same rule to anv polvsvllabic verb
that ends with a stressed sellable having the form
CYC. Therefore, the verb begin, since its final sel­
lable is stressed, will undergo doubling of the last
consonant in beginning, as opposed to the verb
open, where the final sellable is not stressed and
therefore the -/ngform of open is spelled opening.
However, in spite of all that has been said so
far, English orthography has a notorious reputa­
tion because, in addition to all these helpful and
relatively reliable rules, we must account for cari­
ous less productive rules. Some' of these are quite
predictable, such as the occurrence of the letter <i
in front of / or /I, which quite consistently is real­
ized as the sound a as in end. or a in front of the
letter r, which has the sound a as in ear. In
general, the letter raffects the sound ol the vowel
preceding it and causes it to become m ore
centralized, as in the words world, bird. nerd.
Furthermore, the vowel diphthongs have a variety
of spellings, such as the following letter combina­
tions, evliich all correspond to the- same1 eowel
diphthong oev : rape, botrt. bar. for. So. while it is
true that there are quite a few cases in English
which need to be rem em bered as individual
words, there are far fetver than peoph- imagine
(for good sources of rules on sound-spelling cor­
respondences. see Schane 1970: Yencz.kv. 1970).
In sum m ing up this section dealing evith
the leaching points relevant to the m echanics of
reading an d writing, eve should emphasize the
fact that it is im portant for learners of English as
a second or foreign language to realize from the
start that English orthographv is be no m eans a
one-to-one le tte r -s o u n d c o rre s p o n d e n c e svs-
tem: it has its oevn consistence e m b e d d e d in the
com bination of letters evith their im m ediate
environm ents, resulting in evhat eve tend to call
sound-spelling correspondences. Bv practicing
the p ro p e r pronunciation of sounds in relation
to given spelling patterns, eve can provide learn­
ers evith a good basis for p ro n unciation as well as
for the skills of reading and writing.
H o w D o W e Teach M echanics?
The stage devoted to the teaching of the m echan­
ics of reading and writing aims at three different
goals: (a) to enhance letter recognition— espe-
ciallv when learners come from a different writing
system, (b) to practice sound-spelling correspon­
dences via all four language skills, and (c) to help
the learner mov e from letters and words to m ean­
ingful sentences and larger units of discourse.
Recognition and writing drills constitute the
first steps in the developm ent of effective reading
and writing habits. However, in order to acquire
active masterv of the sound-spelling correspon­
dences. it is necessarv for the learners to arrive at
relevant generalizations concerning these corre­
spondences. Such generalizations will lead to a
better understanding of the svstematic represen­
tation of sounds in English orthographv, and will
require learners to master some basic phonologi­
cal rules in English and to develop an ability to
recognize the distinctive features of each letter
within a spelling pattern.
T hree m ajor types of recognition tasks are
used at this early stage of reading an d writing,
each tv pe incorporating a great variety of drills:
a. M atching tasks
b. Writing tasks
c. Meaningful sound-spelling correspondence
practice
 Examples of different matching tasks are
given in A ppendix A. These tasks enable the
learners to develop effective recognition habits
based on distinctive graphic features. Mans of
these bas e the form of games, puzzles, a n d o ther
"fun” activities. Examples of different writing
tasks are given in A ppendix B; these start with
basic letter form ation and lead to m eaningful
writing of words and sentences. Examples of
sound-spelling c o rrespondence tasks are given in
A ppendix C. T he com m on feature o f all tasks in
Appendix C is that thev require the learner to
focus on the p ro n unciation as well as the written
shape of the spelling patterns.
An im portant feature of this earlv stage of
writing is the need to accustom learners to cor­
rect capitalization in English and to basic p u n c ­
tuation rules. While practicing sound-spelling
correspondences, students can be writing m ea n ­
ingful sentences (accom panied bv pictures) with
p ro p er capitalization and punctuation, such as
the following:
1. T h e re is a cat on the m at and a cake on the
plate.
2. T he ball is near the tall bov next to the wall.
T hese sentences c ontain words which
exemplifv sound-spelling correspondences and.
at the same time, thev are words that students
have probable just learned. Thev mav not work
out too well as a store or an interesting piece of
discourse since our focus in this case is first and
forem ost on the s o u n d -s p e llin g c o rr e s p o n ­
dence. But eventuallv. discourse units will grow
and incorporate m ore meaningful and interest­
ing texts. T he language knowledge the students
gain can be the basis for developing m ore sophis­
ticated an d interesting texts, however.
At this earlv stage of writing, we n e e d to
give learners "plentv of opportunities for copy­
ing” (Bvrne 1988. p.ISO). However, such copying
activities can be cognitively m ore d e m a n d in g if
students tire guided to search for the m eaningful
words and to create sentences in new contexts.
A ppendix В provides examples of this type of
writing activity.
More Advanced Writing Tasks:
Developing Basic
Communication Tools
More advanced writing activities which start
shifting th e ir goal from th e focus on the
m echanics of writing to basic process-oriented
tasks will n e e d to incorporate some language
work at the m orphological and discourse level.
Thus, these activities will enable focus on both
accuracy and c ontent of the message. In this
chapter, since we are co n c ern e d with the begin­
ning level, we will work with categories o f practi­
cal writing tasks, emotive writing tasks, and
school-oriented tasks (Nevo, W einbach, a n d
Mark 1987).
In o rd e r to develop a n d use these m ore
d e m a n d in g writing activities in the ESL/EFL
classroom, we need to develop a detailed set of
specifications which will enable both teachers
a n d students to cope successfully with these
tasks. Such a set of specifications should include
the following:
Task Description: to p resen t students with the
goal of the task and its im portance.
Content Description: to present students with
possible co n te n t areas that m ight be rel­
evant to the task.
Audience Description: to guide students in
developing an u n d e rs ta n d in g of the
in te n d e d audience, their background,
needs, and expectations.
Format Cues: to help students in p lanning the
overall organizational structure of the
written product.
Linguistic Cues: to help students make use of
certain grammatical structures a n d vocab­
ulary choices.
Spelling and Punctuation Cues: to help stu­
dents focus their attention on spelling
rules which they have lea rn ed and even­
tuallv on the n e e d to use the dictionary
for checking accuracy of spelling, a n d to
guide students to use acceptable p u n c tu ­
ation and capitalization conventions.
Practical Writing Tasks
These are writing tasks which are procedural in
nature a nd have a predictable format. This makes
them particularly suitable for writing activities
that focus primarily on spelling and morphology.
Lists of various types, notes, short messages, sim­
ple instructions, and o ther such writing tasks are
particularly useful in reinforcing classroom work.
Lists can be of manv tvpes: '‘things to do"
lists, “things com pleted” lists, or shopping lists.
Each o f these list types protides us with an o p por­
tunity to combine some spelling rules with m or­
phological rules and with the logical creation of a
meaningful message. “Things to do" lists are use­
ful for practicing verb base forms and reinforcing
various sound-spelling correspondences. W hen
assigning such an activity, the teacher will have to
indicate w hether the list is personal or intended
for a group. T he content specification will have to
indicate "whether this is a list o f things to do in
preparation for some event or just a plan for
so m e o n e ’s daily routine. For example, a list for a
group of students who are preparing a surprise
birthday party m ight look like this:
Things to Do
1. Buy a present for D onna (Sharon).
2. Call D onna's friends (Gail).
3. Write invitations (Dan),
etc.
Following up on this tvpe of list, we can eas­
ily move on to the “things com pleted” list, which
specifies the things that have already been taken
care of and is therefore useful for practicing past
forms of verbs. As part of this activity, students will
n e e d to review' the regular past tense formation
of verbs where -ed is added and its exceptions in
spelling are taught, such as the deletion of a final
e before adding -ed, as in lived; the doubling of the
last consonant in monosyllabic bases of the form
CVC, as in canned, and the same doubling rule
when the final syllable of a polysvllabic verb is
stressed, such as in occurred but not in opened: the
replacem ent of v with (when the base ends in C +
V , as in tried. Such an activity also enable' students
to practice the spelling of irregular past-tense for­
mations. For example, the above list m ijh t look
like this when partial!}' completed:
Things Completed
1. P lanned the games for the party.
2. Wrote the invitations.
3. Bought the present.
4. Called the friends.
5. Tried to call D onna's mother.
S hopping lists provide ns with a very good
opportunitv to practice the spelling of the plural
e n d in g of countable nouns an d the use of q u a n ­
tifiers. T h e s o u n d -s p e llin g co rre sp o n d en c e s
here consist of the plural inflection with two of
its three phonetic variants— /s/. /z/— which can
be com bined with the spelling pattern s as in
pens, pencils, whereas in words like brushes or
oranges the plural takes the phonetic form /эz .
an additional sellable, with such words en d in g in
the spelling pattern -es.
A n o th e r tvpe of practical writing task is
notes an d messages that are left for a n o th e r per­
son. These allow students to practice brief and
simple sentences with p r o p e r p u nctuation an d a
m eaningful message. To m ake the activity more
interesting, students can design their own mes­
sage headings and th en fill them in. H ere is ar.
example:
Messages for M \ Little Sister
Wash the dishes in the sink.
Feed the dog.
Watch vour favorite program on TV and
har e a good time.
O th e r types of practical writing activities
might include the filling in of forms and the
preparation of invitations, “greetings” a n d “than!
you” notes, and other such written comm unica­
tions. All of these activities, when carried out ir.
class, will require the set of specifications m en­
tioned above, with appropriate focus on ortho­
graphic, m echanical, and linguistic a c curao
(For various examples of such tasks see the
appendices.)
Emotive Writing Tasks
Emotive writing tasks are c o n c ern e d with per­
sonal writing. Such personal writing primarik
includes letters to friends a n d narratives describ­
ing personal experiences, as well as persona.
journals and diaries. W hen dealing with letter
writing, emphasis can be placed on format, pu n c­
tuation, and spelling of appropriate phrases and
expressions. W hen writing about personal experi­
ences— usually done in a narrative form at—
spelling of past-tense forms can be reviewed and
practiced. Entries in diaries and journals can take
the form of personal letters and serve as a review
of letter writing in general.
It seems that emotive waiting, to serve the
personal needs of the learners, has to be quite
fluent. How can this be do n e in the earlv stages of
an ESL/EFL course of study? The different tvpes
of emotive writing activities are, of course, suit­
able for the m ore advanced stages of the course,
but they can be carried out, in a m ore limited
manner, even at the initial stages. Thus, personal
letters can be limited to the level of structural and
vocabulary knowledge of the students at each
point in time. Similarly, journal and personal writ­
ing activities can reflect the learner's proficiency
level. It is important, however, in all cases to pro­
vide students with the specifications of the task,
limiting it to their level of knowledge.
School-Oriented Tasks
O ne of the most im portant functions of writing
in a s tu d e n t’s life is the function it plavs in
school. It is still the case that m uch individual
learning goes on while students are writing
assignments, summaries, answers to questions, or
a variety of essav-tvpe passages. In most cases, the
audience for these writing tasks is the teacher,
but gradually students must learn to write to an
unknown reader who needs to get the inform a­
tion being im parted exclusively via writing. H ere
again, at the earlv stages of ESL/EFL learning,
the assignments might be short an d limited.
Answers m ight be single phrases or sentences,
summaries (a listing of main ideas), a n d similar
activities. However, all of these writing activities
should be given attention, both at the linguistic-
accuracy level a n d at the message-transmission
level. It is the com bination of c ontent a n d organ­
ization with accepted formal features that will
lead learners to better utilization o f the writing
skill in their future use of English.
Dialogue Journal W riting
at the Early Stages
Dialogue journals enable students an d teachers
to interact on a one-to-one basis at any level and
in anv learning context. They are, therefore, also
ven useful communicative events at the early
stages of learning to write in a new language. The
dialogue journal enables the beginner to gener­
ate some personal input and receive the teacher’s
direct feedback on it.
According to Peyton a n d Reed (1990),
both voting children who are b e g inning writers
in a second language an d nonliterate adults can
start a dialogue jo u rn a l as soon as they are com ­
fortable in the classroom. It can start out as an
interactive pictu re b o o k in w hich first the
teacher and later the learners label the pictures
an d provide brief descriptions. Gradually, the
texts becom e m ore detailed a n d the c o m m u n i­
cation process is enhanced.
T he dialogue journal, like anv o th e r tvpe of
writing activity, can be d o n e via e-mail an d the
com m unication between students a n d teachers
can take on this m ore m o d e r n form of interac­
tion. M ultimedia program s often include such
correspondence, allowing learners to interact
with the teacher, o th er learners, or a designated
tutor.
C O N C L U S IO N
It has been the objective of this chapter to
encourage teachers to use a variety of writing
tasks at all levels and particularly at the beginning
level. Writing, in addition to being a com m unica­
tive skill of vital importance, is a skill which
enables the learner to plan and rethink the com­
munication process. It therefore provides the
learner with the opportunity to focus on both lin­
guistic accuracy and content organization. It has
been the major aim of this chapter to emphasize
the fact that the mechanics of writing are particu­
larly im portant at the initial stage of learning since
they help students establish a g o o d basis
in sound-spelling correspondences, which are
im portant for effective use of reading and writing
skills a n d also for good p r o n u n c ia tio n .
A carelullv p lan n e d presentation which com ­
bines the m echanics of writing with the com pos­
ing process can se n e the lea rn er well du rin g the
earlv stages of a language course. This is espe­
cially true for children, hut also true for adults
whose native language uses a completely differ­
e n t writing system. A nd for preliterate adults,
the m o re a dvanced activities suggested in
W einstein’s c h a p te r in this volume can be com ­
bined with some of the suggestions offered here
to ensure that a p ro p e r foundation in writing is
also established while such adults are learning to
be better readers.
D IS C U S S IO N Q U E S T IO N S
1. How -would vou plan the earlv writing stage
differently for students whose first language
uses a Rom an alphabet co m p ared to stu­
dents whose first language has a completely
different writing system?
2. Identify an im portant sound-spelling corre­
spondence in English that teas not m entioned
in the chapter and discuss how vou might
teach it.
3. How should we sequence the teaching o f the
various sound-spelling correspondences?
4. How can writing be used to ensure the inter­
action of all skills at the early stages of the
ESL/EFL course of studv? Give an example.
5. Give an exam ple of how the teacher of
beginning-level 1 M l.l l students can com ­
bine elem ents of the com posing process with
elem ents of the m echanics of writing.
S U G G E S T E D A C T IV IT IE S
1. Prepare a game or a set of cards to practice
the difference between the vowel sounds in
the environm ent CVC and ( AX e. Example:
hat, kit versus hate, kite. Incorporate mam-
words as might be meaningful f a Tie intend­
ed student population. Vou mar hate to use
some new words that serve the sound-spellinc
correspondence but tire not known to vou:
students. What will vou do to present the net
words to vour students before vou practice
the spelling patterns?
2. Design a lesson to focus on the differera
sounds associated with the letter c. First pres­
ent the various environments and then de­
velop some challenging activities to practice
the relevant sound-spelling correspondence'
3. Find a picture or a n u m b e r of pictures tlva
depict various words with unusual spell:: .
patterns. All of these should be useful word'
Plav a m em ory game with vour student'
Thev are allowed to look at the picture fc
two whole minutes, then the picture is take:
awav. T he students write on a piece of pape
all the words that thev rem em ber. How cl:
this activity work?
4. Find pictures that can be used for simpl-
clescriptions. Develop a n u m b er of activitic
that will enable pairs and small groups :
answ er a set of questions about each pictuix
The questions should lead to a concise cl--
scription of what can be seen in the picture
FU R TH ER R EA D IN G
Sources for Teaching Prereading and Early Writiiu
Exercises
Byrne. D. 1988. limiting Writing Skills. Londc
Longman.
Crittenden. J. 1978. English with Solo. Oxford: Oxf
University Press.
Herman. M.. and P. Sacks. 1977. Tell Me How to S:
Tel Aviv: University Publishing Projects.
Johnson. K. 198a. Ле;с for English. Course and Active
Books 1. 2. a. Surrey; Thomas Nelson.
I.lanas. A., and E. Tavlor. 1983. Sunrise 1. Sum
Thomas Nelson.
Olshtain. E.. et al. 1970. English for Speakers ofHebt--
Prereader Workbook. Pel Aviv: l m ic:-
Publishing Projects.
Prince. L. 1990. Write Soon! .4 Beginning Text for E'
Writers. New York: Maxwell Macmillan.
A P P E N D IX A d. U nderline the words that have n.
net
1. Letter recognition activities: ben
bed
a. Find the ODD MAN OUT. ten
h h к n h n f j j
e. U n derline the words e n d in g in ed.
p b b d b d ne d
b. Find the same letter. bed
dip
b: n cl b c к
net
k: j f к h i
2. M atch capital letters with lower case.
d: b P 1 d h
C onnect the words beginning with the same
Find all the d'\s. Find ;til the A* letter.
f к s n cl J s к j h n d Pm tin
s j d d b P z к n b s d bib ^ pin
h f к s z m m h n h s S Tin Bin
f d к i n m f h к h b net Net

A P P E N D IX В
I. Writing Practice: Tracing Letters, Words, and Sentences

C c "■ e Г
V ✓
4 / %
У Ч
S
У
r%
V >

/ ”"

----- Г '
s

[
✓ Ч

■ rs
..С c ....
. 1
-------------------
C 4 ✓

"N . S — 4 / n N ✓ 4 s ✓ s
-- X s

r C ..r . . r
- 1 ----------------- --- - \ I ------------------ — 1

C
N 1 /• s 1 /• ч 1

'j \_
1 1

Car '...e rr ' ч

1
✓ . 1
1
1
-1

'
, ■■ 1

h ere ’s a cuiD ОП t he ta :re .

; J
,- i
ll ч 1 V У \С_l-- Г Т -s
гм г
V s ‘- M
' \ . I
”

1_________ !___
l‘J iW.
>'—
1 4 ✓
•
-------------- 1-
•
1
'
V
— rV
|4

( a d a p t e d f r o m O l s h t a i n e t al. 19 70 )
II. Meaningful Copying Activities
(Adapted from Olshtain et al. 1998. pp. 76, 85, an d 157)
1. Read and decide.
Dan wants to win at tennis. He doesn't practice a lot, but when he goes to
plav he takes a lucky ring with him. He thinks it can help hint win. What do
von think?

_ It can help Dan. It can't help Dan.

2. Read about Lucky the Rock Star in Exercise 3 below. Then answer these questions.
W hat is he wearing?

W hat is he doing?

3. Who is Luckv
у the Rock Star? Read and check ( t / ) .

He is wearing 2 necklaces. He is wearing a lim m hat. He is wearing huge sunglasses. He is

wearing new black shoes. He is wearing old ugly jeans. He is holding a guitar. He is sitting
on a black chair.
4. Read and decide. Where does he live? In South-Carolina or Canada?

A P P E N D IX C b. Use the above words to write the

missing letters and then read
Practicing Sound-Spelling the sentence.
Correspondences __1 1 th e s m ________
1. T h e letter a in all an d al ____ 1 1 s f ________ .
a. Read the following words out loud,
all also 2. U n derline the word vour teacher savs.
ball always
call almost a. Tin b. tam c. mit
fall although tine tame mite
wall tan time mat
tall d. bad e. hide f. can
hall
bade hid cane
small
bid had cap
but the sound is different in the word—
shall
 Considerations for Teaching
an ESL/EFL Writing Course
B A R B A R A K R O L L

"Considerations fc 'T e a c R n g an ESL/EFL R 'A n rg C cw se" o ro v ce s a genera! gjide to shaping writing

classes for Eng'isn language 'ea-me^s. Anaong the top cs adcressec are syllabus design, techniques
to help '/enters get started, assgnn^enc design anc ceacner a no peer -'esponses to writing. It shows
how t Ke choices that reachers rrare are c ues to the ■
■oncer ung ph/osophv of reaching.

IN T R O D U C T IO N and materials. The strong teacher is a reflective

Teaching academic writing to both native and
non-native speakers of English is an enterprise
that unfolds in such a countless varietv of set­
tings and classrooms a ro u n d the world that it is
not hai'd to imagine considerable \ariation in
how writing gets taught. Regardless of this varia­
tion. however, certain facts hold true lor anv
classroom where the teaching of writing takes
place: Students pro d u ce written texts that are
expected to exhibit increasinglv advanced levels
of proficiencv as the student writers progress
through a curriculum, a n d teachers must make
choices about how r at ions learning experiences
will p rom ote this goal. Two of the com ponents
most central to anv writing course are the writ­
ing assignments that students are asked to do to
and the m ethod(s) of feedback provided to
learners on their evolving writing skills. To
improve, writers must write: without feedback
opportunities in a writing course, there is little
reason for students to be there. These, then, are
the constants of anv writing course: teacher-
plan n e d lessons, presentation of writing assign­
ments, student-written texts, an d feedback on
writing. How these c o m ponents work together
in anv given classroom of English language
learners (ELL), be thev ESL or EFL1 students,
accounts for the m am variations possible.
However, it is mv belief that teachers can­
not adequatelv serve their students arm ed sim­
ply with a general u n d e rstanding of m ethods
teacher (see Murphv's chapter in this volume),
and part of the tiecessarv background p rep ara­
tion for becom ing a teacher of writing is to rec­
ognize that ev e n teat h e r brings to the classroom
a philosophv of teaching a n d a set of beliefs
about learning. To develop an approach with the
goal of helping writers improv e that is consistent
with their philosophv and beliefs, teachers need
to familiarize themselves, at least to a certain
extent, with the field of composition studies and
its in te rre la tio n s h ip with ESL com position.
Matsuda (199S. 1999) provides an extensive dis­
cussion of this topic.
B U ILD IN G B A C K G R O U N D
KN O W LED GE
U nderstanding current attitudes an d practices in
the teaching of writing requires some historical
review so that teachers can have a richer aware­
ness of how we have gotten to where we are
todav. Prior to the mid-1960s, teaching writing to
native English speakers (AES) at the high school
and college levels primarilv focused on respond­
ing in writing to literate texts. Based on text­
books of the period, the model for teaching
composition was fairlv standard and included the
following steps: ( 1 ) instruct the students in p rin ­
ciples of rhetoric and organization, presented as
“rules" for writing: (2 ) provide a text for class­
room discussion, analvsis, a n d interpretation
(preferably a work of lite ra tu re ); (3) require a
writing assignment (accom panied bv an outline)
based on the text; a n d (4) read, c o m m e n t on,
a n d criticize student papers prior to beginning
the next assignm ent in this cycle. This approach
is known as “the traditional p a ra d ig m ” (Hairston
1982). Because teachers following this model
te n d e d to focus on evaluating student essays, the
approach is also referred to as the “p roduct
a p p ro a c h ,” since the primary concern was really
with the c om pleted written product, not with the
strategies a n d processes involved in its p ro d u c ­
tion or with the nature of anv learning that
m ight be required.
In the 1960s, ESL composition teaching in
North America was d o m inated bv a controlled
composition m odel whose origins were in the
oral approach prom ulgated in the 1940s bv Fries
(1945). While the written product was also the
focal point o f evaluation and concern as in first
language (LI) writing, the approach for ELLs
differed in that the stimulus for second language
(L2 ) student writing was rarelv a genuine text,
an d written tasks were not m eant to elicit inter­
pretive com m entary on texts. That is. whatever
writing took place was m eant to se n e primarily as
reinforcem ent of language rules (and not. for
example, for purposes such as addressing a topic
or com m unicating with an audience), and the
writing task was tightly controlled in ord er to
reduce the possibility for e rro r (hence the term
"controlled” com position).
T h e re were a n u m b e r of forces that con­
verged in the mid-1960s to change the way com ­
position has com e to be viewed and taught,
starting with the call bv Braddock, Llovd-Jones,
an d Schoer (1963) for teachers or researchers to
exam ine how writing is actually produced. In the
late 1960s, Janet Emig p io n e e re d the technique
of the “think a lo u d ” p r o c e d u re 2 for collecting
inform ation about student writing processes; she
is usually cited as the first researcher to call wide
attention to the fact that the ways in which stu­
de n t writers p ro duce text do not necessarily
m atch the m odel that ha d been traditionally
p ro m u lg a te d (Emig 1971). O n e of h e r water­
shed observations was the fact that writers do
not, in general, p ro d u ce text in the straightfor­
ward linear sequence that the traditional para­
digm o u tlined, an observation which expose:
the fact that m uch o f what textbooks suggeste:
in term s of a writing "process” was based on intu­
itions o f textbook writers a n d n o t based or
analyses of writers at work. T he insights <::
process-based inquiry began to slowlv but inex­
orably im pact the teaching o f first language writ­
ing, after which the field also cam e to have .
profo u n d influence on the teaching of com pos-
tion to ELLs. Prior to the field of second-languagT
com position teaching's developing its own bod'
of knowledge, insights from LI pedagogy tender,
to be im ported directly into the second language
classroom.
It has becom e com m onplace to refer to tit?
do m in a n t trend in teaching writing todav as tin
"process approach" or a "process classroom.
This is true for both XES and ELL setting-
W hen first used in the context of composition
this term contrasted the new classroom ideology
with the "product approach." T here was a grew
deal of emphasis in earlv LI process courses or
developing a personal voice in writing, especial/
as this p rom oted the idea of a learner-centere:
classroom. However, as the term has evolved
"process" no longer describes a single philosophy
or anv particular or specific curriculum (if it eve:
did). Rather, the "process a p p r o a c h ” serve-
todav as an um brella term for many types o f wi r ­
ing courses, each offering a curriculum shape
bv o th e r considerations (see Susser 1994). A
writing course can focus on general academi
writing, or on personal writing, or be linked to .
so-called "content" course offered by anothe:
instructor; it can require students to do a greatc:
or lesser am o u n t of reading (if ant ) in genres a-
distinct as student-written texts, fiction, busine--
com m unication, academic reports, or o th e r vari­
eties of nonfiction prose. Yet as radically differ­
ent as the curriculum of such writing course-
can be. nearly all writing courses provide for .
“process" approach. What the term captures i-
the fact that student writers engage in their writ­
ing tasks th ro u g h a cyclical a pproach rather than
th ro u g h a single-shot approach. Thev are no:
expected to p ro duce a n d submit com plete and
polished responses to their writing assignment-
without going th rough stages of drafting and
receiving feedback on their drafts, be it Iron:
peers a n d / o r from the teacher, followed bv revi­
sion of their evolving texts. This is what is trnlv
m ea n t bv the "process" approach.
As the field of L2 com position studies
established itself, researchers in ESL writing
replicated many of the LI research studies on
the com posing processes of student writers,
often with a focus on pedagogical implications.
Silva provides a review of a large n u m b e r of stud­
ies com paring LI and L2 writers. He points out
that while there are m am similarities between
these populations, "thev are different in n u m e r­
ous a n d im portant wavs. This difference needs
to be acknowledged and addressed bv those who
deal with L2 writers if [thev] are to be treated
fairly [and] taught effectivelv" (1993. p. 671).
Such differences clearlv call for curriculum and
teaching choices that factor in the specific needs
of the target population.
All of these research findings had pro ­
found impacts on curriculum. An earlv general
shift in the teaching of ESL writing in N orth
America changed the precious "focus on form"
to a “focus on the writer" (Raimes 1991), dating
perhaps from the mid-1970s, as an earlv inter­
pretation of what the process ap p ro a c h meant.
Raimes identifies two o t h e r pedagogical
approaches that also came into pro m in e n ce at
about the same time in the mid-1980s: a focus
on content-based instruction a n d a focus on a
reader-dom inated approach (Raimes 1991. pp.
410-413). It is im portant to recognize that as
each new way of teaching writing evolves, the
earlier focus does not necessarily disappear.
Indeed, what eve find today is that multiple
approaches to teaching writing coexist, often
presented bv outspoken p ro p o n en ts with pas-
sionatelv held beliefs that greatlv diverge from
equally passionate claims presented by p ro p o ­
nents o f a n o th e r camp. It is n o t into tranquil
professional waters that the new L2 writing
teacher steps. (Several of these issues are dis­
cussed in Grabe and Kaplan 1996; Raimes 1998;
and Santos 2001.)
Thus, ESL/EFL writing teachers need to
have solid scholarlv training to develop their
own a p p ro a c h to the te a c h in g o f writing,
enabling them to choose m ethodologies and
materials which arise from principled decisions
that they can articulate to others. W ithout a
stance on how to p rom ote student learning,
teachers would have no choice but to make ad
hoc decisions which mav or mav not be the best
possible ones for their students or to rely on the
choices of textbook writers, who certainlv c a n ’t
know the dvnamics of even individual te a c h e r’s
situation.
In this chapter, I discuss several kev com ­
p o n ents in the ESL/EFL writing curriculum and
the ESL/EFL writing class for teachers to co n ­
sider as thev develop their own approaches to
teaching an d their own philosophies of teach­
ing. This will enable them to structure courses
and program s to facilitate the im provem ent of
student writing skills an d to pro m o te a variety of
goals in whatever teaching situation (s) thev find
themselves.
T H E W R IT IN G C U R R IC U LU M
Placement Considerations
Almost everv institution that offers ESL/EFL
writing courses sets up a n u m b e r of different
classes at various levels that are m ea n t to reflect
the range of skill levels of the students enrolled
in that particular program . To establish a writing
curriculum (as opposed to a general language
skills curriculum) that can target specific prin­
ciples to address in am one course of a given pro ­
gram. it is essential that students be given a
placement test that includes asking them to pro­
duce one or m ore writing samples. Without a
placem ent instrum ent that can sort students into
levels of writing proficiency', it is not possible to
establish clear curricular goals, since there is no
wav of assuring that students are grouped in
classes that are relatively hom ogeneous, a neces­
sary prerequisite for curriculum planning. And
it is the curriculum of the writing program that
designates the goals for each course an d helps to
distinguish one course from another. Although
scoring writing placement tests is a complex and
time-consuming procedure, indirect measures of
writing, such as multiple-choice gram m ar tests,
have proven to be undesirable as indicators of pro­
ductive skills. Creating a placement instrum ent
an d scoring pro ce d u re appropriate to the goals
of a particular program thus serves as a critical
m easure in providing teachers principled rea­
sons for selecting the materials and the m e th o d ­
ologies thev will use in the ESL-EFL writing
classroom.
Teachers in the program can score place­
m e n t essavs using either a global holistic scale,
such as the six-point scale developed for the
T O E F L - Test of Written English, which awards
the top score of 6 to an cssav that ''demonstrates
clear com petence in writing on both the rhetor­
ical an d syntactic levels" a n d the bottom score of
1 to an essav that "dem onstrates incom petence
in writing" ( Test of Written English Guide 1996). or
a m ore detailed set of scoring guidelines, such
as th e widclv used 100-point EST English
Com position Profile (developed bv Jacobs ct al.
1981), which has raters assign differentiallv
weighted separate sub-scores in the five cate­
gories of content, organization, vocabulary lan­
guage use, an d mechanics.
Despite the ease with which raters can be
trained to agree on scores for placem ent essavs.
which creates a sense that students are being
accuratclv slotted into courses at the appropriate
level, sometimes students with different strengths
and weaknesses do receive similar scores. In­
evitably students with m idrange scores exhibit a
wider range of actual writing skills than do stu­
dent writers whose scores tire at the higher and
lower edges of the placement scoring settle. This
is because it is extremelv difficult to tease out the
distinctions between a student whose writing
might be quite strong at the level of language
control while relativelv weak at the level of dis­
course structure and vice versa. In setting up
placement procedures suited to their specific
institutions, curriculum planners and teachers
need to recognize this reality
Establishing Curriculum Principles
O nce students are placed into classes, their par­
ticular skill levels will d e term ine to a large
extent the scope of writing activities thev are
able to undertake. While the ultimate goal of a
writing curriculum in a postsecondary setting
m ight be to have ETLs write essavs that match
the level of content and masterv of language
skills required of XES students in a similar
academic environm ent, it is not possible for
beginning- or intermediate-level language learn­
ers to p ro d u ce essavs that exhibit such mastery.
Writing activities that involve a varietv of gram ­
matical m anipulations, the imitation of models
constructed for teaching purposes, preparation
of short texts using material supplied to the stu­
de n t writer, an d practice in self-expression for its
own sake certainlv s e n e a function in helping
students acquire familiaritv with the nature of
English-language texts and in lacing the g ro u n d ­
work for m ore complex ■writing tasks to follow.
However, for intermediate and advanced stu­
dents. work on the creation of self-generated
complete texts should constitute the bulk of their
writing curriculum. (For discussions and examples
of the types of writing acthities appropriate for stu­
dents with limited language skills, see Olshtain’s
chapter in this volume and Gebhard 1996).
Tasks that ask students to produce complete
texts in response to a varietv of writing stimuli,
such as pictures, texts whic h have been read, or
simplv the presentation of some sort of "topic" to
write about, can be referred to as "free" writing
or o pen-ended writing tasks. The writer is free,
in some sense, to work with the topic, an d the
rea d e r evaluator remains open to dealing with
w hatever p r o d u c t each writer g enerates.
Helping students in an academic environm ent
with the creation of open-ended, full-length
texts is the focus of the following discussion.
T H E W R IT IN G C L A S S
Regardless of how different am given writing
class mav be from others, each teacher works to
c a m out a somewhat predictable set of tasks.
These involve designing a n d / o r implementing a
svllabus. structuring individual lessons, providing
students opportunities lot writing (typically in the
form of assignments), and responding to that writ­
ing. While this listing of tasks mat seem self1
evident, how the tasks are actualized can varv quite
wiclelv and potentially marks a teacher as adher­
ing to a particular point of view regarding optimal
student learning. In the ongoing professional
debate as to how best to s e n e our ELL student
population in the writing course (see. for example.
Santos 2001). it is through class planning that am
teacher delines his or her stance as to the purpose
of a given course.
Syllabus Design
A syllabus should be designed to take into
account curricular goals and the particular stu­
dents the teacher will face. The syllabus further
reflects, w hether intentionalh or unintentionally,
the philosophy of teaching writing that a teacher
has a dopted for that particular course in that par­
ticular institution. (See X unan's chapter in this
volume for a full discussion, of syllabus design.)
O ne of the reasons whv teaching writing is
such a challenge is that most classes contain a mix­
ture of students— those who have placed directly
into a particular level of a course and those who
have passed into that course in sequence from a
previous one. While this might make it difficult to
plan a rigidlv outlined course in advance of the
term, teachers need to consider at least the fol­
lowing aspects of course planning: (1 ) how much
writing students are expected to complete during
the term, divided into less formal work such as
journals and more formal work such as assign­
ments: (2 ) what the timelines and deadlines are
for working on and completing papers: (3) how
main' of the formal writing assignments will be
done in class as "timed" pieces: (4) what aspects of
the composing process will be presented: (3) what
aspects of English gram m ar and syntax, if ant. will
be directly addressed in class: (6 ) what will be seen
to constitute "progress" in acquiring improved
writing skills as the term moves along; (7) how
m uch reading (and possible which specific read­
ings) will be covered: and (8 ) how the student's
grade or a decision of credit no credit will be
determ ined.
In general, the teacher uses the syllabus to
an n o u n c e to students what he o r she sees as
im portant to the course as well as what is im p o r­
tant to good writing. W ithout some inform ed
sense o f how he or she plans to use the class to
foster individual growth in writing, the teacher
will find it most difficult to devise any syllabus at
all or to justify evaluation decisions.
W h ether operating from a tightly organized
or a fairly loose syllabus, the writing teacher
needs to structure individual class sessions so that
thev allow students to learn and practice princi­
ples of good writing. Good writing results from a
time-consuming process that cannot be reduced
to formulaic rules, though many EFL students in
particular, typically trained for years in classes
that emphasized rigidlv controlled grammatical
exercises, will come to the writing class with the
belief that there are rules to be learned which will
yield fully conceived an d problem-free essavs.
The LSI. LFL writing class is perhaps best
seen as a workshop for students to learn to p ro ­
duce academic essavs through mastering tech­
niques for getting started and generating ideas
(discussed in m ore detail below), drafting papers
which thev will anticipate revising, and learning
to utilize feedback provided bv the teacher and
o ther students in the class to improve the writing
assignment at hand. The goal of every course
should be individual student progress in writing
proficiency, and the goal of the total curriculum
should be that student writers learn to becom e
inform ed and in d e p e n d e n t readers of their own
texts with the ability to create, revise, an d reshape
papers to m eet the needs of whatever writing
tasks thev are assigned.
Techniques for Getting Started
Regardless of the type of writing tasks the teacher
might favor assigning, a good place to begin is to
explore the prewriting stage, the stage prior to
actual production of a working text. This is a
topic well worth investing a lot of class time on
because so many student writers fear the blank
page. Not knowing where or how to begin causes
inexperienced writers to waste time that could be
better invested in working to improve a draft of a
p a per in progress: there can be no p a per in
progress, however, if the writer does not have a
wav into the topic or assignment.
Because there isn t one com posing process,
the goal o f the teacher should be to expose stu­
dents to a variety of strategies for getting started
with a writing task a n d to encourage each stu­
de n t to trv to discov er which strategies work best
for him or her. A few of the m ore popular
heuristic devices”’ (or in v en tio n strategies)
which can be explored in class for the purpose
o f providing students with a repertoire of tech­
niques for g enerating ideas are presented below.
Reid (1995), however, eighth cautions that some
techniques mav ru n c o u n te r to a given student's
learning preferences: students should be asked
to practice all techniques but should later focus
on using those that d e a t h s e n e them best.
1. Brainstorming This is often a group exer­
cise in which all students in the class are
encouraged to participate bv sharing their
collective knowledge about a particular
subject. It generates far m ore material than
any one student is likelv to think of on his
or h e r own. Students can then utilize am or
all of the inform ation when turning to the
preparation of their first drafts.
2. Listing Unlike brainstorm ing, listing can
be a quiet a n d essentiallv individual activitv.
As a first step in finding an approach to a
pa rticu la r subject area, the s tu d e n t is
enc o u ra g e d to p ro duce as lengthv a list as
possible of all the main ideas and subcate­
gories that come to m in d as he or she
thinks about the topic at hand. This is an
especially useful activitv for students who
m ight be constrained bv u n d u e concern
for expressing their thoughts in grammati-
callv correct sentences.
3. Clustering A n o th e r technique for getting
manv ideas down quicklv. clustering begins
with a kev word or central idea placed in
the c enter of a page (or on the blackboard)
a ro u n d which the student (or the teacher,
u sing s tu d e n t-g e n e ra te d suggestions)
quicklv jots down all of the free-associations
trig g e re d bv the subject m atter, using
words or short phrases. Unlike listing, the
words or phrases generated are p u t on the
page or b o a rd in a pattern which takes
shape from the connections the writer sees
as each new th o u g h t emerges. C om pleted
clusters can look like spokes on a wheel or
anv o t h e r p a tte rn o f c o n n e c te d lines
d e p e n d in g on how the individual associa­
tions relate to each other. Bv sharing their
cluster patterns with others in the class, stu­
dents can be exposed to a wide variety of
approaches to the subject matter, which
might generate further material for writing.
4. Freewriting Suggested bv Elbow (1973)
for helping native speakers break through
the difficultv of getting started, freewriting
is also known bv various o th er terms such as
"wet ink" -writing, "quick writing,” an d
"speed writing." T he main idea of this tech­
nique is for students to write for a specified
period of lime without taking their pen
from the page (tistiallv about three m inutes
for a first attem pt and then tvpicallv for
about five to eight m inutes). For ESL/EFL
students, this often works best if the
teacher provides an o p e n in g clause or sen­
tence for the students to start with to struc­
ture the freewriting. T h e writing generated
from this technique often contains useful
raw material for student writers to work
with.
It is verv im portant that students experi­
m en t with each of these techniques in o rd e r to
see how each one helps generate text an d
shapes a possible approach to a topic. T he p u r ­
pose. after all. of invention strategies is for stu­
dents to feel that thev have several wavs to begin
an assigned writing task a n d that thev do not
alwavs have to begin at the beginning an d work
th rough an evolving draft sequentiallv until they
reach the end.
Using Readings in the Writing Class
T he use of readings in the writing class is an­
o ther topic that has generated a great deal of
debate am ong those searching for m ethodolo­
gies which prom ote improvement in writing pro-
ficiencv. Without a doubt, readings s e n e some
verv practical purposes in the writing class, par-
ticularlv for EEEs who have less fluencv in the lan­
guage. At the verv least, readings p rotide models
of what English language texts look like, and even
if not used for the purpose of imitation (where
students are asked to produce an English lan­
guage text to match the style of the model text),
thev p rotide input that helps students develop
awareness of English language prose stele. In
class, close reading exercises can be d o n e to draw
students' attention to particular stylistic choices,
grammatical features, m ethods of development,
markers of cohesion and coherence, and so on.
Such exercises help to raise student awareness of
the choices writers make a n d the consequences
of those choices for the achievement of their
communicative goals. Further, readings help stu­
dents develop and refine genre awareness (Johns
1997), an im portant criterion for being able to
produce a wide range of text tvpes.
O n a n o th e r level, there is ample evidence
that writing tasks assigned bv manv professors
require students to do a great deal of reading in
o rd e r to synthesize and analvze academic m ate­
rial in particular c ontent areas (Hale et al.
1996). Thus, the ESL writing class can incorpo­
rate lessons which assist students in preparing
academic writing assignments b\ using readings
as a basis to practice such skills as sum m ari/ing.
para p h ra sin g , in te rp re tin g , an d synthesizing
concepts. More specifically, classes that have an
English for Special Purposes (ESP) locus (see
J o h n s and Price-Machado's c hapter in this vol­
um e) are likely to put readings at the core of the
writing curriculum. An exam ination of texts
from a variety of different disciplines is likely to
show how com plex the learning task is. Lea and
Street (1999). for example, point out that look­
ing at hoyv texts from different fields and disci­
plines contrast with each o th er not only" shores
how different such texts can be. but also reveals
implicit distinctions disciplines make about yvhat
constitutes good renting.
Finally, many ESL students are not highly
skilled readers, haring had limited opportunities
to read extensively in English: it is highly unlikely
that anvone rvho is it nonproficient reader can
develop into a highlv proficient writer. For that
reason alone. ESL EEL renting teachers are well
advised to include a reading com ponent in their
classes.
From another perspective, however, readings
can be problematic if a teacher uses the topic or
content area of the readings to turn a generic rent­
ing course into a class in the subject m atter area of
the readings, e.g., psy chology or history or socio­
logy, and loses sight of the focus on improvement
of yvriting. Sometimes the intention of the class
and the readings is precisely to focus student
attention on issties related to the content area.
(Snow's chapter in this volume discusses content-
based instruction in m ore detail.) Multiple other
contributions that reading material makes to writ­
ing courses are discussed in Carson an d Leki
(1996) and Johns (1997).
Writing Assignments
T he renting assignment is the kev c o m p o n e n t of
all yvriting classes, lending it a rhythm that m ight
be referred to as a "life cycle" (Kroll in press). In
any given term, the writing course consists o f a
series of assignments that are targeted an d
u n d e rta k en in a sequence of steps followed bv a
similar ro u n d an d a similar r o u n d until the
timespan of the course is oy er. Since the object
of any writing class is to have students work on
their yvriting. till assignments and the topics they
contain must be carefully designed, sequenced,
a n d structured so that the teacher knows exactly
what the learning goal of each p a p e r is a n d the
student gains som ething bv working on any
given assignment.
T h e re are manv factors to consider in select­
ing topics for yvriting, but even if not consciously
aware of it. the teacher will be primarily influ­
enced bv a particular philosophy about teaching
yvriting which he or she (or the textbook being
followed) adheres to and which significantly
shapes the a pproach to topic design. In fact, even
yvhen topics are chosen randomly; the teacher
will probable select an assignment which seems
appropriate on the basis of a felt in n er sense of
appropriate, reflecting perhaps unconsciously
hoyv the teacher views the goals of the course,
yvhat he or she values as good writing, an d the
wavs in which writers learn. For example, if the
teacher yvants the students to focus on standard
organizational patterns com m on to English lan­
guage yvriting. it is usually because the teacher
values essavs folloyving discernible p a tte rn s
a n d / o r believes that training students to recog­
nize and produce those patterns is an im portant
goal of the course. If the teacher believes that
writers learn best bv writing ab o u t topics they
can personally relate to a n d that the best essays
are those that reveal the most about the writer’s
thinking or persona, then tire assignments in
that writing class will be designed to achieve
those goals. If the teacher sees the writing course
primarilv as preparation for students to u n d e r­
take writing tasks in o th e r disciplines, then
assignments will be focused on what the teacher
sees as “real" academic requirem ents.
An assignment tvpe that speaks to the first
concern m at fall within the realm of the "rhetor­
ical patterns" approach. Assignments along these
lines ask students to create or plug in content
according to a specified m a n n e r of presentation,
such as com parison and contrast or cause and
effect. T here is ample evidence that "real world"
writing does not get p ro d u ce d in this fashion,
which is one of the m ajor criticisms leveled at
textbooks that encourage these approaches. Not
onlv do real writing tasks not begin with a partic­
ular form which merelv lacks content to be com ­
plete, but c ontent itself nsuallv does not get
generated without the writer first h a tin g a p u r­
pose for writing. However, 1 caution against
a b a n d o n in g the "rhetorical pattern" approach
altogether, for there is evidence that manv aca­
demic writing tasks outside of English de p a rt­
m ents or ESI. TIFF classes do ask students to
p rep a re papers which follow a particular format
(Hale et al. 1996: Horowitz 1986) and the abilitv
of F.I.l.s to prepare papers that m eet reader
expectations has a definite value within such an
a c a d e m i c e n vi го n m e n t .
A completciv different philosophv of teach­
ing leads to viewing writing its a vehicle of self­
revelation and self-discovei v. and assignments are
presented in which students must reflect on and
analv/e their own personal experiences. Some
examples ask students to write about being sec­
o n d language learners or to reflect on a lesson
learned in childhood. The content in either case
would arise from learners' personal biographies.
This tvpe of assignment has the potential of allow­
ing writers to feel invested in their work. Perhaps
m ore centrallv. writing is seen as a tool for discov­
ert of both m eaning and purpose. Proponents of
the “discovert- approach" claim that the writing
skills learned in practicing personal writing will
transfer to the skills required to produce aca­
demic papers. However, there is no h ard evidence
to support this claim. Further, manv students from
a range of cultural backgrounds do not believe it
appropriate to share their personal thoughts with
strangers (i.e.. the teacher and fellow classmates),
and therefore find personal writing far m ore chal­
lenging than academic, impersonal topics.
Regardless of the underiving philosophv of
teaching that motivates the tvpes of assignments
presented to students, these assignments must be
carefullv constructed to assure their success and
their contribution to promoting the goals of the
course. The following set of six guidelines for the
preparation of successful writing assignments
(adapted from Reid and kroll 1993) should prove
helpful in reviewing the eificatw of am given
assignment:
1. A writing assignment should be p resented
with its context clearlv delineated such that
the student understands the reasons for the
assignment.
2. T he content of the task topic should be
accessible to the writers and allow for m ul­
tiple approaches.
3. The language of the p ro m p t or task and
the instructions it is e m b e d d e d in should
be un-am biguous. com p re h en sib le , an d
transparent.
4. The task should be focused e n o u g h to allow
for com pletion in the time or length con­
straints gi\en and should further stu d e n ts’
knowledge of classroom c ontent an d skills.
5. The rhetorical spcnfications (cues) should pro­
vide a clear direction of likelv shape and
format of the finished assignment, including
appropriate references to an anticipated
audience.
6. The evaluation criteria should be identified
so that students will know in advance howr
their output will be judged.
In sum. if one believes that students best,
learn to write bv writing, th en the design of writ­
ing tasks is perhaps the kev c o m p o n e n t of cur­
riculum design. It is in the e n gagem ent with and
the com pletion of writing tasks that the student
will be most directlv im m ersed in the develop­
m ent of his or h e r writing skills; thus, a great
deal of th o u g h t must go into crafting such tasks.
Responding
Responding to student writing— once seen as the
main task of the writing teacher and certainly
the most time-consuming o n e — is a complex
process which also requires the teacher to make
a n u m b e r of critical decisions. Key questions to
address include:
1. What are the general goals within the writing
course for providing feedback to students?
2. What are the specific goals for providing
feedback on a particular piece of writing?
3. At what stage in the writing process should
feedback be offered?
4. What form should feedback take?
5. Who should provide the feedback?
6. W hat should students do with the feedback
thee receive?
Goal-Setting
Responding to student writing has the general
goal of fostering student improvement. While
this mav seem to be stating the obvious, teachers
n e e d to develop re sp o n d in g m ethodologies
which can foster improvement: tliev need to
know how to measure or recognize im provem ent
when it does occur. As with so m am o ther aspects
of teaching writing, there rem ains no easv
answer to the question of what tvpe of response
will facilitate improved student masters of suit­
ing. Therefore, in setting goals, teachers should
focus on im plem enting a variety of response
types and on training students to maximize the
insights of prior feedback on future writing occa­
sions. Students need to make the best use of
com m entary provided to them. Without train­
ing. it is possible that students will either ignore
feedback or fail to use it constructively.
Shaping Feedback
Regardless of whatever repertoire o f strategies
teachers develop to provide f eedback on student
papers, students must also be trained to use the
feedback in wavs that will improve their writing,
be it on the next draf t of a particular p a per or on
a n o th e r assignment. In two related case studies
analyzing a verv large n u m b e r of marginal and
en d com m ents written bv an experienced ESL
composition instructor on first drafts, Ferris
(1997) an d Ferris et al. (1997) classified the
teacher's com m ents into eight different cate­
gories. Ferris also fu rth e r e xam ined the second
draft papers written bv the same students to
d e te rm in e which tvpe of c o m m e n ts led to
cha n g e, an d which changes a p p e a r e d to
improve the quality of individual papers. She
concludes that most changes did improve the
students' papers, an d that the m ore specific and
the lengthier the indiv idual com m ents were, the
m ore likelv tliev were to lead to positive change
(Ferris 1997. p. 330). The im portant thing to
keep in m ind is that students should be taught
to process and work with a te a c h e r’s comm ents,
whatev er that teacher's c o m m e n tin g stvle is.
As with o th er issues discussed, the question
of the teacher's philosophy is a kev dete rm in a n t
of his or h e r a pproach to com m enting. If teach­
ers view themselves as language teachers rather
than as ;ceiling teachers (see Zamel 1985), the
nature of their com m ents and their feedback
stvle will not p rom ote growth in writing.
Forms of Feedback
Up to now we have been discussing feedback
that is provided in writing bv the teacher on var­
ious drafts of a student paper, a fairlv traditional
and time-consuming m ethod, even for those
teachers who do not respond to every draft as a
finished product. But there are o th e r wavs for
students to receive feedback on their writing
that can and should be considered. Teachers
should bear in m ind that feedback can be oral as
well as written, and tliev should consider indi­
vidual conferences on student papers a n d / o r
the use of tape cassettes as two additional wavs to
structure their feedback. From a n o th e r point of
view most writing teachers realize that tliev have
m am students in one class and tliev m ight also
be teaching two or m ore writing classes, thus
having a verv limited am o u n t of time to provide
feedback to am one student. Teachers whose
philosophies embrace the value of collaborative
learning therefore mav turn to the o ther students
in the class to assist in the feedback process.
O th e r students in the writing class can be taught
о provide valuable feedback in the form of peer
re'ponse, which s e n e s to sharpen their critical
'kills in analyzing written work and also increase
their ability to analvze their own drafts criticallv.
1. Oral Teacher Feedback
Because o f potential com m unication problems,
ELLs in a writing class need to have individual
conferences with their teacher even m ore than
native speaker students do. Conferences of about
15 m inutes seem to work best and can provide
the teacher an opportunitv to directly question
the student about intended messages which are
often difficult to d ecipher bv simple reading a
working draft. Further, conferences allow the
teacher to uncover potential m isunderstandings
the student m ight have about prior written feed­
back or issues in writing that have been discussed
in class. Although a given student's cultural back­
g ro u n d can contribute to and potentiallv prob-
lematize the way that he or she processes what
takes place in a conference (Patthev-Chavez and
Ferris 1997), one benefit of conferences is that
students can usuallv learn m ore in the one-to-one
exchange than they can when attem pting to deci­
p h e r teacher written com m entarv on their own.
Some teachers provide all their feedback
orallv by asking students to submit a cassette
tape with each draft. This m eth o d probably
works best when the teacher reads over a stu­
d e n t ’s p a per an d makes com m ents directlv into
the tape recorder while m arking some accom pa­
nying n um bers or symbols on the s tu d e n t’s text.
For FLFs, this m e th o d has the advantage of p ro ­
viding m uch m ore extensive feedback than is
likelv to be m ade in writing, even th o u g h it
m ight take the teacher the same a m o u n t o f time
p e r paper. It also allows the student to replay the
tape as manv times as necessary to u n d e rsta n d
a n d benefit from the te a c h e r’s comm ents.
2. Peer Response
W hen the use of peer response became an early
kev com ponent of teaching writing as a process in
the LI environment, many FSL/EFL teachers
em braced the idea of having students read a n d / o r
listen to each other's papers for the purpose of
providing feedback and input to each o ther as
well as helping each other gain a sense of audi­
ence. But em bracing a philosophy without u n ­
d e rsta n d in g how to translate it to the L 2
environm ent can often lead to rather disappoint­
ing results. T hat is. simple p utting students
together in groups of four or five, each with
rough draft in hand, and then hating each stu­
dent in turn read his or her p a per aloud, followed
bv having the o ther m em bers of the group react
to the strengths and weaknesses of the p a per to
indicate where their needs as readers h a te not
been addressed, is not a format likelv to work with
even the most sophisticated class o f ELLs.
Becattse ELLs lack the language com petence of
native speakers who can often react intuitively to
their classmates' papers, peer responding in the
ESL EFL classroom must be m odeled, taught,
and controlled if it is to be valuable.
O n e wav to guide p e e r response is for
teachers to prot ide a short list of directed ques­
tions that students address as they read their
own or o th e r students' papers. A first exercise of
this tvpe can involve giving students a short
checklist of attributes to look for in their own
papers, such as checking for a particular rh eto r­
ical feature that might h a te been discussed in
class, e.g., topic sentences, or checking to assure
no irrelevancies hat e been included. T he check­
list is subm itted with the p a p e r as a way for the
student to assume responsibilitv for reading over
his or h e r p a p e r carefullt. Next, students can be
trained to read a n d respond to o th e r stu d e n ts’
papers bv reviewing an essat written by a student
in a previous class and working through, as a
class, a pe e r response sheet that asks a few spe­
cific questions to elicit b oth a general reaction to
the p a per an d suggestions for im provem ent. As
the students gain practice in reading an d analyz­
ing each others' papers an d their awareness of
the conventions of writing increases, the ques­
tions can be m ade m ore com plex an d varied.
Some tvpical questions to begin with might
include: Wlmt is the main purpose of this paper?
What have you found particularly effective in the
paper? Do you think the writer has followed through on
what he or she set out to do? Peer guidelines for stu­
dents who h a te m ore practice in the technique
m ight include the following step: Find at least
three places in the essay where you can think of (/mo­
tions that hai’e not been answered by the writer. Write
those questions in the margins as areas for the writer to
answer in the next draft.
In order to maximize the value oh the feed­
back. responses should be written, providing
practice in the valuable skill of text analvsis for
the student commenter. These written responses
can be given to the student writer with or without
the anonvmitv of the student reader preserved
a n d / o r used as the basis for oral discussion
between reader(s) and writer. The teacher might
also want to read the student feedback sheets to
assess the analvtical skills of the student readers.
Despite all the potential benefits of peer
interaction, it is im portant to note that mans
studies conducted on L2 populations have indi­
cated n u m e ro u s p roblem s in im p le m e n tin g
p e e r resp o n se as a re g u la r fixture in the
ESL/'EFL classroom. For example, one research
studs- points to a tendencv on the part of KIT.s to
focus on grammatical issues in their peers' papers
despite training and instructions to the contrarv
(Leki 1990): some researchers base found that
the purposes of collaboration are viewed differ-
entlv in different cultures and participants in writ­
ing groups might operate tit cross-purposes (e.g..
Carson a n d Nelson 1994): and others base
expressed reservations about the extent to which
students in ESI. classes believe thee should put
anv credence in comm ents offered bv their fellow
students (e.g.. Zhang 1995). These concerns
should not be minimized, but should be factored
into how teachers train their classes to work with
peer response in a m an n e r best suited to a partic­
ular classroom environment.
Error Correction
Regardless of which agenda the writing teacher
sets and the n u m ber of drafts that students pro­
duce. the papers that ELLs write are likely to exhib­
it problems in language control. Still, the question
of whether or not errors should be corrected at
all and the role of overt grammar instruction as
a way to help students avoid or lessen the presence
of e rro r in future writing u n d e rta k in g s are
lrotlv debated (see especiallv Truscott 1996).
However, I concur with Ferris and Hedgcock’s
claim:
we p roceed on the a ssum ption— sup­
p o rte d by the intuitions of m anv ESI.
writing teachers and certainlv bv those
of their students — that g ram m ar and
ed itin g fee d b a c k a n d in stru ctio n ,
when thoughtfullv an d carefullv exe­
cuted. can help mans or most students
improve the accuracv of their texts
(1998, p. 202).
It is very important that the teacher not be swayed
bv the presence of language problems into turn­
ing a writing course into a gram m ar course.
Rather, errors must be dealt with at an appropriate
stage of the composing process, and this stage is
best considered part of the final editing phase.
Tire role of editing, w hen seen as distinct
from rewriting, is essentiallv working to elimi­
nate grammatical problem s an d stylistic infelici­
ties: this tvpe of editing is certainlv essential to
the p roduction of good prose, but is probably an
activitv that is best a tte n d ed to w hen a text is
considered com plete in terms of having been
shaped bv content, organization, attention to
the needs of the reader, an d a consideration of
its purpose. In fact, teacher editing of or correc­
tion of grammatical errors on first drafts can be
a counterproductive activitv, possible- exacerbat­
ing whatever insecurities students m ight have
about their writing an d drawing their attention
awav from the o th er kinds of revision that must
be atte n d ed to. T he long-term goal on the path
to becom ing a better writer is for students to
develop techniques for learning to edit their
own work (see Bates. Lane, and I.ange 1993).
In addition to deciding when to correct
errors, teacher must also decide who will correct
the errors, which errors to correct, a n d how to
correct errors. Besides the obvious role the
teacher plat s as a corrector of errors, the student
writer a n d o th er students in the class can be
called u p o n to p ro tid e feedback on errors as
p a rt of the pe e r feedback process. (For a discus­
sion of activities for training students in e rror
detection procedures, see F ro d c se n ’s ch a p te r in
this vo lu m e .)
 T he decision w hether to address all or
selected errors is a complex one. and probably
depends a great deal on the level of writing the
student is capable of producing. However, cor­
recting all of a student's errors is probablv rarelv
called for, unless there are t e n few errors present
in the text. The teacher should probable concen­
trate instead on calling the student's attention to
those errors which are considered m ore serious
a n d / o r represent a pattern of errors in that par­
ticular student's writing.
Lastly, the "how" of calling students' atten­
tion to their errors is also complex. Teachers can
choose ( 1 ) to point out specific errors bv using a
mark in the margin or an arrow or o ther symbol­
ic system; (2 ) to correct (or model) specific errors
by writing in the corrected form; (3) to label spe­
cific errors according to the feature then violate
(e.g., subject-verb agreem ent), using either the
complete term or a symbol system: (4) to indicate
the presence of error but not the precise location,
e.g. noting that there are problems with word
forms; or (5) to ignore specific errors. Most teach­
ers use a combination of two or m ore of these
methods, depe n d in g on what thev perceive to be
the needs of the student; studies of teacher feed­
back are inconclusive as to what the best m eth o d ­
ology might be. The best approach to feedback
on errors undoubtedly derives from considering
the circumstances of the individual student cou­
pled with the goals of the course and the stage of
the composing process a particular draft reflects.
C O N C L U S IO N
P roducing a successful written text is a complex
task which requires sim ultaneous control over a
n u m b e r of language systems as well as an ability
to factor in considerations of the wavs the dis­
course must be shaped for a particular audience
a n d a particular purpose. Given that language
use is both culturally and socially d eterm ined, it
is no less the case that written texts are shaped
by factors that differ not onlv from one culture
to a n o th e r but also within a single culture.
Teaching ESL/EFL students to becom e success­
ful writers, able to weigh and factor in all of
these issues, is an especially complex task. But it
can be a trem endously rewarding one as well.
This c hapter has presented some of the
general issttes involved in establishing a writing
curriculum and in teaching the writing class.
But there are no "general" classes or “general"
students. Each writing class must be shaped for a
t e n specific population of English language
learners. Since the ability to write well in a sec­
o n d language is no doubt even m ore difficult to
achieve than the ability to read, speak, or u n d e r ­
stand the language, it is not surprising that manv
students take several tears to achieve even a
m odicum of success. W’hat must be emphasized
to teachers in training is the im portance of
designing curricula and shaping classes with a
clear und e rsta n d in g of how the acquisition of
written skills can be fostered. O u r real goal is to
graclualh wean our students awav from us, pro ­
viding them with strategies and tools for their
co n tin u e d grow th as writers and for the success­
ful fulfillment of future writing tasks thev might
face once the\ have com pleted their last writing
course with us.
Just a few decades ago. as second language
writing courses moved awav from a "drill and
skill" approach, curriculum planners and teach­
ers m odeled their methodology and practices
on what teas going on in XES writing courses
and ten d e d to assume that research insights in
LI composition applied to 1.2 composition as
well. W ith increasing professionalization in the
field of English language teaching in general,
that is no longer the case. Second language writ­
ing has becom e a held with its own bodv of
research and its own internal debates as to what
constitutes the best transfer of research into
practice. In fact, the interplay between research
and practice in the field of second language
writing is a two-wav street. Research insights
drive practice and concerns for practices that do
not seem to be w orking drives a d ditional
research. This makes for a vibrant environm ent
in which to teach ESI. EFT writing.
Earlier hopes of finding the best m ethod
"were based on the faulty assumptions that there
was a best m ethod and one just had to find it, that
teaching writing teas a m atter of prescribing a log­
ically ordered set of written tasks and exercises,
and that good writing conform ed to a predeter­
m ined and ideal m odel” (Zamel 1987, p. 697).
T h e re can be no "best” m e th o d w hen students'
learning styles are so different; ou r h o p e notv is
rath e r to find m ethodologies which em pow er
students ra th e r than restrict them , a n d to create
courses which arise from principled reasons
derived from th o rough investigations.
D IS C U S S IO N Q U E S T IO N S
1. W hat are some of the specific wavs in which
the teaching of writing to English language
learners has cha n g ed over the past 20. 00. or
40 tears?
2. What would be the consequences of claiming
that there is just a single composing process?
3. In what wavs can a svllabus for a writing
course reflect the underiving teaching phi­
losophy of a particular teacher?
4. How should a teacher react if a student can't
seem to do one or m ore of the techniques
for getting started identified in the text?
5. Discuss some wavs to establish guidelines
that teachers should consider in preparing
feedback for students.
S U G G E S T E D A C T IV IT IE S
1. Observe a single ESI. EFT writing class for
three to four class meetings in a row (with
the teacher's permission!). O n the basis of
your observations, design a set of criteria
that could be used to evaluate the extent to
which the students are m aking progress in
their writing.
2. Collect several com position textbooks
designed for use in an ESL or EFL writing
course. Review each textbook to determ ine
the view each a uthor adopts as to what consti­
tutes the best wavs to have students become
more proficient writers. To justify vour con­
clusions. use such "data" as the a u th o r’s intro­
duction to the teacher, the nature of the
readings presented in the text, the type of
writing assignments included, and so on.
3. Conduct an interview with the director of the
English language composition program on
vour campus to explore how the composition
program addresses the needs of students
whose first language is o th er than English.
Some of the questions vou might ask are: Are
ESL students folded into classes for NFS stu­
dents or enrolled in separate ESL courses? Are
ESL courses considered lower level or parallel
level to courses for XES? Do the current place­
m ent procedures work? To whose advantage
does it work to provide separate or combined
courses for LI and L2 students?
4. Arrange to tutor for two to four sessions a
single EEL enrolled in a writing course. II ave
the student bring samples of his or her writing
for vou to work on together. After reviewing
several examples of the student's writing, be
prepared to report on the strengths and weak­
nesses of vour student writer and analyze the
extent to which his or her present writing
course seems to be addressing his or her needs.
5. Design a brief survey of six to eight questions
aimed at identifying whether faculty outside of
English departments have different expecta­
tions for written work produced bv XES and
ELL students. Distribute vour survey to a few
faculty members in three or lour departments
at vour school that have heavy enrollment of
ESL students and summarize the results.
FU R T H ER R EA D IN G
Background Resources
Campbell. C. 1498. Teaching Second Language Writing:
Interm ting u'ith Text. Pacific Grove. CA: Heinle 8c
Heinle Publishers.
A short and practical guide that peeks into the
author's own ESL writing classrooms and those
of several other experienced teachers, provid­
ing verv practical ideas for a varietv of teaching
situations. Focused primarily on immigrant
rather than foreign students.
Ferris. D.. and J. S. Hedgcock. 1998. Teaching ESL
Composition. Purpose. Process and Practice. Mahwah,
XJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
An extremely thorough teacher-training text
providing extensive coverage of classroom
concerns, well grounded in current theoretical
perspectives.
Harklau. L.. к. M. Losev, and Л1. Siegel, eds. 1999.
(,encration 1.5 Meets College Composition. Mahwah,
XJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
 An anthologv of 12 articles addressing a variety
of issues related to how best to meet the writing
needs of English language learners who have
graduated from U.S. high schools.
Leki, I. 1992. Understanding ESL Writers: A Guide [or
Teachers. Portsm outh. XH: Bovnton/Cook
Heinemann.
A brief and highly readable compendium of
information identifying the special characteris­
tics and problem areas of ESL students, framed
within a discussion of the field of ESL writing as
a profession and its connections to second lan­
guage learning. Especially helpful for those
with little background in applied linguistics.
Silva, T., and P. Matsuda. eds. 2001. On Second Language
Writing. Mahwah. XJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
.An anthology of 15 articles exploring central
issues in theory, research, and instruction.
Authors are leading scholars in the field and pro­
tide a state-of-the-art analysis of their particular
area of focus.
Resources Containing Classroom Ideas for E F L
Writing Teachers
Brookes, A., and P. Grundv. 1998. Beginning to Write:
Writing Activities for Elementary and Intermediate
Learners. Cambridge: Cambridge University
Press.
Grellet, F. 1996. Writing for Advanced Learners of English.
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Hedge, T. 1988. Writing. Oxford: Oxford University
Press.
White, R. V.. ed. 1995. Xew lU/y.t in Teaching Writing.
Alexandria. УА: TESOL.
W E B S IT E S
Journal of Second Language On-line
Homepage for this specialized journal, pub­
lished three times a tear since 1992. providing
solid scholarly articles. Website includes all tables
of contents and helpful links.
h ttp ://icdweb.cc.purdue.edu/~silvat/jslw/
Purdue Lhiiversitv Online Writing Lab
Provides extensive writing help in all areas con­
nected to written composition for both native
and non-native English speaking writers, with
helpful links for teacher resources as well.
http://owl.english.purdue/edu/
Second Language Writing Research Network Forum
Facilitates the exchange of information bv pro­
viding links to bibliographical information, a
directory of specialists, a discussion bulletin
board, and related websites.
h ttp ://icdweb.cc.purdue.edu/~silvat/forum /
ENDNO TES
1 While there are numerous distinctions to be
drawn between writing classes for ESL students (in
English-speaking countries) and writing classes for
EFL students (studying in countries where English
is not an official language), the discussion in this
chapter addresses issues of concern in shaping
writing courses for both populations. Rather than
focusing on the differences between these groups,
I have chosen to blur the boundaries for the pur­
poses of this chapter. Where ESL is noted in the
chapter, the claim is limited to courses offered in
North America and or reporting on a study con­
ducted in this environment: where ESL/EEL is
noted in the chapter, the discussion applies to
either locale. ELI. is used to designate an English
language learner in am context. Further,
Gumming (2000 ). in a study of both ESL and EFL
writing classes in a number of countries around
the world, found a certain core level of common
approaches and practices.
- In this procedure, the writer is asked to verbalize
all of his or her thoughts while composing and to
write down only those words and thoughts that
form part of the task of text production. The event
is either aucliotaped or videotaped, and a tran­
script, referred to as a "protocol," is prepared for
subsequent analysis, also known as "protocol
analysis."
Я A heuristic device refers to a specific set of steps
one can follow in order to work through personal
discoveries as a wav of finding a solution, answer,
or path to adopt in a given circumstance. While
there are guidelines for utilizing heuristic devices,
the important thing to remember is that thev will
vielcl highly individual results, i.e. there are no
"right" or "■wrong" answers. In contrast, algorith­
mic devices are steps which are tightiv controlled
and invariable: thev vielcl the same results for all
those who follow a given algorithm, such as the
process of addition. A full discussion of a wide
variety of heuristic devices useful in ESL, teaching
is presented in Httghev ct al. (1983), pp. 62-84
and in Ferris and Hedgcock (1998), pp. 101-113.
 Grammar in Writing
JAN F R O D E S E N

"G ram m ar in W ritin g ” emphasizes that a hocus on norm in composition can help writers develop rich
linguistic resources needed to express .deas effectively in addition to providing assistance in error
correction, Fnodesen summarzes cuirent controversies about the role of grammar in writing, discusses
learner and situational variables, and describes activities for incorporating grammar into writing
nstruction.

IN T R O D U C T IO N This store, related years ago to me by Barbara

In a California elementary school one morning,
the teacher of a class of bilingual fifth graders was
preparing her students for a standardized English
test which required them to demonstrate their
knowledge of English gram m ar rules bv choosing
appropriate forms to fill blanks in a set of decon-
textualized sentences— a typical, discrete-item,
multiple-choice test. Up to this point in the class,
the students had been creating their own illus­
trated bilingual storybooks about fantastical
beasts, writing their texts first in Spanish, their
natiye language, and then in English. To help her
students develop their awareness of the need to
m eet readers' expectations, the teacher had been
serring as a careful reader of their stories, letting
them know wheneyer she had a problem u n d e r­
standing their m eaning and proriding vocabulary
and gram m ar explanation as needed.
As the students p ored oyer example sen­
tences to prepare for the required exam, a task
both teacher and students found tedious (espe­
cially in comparison to their story-writing activity),
they encountered one item in which they had to
choose the correct pronoun for a subject slot. The
choices were the nominative p r o n o u n she and
the object p r o n o u n her. As the teacher was
p ro m p tin g the correct form for the blank, one of
the students exclaimed. "But teacher, this is a bad
sentence! We d o n't know who she is'.”
Hawkins, has rem ained one of mv favorite real-life
examples of what "grammar in writing” and the
teaching of it should mean: helping writers de­
velop their knowledge of linguistic resources and
grammatical systems to convey ideas m eaning­
fully and appropriately to intended readers. It is
also a wonderful example of how even voung
second language learners can discover and use dis­
course-level grammatical principles, in this case
creating a cohesiv e text bv making sure each pro­
noun has an identifiable referent.
Not only ran students of all ages learn p rin ­
ciples of gram m ar in context, but a focus on
form appears to be necessary to some extent for
optimal second language learning. Second lan­
guage acquisition (SLA) researchers Doughty
an d Williams (1998 ) report that years of research
on classroom immersion and naturalistic acqui­
sition studies suggest that when instruction is
m eaning focused only, learners do not develop
m am linguistic features at targetlike levels.
In second language writing, the role of
gram m ar in writing— both explicit explanations
of grammatical principles and teacher correction
of errors— has rem ained a topic of controversy
since the 1980s for several reasons. O n e has been
the influence of first language (LI) composition
research and pedagogy on second language (L2)
writing practices. Hillocks’s (1986) synthesis
of research on native English speaking writers
indicated that formal gram m ar instruction has
little or no effect on writing improvement. In the
paradigm shifts within composition th e o n from a
focus on writing products to writing processes,
and, m ore recently, to a focus on writing as a
social activity (see Kroll's chapter in this volume),
explicit gram m ar instruction in LI writing class­
rooms has tvpicallv been relegated to teachers'
direct correction ol errors, if dealt with at till.
A nother and perhaps even m ore significant
influence on the weakened role of gram m ar in
L2 writing instruction has been the widespread
adoption by m am second language teachers of
Krashen’s (1982) stated beliefs that form-focused
instruction is not onlv unnecessary but thwarts
natural acquisition [trotesses. In fact, carlv LI
composition theorists' argum ents against explicit
gram m ar instruction, one of the most notable
being Hartwell (1985). drew on Krashen's work as
support for the noninterveulionist position, a term
used bv Long and Robinson (1998) to describe
the stance that Krashen and others have taken in
rejecting explicit focus on form.
T h e wholesale adoption of LI composition
theories and practices for L2 writing classes
seems m isguided in light of the m am differ­
ences between first and second language w riters,
processes, a n d p ro d u cts (Silva 1993).While
F.SL/EFL writing teachers certain.lv need to be
knowledgeable about LI composition th e o n
and practices, thee also need to address the spe­
cial needs of second language writers.
The neglect of form-focused instruction for
second language writers seems to b ate been most
prevalent in the United States due to the adop­
tion of communicative models of language learn­
ing that con sid e red c o m p re h en sib le inpu t
sufficient for language acquisition. As Scarcella
(1996) has discussed, the eff ects of this instruction
have been especially unfortunate for students who
need advanced level writing proficiency for aca­
demic work or careers. Scarcella echoes the views
of SI A researchers such as Lightbown (1998),
who earlier had adopted the noninterventionist
position but who, after seeing the results of deem ­
phasizing corrective feedback an d limited form-
focused instruction, now believe that students
need input on structure.
In addition to the influence of LI com posi­
tion research and noninterventionist positions
regarding second language learning, miscon­
ceptions about the m eaning and scope of the
term grammar have fostered negative attitudes
about the role of gram m ar in FSL/EFL writing.
T here is a great difference between the teaching
of linguistic forms apart from a m eaningful con­
text. on the one hand, and a focus on language
form to develop learners' ability to com m unicate
meaningfully and appropriately, on the other, as
Hawkins's bilingual classroom so beautifully
exemplified. In the hitter view, gram m ar is an
integral part of language use: it is a resource to
be accessed for effective com m unication, not just
an isolated bodv of knowledge. As Widdowson
(1988) states. "Language learning is essentially
gram m ar learning and it is a mistake to think
otherwise’hp. 154). This orientation leads writers
to conceive of gram m ar as an essential com po­
nent of language, a system that thev can discover
and exploit for their com m unicative needs,
rather than as a tedious and complicated set of
rules to be m em orized or as a template to be
used solelv for identifying an d correcting their
errors.
From the perspective of g ram m ar as a
resource in shaping accurate an d effective com ­
munication. it seems clear, then, that focus on
form should to some extent be an integral part of
the instructional design for second language
writing classrooms. This does not m ean, however,
that till kinds of gram m ar instruction are useful
in the ESL LFL writing classroom. Xor does it
m ean that students will automatically be able to
transform input received through explicit gram ­
m ar instruction into productive output. Such
transfer from input to output, or uptake, as it is
term ed in the SLA literature, requires that teach­
ers consider and reflect on mans learner, situa­
tional. and linguistic variables relevant to their
students and classroom contexts. Awareness of
these variables can greatly assist teachers in
deciding when and how to incorporate gram m ar
into writing instruction, as well as in selecting
those grammatical features most deserving of
students' attention and practice for anv given
context.
G E N E R A L G U ID E L IN E S
FO R IN T E G R A T IN G GRAM M AR
IN W R IT IN G IN S T R U C T IO N
W here should a teacher begin in deciding what
kinds of g ram m ar focus are appropriate and rel­
evant for students' needs in the writing class­
room? h o n g and Robinson (1998) state that
deciding w h ether the starting point should be
the learner or the language to he laughl is one of
the most critical choices in course design; thev
note that in mans classrooms worldwide, course
design starts with structures to be learned. In the
U nited States, however, m uch F.SL pedagogy
em phasizes le a rn e r-c e n te re d course design.
Echoing this focus on learners. Bvrd and Reid
(1998) contend that teachers should begin with
students and not structures to make decisions
about gram m ar in ESL writing. I lere. too. is where1
our discussion of variables will begin.
Learner Variables
Celce-Murcia (1983) suggests that the following
learner variables be considered in making choices
about gram m ar instruction: age. proliciencv level,
and educational background. According to her
schema, a focus on formal aspects of language is
increasinglv useful as writers become older, more
advanced in English proficiency, and mot e highlv
educated literate. Ferris and I ledgcock tl99S)
note that students in ESL. composition classrooms
are tvpicallv a verv heterogeneous population,
characterized bv m a m differences in back­
grounds and abilities, including linguistic, ethnic,
and cultural backgrounds as well as cognitive and
metacognitive strategy use. Reid (1998) adds to
this list the importance of considering different
learning steles, pointing out contrasts in steles
such as concrete learners, echo prefer practical,
hands-on activities working evith others versus
abstract learners, echo learn best alone through
theory and planning. Reid demonstrates how dif­
ferent kinds of lessons speak to one or more of
these different learning .shies. All of these vari­
ables can in turn create differences in learners'
motivation and attitudes toward language learn­
ing in general and the acquisition of academic
skills in particular.
With the ever-growing population of n o n ­
native English-speaking imm igrants in English-
speaking countries, differences in students' e d u ­
cational backgrounds and English acquisition
hat e becom e extremelv im portant in developing
second language curricula. In the U nited States,
one of the most im portant distinctions in types
of learners relevant to gram m ar instruction at
h igher education levels has been that between
international students who h a te received their
education in their native country p rior to a tte n d ­
ing an English-medium school a n d p e rm a n e n t
resident students who have received some, if not
most, of their education in the U nited States. (In
EF1. contexts, of course, most students will have
educational backgrounds similar to the in te rn a ­
tional students in English-speaking countries.)
International (orF.FI.) students have tvpi­
callv learned most of their English in the class­
room and generally base received considerable
explicit g ram m ar instruction; thus, thev are
often aisle to access a n d explain gram m ar rules
when doing text analysis a n d writing activities.
T heir writing mas exhibit m ore "non-nativelike”
structures, such as unidiom atic phrasing, than
the writing of perm anent residents does, but it
mas also demonstrate better skill in producing the
complex structures typical of formal academic
English.
P erm a n e n t residents, in contrast to inter­
national students, often acquire English "bv e a r”
from exposure- to the language in oral contexts,
including, of course-, the classroom, but in manv
informal, conversational contexts as well. For
this reason, an d because explicit g ra m m a r
instruction has not been a significant part of
their English language education, the knowl­
edge that p e r m a n e n t residents have a b o u t
English gram m ar tends to be implicit, similar to
that of native English language speakers. Thev
mac know that an ungram m atical form "doesn't
sound right" but mac not be able to explain why,
just as most native speakers would not be able to
explain whv thee use definite article the rather
than a in mane contexts. Drawing on this same
implicit knowledge, im m igrant F.Sl. students
mac regard structures used in formal written
English, but seldom occurring in conversational
English, as incorrect or sounding "strange,” just
 as many novice native English language writers
do. Like developing native English language
writers, ESL writers often inappropriatelv import
informal oral expressions and syntactic struc­
tures into academic writing contexts (e.g.. using
I mean rather than that is before a clarifying state­
m ent, or using object p ronouns as grammatical
subjects, such as Me and in\ fam ih are . . .).
Because o f their educational backgrounds, per­
m anent resident students may be unfamiliar with
most grammatical terminology, and thev also
may be less aware than international students
tend to be of their errors in English m orphology
an d syntax.
Since terminology can be useful in provid­
ing learners with teacher feedback on syntactic
and m orphological e rro r patterns in their writ­
ing, an awareness of individual learners' knowl­
edge of grammatical terms is im portant. The
instructor could ask students to describe briefly
their backgrounds in a questionnaire at the
beginning of a course and or could give stu­
dents a list of grammatical terms (subject, verb,
gerund, infinitive, etc.) and ask the students to
give examples of the ones thev know, to indicate
the ones thev have heard of but d o n 't really
understand, an d to note the ones yvith which
thev are totally unfamiliar.
O f course, there y\ill be some basic terms
that the teacher yvill yvant all students to be famil­
iar yvith in ord er to help them develop editing
skills. Terminology in general should be kept as
simple as possible. For example, progressive
verbs, gerunds, and present participles in adjec-
tive/aclverb phrases might be distinguished as
-ing main verbs, -ing modifiers, and -ing nouns,
respectively. Infinitives could be referred to as to
+ verb. Relative clauses could be referred to as
which/who/that adjective clauses. Such designa­
tions link grammatical functions yvith actual
m o rp h e m es or words that students will see in
writing so there is less need to m em orize terms.
O n e final student variable that deserves
consideration is the degree to which learners
take risks in exp a n d in g their productive abilities
or, conversely, employ avoidance strategies to
reduce chances of errors. Schachter and Celce-
Murcia (1977) c o n tributed to e rro r analysis
research by showing that some learners avoid
errors bv not attem pting constructions thev find
difficult, such as relative clauses o r passives.
Schleppegrell (2000) describes two very differ­
ent strategies a d o p te d bv three ESL university
students writing science lab reports: two of them
used a strategy of "saving little but try ing to sav it
right." while the o th er writer drew u p o n com ­
plex sentence structures a n d phrasing to elabo­
rate h e r points. T h e two who “said little ”
p r o d u c e d fewer errors but failed in many ways
to m eet the genre dem ands of the task; the
writer who exte n d e d h e r language use bevond
h e r mastery level p ro d u ce d considerably m ore
surface errors but resp o n d e d m ore fullv and
appropriately to the content dem ands. These
and o ther studies rem ind us that we cannot eval­
uate learners' perform ance or develop lessons
simply on the basis of error diagnosis and correc­
tive feedback. Some students who write simple to
avoid difficult structures mav need gram m ar
instruction that encourages them to expand their
linguistic repertoire.
From this discussion of learner variables, it
is clear that ESI. writing teachers have m uch to
consider in m eeting learners' needs. However,
as Ferris and H edgcock 11998) advise, there are
wavs to group and work with these variables in
planning svllabi a n d lessons.
Situational Variables
Situational, or instructional, variables must also
be considered in developing writing activities that
focus on form. Celce-Murcia (1985) points out
that the more professional the use of language,
the grea ter the need for focus on form.
Supporting this view in discussing pedagogical
g ram m ar within a communicative paradigm,
Little (1994) states that a high level of correctness
is required for effective comm unication in formal
written and spoken discourse, and that native as
well as non-native English speakers often use
explicit knowledge, either from memory or refer­
ence books, when thev are planning, monitoring,
an d editing formal written discourse. While
gram m ar also has a role in less formal writing, the
structural focus and emphasis on correctness will
varv. d e p e n d in g on the extent to which writers
are expected to observe standard English co n ­
ventions in settings such as academ ic or business
communities. Expectations mas also va n for var­
ious forms of In te rn et com m unication, such as
e-mail.
The specific objectives of a writing class will
influence greatlv how gram m ar will be integrated
with writing. In ESL/EFL programs that place stu­
dents with diagnostic tests, some courses mav
focus particularlv on error analvsis a n d editing
strategies. Courses for these students m ight
include considerable -work with their own writing
as the core materials. Advanced courses might
emphasize the grammatical choices writers make
to achieve cohesion and coherence, with more
extensive text analvsis followed bv production
activities.
The kinds of writing in which students will
be expected to develop and demonstrate profi-
ciencv are a n o th e r consideration. In academic or
preparatorv settings, courses mav cover a range of
genres com m on to academic writing, such as
essays, lab reports, problem-solution texts, per­
suasive writing, or short essay examinations.
Alternately, the focus mav be on particular aca­
demic genres such as research papers or histori­
cal narratives. In business writing contexts,
requirem ents mav include memos, proposals,
and evaluative reports. Genre-based and corpus-
based studies (e.g.. Swales 1990; Biber 1988,
Biber, Conrad, and R eppen 1998) have identified
various grammatical features and clusters of fea­
tures tvpicallv used in particular kinds of writing.
Biber’s (1988) analvsis, for example, character­
izes the gram m ar of non-narrative com m unica­
tion as using present tense verbs, past participle
clauses, and longer and more elaborate noun
phrases than occurs in narrative communication.
W hatever the instructional objectives, the
goal o f developing writing proficiency should be
at the forefront in m aking decisions about
explicit focus on grammar. In general, learners
can benefit from activities that help them u n d e r ­
stand how grammatical choices contribute to
shaping m eaning and put these insights into
practice. It bears repeating that too m uch focus
on e rro r n ot onlv prom otes a limited perception
of the role of gram m ar in com m unication but
mav c re a te — o r reinforce— negative attitudes
a b out this \erv im portant c o m p o n e n t of second
language writing instruction.
A C T IV IT IE S FO R
IN C O R P O R A T IN G GRAM M AR
IN TO W R IT IN G IN S T R U C T IO N
Text Analysis
In developing linguistic resources, ESL /EFL
writers can benefit greatly from learning how
carious grammatical features an d grammatical
systems are used in authentic written texts. O n
the one hand, analvsis of such texts can help
learners who are alreadv familiar with prescrip­
tive g ram m ar rules but who still have problem s
u n d e rsta n d in g and appropriately using gram ­
matical oppositions such as definite an d indefi­
nite articles an d present-perfect a n d past- or
present-tense verb forms. O n the o th e r hand,
text analvsis can also benefit learners with mostly
implicit knowledge of g ra m m a r r a th e r th an
explicit rule-based knowledge; These writers
often need to becom e m ore familiar with the
war s in which c arious genres of written English
differ structurallv from oral English forms.
Considerations for Selecting Grammar
Points and Materials for Text Analysis
In selecting gram m ar points from authentic
texts, the writing teacher should consider the
proficiencv levels of students and course objec­
tives. T he level of difficulty of a grammatical fea­
ture should not be far bevond the lea rn ers’
developm ental stages; for exam ple, students
struggling to p roduce well-formed relative clauses
with subject relative p ro nouns (e.g., the teacher
who called me . . .) would have difficulty' with a les­
son on object p ro n o u n relative clauses ( the teacher
to whom I gai'e mу address). This is not to say that
new structures should never be introduced, but
rather that students' readiness to give attention
to them should be evident. As for gram m ar
points relating to writing course objectives, such
focus is. of course, necessary if g ram m ar is to be
su b o rdinated to comm unicative goals. Both of
these issues— students' proficiency levels and
course goals— are relevant to the distinction
that Long and Robinson (1998) haw- m ade
betw een teachers focusing on form and sIndents
focusing on form: If in the course of a gram m ar
lesson the teacher has not successfully engaged
the student in noticing a language feature, then
onlv the teacher, and not the learner, has ulti­
mately focused on form.
Tire sources of authentic texts will van
d e p e n d in g on the writing course syllabus. Like
writing courses for native English speakers, manv
ESL/EFL writing courses now include a variety
of readings on which writing assignments are
based. Such courses mac be content-based (see
Snow’s chapter in this volume) or mav include' a
rea d e r arranged bv text types or themes. The
teacher can examine these texts to see what
kinds of grammatical structures, contrasts, or sys­
tems are do m in a n t a n d which contain forms that
students will be able to use in their own writing.
In content- and theme-based courses, readings
can be distinguished bv w hether thev represent
models of text types, such as the researc h paper
or the argumentative essav. which students will
be expected to produce during the course, or
w hether the readings are expository articles,
short stories, poems, or plavs serving as ■'spring­
b oards” for generating topics.
In English for Academic Purposes writing
courses, assigned readings tvpicallv include
examples of the kinds erf waiting expected of stu­
dents. In these courses, the instructor will want
to consider what grammatical features charac­
terize these waitings. This is true even for the
academ ic writing required of younger learners.
In Schleppegrell's (1998) stuclv on the descrip­
tive science writing of middle school students,
she found that this kind of writing required fea­
tures such as modifying phrases after nouns
(e.g., a lizard with a big head), relative clauses,
a n d possessive phrases, which the second lan­
guage learners had difficulty producing. A focus
on language forms for particular genres should
not be e q u ated with teaching “formulas" for
wanting or conveying a view o f written texts as
static sets of language rules. Such a focus simple
acknowledges that certain patterns of rhetorical
strategies, such as definition, often occur in par­
ticular text tvpes an d that 1.2 writers, just like LI
waiters, need control of the forms tvpicallv used
to realize these functions.
As for readings that are springboards for
writing rath e r than text models. Ilolten (1997)
notes that assigned novels and short stories can
offer w onderful op p o rtu n itie s for gram m ar-
focused activities since students tvpicallv find
them easier to read and are thus m ore willing to
exam ine them closelv. Poetrv. while not alwavs
east for students to c o m p re h en d , often provides
excellent exam ples of parallel structures.
Readings based on authentic or fictional oral
English, such as interviews or plavs. can be rich
sources lo r discussion ab o u t differences
between spoken and written English, such as the
use of fragments in spoken English versus com ­
plete sentences in formal written English. O th e r
kinds of variation deserving analysis d e p e n d in g
on course goals are grammatical and syntactic
differences in written texts, such as journalistic
prose in contrast to certain forms of academic
writing. In mans cases, these differences involve
considerable overlap between grammatical and
lexical features.
Finallw a word should be said about brief
supplem entary texts that can be integrated with
course readings for gram m ar focus. Instructors
often e n c o u n te r excellent examples of partic­
ular grammatical structures in dailv newspaper
or m aga/ine reading, such as segments of news
articles, advertisem ents, and even cartoons.
These texts can provide variety, and students
often find them engaging either because the
topics tire timelv ones or. as in the case of car­
toons and mans advertisements, thev present
lan g u a g e in h u m o ro u s a n d creative wavs.
Especially for less advanced students, advertise­
ments can be excellent sources for illustrating
grammatical features: thev often incorporate
grammatical repetition as a rhetorical device.
Creating files with short texts that exemplify gram­
mar structures commonly covered in a course,
such as verb tenses or count noncount nouns,
can s e n e as a good source for brief lessons.
In summary, when selecting texts a n d
grammatical points for analysis, the following
considerations mat serve as guidelines.
1. T he grammatic al features should he a p p ro ­
priate for students' developm ental stages
2. The grammatical features should reilect
students' writing needs for the course or
for future writing
3. W hen possible, assigned course readings
should be sources of text analysis so that
g ram m ar focus is integrated with o th er pre­
writing activities
4. T he lessons should (generally be kept brief,
especially for less advanced writers
5. The instructor m at want to enhance the
texts bv underlining or bolding certain ele­
ments. especially those that are not ven
salient for some learners
6. Productive tasks should follow text analysis
so that writers hat e opportunities to practice
the explicit knowledge gained from noticing
features in written texts and so that teachers
are able to assess to some degree what stu­
dents have learned from the analysis tasks.
Sample Text Analysis Lessons
The following are a few examples of lessons that
focus on grammatical features in texts. For each,
it is assumed that the structure is appropriate for
the level of the students, that the text used has
sufficient examples of the particular gram m ati­
cal item(s). an d that the structures can be used
by students in their own writing.
1. T h a t a n clauses Even advanced
d z e r o - t h a t
students sometimes have difficulty u n d e r­
standing com plex sentence structures with­
out explicit markers of s ubordination such
as relative p ro n o u n s or complementizers.
To help writers identify clauses in which
"that" is optionally deleted an d the verbs
these clauses may follow, find comic strips
in which the speakers have deleted “that"
before a c o m plem ent clause. This feature is
quite c om m on in spoken English; on one
newspaper comic page, for example, the
following instances were found:
"Margaret thinks she's sm arter than we are
just because she's sm arter than we are."
"I know I'm no longer voting and prettv . . ."
"But I guarantee it won't h a p p e n again."
"It makes me feel good to know I m ight help
sat e som e o n e .”
Briefly review com plem ent clauses with and
without "that” using a few examples; then ask
students to find the places where “that”
could be inserted following a verb. (Either
point out or delete am reduced relative
"that" clauses that might confuse them.)
Discuss whv speakers might omit these forms.
T hen examine an academic prose passage
for comparison. Discuss reasons whv writers
might omit "that" and when thev might need
to use this form for clarity
2. Tense and Time Frame Shifts ESI. writers
are often confused about the motivations for
verb tense shifts and believe that thev should
not change verb tenses (e.g., from present to
present perfect) or lime frames (e.g., from
present to past). Review the reasons why
writers shift verb tenses and time frames.
(See Frodesen and Earing 2000, p. 8.) T hen
give students a passage with tense and time
frame shifts. U nderline and n u m b e r the
verbs selected for focus. Ask them to identify'
the tense and time frame (e.g., past progres­
sive tense, past time frame) for each u n d e r­
lined verb and to explain am verb tense
shifts (e.g.. to support a claim about the
present with examples from the past). Ask
them also to circle adverbs or adverb phrases
that signal time frame shifts (e.g., "last t e a r ”).
Hate students look at something thev have
written recently to identify tense shifts and
reasons for them.
3. Demonstrative R eference Find a text that
has examples of both "this" used in p ro ­
noun referenc e and “this"-*- n o u n used for
reference. N u m b e r the lines before re p ro ­
ducing or putting the text on a transparency.
Ask students to skim the text and, with two
different colored highlighters, distinguish
the two t\pes of demonstrative reference.
Give students a graphic organizer with two
columns. Ask them to write the reference
in one colum n (e.g.. "this idea") a n d the
referent (a word, phrase, clause, or sen­
tence) in the colum n across from it. Discuss
u n d e r what conditions the demonstrative
 adjective + n o u n form rather than the
demonstrative p r o n o u n is used. H a te stu­
dents edit drafts for ant unclear use of
demonstrative pronouns.
As the examples above indicate, these tvpes
o f activities are especiallv a p p ro p r ia te for
advanced level F.SL writers. However, for less
advanced or vounger students, instructors can
e n h a n ce text th ro u g h u n derlining an d bolding
as well as limiting the scope and n u m b e r of
examples for students to examine.
Guided Writing Activities
T h e n otion of “guided" writing unfortunatelv
retains negative connotations for some writing
teachers, who mar associate it with the m e c h a n ­
ical and noncom m unicative practices of the
past. For them it mav conjure up formulaic pat­
tern practice or slot filling. However, like gtiidecl
practice in o th e r language skills such as p r o n u n ­
ciation or listening, guided writing s e n e s to
focus stu d e n ts’ attention on language features
that are difficult for them. In addition, exercises
eliciting the use of grammatical structures can
encourage learners to expand their linguistic
resources. In fact, writing instructors often find
that their students are m uch m ore receptive to
gram m ar-based guided writing that offers them
new wavs o f expressing their ideas.
Manv of the g u id e d writing activities
described below were used long before process-
centered approaches to writing becam e wide­
spread. In the past, however, these exercises were
sometimes presented without context a n d only
in the framework of a structural svllabus. H ere
thev are suggested as com ponents of prewriting,
revising, or editing processes in communicative
writing tasks. As always. decisions as to which
tvpes of exercises are most helpful should be
based on consideration of learner variables and
the learning context.
Text Conversion
In text conversion exercises, students rewrite
passages and short texts, changing some feature
of the grammatical structure, such as rew riting a
text that is in a present time fram e as a past time
fram e text or changing direct speech to indirect
speech. As Celce-Murcia and I lilies (1988) point
out, most of these exercises do not involve actual
com posing but rather provide practice in making
structure-discourse matches. Consequently, they
should be m ade relevant to learners' actual writ­
ing challenges. For example, rather than simplv
giving students a text to change verb tenses
mechanicallv without motivation for the task, an
exercise might be explicitlv presented to address
difficulties students are h a \in g in consistently
using past tense verbs in past narratives; editing of
actual writing assignments would follow. The fol­
lowing are some of the most com m on writing con­
texts that could emplov text conversion activities.
Revision and Editing Focused Exercises
Perhaps the most obvious purpose for guided
writing with focus on a particular grammatical
structure is to address lea rn ers’ gram m ar p ro b ­
lems. For example, if students b a te fre q u e n t
subject-verb a greem ent errors, as a pre-editing
exercise thev could change all third person pres­
ent plural forms in a text to singular and make
necessary verb changes. T he content of the pas­
sage should be related as closelv as possible to
whatever topics students are working on so that
thev can review core vocabulary or concepts.
Similar exercises could involve o th er frequent
m orphological errors, such as regular plural
nouns without -s. Students would then check
their own draffs to correct similar errors.
O n e c om m on use of text conversion for
practice in using appropriate forms in English
for science and technology is conversion of sen­
tences in active voice to passive in contexts where
focus should be on objects and outcomes, not
agents. In this kind of exercise, the instructor
could create a text or use a student text from the
methodology section of a research paper. The
following example is from a student draft about
procedures for measuring the effects of rainfall
runoff on soil erosion;
Ur tested velocity by placing a given trace dye
on the surface of the [dot, at a measured point.
After each run ice estimated the vegetation
eoi'er using a five-point pin frame. We placed
the pin frame in 20 places on the plot, moving
dmcmcard.
(used bv permission of Trisha Mai den)
Rewritten:
Velocity was tested by placing a given twee
dye on the surface of the plot, at a measured
point. After each run, the vegetation cover
was estimated using a five-point pin frame.
The pin frame was placed on the plot,
moving downward.
In using actual texts, the teacher mav find
that not till parts of a text can be transform ed.
M e th odology sections o f science research
papers, for example, do not usually lraye all pas-
siye sentences. To make texts as natural as possi­
ble. the instructor can simply u n d e rlin e or
num ber the sentences in a text to be rewritten.
Afterward, students should identify'contextual fac­
tors that influence ttse of the passive.
Sentence Combining
Prior to the paradigm shift from p roduct to
process in com position pedagogy, sentence
com bining was a topic of m uch research a n d dis­
cussion in LI composition (Mellon 1969). In its
early stages, this technique for developing syn­
tactic fluency often involved com bining a set of
kernel sentences such as the following:
The man was old.
The man had gray hair.
The man walked down the street.
The man walked slowly.
Com bined:
The old. gray-haired man walked slowly
down the street.
Like many language-based actinides predating
process-oriented pedagogies, this one fell into
disfanor partly because the early applications
often started with sets of sentences that were a far
cry from authentic texts. De Beaugrande (1985)
adyises that writing samples used for sentence
com bining should resemble naturally occurring
language; otherwise, "the whole exercise will be
treated as some gratuitous yenture into a bizarre
dom ain of c om m unication where people regale
each o ther with inane kernel sentences” (p. 72).
Most teachers yvho have used sentence com bin­
ing are aware that, unless carefully structured,
this technique can result in confusing or eyen
incom prehensible sentences.
With these cayeats in minds, sentence com­
bining can be extremely useful for guided prac­
tice in p ro d u c in g particular gram m atical
structures, such as relatiye clauses or preposi­
tional phrases, and in helping writers develop
their repertoire of linguistic strategies for high­
lighting key information, subordinating less
important information, and improving syntactic
fluency.
O n e of the most useful applications of sen­
tence c o m b in in g for a dvanced ESL writers
involves draft revision. With assistance, students
a m identify passages in their writing in which
sentence com bining could achieve a b e tte r flow
of inform ation th ro u g h clearer connections
between ideas. As one example, when learning
to reference sources by introducing authors and
their yvork. developing writers often use separate
sentences such as the following:
Oliver Sacks is a neurologist. He wrote the
article "Brilliant Tight: .1 Chemical
Boyhood. " In this article, he describes how
his "Uncle 'T ungsten” influenced his love
of science.
A more experienced yvriter of academic prose
would subordinate some of this information:
In "Brilliant Tight: .4 Chemical Boyhood, ”
neurologist Oliver Sacks describes how his
"Uncle Tungsten" influenced his love of
science.
In this yvay. sentence com bining exercises can
focus on particular rhetorical moves, such as
introducing sources, that students yvill n e e d to
use frequently in academic yvriting.
Guided Paraphrase
O n e of the most im portant skills that students
must develop for academic yvriting is the ability
to paraphrase source materials to support claims
a n d develop ideas. 1 Si 1 11 writers often lack
th e facility with vocabulary a n d syntax to
rephrase ideas in their own words; most experi­
en c ed teachers are familiar with the distorted
paraphrases that result when novice writers “slot”
synonyms front a thesaurus into the original sen­
tence without adjusting the grammar.
 In cued paraphrase exercises, writers trans­
form se ntences o r parts o f se ntences fro m
assigned readings, using cues as the first step.
The cues, which may be words o r phrases, are
designed to require syntactic restructuring in
the paraphrase. H e re are a few examples based
on a sociology text a b o u t bystander intervention
Darley a n d Latane 1973) with possible transfor­
mations resulting from cues:
Original: People trying to interpret a situ­
ation often look at those around
them to see how to react, (base
reactions on)
Rewrite: People trying to interpret a situa­
tion often base their reactions on
those around them.
Original: Even if a person defines an event
as an emergency . . . (decides)
Rewrite: Even if a person decides that an
event is an emergency . . .
As students further transform the structure result­
ing from the guided paraphrase cues, changing
vocabulary a n d structures m ore fully so that the
final version is n o t too close to the original, this
activity becomes a true composing task. Students
should be able to transfer these strategies to
future paraphrasing tasks.
Text Elicitation
In form-focused text elicitation, the instructor
specifies a topic o r writing objective (e.g., a
rhetorical strategy such as defining or summariz­
ing results) an d a grammatical structure or struc­
tures to be used. Certain writing topics naturally
Text
In many U.S. towns, the opening of large retail
chain stores known as superstores has made
it difficult for the local small businesses to
keep customers.
However, some of these local businesses are
now successfully using the W eb to increase
sales and improve customer service.
elicit particular forms, such as hypothetical con­
ditionals in assignments speculating a b o u t what
students w ould do u n d e r certain conditions
(Celce-Murcia a n d Hilles 1988).
Assigned reading responses can also incor­
porate practice of grammatical structures n eed ed
for writing tasks. T h e shaded example below
m odeled after one by H olten and Marasco (1998,
p. 214) which asked students to use conditionals
in discussing brief problem-solution texts.
Excellent sources for eliciting summaries
include surveys, graphs, or charts on topics related
to writing themes, o r genres such as research arti­
cles. These graphic sources can elicit texts that use
a range of structures such as com parison/contrast
connectors, passive verbs, com m on irregular verb
forms (e.g., me an d fall), frequency adverbs (e.g.,
often, rarely), quantifiers (e.g., most, the majority, a
minority) and, d epending o n the time frame, verb
tenses such as simple past or present perfect. Any
o f these grammatical features could be the focus
o f a summary task. For example, advanced ESL
writers often have difficulty using sentence con­
nectors and subordinators in appropriate syntactic
contexts.
Even prewriting exercises such as brain­
storming or outlining could involve lists that use
parallel structures such as n o u n phrases o r infini­
tives. For example, to begin a composition unit on
education, students in a university writing class
were asked to list all of the purposes o f higher edu­
cation, using infinitive of purpose phrases (e.g., to
preparefor a career). The grammatical objective here
is not so m uch to practice such infinitive phrases
as it is to use parallelism as a systematic way of
organizing information in prewriting.
C o n d itio n al Sentences
If customers shop at chain superstores
instead of their local businesses, the local
stores may have to close.
Unless small businesses find new ways to
attract customers, such as advertising on
the Web, they may not be able to compete
with superstores.
 In summarv. text elicitation can be list'd to
focus on diagnosed structural problem s, to
develop syntactic com plexity to familiarize stu­
dents with discourse-based gram m ar conven­
tions (e.g.. the use of passive in survey reports),
and to provide strategies for organizing and dis­
playing information.
Dictation
Dictation can be an effective wav to lamiliari/e
students with the wavs in which gram m ar and
vocabulary interact in com m on collocations as
well as to address errors in writing that mat result
in part from mismatches between learners' aural
perception of English forms and standard English
gram m ar and spelling.
In one dictation procedure, the instructor
reads aloud a short text several times, usually
one related to the topic or genre on which stu­
dents are working. The text is first read at a n o r­
mal pace, with the students just listening. For the
second reading, the teacher pauses after each
phrase to allow students to write. Clare should be
taken not to put u n d u e emphasis on word e n d ­
ings or function words that are not norm alh
stressed. T he third reading, do n e at a normal
pace, gives students the opportunity to read over
the texts and make corrections. The teacher
then shows students the passage so that the\ can
check their versions with the original and edit
their texts. If the activity's main objective is error
detection correction, the instructor could give
more specific directions, such as to put a circle at
the ends of all words with missed -v third person
singular or -er/ endings. If the goal is to familiarize
writers with particular grammatical features, stu­
dents could be asked to underline them; the class
could then discuss meanings and or functions of
the target constructions.
Text Completion
Grammar-based exercises involving text com ple­
tion are. of course, very familiar to ESL/EET stu­
dents. Two of the most com m on types of text
completion are the cloze passage and the gapped
text. Whereas in cloze passages each blank rep­
resents a single word to fill in, in gapped texts the
blanks mav require one or m ore words. A third
type of text completion, which focuses attention
on the flow of inform ation across sentence
boundaries, requires students to use the dis­
course context to select sentences that best
achieve "flow" and create effective cohesion. The
formats and purposes of each of these com ple­
tion tvpes will be briefly described in this section.
Cloze passages can be created either bv ran­
dom deletion of words (e.g.. deleting every sev­
enth word) or bv deletion of a specific item (e.g.,
articles). T he second tvpe is m ore suitable for
grammatical focus. The source could be a pub­
lished text or student writing: if a student text, the
passage should be free of serious grammatical
problems that might distract or confuse students.
The following, from a student essay, has been
m ade into a cloze passage bv deleting articles.
(Blanks have also been put before nouns with no
article.)
1 pollution may be defined as
2 deterioration of 3 every­
day life’s natural resources. 4 pollu­
tion is 5 global problem that has
affected 6 quality of 7 water
we drink, 8 air we breathe and
9 land we use. 10 scientific
solutions to overcome __ LL__ problem
have increased 12 destruction.
T he text above illustrates the advantage of
presenting a passage rather than a gro u p of
unrelated sentences for practice in article usage.
In the last sentence, the definite article “th e ”
is needed before the last two nouns because of
second m ention: "problem" is a partial repeti­
tion of "global problem." and "destruction" mav
be in te rp re te d as either a synonvm for “deterio­
ration" or as a .superordinate term for the effects
m en tio n e d previously
Students usually enjov exercises based on
their own writing: thev could even create their
own cloze passages from a paragraph thev have
written a n d exchange them with a classmate.
Gloze passages based on student texts can serve as
an e rror correction technique if the writer has
p ro d u ce d errors in the grammatical item deleted.
Whatever the source, this type of cloze passage
can provide an excellent context for discussing
syntactic, semantic, or pragmatic features across
sentence boundaries, ones that mav influence
writers’ selections of such grammatical items as
articles and pronouns.
Since gapped text com pletion exercises do
n o t specify the n u m b e r of words required for
each blank, they can be used to elicit deleted
verbs that include forms with m ore than one
word, such as passives, progressive aspect, and
p rese n t perfect. O th e r grammatical items that
could be deleted for ga p p e d exercises are com ­
paratives, superlatives, phrasal verbs, and multi­
w o rd /p h ra s a l logical connectors.
T h e third type of text com pletion asks stu­
dents to consider syntactic structures with essen­
tially the same m ea n in g an d to choose the m ore
a p p ropriate re n d e rin g of the inform ation based
on the preceding discourse context. This exer­
cise type focuses students' attention on how fea­
tures such as p ronouns, partial repetition, and
passive voice interact to create inform ation flow.
T h e following is an example, m odeled after one
by R u therford (1988, p. 240). T he appropriate
choices are indicated bv check marks:
Climatologists have predicted that the con­
tinual wanning of the earth's surface. com­
monly known as “the greenhouse effect. "
could have dramatic consequences.
1. (a) T h e m elting of the polar ice caps
could be one result.
(b) O n e result could be the m elting of the
polar ice caps.
2. (a) This m elting would, in turn, cause a
rise o f the sea level.
(b) A rise of the sea level would, in turn,
be caused bv this melting.
This activity emphasizes the importance of
context in m aking grammatical choices and shows
how cohesion and coherence result from pre­
senting information that is familiar to the reader
at the beginning of the sentence, followed bv the
new information the writer wants to convey.
ERROR D IA G N O S IS
A N D C O R R E C T IO N
T h e discussion of g ram m ar in writing in this
c hapter has em phasized the m ultidim ensional
aspects o f g ram m ar a n d the im portance of form-
focused instruction that does not c enter solely
on errors. G ram m ar issues related to errors will,
however, arise in almost every ESL/EFL writing
class and for ESL writers in m ainstream classes
as well.
Truscott (1996) g en erated m uch debate
about the wisdom of dealing with errors in com ­
position: in response. Ferris (1999) noted flaws
in Truscott's definition of e rro r correction a n d
in the research he used to support his argum ent.
T eachers' classroom e x p e rie n c e as well as
research has indicated that EST writers expect
and appreciate assistance in improving their lan­
guage accuracy (Ferris an d Hedgcock 1998).
Error Detection and Correction
Exercises
O nce the teacher has assessed students’ lan­
guage needs, text-based exercises can be
assigned to help students identify' and correct
errors and develop editing strategies. W henever
possible, the students' own writing should be
used for exercises: students who do not have a
particular problem can contribute via pe e r cor­
rection. T he teacher will usually n e e d to adapt a
student text (e.g.. correcting errors that are not
the focus of the practice).
T he following are useful e rror detection
an d correction techniques:
1. In a text with different tvpes of errors, stu­
dents are told the total n u m b e r of each kind
of e rro r to identify and correct.
Example: The text below has the following
errors: 1 preposition, 1 verb tense, 1 subject-
verb agreem ent. 1 missing article.
This paper report on survey about values. Our
English class take the survey last week in UCLA.
2. To focus on just one e rror type, students are
given a text with n u m b ere d lines. Thcv are
told all of the line num bers that have a cer­
tain tvpe of error.
 Example: Identify an d correct all of the verb
form errors in the following text. Use the
guide below to find the errors.
1 The Olympics were hold in Sydney, Australia
2 in 2000. Athletes from all over the world partici-
3 paled. The Olympics have inspire many young
4 people to excel in athletics.
Guide: Errors — Lines 1. 3
3. I se sentences from students' drafts to focus
on one error type. Though the exercise will
not consist of short texts, sentences from
papers concerned with the same topic will
preside coherence of them e and. most likely,
vocabulary. T he teacher can identify the
gram m ar feature for correction focus, such as
articles, word forms, prepositions, verb tense,
or n o u n number.
Editing Strategies and Techniques
The benefits of focused work on diagnosing
errors and developing editing strategies will cer-
tainlv varv for students, d epending on m am com­
plex variables involving the learners, the teachers'
knowledge and experience in pedagogical gram­
mar, and the writing context.
Shih (1998) identified characteristics of
effective editors a m o n g F.SL students. The m ore
accurate writers devoted m uch time to revising
and editing, continually worked on becom ing
aware of their gaps in linguistic com petence and
error patterns, an d m ade a habit of reviewing
their work constantly an d editing recursively.
The less accurate writers often waited until the
final draft to give attention to language con­
cerns, at which point tliev were overwhelm ed bv
errors. Thus, the c om m on advice to delay a tten­
tion to g ram m ar and editing until the final draft
did not s e n e these students well.
Most ESL writers need to devote consider­
able time and effort to becoming good editors.
Otherwise, m am trill fail to benefit from class­
room exercises and practice or even from indi­
vidual conferencing. Students should be
encouraged to explore different strategies to find
ones that serve them effectively
T he following are editing techniques some
students find work well for them:
1. Read-Aloud Technique .Many students find
that slowly reading their drafts aloud to lis­
ten for errors can help them in m aking cor­
rections. For shorter papers, some students
who are aware of their e rro r patterns read
through the p a per several times, listening
for different kinds of errors each time. Shih
(1998) notes that multiple readings are not
realistic for long papers.
2. Pointing to Words Some writers use a pencil,
pen. or linger to point to words one bv one.
3. “Slow-Down” Techniques This involves
reading a draft in some wav that is in contrast
to the normal linear process, such as starting
with the hist sentence in each paragraph and
leading in reverse. Such a technique may
help writers detect certain kinds of m o rp h o ­
logical errors such as missing plural endings,
but would not work well for others, such as
reference words or subject-verb agreement.
4. Word Processing Grammar Checkers
G ram m ar checkers in word processors can
flag certain kinds of errors. As long as writers
do not blindly follow the suggestions (since
gram m ar checkers can often create errors
rather than correct them if suggestions are
taken indiscriminately), checkers can be
helpful in getting writers to pav attention to
potential errors. If students do not u n d e r­
stand the suggested correction, tliev should
not make the change.
Teacher Feedback on Errors
The preceding discussion has focused on class­
room exercises for identifying and collecting
errors and on strategies for student editing.
A nother significant issue related to language
errors in writing is. of course, teacher feedback
on student writing. Kroll's chapter in this volume
discusses this topic, which includes m am kinds of
response o ther than error feedback.
T he following are some general guidelines
a n d suggestions for providing fee dback on
grammar.
1. Indirect feedback is generally m ore useful
(and often m ore desired bv students) than
direct correction of errors. Indirect feed­
back could involve one or m ore of the fol­
lowing: putting a check in the m argin of the
lines where errors occur, u n d e rlin in g or
highlighting selected errors: coding errors
either in the margins or above selected
errors with symbols such as W for verb tense.
?r/Tor word form, art for article, etc. (see. for
example. Lane and Lange 1999): attaching
a sheet to the w riter’s draft with a list of sev­
eral structural errors along with exercise's or
handouts to help the writer better u n d e r ­
stand the grammatical system or feature
involved (Celce-Mttrcia and Hilles 1988).
2. Teachers should not provide feedback on till
errors in am one piece of writing— this cam
be overwhelming to students — but should
focus on several errors the teacher considers
as most n eeding attention.
3. Deciding which errors most deserve inten­
tion requires consideration of m am student
variables (e.g.. m etalinguistic knowledge,
proficiency level) and the instructional situa­
tion. Errors to be po in ted out ma\ be those
representing an individual's frequent e rror
patterns, errors that most seriously affect
com m unication, or stigmatizing errors.
4. While the bulk of teacher feedback on errors
should occur in later stages of the writing
process, teachers can alert students to areas
of concern in earlv drafts also, so that all the
attention to language errors does not need
to be given with the last draff, when many
students find thev do not have sufficient
time to address them effectively.
If the teaching environm ent permits con­
ferencing with students outside of class, confer­
ences are excellent opportunities to provide
individual help. Alternatively, the teacher can
h o ld '‘m in ico n fe re n c e s" with individuals or
small groups in the classroom. In conferences,
teachers can dem onstrate directly the difficulties
a rea d e r m ight have as a result of the gram m ati­
cal errors in the students' waiting. This setting
allows the teacher to act as a collaborator rather
than as an e rro r dete c to r/co rrec to r. He or she
can help students identify errors that create
re a d e r confusion or m isinterpretation, explore
the strategies for editing that best fit the waiters’
learning stvles. set goals for im provem ent, and
assess progress in these goals. Students can also
provide insight into the sources of error, ones
that a teacher might not even have considered,
such as interference from a third language or an
inaccurately form ulated "rule." W hen students
are able to analyze their e rro r sources, the
teacher can m ore effectively suggest editing
strategies.
C O N C L U S IO N
Second language writing pedagogy has been
greath influenced bv developm ents in LI com ­
position teaching which have p ro m o te d the
teaching of writing as a process an d as a social
activity. This process and social activity is also
about language, however. This chapter's discus­
sion of gram m ar in writing has supported the
view that second language writers need attention
to form in developing writing proficiency and
than attention to form is not just about error but
about resources for communicative goals. As
Ponsot and Been (1982. p. 133) put it. "Grammar
is clearlv not remedial. Like baking powder, it
can't be stirred into the cake after the batter has
been [toured into pans."
ESI. EFL writing classroom pedagogy will
certainh continue to change as the result of new
research in related areas such as second lan­
guage acquisition, rhetoric and composition,
linguistics, e d u c a tio n , an d psychology. A nd
future sociopolitical and sociolinguistic develop­
m ents will no doubt cause us to reconsider long-
h e ld views ab o u t lan guage a n d language
teaching. Increased globalization and the devel­
o p m e n t of world Englishes are even now chal­
lenging notions of "Standard E nglish(es).” The
increasing non-native English-speaking imm i­
grant populations in English-speaking countries,
especially in institutions of higher education,
raise questions a b out what the expectations
should be of "linguistic correctness,” even in for­
mal written English. And, of course, rapidiv devel­
oping com puter technology offers resources for
individual tutorials in form-focused language
instruction that were u n d re a m e d of in decades
past. All these raise issues that writing teachers
will need to be aware of an d reflect on in m aking
decisions about g ram m ar in the writing class­
room. Nevertheless, it seems that, in some form,
the role of g ram m ar will rem ain as an essential
c o m p o n e n t o f effective written com m unication.
D IS C U S S IO N Q U E S T IO N S
1. In what wavs has the role of g ram m ar in writ­
ing instruction been characterized? How do
the different attitudes about grammatical
instruction in composition rellect different
ways of defining what gram m ar means?
2. How can g ram m ar instruction be considered
compatible with approaches that locus on
writing as a process or with writing as a social
activitv?
3. Whv is it important for gram m ar exercises
to be (a) text based rather than a series of
unrelated sentences, (b) developed from
authentic discourse, and tc> presented in a
communicative context rather than onh as
practice in grammatical structures?
4. If one of vottr students expressed disap­
p o in tm en t that vou did not correct all of the
errors in his or h e r final drafts, how would
vou respond?
5. What are some advantages of teacher-student
conferences in helping students with gram ­
matical problem s in writing?
S U G G E S T E D A C T IV IT IE S
1. Evaluate one or m ore gram m ar-oriented
exercises in an ESL composition textbook or
workbook. Use the following criteria: (a)
W hat appears to be the purpose of the exer­
cises? Do vou think it is pedagogicallv sound?
(b) Is the exercise text based? If not. do con
think it is still appropriate for its purpose?
(c) Does the language seem authentic? (cl) If
the exercise is included in a content-based
or rhetorical framework (e.g.. as p a n of a
unit on persuasive writing), is it clearlv and
a p p ro p r ia te d related to the discourse o f that
context? (e) If the exercise is not part of a
larger writing context, for what aspect of
writing instruction do vou think it would be
appropriate? (f) Does the lev el o f difficultv
seem appropriate for the in te n d e d learners?
(g) Based on the previous criteria a n d anv
others vou think relevant, summarize the
strengths a n d weaknesses of the exercise or
exercises.
2. Select a text that vou think illustrates well the
use of a particular grammatical structure
(e.g.. n o n c o u n t nouns, frequence acherbs,
agentless passives, presentative "there" to
introduce inform ation). Develop an exercise
to accom panv the text that students could
com plete in small groups as a classroom task
or individuallv as a hom ew ork assignment.
Explain the objective of the exercise and the
writing context in which it might be used.
3. Write a reflective essav or journal entrv on
vottr own experiences with gram m ar in writ­
ing as a second language learner. To what
extent was gram m ar associated primarilv with
diagnosing and correcting errors in vottr own
second language writing? To what extent were
vou aware of the wavs in which expanding
vottr grammatical knowledge h e lp e d vou
improve vottr linguistic resources to express
vottr ideas?
4. Examine several ESI. EFE compositions that
have f re q u e n t a n d varied gram m atical
errors. For each composition, identifv two of
the most frequent or serious errors. Describe
sets of exercises or activities that would help
the writer to address these gram m atical
problems.
5. Intel view ESI. writing teachers about the
techniques, both oral a n d written, that thev
have used to provide feedback on gram m ati­
cal errors in their students' writing. D ining
what stages of com posing processes do thev
address ervorsr W hich e rr o r fee dback
a n d or correction tec h n iq u es have thev
found to be most effective? What student
variables have affected the success of tech­
niques used?

FU R T H ER R EA D IN G
Bvrd, P., and j. Reid. 1998. Grammar in the Composition
Classroom: Essays on Teaching ESI. for College-
bound Students. Boston. MA: Heinle & Heinle.
A collection of essays offering theoretical dis­
cussion and practical information for incorpo­
rating grammar in writing classes. Emphasizes
learner-based approaches and selection of
grammatical features based on corpus text
analysis for teaching academic writing.
Ferris, D. Forthcoming. 'Treatment of Error in 1.2
Student Writing. Ann Arbor. MI: University of
Michigan Press.
Provides a comprehensive overview of research
on error feedback and other forms of grammar
instruction. Discusses how teachers can prepare
themselves to treat student error, describes error
correction options, and other error treatment
options such as revision and peer editing.
Includes numerous suggestions and ideas for
activities and lessons.
Shill. M. 1998. ESI. Writers' Grammar Editing
Strategies. College EST. 8(L):64-86.
Describes characteristics of university ESL writers
who developed successful editing strategies and
those who were less successful. Offers suggestions
for helping writers develop effective strategies
and practice in all stages of composing.
 G ram m ar a n d V ocabulary
UNIT II E

Language Skills
h—I

Grammar and Vocabulary H

£
G ram m ar and vocabulary ra re often been viewed as competing
elements in language teaching.The Reading Approach, for example, gave
great emphasis to recept.ve vocaoulam learning but treated grammar
only sporadically, with the resuit that language learners using this
approach could read literature but could not produce coherent and
accurate sentences (hn speech o r 'writing) even after several years of
anguage study.The Audio ingua; Approach did the reverse: It emphasized
grammar but suppressed vocabulary. The result was learners w ho had
generally poor comprehens on or natural, unedited spoken o r written
material, even after a vear o-~ more of intensive language instruction. W e
now know that bosh grammar and 'vocabulary are im portant for
communication and that botn can be taught without sacrificing one for
the other In this section, Larsen-Aeeman's chapter p.-esents effective
grammar instruction as a multidimensional process that requires
selective focus on form, meaning, and use within a communicative
approach. Fotos's chapter aqgues for a cognitive approach to second or
foreign language grammar instruction, using an information processing
model to design grammar lessons fo r use in both traditional and
communicative classrooms,The chapter by D e C a rn c o deals with issues
in vocabulary pedagogy vocabulary learning strategies, and the role of
collocations; she then turns to new directions in vocabulary instruction
(e.g., corpus-based research, multiword phrasal units). Taken together
these three chapters give us good coverage of w hat the linguist Michael
Halfday refers to as lexicogram m cr. a terns that represents vocabulary
and grammar as com plem entary and overlapping language resources.
 Teaching Grammar
DIANE LARSEN-FREEMAN
In 'Teaching G ram m ar" Larsen-Freeman challenges conventional views of grammar Instead of simply
analyzing grammatical form, she includes grammatical meaning and use as well. Then, building on
w hat is known about the way grammar is learned, she offers ways to teach grammar consistent with
contem porary th eo ry and the need to "focus on form " within a meaning-based or communicative
approach.
IN T R O D U C T IO N
Over the centuries, second language educators
have alternated between two tvpes of approaches
to language teaching: those that locus on analvz-
ing the language and those that locus on using
the language. T he form er have students learn
the elem ents of language (e.g.. sounds, struc­
tures, vocabularv), building toward students'
being able to use the elem ents to com m unicate.
The latter encourage students to use the lan-
guage from the start, however falteringlv. in
ord er to acquire it. Earlv in the previous c e n tu ­
ry, this distinctive pattern was observable in the
shift from the m ore form -oriented grammar-
translation approach to the use-oriented direct
m eth o d (Celce-Murcia 1980). A m ore recent
example of the shift is the loss of popularity of
the cognitive-code approach, in which analyzing
structures an d applying rules are c o m m o n prac­
tices, a n d the rise o f m ore com m unicative
approaches, which emphasize language use over
rules of language usage (Wicldowson 1978).
Even though such language use approaches
as task-based a nd content-based are in favor these
days, educators agree that speaking an d writing
accurately is part of communicative competence,
just as is being able to get o n e ’s m eaning across
in an appropriate manner. Further, it has been
observed that although some learners can “pick
u p ” accurate linguistic form from exposure to
the target language, few learners are capable of
doing so efficiently, especially if they are postpu-
bescent or if their exposure is limited to the class­
room. as is the case when English is taught as a
foreign language. In contrast, research has shown
that teachers who focus students’ attention on lin­
guistic form during communicative interactions
are m ore effective than those who never focus on
form or who onlv do so in decontextualized gram ­
m ar lessons (Spada an d Lightbown 1993;
Lightbown 1998). It follows, then, that most edu­
cators concur with the need to teach grammatical
form. However, thev advise doing so bv “focusing
on form ” within a meaning-based or com m unica­
tive approach in o rd e r to avoid a retu rn to ana­
lytic a p p ro a c h e s in which d e c o n te x tu a liz e d
language forms were the object of study.
Focusing on grammatical form du rin g com ­
municative interactions rather than forms in iso­
lation (Long 1991) is one wav to prevent the
pendulum from swinging bevond its point of
equilibrium. In this chapter, we will encourage a
balance between gram m ar a n d com m unication.
The first step is to come to a b roader u n d e r ­
standing of gram m ar than has usually been the
case. Equating gram m ar with form and the teach­
ing of gram m ar with the teaching of explicit lin­
guistic rules concerning form are unduly limiting,
representing what we have called myths (Larsen-
Freem an 1995). which onlv serve to perpetuate
the pendulum swing between language form and
language use. Gram m ar is about form and one
way to teach form is to give students rules; how­
ever, gram m ar is about much m ore than form,
and its teaching is ill served if students are simply
given rules.
 Thus, in this chapter, we will entertain a
m ore robust view of grammar. Then, we will
briefly touch upon issues concerning its learning.
Finally, we will discuss its teaching.
A Three-Dimensional Grammar
Framework
Since our goal is to achieve a better fit between
gram m ar and com m unication, it is not helpful to
think of gram m ar as a discrete set of m eaning­
less, dccontextualized, static structures. X or is it
helpful to think o f gram m ar solelv as prescriptive
rules about linguistic form, such as injunctions
against splitting infinitives or ending sentences
with prepositions. Grammatical structures not
only have (morphosvntactic) form, thev are also
used to express m eaning (semantics) in context-
appropriate use (pragmatics). In order to guide
us in constructing an approach to teaching gram ­
m ar that strives to m eet this definition, it would
be helpful to have a frame of reference.
O u r framework takes the form of a pit-
chart. Its shape helps us to make salient that in
dealing with the complexity of grammar, three
dimensions must concern us: structure or form,
semantics or m eaning, a n d the pragmatic condi­
tions governing u se .1 Moreover, as thev art-
wedges o f a single pie, we note further that the
dimensions are not hierarchically arranged as
manv traditional characterizations of linguistic
strata depict.2 Finally, the arrows connecting one
wedge of the pie with a n o th e r illustrate the inter­
connectedness of the three dimensions: thus a
change in anv one wedge will hat e repercussions
for the o th er two.
In the wedge of our pie having to do with
structure, we have those overt lexical2, an d m or­
phological forms that tell us how a particular
gram m ar structure is constructed and how it is
sequenced with o th er structures in a sentence or
text. With certain structures, it is also im portant
to note the phonem ic graphem ic patterns (see
the discussion of possessives and phrasal verbs
below for examples). In the semantic wedge, we
deal with what a gram m ar structure means. Note
that the m eaning can be lexical (a dictionary def­
inition for a preposition like down, for instance)
or it can be grammatical (e.g.. the conditional
states both a condition and outcom e or result).
It is very difficult to arrive at a definition of prag­
matics distinct from semantics, and thus we tire
sympathetic to Levinson's (1983) suggestion that
pragmatics deals with all aspects of m eaning not
dealt with bv semantic theorv!
Since this definition is too broad for our
purposes here, however, we will limit pragmatics
to m ean "the study of those relations between
language aircl context that are grammaticalized,
or encoded in the structure of a language”
(Levinson 1983. p. 9). We will leave the term con­
text broad eno u g h though, so that context can be
social (i.e.. a context created bv interlocutors,
their relationship to one another, the setting), or
it can be a linguistic discourse context (i.e., the
language that precedes or follows a particular
structure in the discourse or how a particular
genre or register of discourse affects the use of a
structure), or context can even m ean the pre­
suppositions one has about the context.
T he influence of pragmatics mav be ascer­
tained bv asking two questions:
1. W hen or whv does a speaker/w riter choose
a particular gram m ar structure over an o th e r
that could express the same m eaning or
accomplish the same purpose? For example,
what factors in the social context might
explain a paradigmatic choice such as why a
speaker chooses a yes-no question rather
than an imperative to serve as a request for
information (e.g., l)o you have the tiwe? versus
Please tell me the time)}
2. W hen or why does a sp e ak er/w riter vary
the form of a particular linguistic structure?
 For instance, what linguistic discourse factors
would result in a syntagmatic choice such as
the indirect object being placed before the
direct object to create Jenny gave Hank a
brand-new comb versus Jenny gave a brand-nrw
comb to Hank ?
Despite the p erm eable boundaries between
the dimensions, we have fo u n d it useful to view
gram m ar from these three perspectives. We trust
that the utility of this a pproach will becom e
clearer as we proceed. A teacher of gram m ar
m ight begin by asking the questions posed in the
three wedges of o u r pie (for the sake of simplic­
ity, labeled form, meaning, and use) for anv given
gram m ar point.
Let us consider an example. A com m on
structure to be taught at a high-beginning level of
English proficiencv is the 4 possessive form. If we
analyze this possessive form as answers to our ques­
tions, we would fill in the wedges as below (analysis
based on Celce-Murcia and Larsen-Freeman 1999).
F orm o f Possessive This way of form ing pos-
sessives in English requires inflecting regular
singular nouns an d irregular plural nouns not
ending in s with ’.v or bv adding an apostrophe
after the s ’en d in g of regular plural nouns and
singular nouns end in g in the sound /s/. This
form o f the possessive has three allomorphs: /z/,
$/, a n d /az/. which are phonetically conditioned:
z/ is u sed w hen it occurs after voiced consonants
and vowels, s/ following voiceless consonants,
and b z ! occurs after sibilants.
P O S S E S S IV E S
M eaning o f Possessive Besides possession, the
possessive or genitive form can indicate descrip­
tion (a debtor's prison). am ount (a month's holiday),
relationship (Jack's wife), part-whole (my brother’s
hand), and origin/agent (Shakespeare's tragedies).
.Also, although all languages have a wav of
signaling possession, thev do not all regard the
same items as possessable. For example, Spanish
speakers refer to a bodv part using the definite
article instead of a possessive form. ESL/EFL
students will have to learn the semantic scope of
the possessive form in English.
U se o f Possessive Filling in this wedge requires
that we ask when the 's is used to express posses­
sion as opposed to o ther structures that can be
used to convev this same meaning. For example,
possession in English can be expressed in other
wavs— with a possessive d eterm iner (e.g., his, her,
and their) or with the periphrastic of the form (e.g.,
the legs of the table). Possessive determ iners are pre­
sumably used when the referent of the possessor
is clear from the context. While ESL/EFL books
will often sav that the of the possessive is used with
n o n h u m a n head nouns and ’s with h u m an head
nouns, we are aware of certain conditions where
this rule does not apply. For example, native
speakers often prefer to use the 's even with inan­
imate head nouns if the head nouns are per­
form ing some action (e.g., the train’s arrival was
delayed) / Finally, students will have to learn to dis­
tinguish contexts in which a n o u n com p o u n d
(table leg) is m ore appropriate than either the ’s
form or the of the form.
 Thus, by using ou r ternary scheme, we can
classify the facts that affect the form, m eaning,
an d use of the possessiye structure. This is only a
first step. Teachers would not necessarily present
all these facts to students, recognizing that stu­
dents can a n d do learn some of them on their
own. A nd certainly no teacher would choose to
present all these facts in a single lesson or on
on e occasion. Nevertheless, distributing the fea­
tures of the target grammatical structure am ong
the three wedges of the pie can give teachers an
u n d e rs ta n d in g of the scope a n d m ultidimen-
sionalitv of the structure. In turn, this u n d e r ­
standing will guide teachers in deciding which
facts c o ncerning the possessive will be taught
a n d when an d how to do so.
Before continuing to explore these deci­
sions, however, it might be worthwhile to applv
ou r approach to an o th er gram m ar structure. Let
us analyze phrasal verbs this time. Bv considering
the three questions posed earlier, we can state the
following about phrasal verbs (analysis based
upon Celce-Murcia and Larsen-Freeman 1999):
PH RA SA L VERBS
F o rm o f Phrasal Verbs Phrasal verbs are two-part
verbs comprising a verb and a particle (e.g.. to look
up). Sometimes, they can be constructed with
three parts in that a preposition can follow the
particle (e.g., to keep up with). As with all other
verbs, phrasal verbs are either transitive or intran­
sitive. A distinctive feature of phrasal verbs is that
for manv of them the particle can be separated
from its verb bv an intervening object 1 e.g.. Alicia
looked the word up in the dictionary). Phrasal verbs
also have distinctive stress a n d juncture patterns,
which distinguish them from verb phis preposi­
tion combinations:
Alicia looked iip#the word.
.Alicia w alked#up the street.
M ean ing o f Phrasal Verbs T here are literal
phrasal verbs, such as to hang up, where if one
knows the m eaning of the verb or the particle or
both, it is not difficult to figure out the m eaning of
the verb-particle combination. Unfortunately, for
the ESL./EFL student there are far m ore instances
of figurative phrasal verbs (e.g., to run into, m ean­
ing "meet bv chance") where a knowledge of the
m eaning of the verb and of the particle is of little
help in discerning the m eaning of the phrasal
verb. Moreover, as with single-word verbs, phrasal
verbs can have m ore than one m eaning (e.g., to
come across, m eaning "to discover by chance” as in
1 came across this old book in the library, or when used
intransitively, "to make an im pression” as in
Richard came across well at the convention.
U se o f Phrasal V erbs W hen is a phrasal verb
p refe rre d to a single-word verb that conveys the
same m eaning (e.g., put out a fire versus extin­
guish a firef: For the most part, phrasal verbs
seem to be m ore c om m on in informal spoken
discourse as opposed to m ore formal written dis­
course. W hen is one form of a phrasal verb pre­
ferred to another: i.e.. when should the particle be
separated from its verb (e.g., put out a fire versus
put a fire out)} Erteschik-Shir’s (1979) principle of
dom inance seems to work well to define the cir­
cumstances favoring particle movement: If a noun
phrase (XP) object is dom inant (i.e., a long, elab­
orate XP representing new inform ation), it is
likelx to occur after the particle; if the direct
object is short, old information (e.g., a pro n o u n ),
it would naturally occur before the particle.
Identifying the Challenge Again, we would like
to underscore the fact that it would not be rea­
sonable for the ESL/EFL teacher to present all of
this information to students at once. T he frame­
work does, however, help to organize the facts.
Furtherm ore, by doing this, teachers can more
easily identify’ where the learning challenge (s)
will lie for their students. Identifying the chal­
lenging dim ension(s) is a kev step which should
be taken p rior to any pedagogical treatm ent.
All three dimensions will have to be mas­
tered bv the learner (although not necessarily
consciously). For phrasal verbs, it is the m eaning
dim ension which ESL/EFL students struggle
with most. It is often the fact that there is no sys­
tematic wav of learning to associate the verb and
the particle. A dding to the stu dents’ woes, new-
phrasal verbs are constantly being coined. Bv
recognizing where students will likely struggle,
an im p o rtan t clue is given the teacher as to
where to focus work on phrasal verbs. We will
amplify this point later. For now, however, it is
worth noting that although it is gram m ar struc­
tures which we are dealing with, it is not alwavs
the form of the structures which creates the
most significant learning challenge.
“ G ra m m a rin g ” We should pause h e re to
acknowledge that as im portant as it is to develop
our understanding of the grammatical facts of the
language we are teaching, it is not these facts that
we wish o u r students to learn. We are not inter­
ested in filling o ur students' heads with gram m at­
ical paradigms and syntactic rules. If thev knew all
the rules that had ever been written about
English but were not able to applv them, we
would not be doing our jobs as teachers. Instead,
what we do hope to do is to have students be able
to use grammatical structures accurately, m ea n ­
ingfully, and appropriately In o ther words, gram­
m ar tea c h in g is not so m u ch knowledge
transmission as it is skill development. In fact, it
is better to think of teaching “gram m aring"
(L arsen-F reem an 1997; 2001), ra th e r than
"grammar." Bv thinking of gram m ar as a skill to
be mastered, rather than a set o f rules to be
memorized, we will be helping ESL/EFL stu­
dents go a lon g way toward the goal o f being able
to accurately convcv m eaning in the m a n n e r thev
deem appropriate.
The Learning Process
However im portant an d necessary it is for teach­
ers to have a com prehensive knowledge of their
subject matter, it is equally im portant for them
to u n d e rsta n d their students’ learning process.
This u n d e rsta n d in g can be partly inform ed bv
insights from se c o n d lan g u a g e acquisition
(SIA) research c o ncerning how students n a tu ­
rally develop their ability to inte rp re t a n d p ro ­
duce grammatical utterances. T h re e insights are
g erm ane to o u r topic:
1. Learners do n o t learn structures one at a
time. It is not a m atter of accum ulating struc­
tural entities (R utherford 1987).’’ For exam ­
ple. it is not the case that learners master the
definite article, and when that is mastered,
move on to the simple past tense. From their
first e n c o u n te r with the definite article,
learners m ight master one of its pragmatic
functions — e.g., to signal the uniqueness of
the following n oun. But even if thev are able
to do this appropriately, it is n o t likely that
thev will alwavs p ro duce the definite article
when n e e d ed because learners ty pically take
a long time before thev are able to do this
consistently. Thus, lea rn in g is a gradual
process involving the m apping of form, m ea n ­
ing. and use; structures do not spring forth in
learners' interlanguage fully developed and
error-free.
2. Even when learners appear to have mastered
a particular structure, it is not unc o m m o n to
find backsliding occurring with the introduc­
tion of new forms to the learners’ interlan­
guage. For example, the learner who has
finally mastered the third person singular
m arker on present-tense verbs is likely to over­
generalize the rule and applv it to newly
em erging modal verbs, thus producing errors
such as She cans speak Spanish. Teachers should
not despair, therefore, at regressive behavior
on the part of their students. Well-formedness
is usually restored once the new additions
have been incorporated and the system self-
organizes or restructures.
3. Second language learners relv on the knowl-
edge an d the experience they have. If they are
beginners, thev will rely on their LI as a
source of hypotheses about how the L2 works;
when thev are m ore advanced, they wall relv
increasingly on the L2. In un d e rsta n d in g this,
the teacher realizes that there is no n e e d to
 teach everything about a structure to a
group of students: rather, the teacher can
build u p o n what the students already know.
It also follows that the challenging d im e n ­
sion for a given grammatical structure will
shift from class to class d e p e n d in g on the
students' LI backgrounds and level of L2
proficiency. Successful tea c h in g involves
identifying the relevant challenge for a par­
ticular g roup of students.
To these three observations, we will add a
fourth one that is not to our knowledge treated in
the SLA research literature, but rather one based
upon o u r observations and supported bv learning
theorists (e.g., Gagne a n d Medsker 1996).
4. Different learning processes are responsible
for different aspects of language. Indeed,
given that language is as complicated as it is,
one would not expect the learning process to
be any simpler. It is clearlv an oversimplifica­
tion to treat all gram m ar learning as resulting
from habit formation or from rule formation.
Being aware that different learning processes
contribute to SLA suggests a need for the
teaching process to respect the differences.
How the nature of the language challenge
and the learning process affect teaching deci­
sions is the issue to which we turn next.
The Teaching Process
Consistent with the wav we are conceiting gram­
m ar in this chapter, teaching gram m ar means
enabling language students to tise linguistic forms
accurately, meaningfully, and appropriately. In
this section we discuss various teaching strategies
that can be employed to m eet this goal.
In keeping with language form approaches,
traditional gram m ar teaching has employed a
structural syllabus and lessons composed of three
phases: presentation, practice, and production
(or com m unication), often referred to as "the
PPP” approach. As we saw earlier, underlying this
ap p ro a c h is the assum ption that one -vuemati-
cally builds towards com m unication. However,
as m e n tio n e d in the introduction to :hi> chap­
ter, these davs, most teachers em bim c a m ore
communicatively o rie n ted approach, starting
with a com m unicative activity such as task-
or c o n tent-based m aterial (see ch a p te rs bv
Savignon an d Snow in this volume). T h e gram ­
m ar that is taught is not scheduled in advance as
it is with a structural syllabus/PPP approach, but
rather supports students in their com pletion of
the comm unicative task or their m aking sense of
a particular content area. In addition, or alter­
nately. teachers respond to gram m ar errors that
students commit when engaged in com m unica­
tion. As such, it reverses the norm al sequence
(Skelian 1998b). putting com m unication first,
rather than selecting and presenting a gram m ar
structure in advance of its use in context.
Even if the gram m ar to be worked on is
derivative rather than scheduled in advance, a
teacher must still decide how to address it. A
variety of options have been suggested (see
Doughtv a n d Williams 1998: R. Ellis 1998),
although the research findings u n d e rp in n in g
them are somewhat sparse and sometimes con­
tradictory (see Mitchell 2000 for a recent review).
O ne option is simple' to bring to students' atten­
tion, or to prom ote their uoticingoi. some feature
of a grammatical structure. For example, if a stu­
dent makes an error and the teacher decides to
respond to it. then the teacher might recast or
reformulate what the student has said or written
incorrectly in a m ore accurate, meaningful, or
appropriate manner. For instance, if it is an error
of form, the teacher would recast the stu d e n t’s
production accurately.
Student : This is Juan notebook.
T eacher : Oh. T h at is Ju a n 's notebook.
(perceiving the e rro r to be the
form of the possessive)
If m eaning is the problem , the teacher
would recast what the student, has said in a
m eaningful wav.
Student : I need to look at the word in the
dictionary.
T eacher: You n e e d to look u p the word
in the dictionary.
(perceiving the phrasal verb
look up to be a better form for
what the stu d en t m eans to sav)
 A nd if use is the problem , the teacher
would recast what the student has said in a m ore
a p p г о p ri a t e ill a n n e r :
Student : I arise at six in the m orning.
T EA( ;her : OK. Yon get up at six in the
m orning.
(perceiving that a phrasal verb would
be m ore appropriate to convev the
student's in te n d e d m eaning)
A m ore proactive way to p ro m o te students'
noticing a particular grammatical structure is to
highlight it in a text in some fashion. Enhancing
the input (Sharwood Smith 1993) m ight be an
especially effective war to focus students' a tten­
tion on g ram m ar structures that operate at the
discourse level of language, such as articles or
verb tenses. Bv boldfacing all the normally
insalient articles in a given passage, for instance,
the students' attention could be drawn to them.
Even simple choosing texts in which a particular
structure or structural contrast is especially fre­
q u e n t would e n h a n ce its salience and thus might
p rom ote noticing, a practice sometimes called
input flooding.
Still a n o th e r option is to use a consciousness-
raising task, in which it is the students' job to
induce a grammatical generalization from the
data thev have been given. For example. Fotos
and Ellis (1991) ask students to work out the
rule for indirect object alternation in English
(e.g., The\ g m ]e a gold watch to him./Thes gave him
a gold watch.) bv giving the students example sen­
tences where indirect object alternation can and
cannot be successfully applied. Indirect object
alternation is difficult in English an d therefore is
an ideal candidate for this sort of explicit rule
articulation. Indeed. Carroll and Swain (1993)
suggest that when the rules are not that clear-cut,
detailed instruction with explicit metalinguistic
feedback m at be the most helpful response to
student errors.
A n o th e r option for pro m o tin g stu d e n ts’
awareness is to use the garden path strategy
(Tomascllo an d H e rro n 1988; 1989). As applied
to g ram m ar teaching, this m eans giving students
in fo rm a tio n a b o u t s tru c tu re w ith o u t giving
them the full picture, thus m aking it seem easier
than it is, or in o th er words, "leading them down
the garden path." If ESL EFL students were told
that the English past tense is fo rm e d with -eel, for
example, this would be leading students down
the garden path as there are manv irregular
verbs in English where this rule will not work to
p ro duce the past tense. T he reason for giving
students onlv a partial explanation is that they
are m ore likelv to learn the exceptions to the
rule if thev are corrected at the m o m e n t the
overgeneralization e rro r is m ade th an if they are
given a long list of "exceptions to the rule” to
m em orize in advance.
A n o th e r technique for directing stu dents’
attention to form is called input processing (Van
Patten 1996). R ather than working on rule
learning an d rule application, in p u t processing
activities push learners to a ttend to properties of
language du rin g activities where the structure is
being used meaningfully. For instance, if stu­
dents tire asked to carrv out com m ands that
teachers issue, thev are working on m atching the
imperative form to its use in a m eaningful wav.
O f course, sometimes a comm unicative task
itself requires that students a ttend to relevant
features of the target language (Loschkv and
Blev-Yroman 1993). such as when using a partic­
ular grammatical structure is essential to com ­
pleting the task. An exam ple of this is w hen
students have to use particular prepositions to
accurately give each o th er directions using a
map. T he a d d e d value of using a comm unicative
task to pro m o te noticing is that students are
enc o u ra g e d to use the target structures, thereby
generating "o u tp u t” that attracts feedback from
a teacher or a n o th e r student.
Speaking of output, it might be suiprising to
experienced teachers to read descriptions of all
these teaching options with veiw little mention of
student production. But, of course, students’ pro­
duction plat’s a veiw important role in learning
grammar. It is not enough to have awarenesses
raised if students can’t produce the language.
Output production is, therefore, extremely impor­
tant. For one thing, it pushes students to move
bevoncl semantic processing to syntactic process­
ing (Swain 1985). Then, too, when students
attempt to produce structures, they get to test their
hypotheses on how the structure is form ed or what
it means or when it is used. Following these
attempts, as we have seen, they can receive feed­
back on their hvpotheses and modifv them as
necessary.
Indeed, D onato (1994) has shown how stu­
d e n t s ’ p a rticip a tio n in collaborative dialogue,
th rough which learners can provide support for
each other, has spurred developm ent of learners'
interlanguage. O th e r research (Swain and Lapkin
1998) corroborates the value of an interactive dia­
logue as both a cognitive tool and a means of
com m unication which can prom ote grammatical
development.
Beyond these reasons for giving students an
opportunity to pro d u ce the target grammatical
structures, we have alreadv presented the idea
that g ram m ar teaching can better be thought of
as developing “gram m aring," i.e., helping stu­
dents be able to use g ram m ar skillfullv. a goal
that requires significant practice. To this point.
G a tbonton an d Segalowitz (1988) have argued
th at practice of gram m atical patterns can lead to
autom atization of certain aspects of p e rfo rm ­
ance, which, in turn, frees up students' atten-
tional resources to be allocated elsewhere.
It used to be that the practice phase of a les­
son was devoted almost exclusivelv to gram m ar
drills an d exercises. Ever since the ineffective­
ness of using drills which do not engage stu­
dents' attention was acknowledged, there has
been little by way of guidance offered on how to
give students m eaningful practice. W hat follows,
therefore, is an a ttem p t to fill this void. Practice
activities will be addressed in terms of which
dim ension of language thee relate to.
Form
From what we know of skill acquisition theory
(e.g., Anderson and Fincham 1994), fluency or
proceduralization of declarative knowledge
(e.g., knowledge of a gram m ar rule or pattern)
requires practice in which students use the target
language point meaningfully while keeping the
declarative knowledge in working m em ory
(DeKevser 1998).
It is im portant to emphasize meaningful prac­
tice of form for several reasons. First of all, m ea n ­
ingless mechanical drills, such as repetition drills,
commonlv associated with behaviorist approaches
to learning, do not engage the learner in the
target behavior of conveving m eaning through
language. Furthermore, because students are not
engaged in target behavior, the inert knowledge
problem (Whitehead 1999) is likelv to materialize.
Inert knowledge is knowledge that can be recalled
when students are specificallv asked to do so but is
not available lor spontaneous use. in. sav. problem
solving, even when the knowledge is relevant to
the problem at hand. Knowledge remains inert
when it is not available for transfer from the class­
room context to the outside world. We know that
when the psvchological conditions of learning and
application are m atched what litis been learned is
more likelv to be transferred (e.g.. Blaxton 1989).
Thus, rules and forms learned in isolated m ean­
ingless drills mav be harder to retrieve in the con­
text of communicative interaction (Segalowitz and
G atbonton 1994). Finallv. student motivation
is likelv to be enhanced if students are able to
interact in a wav that is meaningful to them. Then,
too. then are likelv to be more attentive if thev are
saving something meaningful.
Identifying the tvpe of learning involved
helps us to think about the desirable characteris­
tics of am practice activity. For instance, for declar­
ative knowledge to be proceduralized a great deal
of meaningful practice would be required. Further,
students would have to receive feedback on the
accuracy with which thev produced the target
form. Then would have to be restricted to using
just the particular target form: in other words,
structural diversitv would not be permitted.'"
Finallv. for proceduralization to occur, it would
seem important to concentrate on onlv one or two
forms at a time, although, of course, the target
form could be introduced in contrast to forms
that the student alreadv controls.
Let us take an example and see how these
characteristics are applied. If our students show
us that thev are struggling with the inversion of
the subject and operator in ves-no questions, it
would be clear that their immediate learning chal­
lenge is linguistic form. We will need to design or
select an activity that encourages meaningful prac­
tice of the pattern, not verbatim repetition. We
want the students to concentrate on producing
onlv ves-no questions. A gam e like Twenty
Questions would appear to meet the criteria.
Students get to ask 20 ves-no questions about an
object or person in an attem pt to guess the iden­
tity; hence, they receive a b u n d a n t practice in
form ing the questions, an d the questions thev
produce are meaningful. T he teacher would
work with each student to enable him or h e r to
produce the pattern accurately, perhaps provid­
ing an explicit rule, perhaps not.
An example of a game that would work on
the form of the English possessive comes from
Kealev and Inness (1997). Students are given a
family portrait in which the child’s face is missing.
They are also given clues as to what the child looks
like, e.g., the child has the m o th e r’s eyebrows or
the father’s chin. A person from each small
group into which the students are divided comes
to the front of the room , takes a clue, memorizes
it, a n d brings it back to his or h e r g roup so that
the feature in the clue can be drawn. This contin­
ues until the child, a composite of his m o th er and
father, is fullv drawn.
In sum, certain games are good devices for
practicing gram m ar points where the challenge
resides in the formal dimension. While not an
activity in an d of itself, a n o th e r useful device for
working on the formal dimension is the use of
cuisenaire rods. T he rods are ideal for focusing
student attention on some syntactic property'
u n d e r scrutiny. O n e example that comes to m ind
is an adaptation of Stevick's (1980) Islamabad
technique. Practicing the form of OS' relative
clauses, students m ight be asked to use the rods
to construct a view of some spot in their h o m e ­
town. The students would be encouraged to use
OS relative clauses where appropriate (e.g., There
is a fountain that is located in the center of ins town;
Around the fountain there are m am people who sell
fruits, vegetables, and flowers, etc.).
N am e Age C o u n try
Beatriz 18 Bolivia
Mohammed 19 Algeria
jean Claude France
18 Brazil
Werner 17
O ne final example of a type of useful activity
for working on the formal dimension is a problem ­
solving activity. The problem to be solved could be
most anything, but if we are dealing with the for­
mal dimension, then we would want it to conform
to the characteristics described above. An example
might be an information-gap activity' where the
students are given a class information sheet with
certain items missing (see bottom of this page).
Students could circulate asking one an o th er
II7equestions (e.g., What is Beatrix’s major? How old
is Werner?) in o rd e r to com plete the chart.
A nother example m ight be a sentence-unscram ­
bling task. This is a useful problem-solving activity'
when the challenge is getting students to produce
correct word order, such as when the objective is
to have students use auxiliary verbs in the proper
sequence.
It is im portant to take note that there is
n othing in h e re n t in the three examples we have
provided (games, use of rods, problem-solving
activities) which make them useful for address­
ing the formal dimension; i.e., we could easily
use rods to work on some aspects of the m eaning
or use dimensions. What is significant to rem e m ­
ber is that the activity should be structured in
such a wav that it is compatible with the charac­
teristics presented earlier.
Meaning
If the teacher has decided that the challenge of a
particular structure lies in the semantic dim en­
sion. then a different sort of practice activity
should be planned. It would seem that meaning
would call for some sort of associative learning
(X. Ellis 1998), where students have opportunities
Language M ajo r H o bby
Spanish Dentistry
Accounting Going
to the movies
French Painting
Education Hiking
Swiss German Business
to associate the form an d the m eaning of the
particular target structure. It has been o u r expe­
rience that repetition is not n e e d e d to tire same
extent as it is when teaching some aspect of the
formal dimension. Sometimes a single pairing
of form and m eaning suffices. Due to m em ory
constraints, it seems p ru d en t to restrict the n u m ­
ber of new items being practiced at anv one time
to between two and six (Asher 1996). T he stu­
dents would r e c e d e feedback on their ability
to dem onstrate that thev ha d acquired the form ­
m eaning bond.
Celce-Murcia a n d Hilles (1988) m ention
that w hen dealing with the semantic dim ension,
realia a n d pictures are very useful. Thus, for
example, if the teacher has decided to work on
the semantics of comparative forms in English to
su p p o rt some communicative task or content, he
or she m ight show students pairs of pictures a n d
work with th em to m ake comparisons using the
form that reflects the relation depicted (e.g., as
_______ as, more________ than, less________ than).
Actions, too, can m ake m eaning salient.
T h e initial challenge for ESL/EFL students
grappling with prepositions is to associate the
“c o re ” m ea n in g with each. Thus, prior to having
students work on direction-giving tasks using
maps ( Walk to the corner. Turn right at the corner. The
cinema is near the corner, next to the bank.), a good
strategy’ might be to work with students on having
them make an association between a preposition
an d its m eaning in locating objects in space. O ne
way of doing this is to conduct a Total Physical
Response sequence where students act out a
series of com m ands along with the teacher,
involving the placem ent of objects in various parts
of the room; e.g., Put the book next to the desk, Put
the pen on the book, Walk to the door, Stand near the
door, etc. O nce students appear to have m ade the
c onnection between form an d m eaning, the
teacher can assess their ability to discriminate one
form -m eaning b o n d from a n o th e r bv having
them carry out com m ands on their own and by
issuing novel com m ands— e.g., Put the pen on the
desk— and assessing their ability to comply.
We said earlier that a persistent challenge
for stu dents’ learning phrasal verbs was the fact
that the m ea n in g is often n o t detectable from
com bining the m ea n in g of the verb with the
m eaning of the particle. Sometimes teachers have
ha d their students play Concentration, a version
of the game in yvhich the students have to associ­
ate a phrasal verb written on one card yvith its def:
inition written on another card. A nother example
of an activity that would address this semantic chal­
lenge is an operation (Nelson and Winters 1993).
In an operation, a series of separate actions are
perform ed to accomplish some task. T he teacher
m ight issue commands, or mime the actions yvith
the students as she or he describes them.
I want to call up m\ friend. First, I look up
the phone number. Then I write it down. I
pick up the receiver and punch in the num­
ber. The number is busy. I hang up and.
decide to call back later.
Bv practicing this operation several times,
the students can learn to associate the form and
m eaning of certain phrasal verbs (call up, look up.
pick up, etc.). If students are given an operation
yvith yvhich to associate phrasal verbs, recall at a
later time will likelv be enhanced. To determ ine
if students can distinguish a m o n g the various
phrasal verbs, students m ight be given phrasal
verbs out of sequence and asked to m im e the
appropriate action. Feedback on their ability to
m atch form a n d m eaning can be given.
Use
W hen use is the challenge, it is because student'
have shown that they are having a h a rd time
selecting the right structure or form for a partic­
ular context. Working o n use ys ill involve stu­
dents learning that there are options to bv
exercised a n d that thev must select from am or.,
them the one yvhich best suits a given context.
Thus, relevant practice activities will proviciv
students with an opportunity to choose from tw
or more forms the one most suitable for the con­
text and how they wish to position themsefve'
(e.g., in a cooperative way, a polite wav, an assertive
wav, etc.). Students would receive feedback on the
appropriateness of their choice. In some cases
their choice might involve selecting between two
options (e.g., when to use the passive versus the
active voice). O ther times, their choice would be
from am ong an array of options (e.g., which
modal verb to use when giving advice to a boss):
hence, the n u m b e r of forms being worked on at
one time would be at least two, but could involve
manv more.
Role plat's work well when dealing with ttse
becatise the teacher can systematically m anipu­
late social variables (e.g., increase o r decrease the
social distance between interlocutors) to have stu­
dents practice how changes in the social variables
affect the choice of form.
For example, if students h a te shown that
they do not know how to use modals to give
advice, thev might be asked to role-plav having a
■'dilemma.'' In this role plav. one person has a
problem: (e.g., the kevs to the car have been
lost. T he car is locked and the person wants to
get in.) Students are asked to use modal verbs to
give advice to the person with the problem: e.g..
You might try breaking the -window. You could try call­
ing the police. The teacher could next alter a
salient feature of the context, thus creating a new
social context in which a different modal verb
would be m ore appropriate. For example, the
teacher might ask. "What if it were a toting child
that had this dilemma?" A m ore appropriate
form and content for the advice, then, might be
You had better wait for your mother to come!
On a n o th e r occasion, students might be
asked to plat the role of an advice columnist.
Thev are to write a colum n and give advice to a
classmate who is h a tin g a particular problem.
Having students work with the same structure in
writing and in speaking activities can highlight
differences between written and oral grammars
Carter and McCarthv 1993).
Role plavs are useful for highlighting o ther
structural choices as well. Often we find that it is
neither the form no r the m eaning of the English
tenses that presents the greatest long-term chal­
lenge to ESL EFL students: rather it is when win
to use one tense and not the other. In o ther
words, it is the pragmatic usage of the tenses that
is the major obstacle to their mastery. Giving stu­
dents practice with situations in which a contrast
between two tenses is likelv to arise may sensitize
students to the usage differences. For instance, a
notorious problem for ESL EFL students is to
know when to use the present perfect versus
when to use the past tense. A situation where a
contrast between them would occur m ight be a jo b
interview. In such a context, the perfect of experi­
ence is likelv to be invoked (e.g., Have you ever done
any computer programming?). .An elaboration to an
affirmative answer is likelv to contain the past tense
(e.g.. Yes, I have. I once worked on . . . or simplv, Yes.
117ten I worked a t .. .). Students can take turns role-
plaving the inteniew er and interviewee.
As was m entioned earlier, it is not onlv the
social context that will be involved in the choice of
which forms to use, but also it is often the linguis­
tic discourse context that will make a difference.
Thus, it is verv important to consider teaching dis­
course gram m ar (Celce-Murcia 1991a: Hughes
and McCarthv 1998). Such is the case with the pas­
sive voice. Its use is not particularlv sensitive to
social factors; i.e.. whether one is using the active
or passive voice does not necessarily de p e n d upon
with whom one is conversing. W hat usuallv does
cause students considerable clifficultv with the pas-
site voice, however, is determ ining when to use it.
The fact that the agent of an action is defocused
motivates the use of the passive. Furthermore, if
the agent has alreadv been established in the lin­
guistic discourse, it would likelv not even be m en­
tioned in subsequent discourse. Thus, most passive
sentences are agentless.
Challenges of this na tu re call for text-
generation or text-manipulation-tvpe exercises.
As the passive is used m ore often in written than
in spoken English, teachers m ight give their stu­
dents a text-completion exercise in which the
first few lines of the text are provided. For exam­
ple. from the first few lines in the following text,
it should be clear to the students that the them e
of discourse is on the "issues,” not the agents (i.e.,
participants), at the town meeting.
Town meetings were held th ro u g h o u t
New E ngland vesterclav. Many issues
were discussed, although the big one
for m ost citizens was the issue of
growth. Manv changes have been
m ade recentlv. For example, . . .
Students then are asked to complete the text
using the appropriate voice. As not all the sen­
tences should be in the passive voice, students will
be making choices, in keeping with a characteristic
of practice actuaries designed to work on the use
d im e n sio n . T h e te a c h e r will give fee dback
to the students on the appropriateness of their
choices.
Before leaving ou r discnssion of the passive
voice, it would be useful to illustrate whv we feel
that identifying the challenging dim ension is a
worthwhile step to take before teaching any
g ram m ar structure. W hen we are clear where
the challenge lies, the challenge can shape ou r
lessons. For instance, as we stated earlier, it has
b e e n ou r experience that the greatest long-term
challenge for students working on the passive
voice is for them to figure out when to use the
passive. Keeping this in m in d will help us avoid a
c om m on practice of ESL/EFL teachers, which is
to introduce the passive as a transform ed version
o f the active (e.g., "Switch the subject with the
direct object . . ."). Presenting the passive in this
way is misleading because it gives the impression
that the passive is simply a variant of the active.
Moreover, it suggests that most passive sentences
contain agents. W hat we know in fact to be the
case is that o ne voice is not a variant of the other,
b u t ra th e r the two are in com plem entary distri­
bution, with their foci completelv different. We
also know that relativelv few passive sentences
contain explicit agents. Thus, from the first, the
passive should be taught as a distinct structure
which occurs in a different context from the
active. (See Celce-Murcia and Larsen-Freeman
1999, for several examples of how to do this.)
It should be noted that the pie chart, the
observations about learning, and the characteris­
tics of practice activities enum erated here mav not
significantly alter the wav gram m ar is taught today.
Indeed, manv of the activities recom m ended here
are currently being used. What these tools do offer,
how-ever, is a principled means for dealing with
grammar. Thev should help teachers to make clear
decisions they teach grammar. They should help
teachers to design effective activities or to choose
from a m ong those in a textbook without assuming
that just because a textbook activity deals with the
target structure, it necessarily addresses the partic­
ular learning challenge that their students are
experiencing.
This brings us to the close o f ou r discussion
on how to design practice activities for gram m ar
points.
Providing Feedback
Providing learners with feedback, negative evi­
dence which thev can use to correct their misap­
prehensions about some aspect of the target
language, is an essential function of language
teaching. Even such indirect feedback as asking a
learner for clarification of something he or she
has said mav be helpful (Schachter 1986). It has
always been a controversial function, however
(Larsen-Freeman 1991). T here are, for instance,
those who would proscribe it, believing that a
teacher's intervention will inhibit students from
freely expressing themselves or that there is little
evidence dem onstrating that learners make use of
the feedback thev have been given — there is little
immediate "uptake" of the correct form. While
there are clearlv times that such intervention can
be intrusive and therefore unwarranted (e.g., in
the middle of a small-group communicative activ­
ity). at o ther times focused feedback is highlv
desirable. Further, immediate uptake cannot be
the sole criterion of its usefulness. Negative evi­
dence gives students the feedback thev need to
reject or modifv their hvpotheses about how the
target language is form ed or functions. Students
understand this, which explains whv thev often
deliberatclv seek feedback.
The same pie chart that we tised when iden-
tifving the lea rn in g challenge an d creating
practice activities can also be a useful aid in diag­
nosing errors. W hen an error is com m itted by a
student, a teacher can mentallv hold it up to the
pie chart to determ ine if it is an error in form,
meaning, or use. O f course, sometimes the cause
of an error is ambiguous. Still, the pie chart does
provide a frame of reference, and if the diagnosis
is accurate, the remeclv mav be m ore effective.
More than once we hat e observed a teacher give
an explanation of linguistic form to a student,
w hen consulting the pie chart would have
suggested that the student's confusion lav with
the area of use instead.
As for how the feedback is to be provided, w;e
hate alreadv m entioned several useful options—
recasting, for instance. Getting students to self-
correct is an o th er (see Lyster and Ranta 1997).
Giving students an explicit rule is a third. Some
teachers like to collect their students' errors.
identifV the prototypical ones, and then deal
with th em collectively in class in an anonvmous
fashion. Which of these options is exercised will
de p e n d on the teacher’s style, the proficiency of
the students, the nature of the error, and in which
part of the lesson the error has been committed.
N one o f these have to be used exclusively,
of course. For instance, Aljaafreh an d Lantolf
(1994) offer a g raduated 12-point scale ranging
from implicit to explicit strategies, beginning
with student identification of errors in their own
writing, moving to where the teacher isolates the
e rro r area a n d inquires if there is anything
wrong in a particular sentence, to where the
teacher provides examples of the correct pattern
when o th e r forms of help fail to lead to a self­
correction on the part o f the student.
RELA TED P E D A G O G IC A L
ISSUES
Sequencing
Earlier we no ted that gram m ar structures are
n o t acquired one at a time th ro u g h a process of
“agglutination” (R uth erford 1987). Rather, dif­
ferent aspects of form, m eaning, an d use of a
given structure mat be acquired at different
stages o f L2 developm ent. This observation con­
firms the n e e d for recycling— i.e.. working on
one dim ension of a form and then re tu rn in g to
the form from time to time as the n e e d arises.
To some extent this will occur naturally, as the
same structures are likelv to be e n c o untered in
different communicative tasks and content areas.
However, it is also the case that not all linguistic
structures that students need to learn will be avail­
able in the language that occurs in the classroom.
T h e refo re, it will be necessary for the
teacher to "fill in the gaps,” i.e., to introduce
structures that don't naturally arise in classroom
discourse (Spada and Lightbown 1993). For this
reason, teachers might think in terms of a gram­
mar checklist, rather than a grammatical sequence.
By this, 1 m ean that it would be a teacher’s respon­
sibility to see that students learn certain gram ­
matical items by the end of a given course or
period of time, but n o t bv following a prescribed
sequence. Many structures would arise naturally
in the course of working on tasks a n d content and
would be dealt with then. O th e r structures m ight
be introduced as the teacher determ ined that the
students were ready to learn them. R ather than
adhering to a linear progression, the choice of
sequence would be left up to the teacher and
would d e p e n d on the teacher’s assessment of the
students' developmental readiness to learn.
Manv teachers, of course, have little control
over the content or sequence o f what thev work
on. Thev must adhere to prescribed svllabi or
textbooks, although even in such a situation, it
mav be possible for teachers not to follow a
sequence rigidly. But for those teachers who have
m ore flexibility, research on acquisition orders is
germ ane. Some SLA research has shown that
learners progress through a series of predictable
stages in their acquisition of particular linguistic
forms. O n e explanation for the o rd e r rests on
the complexity of the speech-processing strate­
gies required. Thus, all structures processable bv
a particular strategy o r cluster of strategies
should be acquired at roughly the same develop­
mental stage. This approach has been shown to
account for certain acquisition orders in ESI.
(Pienem ann and J o h n s to n 1987).
Despite these findings and their potential
implications for grammatical structure sequenc­
ing. there has been no definitive acquisition
order established, and thus teachers are still left
to their own resources for judgm ents on how to
proceed. We should also note that even if an
acquisition order were to be fullv specified for
English, there might be justification for preem pt­
ing the acquisition order when students’ c om m u­
nicative needs were not being m et a n d when,
therefore, certain structures would need to be
taught, at least formulaicallv. F u rth e rm o re ,
Lightbown (1998) has suggested that even if stu­
dents are asked to work on structures before they
are readv to acquire them, such effort mav not be
in vain because such instruction might prim e sub­
sequent noticing on the part of the students,
thereby accelerating acquisition when they are
indeed readv.
Inductive Versus Deductive
Presentation
An additional choice teachers face is w hether to
work inductively or deductively. An inductive
activity is one in which students infer the rule or
generalization from a set of examples. In a deduc­
tive activitv, on the o ther hand, the students are
given the rule and thev applv it to examples. For
instance, when practicing an inductive approach
to the m ass/co u n t noun distinction in English,
students could be presented with a language sam­
ple, such as a grocerv advertising circular. Thev
then would be encouraged to make their own
observations about the form of mass and count
nouns. The teacher m ight listen to their observa­
tions a n d th en m ight summarize bv generalizing
about the two categories of nouns. If practicing a
deductive approach, the teacher would present
the generalization an d then ask students to applv
it to the language sample.
As we see, if a teacher has chosen an induc­
tive ap p ro a c h in a given lesson, a fu rth e r option
exists— w h ether or not to give or have students
articulate an explicit rule. Earlier, we stated that
equating the teaching of g ram m ar with the p ro ­
vision of explicit rules was an undulv limited
view of what it m eans to teach grammar. We said
this because what we are trving to bring about in
the lea rn er is linguistic behavior that conforms
to the rules, not knowledge of the rules th em ­
selves. Having said this, we see no reason to
avoid giving explicit rules as a m eans to this end,
except perhaps if one is working with voting chil­
dren. Usually students request rules a n d re p o rt
that they find them helpful. Moreover, stating a
rule explicitlv can often bring ab o u t linguistic
insights in a m ore efficacious m anner, as long as
the rule is not oversimplified or so metalinguis-
tically obtuse that students must struggle h a rd e r
to u n d e rsta n d the rule than to apply it implicitly
(Robinson 1996).
R e tu rn in g now to the inductive versus
deductive question, we again find that the choice
is not one resolvable with an e ith e r /o r approach.
T h e r e are m anv times w hen an inductive
approach such as using a consciousness-raising
task is desirable because by using such an
approach one is nurturing within the students a
way of thinking, through which thev can arrive at
their own generalizations. In addition, an induc­
tive approach allows teachers to assess what the
students alreaclv know about a particular struc­
ture and to make am necessarv adjustments in
their lesson plan. Ulearlv. a teacher's anticipation
of where the challenge lies is not alwav s borne out
when he or she assesses students' actual behavior.
O th e r times, when students have a particular
cognitive stvle that is not well suited for language
analvsis or when a particular linguistic rule is
rather convoluted, it mav make more sense to
present a gram m ar structure deductivelv.
In d e e d . C o rd e r's sensible observations
offer comfort:
What little we know about . . . second
language learning . . . suggests that a
com bination of induction and d e d u c ­
tion produces the best result. . . . The
old controversv about w hether one
should provide the rule first an d then
the examples, or vice versa, is now
seen to be merelv a m atter of tactics to
which no categorical answer can be
given (('.order 1973 in R utherford and
S h a rv o o d Smith 1988. p. 133).
Patterns and Reasons, Not Rules
Before concluding, we should make two final
observations about gram m ar teaching. With the
increased access to large corpora of language
data that com puters afford, it has becom e clear
that grammatical structures an d lexical items
occur in a large n u m b e r of regularlv occurring
patterns (Sinclair and Fox 1990; Biber, Conrad,
and R eppen 1998). Not all lexical items can be
freelv substituted into a particular pattern. O nce
one lexical item is selected, the likelihood of a
particular item or phrase following is increased.
For example, if the verb insist is chosen, either on
or that is verv likelv to follow. An implication of
corpus-based research is that teachers of gram ­
m ar should pav m ore attention to conventional­
ized lexicogrammatical units, and not simply
focus on teaching gram m atical rules (Pawley
a n d Svder 198.3; N attinger an d DcCarrico 1992;
Lewis 1997). Indeed, connectionist m odeling
has d e m o n stra ted that m orphology (Ellis and
Schmidt 1997) a n d syntax (MacWhinney 1997)
acquisition mav be accounted Гог by simple asso­
ciative learning principles (X. Ellis 1998), rather
than as a pro d u ct of rule application.
A nother challenge to equating the teach­
ing of rules with the teaching of g ram m ar comes
from Larsen-Freem an’s (2000a) suggestion that
teachers concentrate on teaching “reasons, not
rules." Larsen-Freeman points out that although
rules d o n 't allow for change, language is chang­
ing all the time. A consequence is that most rules
have "exceptions." F u rth e rm o re , m anv rules
a ppear arbitrary because thev are form based,
ignoring the m ea n in g and use dimensions. For
instance, rather than telling students thev must
use an indefinite n o u n phrase after the verb in a
sentence beginning with existential there.
There is a snowstorm coming.
help them und e rsta n d the reason: there intro­
duces new inform ation in the n o u n following
the verb, a n d in English, new inform ation is
m arked with indefinite determ iners. This reason
is b road based a n d explains a n u m b e r of English
word-order p h e n o m e n a . While rules provide
some security for learners, reasons give them a
d e e p er u n d e rsta n d in g of the logic of English
and help them m ake it their own. Besides, rea­
sons are m ea n in g based and use based and are
in keeping with the m ore robust view of gram ­
mar we have been pro m o tin g in this chapter.
P R O FE SSIO N A L D EV E LO P M E N T
Finally, the form, m eaning, a n d fram ework can
be used bv teachers to assess where there are
gaps in their own knowledge o f English gram ­
mar. W hen thev can't fill in all the wedges in the
pie chart for a given structure, thev can consult
reference gram m ars. O f course, there are manv
gaps in what is known about the three dim e n ­
sions. In particular, there is m uch to learn about
the pragm atic conditions governing the use of
particular structures. For this reason, the pie
chart can also be used to generate items for a
research agenda. Bv exploring the three dim e n ­
sions of g ram m ar a n d how to teach them , teach­
ers will continue to develop their professional
knowledge base, which will, in turn, benefit their
students as thev strive to e n h a n ce their gram ­
matical proficiency.
D IS C U S S IO N Q U E S T IO N S
1. T h in k of all the language tea c h in g a p ­
proaches with which vou are familiar. Can
you categorize them according to w hether
thev favor language form or language use?
2. In explaining the pragm atics of phrasal
verbs, the p rin c ip le o f d o m in a n c e was
invoked. Explain whv the principle of d om i­
nance falls in the pragmatic dimension.
3. T he effect of the native language on second
language learning has traditionally b e e n
seen to be one of interference. How does
observation 3 on the le a r n in g process
(pp. 255-256) differ in its perception of
LI influence?
4. Whv was it stressed that the repetition in a
practice activity for working on form should
be meaningful?
5. Whv is it im p o rtan t to identify the challenge
in a particular gram m ar structure for a p a r­
ticular group of students, even if the aspect
of structure vou are planning to teach lies in
a different wedge of the pie from where the
challenge lies?
S U G G E S T E D A C T IV IT IE S
1. T hink of a language teaching a p p ro a c h
which tends to favor language use over lan­
guage form. How could the a pproach incor­
porate m ore language form? Now think of
an a p p ro a c h that favors lan guage form
over language use. How could a focus on
language use be integrated?
2. Analyze restrictive relative clauses in terms
of the three dim ensions o f the pie chart.
What has been the most challenging d im e n ­
sion for the students with whom vou have
worked?
3. Design practice activities for dealing with the
pragmatics of the following:
 a. falling versus rising intonation in tag
questions
b. indirect object alternation
c. presence or absence of existential there
^ ^ FU R T H ER R EA D IN G
B y g ate, M., A. T o n k v n . a n d E. W illiam s , eels. 1994.
Grammar and the Language Teacher. H c m e l
H e m p s t e a d . UK: P r e n t i c e H a ll I n t e r n a t i o n a l .
O f f e r s wavs t h a t g r a m m a r in l a n g u a g e t e a c h i n g
c a n b e r e a f f i r m e d a n d m a i n t a i n e d in o r d e r to
a v o id t h e p e n d u l u m swing.
C e lc e - M u r c i a , M.. a n d S. H ille s. 1988. Technique.', and
Resources in Teaching Grammar. N e w York: O x f o r d
U n iv e r s itv Press.
D iscu sses issues g e r m a n e to t e a c h i n g g r a m m a r
a n d provides a b u n d a n t e x a m p le s o f te c h n iq u e s
a n d m aterials ap p lied to te a c h in g E nglish
structures.
Celce-Murcia. M.. and D. Larsen-Freeman. 1999. The
Grammar Book: An ESE/EEF Teacher's C.tnnsc. 2d
eel. B o s t o n . MA: Heinle К Ileinle.
S e e k s to g u i d e t e a c h e r s to a n u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f
t h e g r a m m a r o f t h o s e s t r u c t u r e s then will h a v e
to t e a c h ( t h e i r f o r m , m e a n i n g , a n d u se in c o n ­
te x t ) a n d o ff e rs r e l e v a n t t e a c h i n g s u g g e s t i o n s
fo r th o s e sa m e stru ctu res.
D o u g h t v , C.. a n d J . W illia m s , ed s. 1998. Em us on Form
in Classroom Second Language Acquisition.
C a m b r i d g e : C a m b r i d g e U n iv e r s ity Press.
P ro v i d e s a n o v e rv ie w o f s e c o n d l a n g u a g e a c q u i ­
s i ti o n r e s e a r c h t h a t h a s in v e s t i g a t e d "f o c u s o n
f o r m ."
Teaching Language: From
L a r s e n - F r e e m a n , D. 2 0 0 1 .
Grammar to Grammaring. B o s t o n . MA: H e i n l e &:
H e in le .
A rgues for a re c o n c e p tu a liz a tio n o f g ra m m a r
a n d t h e wav it is t a u g h t , f e a t u r i n g g r a m m a r as a
c o m p l e x , n o n l i n e a r , d y n a m i c system .
R u t h e r f o r d . W. 1987. Second Language Grammar:
Learning and Teaching. L o n d o n : L o n g m a n .
T r e a t s g r a m m a r in a n i n t e r e s t i n g a n d p r o v o c a ­
tive w av t h a t c h a l l e n g e s t h e view t h a t l e a r n i n g
g r a m m a r is a n “a c c u m u l a t i o n o f e n ti ti e s ."
LTr, P. 1988. Grammar Practice Activities: A Practical Gaide
for Teachers. C a m b r i d g e : C a m b r i d g e University'
Press.
D is c u s s e s p e d a g o g i c a l is su es f o l l o w e d lw a n u m ­
b e r o f g r a m m a r t e a c h i n g activ ities g r o u p e d
a c c o r d i n g to t h e g r a m m a r s t r u c t u r e for w h ic h
t h e v w o r k b est.
ENDNO TES
1 S o m e t i m e a f t e r 1 h a d b e g u n view g r a m m a r in this
way, t h e w o r k o f C h a r l e s M o r r is (1 9 8 9 ) was b r o u g h t
to m y a t t e n t i o n . A l t h o u g h h e uses t h e t e r m s in a
s o m e w h a t d i f f e r e n t m a n n e r . M o r r is a p p li e s t h e t e r ­
n a r y s c h e m e o f syntactics, s e m a n ti c s , a n d p r a g m a t ­
ics in p o r t r a v i n g t h e field o f s e m io tic s o r t h e s t u d v
o f signs. T h e t e r n a r y s c h e m e w e a r e a d o p t i n g h e r e
m as also s o u n d r e m i n i s c e n t o f K e n n e t h P i k e ’s
"p a r tic le , wave a n d h e l d " (1 9 5 9 ) . A l t h o u g h t h e r e is
s o m e o v e rla p , t h e r e is n o i s o m o r p h i s m b e t w e e n t h e
m o d e ls .
- F o r e x a m p le , th e m o d e l o f la n g u a g e th a t d e sc rip ­
tive li n g u is ts p r e f e r is o n e in w h i c h v a r i o u s a r e a s o f
l a n g u a g e a r e d e p i c t e d as s t r a t a in a li n g u is ti c h i e r ­
a r c h y b e g i n n i n g w i t h t h e s o u n d s o f l a n g u a g e as
t h e lo w est level f r o m w h i c h all e ls e is c o m p o s e d
a n d f o l lo w in g in t u r n w ith m o r p h e m e s , le x i c o n ,
s v n ta x . a n d d i s c o u r s e .
■’ We i n c l u d e lexis h e r e , a c k n o w le d g i n g ; t h a t g r a m -
m a r a n d lexis a r e ju s t tw o p o l e s o n a c o n t i n u u m
a n d th a t t h e r e a r e m a n v p a t t e r n e d m u l t i w o r d
p h r a s e s t h a t a r e b asic i n t e r m e d i a t e u n i t s b e t w e e n
lexis a n d g r a m m a r . F o l l o w i n g H a lli d a v (1 9 9 4 ) ,
t h e n , it is p r o b a b l e m o r e a c c u r a t e to t h i n k in t e r m s
о f " 1e x i с о g r a m m a r."
1 F o r m o r e e x c e p t i o n s to th is r u l e , c o n s u l t C e lc e -
M u r c i a a n d L .a r s e n - F r e e m a n (1 9 9 9 . p p . 3 1 4 - 3 1 6 ) .
■' F o r this r e a s o n . R u t h e r f o r d h a s s u g g e s t e d t h a t a n
o p t i m a l a p p r o a c h to d e a l i n g w ith t h e n o n l i n e a r i t y
o f g ra m m a tic a l acq u isitio n m ig h t be o n e w h ere
t e a c h e r s h e l p s t u d e n t s a c h ie v e a n u n d e r s t a n d i n g
of g e n e r a l p r i n c i p l e s o f g r a m m a r , e.g.. h o w to
m o d i f y b asic w o r d o r d e r , r a t h e r t h a n c o n c e n t r a t ­
in g o n t e a c h i n g s t r u c t u r e - s p e c i f i c ru le s.
h S u c h <i r e s t r i c t i o n m i g h t s e e m u n c h a r a c t e r i s t i c a l l y
a u t o c r a t i c in t o d a y 's c li m a t e , w h e r e o n e o f t h e fe a ­
t u r e ' o f t h e C o m m u n i c a t i v e A p p r o a c h is t h a t s t u ­
d e n t s b e g iv e n a c h o i c e o f h o w t h e v wish to e x p r e s s
t h e m s e l v e s . It is o u r c o n t e n t i o n , h o w e v e r, t h a t s t u ­
d e n t s h a v e a t r u e c h o i c e o n ly if thev h a v e a variety
o f li n g u is ti c f o r m s at t h e i r d is p o s a l w h i c h t h e v c a n
p r o d u c e a c c u ra t e ly . W i t h o u t b e i n g r e s t r i c t e d to
u sin g a p a rtic u la r ta rg e t fo rm d u r in g a form -
lo t u s e d a c tiv ity s t u d e n t s will o f t e n a v o id p r o d u c ­
in g t h e s t r u c t u r e a n d , h e n c e , n e v e r h a v e a n
o p p o r t u n i t y to tr u ly l e a r n it.
' A n O S re la tiv e c la u s e is o n e in w h ic h t h e s u b j e c t of
t h e e m b e d d e d s e n t e n c e is r e p l a c e d bv a relative
p r o n o u n b e c a u s e t h e s u b je c t is id e n t ic a l to a n o b ject
o r o b je c tlik e n o u n in t h e p r e d i c a t e o f t h e p r e c e d i n g
m a i n clause. ( F o r e x a m p l e : I like t h e b o o k t h a t h e
w ro te .) ° s
 Cognitive Approaches
to Grammar Instruction
S A N D R A FОТО S
Fotos's chapter presents a cognitive approach to second/foreign language teaching. An information­
processing model is used to design a grammar lesson that develops formal grammatical knowledge of
the target grammar structure and promotes its acquisition through meaning-focused use of the form in
communicative activities,This approach can be used in both traditional and communicative classrooms.
IN T R O D U C T IO N
This chapter presents a cognitive approach to
teaching English gram m ar in the ESL or EFL con­
text. We will consider different perspectives on the
relationship o f language to thought to see where a
cognitive approach fits in. examine the com po­
nents of a cognitive m odel from the perspective of
language teaching, and then develop a cognitive
approach to gram m ar instruction for both com­
municative an d traditional classrooms. This
approach is designed to help learners develop
both fluencv and accuracv.
What Is a Cognitive Approach?
Cognitive science is a relativelv new field em erg­
ing in the mid-1950s with the work of cognitive
psychologists, linguists such as Chomskv (1957).
and the establishment of artificial intelligence as
a research area. It is cross-disciplinarv, with contri­
butions from psvchologv. philosophv, psvcholin-
guistics, neuroscience, artificial intelligence, and
cognitive anthropology but the shared focus of
research is the working of the mind. Within psv-
cholinguistics and applied linguistics are a n um ­
ber of cognitive approaches which, unfortunately
cannot all be addressed in this short chapter. We
will therefore treat language learning and gram ­
m ar instruction from the information-processing
perspective, the dom inant cognitive paradigm,
and the reader is referred to cognitive scientists
such as Eysenck and Keane (1995) or Elarlev
(1995) for a discussion of o th er approaches.
In a review article on cognitive approaches
to second language acquisition (SLA), on e
m ajor researcher (N. Ellis 1999) notes th at the
stuclv of cognition in language learning deals
with "mental representations an d inform ation
processing" (p. 2 2 ) and seeks to develop “func­
tional an d neurobiological descriptions o f the
learning processes which, th ro u g h exposure to
representative experience, result in change,
developm ent and the em ergence of knowledge”
(p. 23). In this definition, both first a n d second
language learning are seen to use the same gen­
eral information-processing mechanism s that are
responsible for all forms of knowledge and skills
developm ent. Language learning is thus placed
within the context of cognitive developm ent in
general. This approach differs from views which
hold that language developm ent takes place
within a special m odule in the brain, a point
which will be discussed in m ore detail later.
The Need for a Cognitive Approach
T he usefulness of a cognitive ap p ro a c h to gram ­
m ar instruction in E SL /EF L becom es clear
when we consider the problem s with purely
communicative approaches. These ten d to be
based on theories which distinguish between
language acquisition— an unconscious process
similar to the wav children learn their first lan­
g u a g e — a n d lan g u a g e learning, o r form al
instruction on rules, forms, a n d vocabulary.
These theories claim that the best way to learn a
language, either inside or outside a classroom, is
n o t bv treating it as an object for stud\ but bv
experiencing it meaningfully, as a tool for com­
m unication— perhaps with target gram m ar struc­
tures phvsicallv highlighted or em be d d e d within
communicatiye ac ti\ ities as recom m ended by cur­
rent “focus-on-form" approaches to gram m ar
instruction (see Doughty and Williams 1998).
This yiew may be acceptable for many ESL.
classrooms, although considerable research shows
that when students receive only communicatiye
lessons, with no instruction on gram m ar points,
their leyel of accuracy suffers (see R. Ellis 1997 and
Mitchell 2000 for reviews). However. such an
approach is not useful bv itself in EFL contexts
because adequate access to communicatiye use of
English is usually not available. and students need
to deyelop accurate English grammar, vocabulary,
and translation skills to pass high school and uni-
yersitc entrance examinations. Thus, in the EEI.
setting, formal gram m ar instruction is usually the
norm, even though main teachers would like stu­
dents to develop communicative skills as well.
It is therefore not surprising that m am
E S E /E F T teachers look for a co m p ro m ise
between the two extremes of a structure-based
curriculum, with its teacher-led classrooms and
formal instruction on a series of isolated lan­
guage forms, versus a purely communicative
classroom, with its emphasis on group work and
no focus on linguistic forms whatsoever. Many
teachers now prefer an eclectic approach, adm in­
istering some type of gram m ar instruction within
a communicative framework, and this is reflected
in the mixture of activities in the newer multi­
dimensional textbooks for ESL EEL students.
T h e re is considerable research su p p o rt for
this position, an d it is c o m m o n to distinguish
between two ty pes of classroom activities: mean­
ing-focused, referring to purely communicative
practices where the goal is to process meaning,
a n d form-focused, referring to practices that draw
attention to the wav language forms are used in
discourse. This distinction is y e n ’ im p o rtan t in
c u rre n t pedagogy, a n d both meaning-focused
a n d form-focused activities are th o u g h t to be
necessary for successful developm ent of both flu­
ency and accuracy in se co n d /fo re ig n language
learning (DeKeyser 1998; R. Ellis 1997: also see
R u therford and Sharwood Smith 198m.
T h e value of meaning-f ocused co m m u n ic a ­
tive activities that provide learners with c o m p re ­
hensible input (also called "positive evidence”)
an d opportunities to improve an d correct their
own o u tp u t through interaction with others has
been d e m o nstrated repeatedly. However, form-
focused activities emphasizing the features of
particular gram m ar points are also necessary in
ord er for learners to develop accuracy. Such activ­
ities range from indirect approaches to gram m ar
instruction, such as the focus-on-form activities
m entioned above, to traditional formal instruc­
tion where students are presented with gram m ar
rules, examples, and practice exercises. Such
form-focused approaches have been found to be
effective in developing the learner's ability to use
gram m ar forms communicatively if instruction is
then followed bv opportunities to e ncounter the
instructed gram m ar point frequently in c om m u­
nicative usage, a consideration which will be dis­
cussed in detail later.
Below we will consider different views of the
relationship of language to thought as a wav of
understanding whv a cognitive approach to com­
municative gram m ar instruction is recommended.
T H E R ELA TIO N S H IP B E T W E E N
LAN GU AGE AND T H O U G H T
Fossil evidence indicates that Broca's area, the
part of the h u m a n brain associated with lan­
guage. existed in hom inids m ore than two mil­
lion years ago. a n d m ain scientists believe that
the capacitv for symbol construction and lan­
guage use dev eloped from this time as the brain
increased in size an d complexity. T h e origin ot
language has been linked to the developm ent o:
consciousness, and it is suggested that the ability
to use language has been d e te rm in e d by the
process of Darwinian natural selection1 (Pinker
1994). It is no w onder that the nature of the rela­
tionship between language and th o u g h t ha'
been debated for the past two th o usand wears
Theories of g ram m ar instruction must therefore
be inform ed bv this debate.
A major controversy has been the initial state
of the mind. Is it blank at birth, a tabula rasa wait­
ing for experience to determ ine the structure o:
thought and language, as empiricists such as the
philosophers Locke a n d H u m e have argued, or
are there preexisting mental modules, inborn
templates which organize language and thought
in the developing child, as suggested by rational­
ists (including Chomsky) ever since Plato? The
empiricist-rationalist debate continues to the
present, and in our field of second language
tea c h in g /lea rn in g these two general positions
continue to influence gram m ar instruction.
Currently there are four main views of the
relationship between language an d th o u g h t (for
a fuller discussion, see the overviews in Bialvstok
an d H akuta 1994 a n d in Harlev 1995). O n e view
derives from the attempts of structural linguists
in the early p art of the twentieth centurv to char­
acterize cultures bv the features a n d complexitv
of their languages. This is repre sen te d bv the
Sapir-W horf hvpothesis (see Carroll 1956).
which suggests that both th o u g h t and language
are d e te rm in e d bv culture. For example, cultur­
ally d e te rm in e d p h e n o m e n a such as the time of
events or the color or shape of objects m ight
becom e especially im portant for g ram m ar learn­
ing in a given language, and, bv extension, in
thinking as well. Known as linguistic d e te rm in ­
ism, this position refers to the idea that people's
thought processes are culturallv d e te rm in e d bv
the features of the language thev speak.
However, research indicates that the strong
version of the Sapir-Whorf hvpothesis. that lan­
guage dete rm in e s th o u g h t, is u n s u p p o rte d
whereas the weak version has significant implica­
tions for intercultural communication. If a con­
cept exists in on e language but ca n n o t be
expressed easilv in another, this difference may
have an impact on cognitive style and the ease of
cross-cultural com m unication involving the con­
cept. For example, it has been suggested that
Chinese or Japanese ESL/EFL learners might
avoid using articles since their languages lack this
gram m ar form. Likewise, teachers must be aware
of learners' culturally determ ined rhetorical pat­
tern preferences when teaching academic writing
ii ESL/EFL classes.
The second view of the relationship between
language an d thought is held by researchers such
as the child psychologist Piaget (1967). and sug­
gests that cognitive d evelopm ent in the infant
occurs in clearly defined stages a n d precedes
language. Thus, before infants can learn lan­
guage forms such as nouns, they m ust possess
certain cognitive prerequisites such as an u n d e r ­
standing that objects have a p e rm a n en t existence.
However, research does not support a strong
version of this view either and it is not currently a
central focus of investigation.
A third theory derives from the rationalist
concept of innate m ental structures an d views
lan g u a g e a n d c o g n itio n as separate. This
ap p ro a c h is rep re sen te d bv the work o f Chomsky
(1957) and, m ore recently, bv Pinker (1994)
who argue that language is an innate, hum an-
specific abilitv which is not d e p e n d e n t on o th e r
cognitive processes. C hildren are genetically
e q u ip p e d to acquire language in infancy, w hen
thev are not capable of com plex thought, a n d
therefore instinctivelv do so without extensive
exposure to a varietv of language forms (an
a rg u m e n t called the "poverty o f stim ulus”).
Thus some type of language tem plate m ust
alreadv exist in the m i n d — an a u to n o m o u s
m odule of "universal gram m ar,” awaiting m ini­
m u m input for activation and "setting” accord­
ing to the rules o f the specific language.
Language is considered to be syntax and m or­
phology— and, more recently, also grammatical
features encoded in the lexicon. Syntax and m or­
phology are the grammatical rules that determ ine
how m orphem es are com bined into grammatical
units to produce meaning. Features com m on to
all languages, term ed language universals, include
nouns, verbs, and certain word order rules which
link syntactic categories to functional roles such as
"agent.”
Although the existence of innate principles
has received some empirical support, it has also
been suggested that social interaction is of major
im portance in developing language capacity.
This fourth view comes from interactionists such
as Yvgotsky ([ 1934] 1962), who hold that th o u g h t
and language are initially separate but become
inte rd ep e n d e n t during acts of com m unication
since m eaning is created through interaction.
Empirical support for the sociocultural position is
not vet abundant; however, c urrent research on
the form ation of “com m unities o f practice” in
second foreign language classrooms (see, for
example, D onato an d McCormick 1994). this
defined as “a social area in which learning is
constructed as gradually increasing participation
in the values, beliefs and behaviors takes place"
(Donato and McCormick 1994. p. 454). suggests
that such collaborate construction of m eaning
promotes proficiencv gains.
A related social interaction thcorv comes
from investigation of infant grammatical develop­
m ent in Western Samoa and Papua New Guinea
by Ochs a n d Schieffelin (1995). These re­
searchers recom m end a language socialization
approach to gram m ar acquisition, where socio­
cultural contexts, rather than innate structure or
grammatical frequence, are suggested to guide
gram m ar development. For example, verv com­
m on gram m ar structures may not be used bv
children if these structures are not sociallv or cul­
turally appropriate, whereas gram m ar structures
seldom used in general mav be used often bv
children if such use is expected and appropriate.
An additional contribution in this area is
the cross-discipline field of Cognitive-Functional
Linguistics, as r e p r e s e n te d bv the work of
Tomasello (1998) an d others. These researchers
view g ram m ar as a functional response to com ­
municative needs shaped bv the social contexts
in which these needs arise.
A Cognitive Perspective
As the noted cognitive psvchologist Trevor Harlev
(1995) observes, support exists for the weak ver­
sion of all four positions and the relationship
between thought and language is most likelv
quite complex. Thus it reasonable to suggest that
all these positions have a part in the language
d e v e lo p m e n t sequence. L anguage capacity
appears to be innate, but its developm ent is medi­
ated by prior cognitive development, social inter­
action, and culture-specific concepts expressed
through structures and vocabulary. Whereas the
im m ature brain appears to be “wired” for u n c o n ­
scious and rapid language acquisition, successful
activation of this capabilitv appears to change
with time so that the cognitive functions of atten­
tion an d effort becom e increasingly necessary for
older children and adults to learn a second lan­
guage, just as for learning any skill. Today’s c.og-
nitive perspectives n eat language learning within
the context of general skills developm ent, “not
as an auto n o m o u s 'm ental organ' but rath e r . . .
[as] a com plex mosaic of cognitive a n d social
comm unicative activities closely integrated with
the rest of h u m a n psvchology" (Tomasello 1998,
p. ix). As a consequence, Bialvstok a n d Flakuta
observe (1994). there are no barriers to second
language acquisition and there is no single cor­
rect m e th o d for language teaching. T hese
researchers rec o m m e n d that
[A]n integrated view that assembles
c o m ponents from carious disparate
sources in both theorv and practice . . .
then attempts to piece them together in
a complex pattern, is preciselv what
practitioners need in order to allow
them the freedom to interpret these pat­
terns for their own purposes and from
their own point of Mew (1994. p. 218).
THREE CO M PO NENTS
OF A C O G N IT IV E M ODEL
O F S E C O N D /F O R E IG N
L A N G U A G E LE A R N IN G
Researchers using cognitive models to studv sec­
ond foreign language learning (e.g., McLaughlin
1987: Ellis 1999; Skehan 1998: Tomasello 1998)
note that psvcholinguistic perspectives have been
underrepresented due to influences from struc­
tural linguistics and Chomskian theories of an
innate language acquisition module. As m en ­
tioned. although granting that innate processes
appear to guide first language acquisition in
small children, m ain researchers suggest that
after a certain age (called the "critical period,"
suggested to be at puberty, when mvelination of
n e u ro n connections occurs [Pulvernniller and
S c h u m a n n 1994]) s e c o n d /f o r e ig n language
learning can be explained cognitive/,- using the
three com ponents of an information processing
model: (1) input, (2) central processing, and (3)
output. These three com ponents will be discussed
on the following pages.
Input
In a cognitive ap p ro a c h to s e c o n d /fo re ig n lan­
guage learning, access to target language input
is seen as perhaps the most critical req u irem e n t
for language developm ent. In fact, one influen­
tial researcher asserts that "second language
acquisition is shaped by the input one receives"
(Gass 1997, p. 161). I n p u t provides essential pos­
itive evidence, the language data that allows
acquisition to occur. Although a direct relation­
ship between language learning an d input has
vet to be d eterm ined, there has been consider­
able work on m anipulating in p u t to m ake it eas­
ier for students to und e rsta n d (see R. Ellis 1997
and Gass 1997 for reviews). For example, teach­
ers have simplified the g ram m ar and vocabularv
of written or audio material, decreased sentence
length, decreased the speed of audio material,
provided clarifving interaction du rin g the input
process, and phvsicallv highlighted im portant
gram m ar points an d vocabularv. or repeated
them m am times du rin g communicative activi­
ties. These operations make it m ore likeb that
the learners will be able to selectivelv perceive or
notice the in p u t— a necessarv step since people
cannot take up and process all of the in p u t thev
constantlv receive, but rath e r can select onlv cer­
tain input for attention, uptake, and processing.
Since the brain's input processing capacitv is
limited, researchers such as Skehan (1998a) and
Tomascllo (1998) emphasize that mans' ESL EFT
students, especiallv those at lower levels of profi­
ciency, cannot process target language input for
both m eaning an d form at the same time. T here­
fore, it is suggested that students have to be able
to selectivelv perceive or notice target forms in
input before processing can take place. This is a
cognitive explanation for the research finding
that a purelv communicative approach to lan­
guage instruction for all but the youngest learners
will usually not develop high levels of accuracy.
The students process input for m eaning onlv and
do not attend to specific forms. Thus, the forms
are not taken up and processed and are conse­
quently not acquired.
T h e stages for processing selected noticed
input are: ( 1 ) the e ncoding stage, where existing
knowledge located in long-term m em orv is acti-
vatecl and used to interpret the new input and
construct m eaning from it; (2) a transformation
stage, where the input is transform ed to m eaning,
this taking place in short-term or working m em o-
п . and (3) a storage stage, in which the m eaning
is rehearsed and then transferred for storage in
1о n g-term memorv.
Information Processing
Inform ation processing refers to the mans' com ­
plex m e n ta l tra n sfo rm atio n s which o c cur
between input an d output. Two basic psycholog­
ical concepts are used to und e rsta n d the m in d ’s
construction of m eaning from language input:
bottom-up a n d top-down processing. T h e first
refers to the process of decoding specific bits of
inform ation from input. For example, a reader
recognizes the individual letters that m ake up
words and the svntactic rules which organize the
words into sentences, or a listener recognizes
the individual sounds which m ake up words an d
the words which m ake tip sentences. In contrast,
top-down processing refers to the use o f world
knowledge, past experience, expectations, pre­
dictions, a n d intuitions stored in the individual’s
m in d in o rd e r to m ake sense of input. Top-down
processing is necessarv to u n d e rsta n d the impli­
cations. context, a n d pragm atic m ea n in g of
input. In an inform ation processing approach,
top-down and bottom-up processing are suggested
to operate simultaneouslv to interpret incoming
information. Here the individual combines the
new information from input with existing infor­
mation stored in long-term m em orv— new knowl­
edge being developed from the interaction of
input with prior knowledge.
From the language teaching perspective, it is
clear that ESL EFT students can use top-down
processing to understand the general m eaning of
communicative input without needing to u n d e r­
stand all of the gram m ar forms or vocabulary.
This is an o th e r reason that purely communicative
approaches often fail to develop accuracy in pro­
ducing the target language, even though students
appeal' to c o m p re h en d it reasonable well.
Short-Term and Long-Term Memory Cognitive
scientists make a distinction between short-term,
or working memory, and long-term, or second­
ary memory. Short-term m em ory receives input
b u t is limited in storage capacity. Research sug­
gests that generally only seven items can be
stored for about a m inute in short-term memory,
whereas long-term m em ory is limitless. Transfer
from working m em ory to storage in long-term
m em ory is therefore yen' im portant, and has
been suggested to be facilitated by noticing an
item in input, a process that recently has becom e
very im portant in seco n d /fo re ig n language p e d ­
agogy. Two types of long-term m em ory arc dis­
tin g u is h e d — semantic memory, which is the
organized knowledge an indiyidual possesses,
considered to exist in hierarchies or schemata,
a n d episodic memory, the global m em ory of a
particular event. Howeyer, both types of memory,
short- and long-term, are im portant in the dcvel-
o p m e n t of knowledge about a language.
Two Forms o f Knowledge Knowledge has
been diyided into two general types: ( 1 ) declar­
a b le o r explicit knowledge an d (2 ) procedural
o r im plicit k n o w le d g e .2 D e c la ra b le explicit
knowledge is knowledge about something. It is
factual inform ation which is conscious, and is
th o u g h t to consist of propositions (language-
based representations) a n d images (perception-
based re p re s e n ta tio n s ). For exam ple, when
students are able to re m e m b e r gram m ar rules,
they are drawing on their explicit knowledge.
In contrast, procedural implicit knowledge
is knowing how to do som ething and is usually
unconscious. Like any o th er skill, such as driving
a car, singing a song, or playing the piano, the
ability to speak a second, foreign language flu­
ently is a skill that is d e p e n d e n t on procedural
knowledge used automatically. W hen discussing
the difference between the two forms of knowl­
edge, one language researcher stiggests that
declarative know ledge is factual
knowledge, for exam ple . . . knowing
that most English verbs take “s” in the
third person. Procedural knowledge
encodes behaviour. It consists of con­
dition-action pairs that state what has
to be d o n e u n d e r certain circum ­
stances or with certain data . . . Fully
a u to m a tiz ed p ro c e d u ra l knowledge
means, for instance, that one uses the
3rd person "s" . . . without having
to think about it (DeKevser 1998,
pp. 48-49).
These two types of knowledge are suggested
to exist in long-term m em ory as different systems.
For example, a student mav have formal knowl­
edge of the gram m ar rules for English indirect
object placement but be unable to use indirect
objects correctly in conversation. This is because
formal gram m ar lessons develop only explicit/
cleclaratii e knowledge, or the ability to talk about
gram m ar rules, whereas the ability to use the
form correctly depends on the operation of
implicit procedural knowledge.
In the past, many advocates of com m unica­
tive language teaching argued that these two
knowledge si stems lacked am interface, so to
teach students the gram m ar rules of a s e c o n d /
foreign language only gave them explicit knowl­
edge and did not develop their ability to use the
gram m ar points in real communication. How­
ever. recent research (see X. Ellis 1999; DeKevser
1998: Skehan 1998; and Schmidt 1990) suggests
that the two language knowledge systems are,
in fact, connected hi noticing or awareness, a
connection which has been referred to as the
■'Noticing Hypothesis" (Schmidt 1990).
Noticing and Awareness Noticing works as fol­
lows. O nce a student becomes aware of a partic­
ular g ram m ar point or language feature in
input — w h e th e r th ro u g h formal instruction,
some type of focus-on-form activity, or rep e a te d
exposure to communicative use of the struc­
t u r e — he or she often continues to notice the
structure in subsequent input, particularly if the
stru c tu re is used fre q u e n tly (Fotos 1993;
Schmidt 1990). Repeated noticing an d contin­
ued awareness of the language feature is im p o r­
tant because it appears to raise the s tu d e n t’s
consciousness of the structure an d to facilitate
restructuring of the learner's unconscious sys­
tem of linguistic knowledge. Thus, when a stu­
d e n t pais attention when receiving a gram m ar
lesson and doing practice exercises, he or she
becom es aware of the g ram m ar feature. W hen
that feature is subsequently e n c o u n te re d in
comm unicative input, the student often tends to
notice it, recalling that he or she learned about
it previouslv. W hen this hap p e n s frequently, his
or h e r unconscious language system begins to
deyelop new hypotheses about language struc­
ture, altering his or h e r existing language system
or interlauguage. T h e s tu d e n t tests the new
hypotheses— again unconsciously— by noticing
language input and by getting feedback on the
accuracy of his or h e r own ou tp u t when using the
form. In this way, explicit knowledge developed
by formal instruction about a language feature
has led to the acquisition of that feature although
indirectly and over time.
Schmidt's Noticing Hypothesis has stimu­
lated the developm ent of teaching m ethods
which are "consciousness raising" (see discus­
sions of the term in Fotos 1993 and R utherford
a n d Sharwood Smith 1988) in that they p rom ote
noticing and continued awareness of the target
lan guage form . A g o o d ex a m p le of this
a pproach to teaching is the "focus on form"
approach, a term defined in the words of its
originator, as "Overtlv drawing students' a tten­
tion to linguistic elem ents as thev arise inciden­
tally in lessons whose overriding focus is on
m ea n in g or com m unication" (Long 1991. pp.
45-46). As m e n tio n e d earlier, focus-on-form
activities (Doughty and Williams 1998) usually
constitute implicit g ram m ar instruction only,
a n d include "flooding" communicative material
with target forms, phvsicallv highlighting them
within purely communicative activities in such a
wav that students' attention is drawn to them,
and structuring communicative activities so that
students must use the forms for successful p e r­
form an с e ,/ с о m p 1e ti о n .
Serial and Parallel Processing A final point
concerns the distinction between serial an d par­
allel processing of inform ation. Serial processing'll
linear or sequential a n d takes place one step at a
time, whereas parallel processing is a special model
of cognition based on the idea th at m any
processes occur simultaneously a n d are inter­
connected. form ing neural networks of various
levels of activation d e p e n d in g on what is being
processed. Initial processing steps are usually
d o n e serially; in p u t is received an d selectively
taken into short-term m e m o ir with the aid of
attention an d various strategies. However, the
enc o d in g car organization of in p u t is com plex
since some items are e n c o d e d consciously, with
effort, attention, and o ther strategies, whereas
o ther items are encoded unconsciously, an d it is
слеп possible for a particular item to be encoded
both consciously and unconsciously at the same
time. Thus, a parallel processing m odel o f lan­
guage input better represents the nature of this
complex co-occurring process (see the A ppendix
in Harlev 1995 for a discussion of connectionism
and parallel processing).
Output
O utput is the final part of an information pro­
cessing m odel. In s e c o n d /f o re ig n language
learning theory it has been suggested that giving
learners the opportunity for ou tp u t is just as
im portant as giving them input (Swain 1985)
because output s e n e s critical functions in the
learning process. W hen language learners experi­
ence difficulties as thev attem pt to use the target
language to communicate, they often become
aware of what thev need to know to express them ­
selves effectively. 1 hev mav ask their fellow stu­
dents or their teacher for help, or use their
textbook or dictionary to locate the required
phrases or forms. Such effort tends to focus
attention on the difficult language form a n d
prom otes noticing of it. C om p reh e n sio n alone
does not pro d u ce this favorable result since, as
m entioned, it is possible for students to u n d e r ­
stand the general m eaning of what is being said
bv using top-down processing— guessing, p re ­
dicting an d world know ledge— w ithout fully
u n d e rsta n d in g all the gram m ar or vocabulary.
Furthermore, according to the Interactionist
view of the relationship of language to thought,
when students produce the target language or
ask answer questions about gram m ar points or
vocabulary, thev are focusing on form, which
assists them in extending their knowledge of the
target language. This is particularly true when
learners are forced to deal with their own pro b ­
lematic utterances an d modify or elaborate them
so that listener understanding is facilitated, a
process called "negotiation o f meaning" (see R.
Ellis 1997 for a fuller discussion).
Negative Evidence
W hen learners p ro d u ce utterances with errors, if
they receive corrective feedback from teachers
peers explaining the correct use of the form, or if
the te a c h e r/p e e r "recasts'" or repeats the utter­
ance so that the correct form is used, such e rror
co rre c tio n can pro sid e "negative evidence."
thereby facilitating learners' noticing of the cor­
rect form. In addition, e rro r correction can
encourage students to build form -m eaning rela­
tionships and, tit ro u g h self-correction, to
“p u s h ” their o u tp u t fu rth e r in the direction of
improved accuracy (Swain 1985). In fact, the
learner's p r o d u c tio n of o u tp u t — particularlv
w hen the ou tp u t has been successfullv corrected
as the result of feedback from others — can then
serve as new input.
Practice in a Skills-Based Approach
A n o th e r pathwav for con c ertin g explicit to
implicit knowledge is suggested by skill acquisi­
tion theory, a branch o f cognitive science study­
ing how people develop skills (see A nderson
1995). In this theory, knowledge is first seen to
be declarative (although not all knowledge starts
off as conscious knowledge); then, th ro u g h prac­
tice an d the application of learning strategies,
declarative knowledge becom es proceduralized
so that it becomes automatic. Automatic processes
are quick a n d do not require attention or
conscious awareness. For example, many sec-
on d /fo re ig n language learners memorize and
practice vocabulary items or "chunks” of language
such as greetings or collocations (words which are
always used together). Frequent practice in using
these forms helps the language items to become
automatic in the sense that the learner can use
them quickiv and unconsciously.
Autom atization can take place with both
implicit an d explicit knowledge. An exam ple of
n o n au to m atic explicit knowledge is m onitoring,
p aring conscious attention to the use of correct
form s d u rin g language p ro d u ctio n , whereas
n onautom atic processing of implicit knowledge
can be seen in the use of hesitation p h e n o m e n a
d u rin g the English speech p ro d u c e d by an
FSL /E F L lea rn er as he or she unconsciously
searches his or h e r long-term m em ory for the
correct form. From the autom atization perspec­
tive, practice drills and repetitions of instructed
g ram m ar points — m ethods now y e n - m uch out
o f favor in c o m m unicative ESL pedagogy
because tliev rem ind people of the behaviorist
Audiolingual A pproach of the 1950s an d early
1960s — are useful in that they facilitate both
autom atization of the practiced form a n d notic­
ing (DeKevser 1998). so that the form can make
its was into the implicit knowledge system.
The Teachability Hypothesis
.Ait important consideration at this point relates to
the Chomskian concept of a natural or pre-deter-
m ined "universal" order for language acquisition.
Is there a set order for language development in
the brain, in which case formal instruction mav be
ineffective if the student is not at the appropriate
stager This question has been investigated since
the 1960s (see Corder 1967), and has received
new a ttention recently as a Teachability
Hypothesis (Pienem ann 1989). proposing that
second, foreign language learners will not acquire
a new structure until tliev are developmentalb
reads to do so. If there were no connection
between the development of explicit knowledge
about a gram m ar point and the eventual restruc­
turing of the unconscious linguistic system to
accom modate the point in the learner's interna)
interlanguage, then, indeed, gram m ar instruction
would not be of much use. However, it has been
suggested that there is a connection, so grammar
instruction is ultimately useful. Further, as the pre-
\ious section emphasizes, practice of language
points can lead to automatization, thus bypassing
natural order teachability considerations.
A C O M M U N IC A TIV E ESL/EFL
GRAM M AR LESSO N
Shortly we will present a cognitive m odel for
second foreign language learning showing the
relationship between explicit knowledge, gained
th ro u g h instruction, a n d implicit knowledge,
developed th ro u g h both restructuring of the
internal target language system an d th rough
practice. This m odel also emphasizes the facili­
tating role of p roduction a n d strategy use. Let us
work th ro u g h the model, using as an exam ple a
comm unicative ESL/EFL g ram m ar lesson com ­
bining explicit formal instruction with p e rfo rm ­
ance of a structure-based communicative task
(for m ore discussion of this task type, see Fotos
2 0 0 1 ), followed bv practice and pro d u ctio n
exercises an d subsequent comm unicative expo­
sure to the g ram m ar point. From the students'
perspective, the im portant features of this gram ­
m ar lesson are that students
1. becom e aware that a particular gram m ar
point is difficult for them;
2. bec o m e aware — eith e r th ro u g h teach er
instruction (a deductive m ethod) or bv their
own discoverv lea rn in g (an inductive
m e th o d ) — of gram m ar rules which deter­
mine the correct forms of the gram m ar
point and the varietv of meanings it can con-
vev in communicative language;
3. are p ro d d ed with examples of the structure in
communicative input so that thee can notice
the various form-meaning relationships:
4. are provided with opportunities to produce
the g ram m ar point.
Pedagogical Grammar
C om bining the terms communicative with gram­
mar teaching m ight seem to be a contradiction to
manv teachers, but let us recall that research
stronglv supports adm inistering some type of
gram m ar instruction within otherwise c o m m u ­
nicative language lessons (see the review in
Mitchell 2000 ). Thus, the concept o f pedagogical
g u m mars, or the wav a gram m ar p o in t is in­
structed, is im portant here because of its e m p h a ­
sis on th e various c o m m unicative roles a
particular g ram m ar point can serve within n a tu ­
ral language ttse.
Pedagogical grammars have been defined as
“the ty pes of grammatical analysis and instruction
designed for the needs of second language stu­
dents" (Odlin 1994, p. 1) and are a concept of
gram m ar which differs from “linguistic gram ­
mars,” which are complex linguistic analyses of
language forms a n d functions. For pedagogical
grammar, teachers select g ram m ar points on the
basis of their students' comm unicative needs,
considering the language functions thev will
encounter. Such a functional app ro a c h to gram ­
m ar is not new, but recently there has b e e n a
strong emphasis on the use of authentic materials
(e.g.. materials used bv native English speakers
to com m unicate with o th er native speakers, in
contrast to simplified material written especially
for use with ESL/EFI. students) to provide
examples of the various discourse functions that
g ram m ar points can serve in com m unication
(see Odlin 1994 for m ore discussion). It is th e re ­
fore essential to teach students that m ea n in g can
be expressed in a varietv of ways, using various
g ram m ar forms, an d that often there is no single
"correct wav" to express a particular m eaning.
.\n overview article on gram m ar instruction
in applied linguistics (Mitchell 2000) notes that
gram m ar teaching learning research has not yet
determ ined ( 1 ) which model of language acquisi­
tion best informs pedagogic grammar; (2) how
gram m ar forms should be chosen an d sequenced;
(3) how necessary it is for students to know gen­
eral rules about grammar; and (4) what types of
corrective feedback are best. Nonetheless, the
same author presents a useful set of research-based
general principles which can guide the teaching of
gram m ar in second/ foreign language classrooms:
1. gram m ar teaching should be p lanned and
systematic, driven by a strategic vision of
eventual desired outcomes;
2. gram m ar teaching should nevertheless be
"rough tuned," offering learners at slightly
different stages a range of opportunities
to add increm ents to their g ram m ar u n d e r ­
standing;
3. gram m ar teaching may involve acceptance
of classroom code switching and m other
tongue use, at least yvith beginners;
4. gram m ar teaching should be “little and
often." yvith m uch redundancy and revisiting
of issues;
5. text-based, problem-solving gram m ar activi­
ties mav be needed to develop learners’
active, articulated knowledge about grammar;
6. active corrective feedback and elicitation will
prom ote learners' active control of grammar;
7. gram m ar teaching needs to be supported
and em bedded in meaning-oriented actiri-
ties and tasks, which give immediate oppor­
tunities for practice and use (Mitchell 2000,
p. 297).
Guided by these considerations and the cog­
nitive principles of language learning explored
earlier, the next section introduces a model gram­
m ar lesson.
An Example o f a Communicative
Grammar Lesson Using Explicit
Instruction
In this gram m ar lesson, the m edium of instruc­
tion is English, the target language. Use of
English rather than the students' native language
( L I ) — often the default choice in EFL situa­
tions— prom otes the developm ent of implicit
knowledge since the students are focused on the
m eaning of what is being said, even though what
is being discussed is English grammar. However,
w hen the students do not understand, the teacher
uses the students’ LI to facilitate com prehension.
The lesson consists o f the following five parts:
(1 ) a general orientation to the lesson followed bv
explicit instruction on the target gram m ar struc­
ture; (2 ) perform ance of a communicative task in
which the task content is a problem involving the
gram m ar structure; (3) review of the gram m ar
structure as it is used in the task material; (4) mul­
tiple postlesson exposures to communicative
material containing the gram m ar structure; (5)
systematic review of the structure after each com­
municative activity.
Part 1: Using an Advance Organizer, a learn­
ing concept developed by the cognitive psychol­
ogist Ausubel (1968) which has been p opular in
general education since the 1960s, the teacher
begins bv giving the students a general orienta­
tion to the activities to come. To assist com pre­
hension, this introduction may be given in the
students’ LI. First the teacher tells the students
a b out the purpose an d procedures of the task
activity, then he or she explains the target gram ­
m ar structure. Use of an Advance Organizer is
believed to activate the students' previously devel­
oped knowledge for top-down processing, and
assist them in linking the new information to what
they alreadv know. In this case, the students are
told that thev will studv a problem atic g ram m ar
s tr u c tu r e — in d ire c t object p la c e m e n t. T h e
teacher explains that English indirect object
p lacem ent is often confusing because there are
different rules for different verbs. T he teacher
th e n presents three patterns for indirect object
p lacem ent in English verbs, writing examples on
the board.
The first pattern allows placem ent of the
indirect object either after the verb or as a p rep o ­
sitional phrase at the end of the sentence (e.g.,
He gave me the book. He gave the book to me.);
the second allows placem ent onlv as a clause-final
preposition phrase, which is generallv the case for
Latinate verbs (e.g.. She translated the letter for
him.): and the third, applicable to a limited set of
verbs such as "cost." places the indirect object
immediatelv after the verb, (e.g., T he book cost
me twentv dollars).
This lesson takes a deductive approach to
instruction in that the teacher presents the gram­
m ar rules. Alternatelv. the teacher might take an
inductive approach, allowing the students to infer
the placement rules themselves from considera­
tion of specific examples.
Reference is m ade to previously studied
patterns of English verb usage to assist the stu­
dents in organizing the new inform ation in rela­
tion to what thev have learned before, a n d the
teacher writes additional examples of indirect
objects on the board, eliciting them from the
students as a wav to p rom ote noticing o f the
form. Such g ram m ar instruction assists the stu­
dent in becom ing familiar with the structure they
will use in the communicative activitv, thereby
lessening anv diversion o f their attention away
from processing meaningful input during subse­
quent task perform ance, a n d perhaps facilitating
the processing of both m eaning and form at the
same time.
Part 2: After the g ram m ar lesson, students
work in pairs or groups to p erform a structure-
based communicative task which contains multi­
ple uses of the target structure. Furthermore, in
the lesson described here, the task content is actu­
ally studs of the structure itself. The task goal is to
determ ine which English verbs fall u n d e r the dif­
ferent placem ent pattern types; thus, there is an
explicit focus on grammar. Each student has a
task card with three or four sentences using
different verbs and indirect objects, an d he or
she must read the sentences to his or her part-
n e r/g r o u p members. The listeners must write
down the sentences and note the position of the
indirect object. As a task solution, each
p a ir/g ro u p makes a list of the verbs in the sen­
tences and assigns each verb to one of the three
patterns of indirect object placement presented at
the beginning of the lesson. To further focus
attention on the target structure, the indirect
objects on the task cards are written in italics.
Regarding use of a task with explicit gram ­
m ar c ontent instead of a purely communicative
task, it must be no ted that most p ro p o n en ts of
task-based curricula re c o m m e n d use of c o m m u ­
nicative tasks onlv. although the target structure
rnav be e m b e d d e d in the task or its use niav be
required to reach the task solution (see Loschkv
and Blev-Woman 1993 and Skehan 1998a). Real-
life communicative situations are strongly rec­
o m m e n d e d as task content, especially for 1 M .
learners who have to master survival English
skills such as going to the post office, shopping,
asking directions, filling out forms, an d so forth.
However, without denying the usefulness of
purely communicative tasks, especially in the
ESL context, insisting that thev are the onlv
appropriate subject m atter for interactive task
content assumes that ESI. EEL students do not
want to talk about the language thev are study­
ing an d that there is no point in their doing so.
These assumptions do not take into account the
fact that many ESL-EFT students come to the
lan g u a g e classroom with rears of study of
English g ram m ar b e h in d them, an d therefore
may actually enjov discussing grammar. This is
especially true in the EFI. context, where the stu­
dents' overwhelming “real-life" need is to develop
target language accuracy to pass examinations.
Moreover, research, even in ESI. situations,
suggests (e.g.. Willing 1988) that some students
prefer explicit gram m ar teaching to com m unica­
tive activities with no grammatical com ponent.
Thus, it is up to the teacher to ju d g e which task
type best meets his or her students’ needs and
learning stvle preferences (for a review of learn­
ing stvles, see C ohen 1998).
Part 3: After task performance, the teacher
reviews all the sentences, listing the verbs under
the coirect pattern tvpe and asking for m ore
examples.
Part 4: After discussing the task solution,
the teacher provides the students with practice
exercises. In a traditional classroom, this might
involve moving from highly structured, fill-in-the-
blank exercises to open-ended exercises, where
students use supplied verbs and indirect objects to
make sentences, to communicative exercises,
yvhere they develop their own sentences contain­
ing indirect objects. After this activity, the students
read their sentences to their p a rtn e rs /g ro u p
m em bers and receive corrective feedback. The
Imeractionist yieyv of cognition regards such feed­
back as critical for creating m eaning and promot­
ing notic ing of communicative functions served by
the grammar structure.
In a predominantly comm unicative class­
room. practice might include activities such as
reading listening material containing many uses
of the target gram m ar structure and haying the
students ask and answer questions which require
production of the structure (e.g.. What did Ann
tell \nirt Who did Ra\ translate that paragraph for?
What did \ou give sour friend?).
For several classes after the g ram m ar lesson
on indirect object placement, the students are
given communicative material to read or listen
to. This material contains many instances o f the
target structures, which mav be highlighted or
placed in italics to p rom ote noticing. Following
each presentation of the communicative material,
the teacher again reviews the rules for indirect
object placement and points out the com m unica­
tive function seived bv the structure. This step
facilitates activation of the new material which
has been linked and subsum ed within a fram e­
work of previously lea rn ed material. Such spiral
review, or the systematic review o f recently
instructed material within increasingly bro ad e r
contexts, has been found to be an im portant
Figure I. A Cognitive Model of a Grammar Lesson
m em ory strategy for the successful developm ent
of explicit knowledge a n d an awareness of form-
m eaning relationships (see C o h e n 1998).
Applying a Cognitive Model
to the Communicative
Grammar Lesson
Figure 1 is a model of the cognitive steps involved
in processing the lesson described above. It is
based on the assumption that there is an interface
between implicit and explicit knowledge.
However, these two forms of knowledge are not
fixed but dvnamic, with constant reorganization
taking place as a result of unconscious linguistic
hypothesis generation and testing done against
new input. Implicit linguistic knowledge, explicit
linguistic knowledge, and hypothesis testing are
seen to be dynamically related, as connectionist
models suggest. As m en tio n e d earlier, connec-
tionism views cognition as associative patterns in
neural networks operating in parallel, for a par­
allel processing perspective.
Let us now consider what cognitive processes
occur during perform ance of the above task on
indirect object placement.
Step 1: Sensory Reception Auditory and visual
in p u t is received.
Step 2: Selective Perception The student is
already par ing attention and consciously focuses
on the location of the indirect object. Does it
com e directly after the verb or is it a clause-final
prepositional phraser Are both positions possi­
ble? At this point, the location of the indirect
object is selectively perceived in input.
Step 3: Short-Term Memory C orrect place­
m e n t of the indirect object with different verbs
enters short-term m em ory th rough conscious
effort gained by directed attention and o th e r
cognitive strategies such as practicing, analyzing,
a n d reasoning, a n d by creating structure for the
new in p u t, often t h ro u g h written m eans
(Oxford 1990). These strategies are also used for
the next step.
Step 4: Encoding into Long-Term M emory
Manv educators believe that encoding or enter­
ing information into long-term memory7 is the
most significant event of the learning process.
The m odel presented here shows two encoding
processes. The first is a conscious process involv­
ing effort, attention, and strategy use. T he second
encoding process is unconscious— the first stage
in language acquisition wherebv those forms
which successfully convev m eaning to the learner
are somehow flagged for entry into long-term
memory.
Step 5: Storage in Long-Term M emory
Although the m odel shows implicit knowledge
and explicit knowledge existing separately, we
hat e to ask w hether they differ in location or in
representation (the form in which the knowledge
is stored). In the gram m ar lesson and com m u­
nicative task performance, explicit knowledge
involved learning rules for indirect object place­
ment. Therefore both syntactic: and semantic
forms mat be stored because students can often
recall exact sentences as well as give paraphrases
of grammatical rules.
Step 6: H ypothesis Generation and Testing;
Restructuring o f Implicit Knowledge Cognitive
theorists have suggested that the language learner
unconsciously goes through the following three
steps when processing language:
1. The learner notices linguistic features in
processed input.
2. T he learner makes a com parison between
his or h e r existing linguistic knowledge, or
interlanguage, and the newlv processed
input.
3. T he learner th en constructs new linguistic
hypotheses on the basis of the new infor­
m ation and his o r her existing system.
Step 7: Retrieval from Long-Term M emory
C onnectionist models of parallel processing sug­
gest that there are "prom pts'’ which either excite
or inhibit elem ents in long-term memory, result­
ing in a pattern of activity am ong sets of inter­
related elements. Experience is seen as strength­
ening the connections which exist am ong the ele­
ments. thus allowing easier retrieval.
Step 8: Production Strategies and Output In
the interactive task for indirect object place­
m ent, the students do not have to pro d u ce the
correct form, only recogni/e it. so there is no
n e e d for simplification or correction of ou tp u t
d u rin g task perform ance. However, subsequent
practice activities will require output, a n d the
use of planning an d correcting strategies will be
helpful at this time (McLaughlin 1987: O xford
1990). It is im portant to recogni/e that since
im provem ent o f perfo rm a n c e is related to the
a m o u n t o f autom aticitv. the res tru c tu rin g
process often results in discontinuities which
delav successful production. T herefore, even
th o u g h students can recogni/e which pattern of
indirect object placem ent various verbs take,
they cannot be expected to im m ediateh p ro ­
duce the g ram m ar forms correctly in c o m m u ­
nicative utterances. However, student output
d u rin g task perfo rm a n c e — reading sentences
from task cards and discussing which pattern of
indirect object placement the various verbs take—
becomes new input that then provides feedback to
the learners' implicit knowledge system.
Step 9: Feedback Feedback on the correctness
of language is essential for hypothesis testing and
the developm ent o f implicit linguistic knowl­
edge. T he learner tests hypotheses in two main
ways: receptively, bv com paring input to existing
interlanguage, and productively, bv producing
utterances in the target language a n d assessing
their correctness from the feedback receiv ed. In
the gram m ar lesson a n d task described earlier,
the students receive feedback from the teacher
on the correctness of the indirect object place­
m en t patterns.
Strategy Use
Strategies can be defined as conscious tech­
niques for achieving a goal and have been shown
to m ediate cognitive change (O xford 1990);
they have also b e e n d e fin e d as “lea rn in g
processes which are consciously selected by the
le a rn e r” (C ohen 1998, p. 4). Both definitions
emphasize the learner's conscious decision to
use strategies. In fact, extensive research in ge n ­
eral e d u c a tio n indicates that stu d e n ts who
report active use of strategies are likelv to be
m ore successful in learning new skills than are
students who do not use strategies. W hen stu­
dents have clearlv defined goals, high motiva­
tion, a n d control of their learning through
strategy use. favorable learning outcom es result.
Therefore, no cognitive m odel of se co n d /fo r-
eign language gram m ar learning would be com ­
plete without considering strategies.
Although there are manv researchers inves­
tigating strategies for language learning (e.g.,
see the literature review and strategy taxonomy
in C ohen 1998). Oxford's a pproach (1990) is
useful because she uses a simple taxonomy,
dividing strategies into direct a n d indirect types,
a n d th en r e c o m m e n d s specific pedagogical
applications. Direct strategies consist of m em ory
strategies, cognitive strategies, and com pensa­
tion strategies, all of which involve conscious
m anipulation of the target language structure.
T he first type, m em ory strategies, facilitates stor­
age and retrieval of new inform ation through
grouping, associating, an d contextualizing new
inform ation. Cognitive strategies include prac­
ticing new language items, analyzing new m ate­
rial such as g ram m ar rules, an d organizing
structure for new material. T he last step is often
written practice and mav involve summarization.
Indirect strategies enable the student to control
learning, and include ( 1 ) metacognitive strate­
gies. such as using Advance O rganizers to
approach new material at a h igher level o f gen­
erality. and goal setting: (2 ) affective strategies
for m anaging em otion a n d developing motiva­
tion: and ( 3 ) social strategies for interaction and
the collaborative creation of meaning. Manv
educators have suggested that students should
receive special training on the active use ol
strategies to control and e n h a n ce their language
learning process (see Oxford's c hapter in this
volume and C ohen 1998).
Summary
This cognitive m odel of language processing
illustrates how a g ram m ar lesson given in the tar­
get lan g u a g e a n d c o n ta in in g b o th form al
instruction a n d communicative activities can be
e x p e c te d to p r o m o te lan g u a g e acquisition
th ro u g h d e v e lo p m e n t o f b o th im plicit a n d
explicit knowledge. Even th o u g h the nature of
the relationship between these two forms of
knowledge is still u n d e te rm in e d , the critical
process in language acquisition— a n d all learn­
in g — is the modification o f the le a r n e r ’s existing
knowledge system on the basis of comparisons
between it a n d newlv processed input. An im por­
tant pedagogical implication of the model is that
there will necessarilv be a lag between the pres­
entation of the gram m ar lesson an d the lea rn er’s
ability to use the target form successfully in com ­
m unication. However, practice will help the
process bv allowing the proceduralization of
explicit knowledge, and communicative activities
containing the gram m ar form will facilitate the
developm ent of implicit knowledge.
P E D A G O G IC A L IM P LIC A TIO N S
T h e p receding sections have identified an d dis­
cussed the following features of a cognitive
a pproach to g ram m ar teaching:
1. It is useful if students receive an orientation
in advance of the gram m ar lesson to acti­
vate their previous knowledge and to p ro ­
m ote the integration of the new material
into their existing knowledge hierarchies.
2. Some tvpe of gram m ar instruction is neces-
sarv for students to attain high levels of accu-
racv in the target language. This instruction
mav be explicit or mav be implicit (involving
only communicative use of the target struc­
tures). and rule presentation mav be induc­
tive or deductive. Communicative activities
used alone are not considered to be suffi­
cient for development of learner accuracy in
the use of gram m ar points.
3. Extensive communicative exposure to the
instructed g ram m ar point is essential for
s tu d e n ts to notice, th e n process, the
instructed form, linking it to previously
developed linguistic knowledge.
4. Production activities are essential to p ro ­
vide practice in the use of the form, to raise
awareness of the form, and to give students
the chance to receive feedback on the cor­
rectness o f th e ir language. P ro d u c tio n
activities also proside new input.
5. Group work and task performance are recom­
mended since they give students the chance to
receive communicative input and produce
output; such interaction allows the collabora­
tive construction of meaning to occur.
6. Postlesson activities include further com m u­
nicative exposure to the gram m ar point as
well as a systematic review of the instructed
form that points out its use in a variety of
communicative contexts.
A Cognitive Approach
to Traditional Grammar Teaching
Traditional gram m ar instruction has generally
consisted of a presentation of g ram m ar rules fol­
lowed bv practice drills, sentence production,
an d translation. This ap p ro a c h is still p ro m in e n t
in m am parts of the world although a c o m m u ­
nicative c o m p o n e n t has often been added. T he
following is a generalized version of an English
lesson currently used in m any EFL settings.
1. T h e new7g ram m ar po in t is explained:
2. new words an d phrases are explained and
there mav be a pro n u n cia tio n lesson as
well:
3. a tape of a dialogue containing the new
g r a m m a r stru c tu re a n d vocabulary is
plaved:
4. students practice the dialogue in chorus or
in pairs:
5. students translate the dialogue into their
native language;
6. as a final activity, listening exercises and
practice drills are presented.
From a cognitive perspective emphasizing
skills development, the problem with this lesson
is that the gram m ar point is not presented in a
wav that facilitates its processing a n d procedural­
ization; n o r have form -m eaning correlations
been tirade through the presentation o f co m m u ­
nicative activities designed to p rom ote noticing
of the form's variety of meanings in discourse.
Transforming the traditional lesson, therefore,
m eans adding communicative activities using the
Form in various wavs. These activities are struc­ acceptably serious tvpe of communicative activity
tured to require both interaction and output within the framework of a traditional approach to
using the form, as well as corrective feedback gram m ar instruction.
from group m em bers or the teacher. T he lesson
is reinforced bv subsequent communicative activ­
ities which use the form to perform a variety of
discourse functions, and also bv teacher review. C O N C L U S IO N
Repeated communicative practice of instructed This chapter has presented a cognitive approach
forms can lead to their eventual automatization. to language learning and gram m ar instruction. A
cognitive model has been ttsed to design a gram ­
m ar lesson which develops both explicit and
A Cognitive Approach implicit knowledge of a gram m ar point, supplies
to Communicative Teaching opportunities for information exchange through
task perform ance, and then provides purelv com­
Researchers now agree that it is essential to inte­ municative input containing the target structures
grate some form of g ram m ar instruction within so that students can notice form-meaning rela­
a communicative framework if students are to tionships. 'fh e approach described is useful for
attain high levels of target language accuracv, traditional institu tional settings as well as prim a­
particularly in the F.FL context, where o p p o rtu ­ rily meaning-focused classrooms.
nities to e n c o u n te r communicative use of the
target language are rare. As an alternative to
cleliverv of a formal g ram m ar lesson, task work
has been r e c o m m e n d e d to supple students with D IS C U S S IO N Q U E S T IO N S
comm unicative use of target gram m ar points, as
1 . W hat are the general features of a cognitive
well as to p rom ote interaction, production, and
a pproach to g ram m ar teaching learning?
opportunities for corrective feedback (Skehan
2. What is the Noticing Hypothesis and whv is it
1998a). T he use of purely communicative tasks
considered important for gram m ar teachin g/
which nonetheless requite com prehension and
learning- Discuss this hypothesis in relation to
production of target gram m ar points has been
explicit and implicit approaches to gram m ar
r e c o m m e n d e d (Loschv and Blev-Yroman 1993).
instruction.
In addition, gram m ar problem-solving tasks in
3. Manv theories of second language acquisition
which students discuss the structure as task con­
maintain that practice is not necessary for
tent, such as the previous example requiring stu­
learning to take place. However, a cognitive
dents to assign verbs to patterns of indirect
approach to gram m ar instruction suggests
object placem ent, are also useful since thev com ­
that it mav be useful. Do vou agree or dis­
bin e com m unicative task p e rf o r m a n c e with
agree? Whv?
explicit instruction on gram m ar points. Such
4. What tvpe of language learner would find a
tasks have even been suggested to be equivalent
cognitive approach to gram m ar tea c h in g /
to traditional gram m ar lessons in the develop­
learning most effective and whv? Would a cog­
m en t of explicit knowledge (Fotos 1993: 2001).
nitive approach work for vou? Whv or whv not?
vet do not com prom ise the essentially meaning-
focused n a tu re of com m unicative pedagogy.
Furtherm ore, when students discuss the language
thev produce during task perform ance, it is sug­
S U G G E S T E D A C T IV IT IE S
gested that this "meratalk" helps them develop
awareness of the relationship of form to m eaning 1. Select a g ram m ar point with easily explained
(Swain 1983). It should also be acknowledged rules a n d develop the outline of a lesson
that such structure-based interactive tasks, with using the cognitive approach suggested for
their obvious grammatical content, provide an teaching indirect object placement.
2. Using the same g ram m ar point, design a
focus-on-form activity featuring onlv com ­
municative use of the g ram m ar structure.
T h e c o m m u n ic a tiv e m aterial sh o u ld be
designed so that the students will notice it
an d have to use the target structure to com ­
plete the activity.
3. Develop an interactive structure-based task
requiring students to rea d each o th e r sen­
tences containing the structure, to write the
sentences down, an d th en to develop gram ­
m ar rules for the stru c tu re ’s use. (Possible
stru c tu re s with easily ex p la in ab le rules
in c lu d e adverb p lac e m e n t; the m odals
would, could, a n d should; o rd e r of adjectives:
cause and result with so, such, vers, and too:
\Xh + n o u n questions; comparisons.)
4. Design three follow-up communicative activi­
ties for the task in Activitv 3. The c om m u­
nicative activities should prom ote noticing
of the structure in a varietv of functional
contexts.
FU R T H ER R EA D IN G
Bialvsiok. E.. and K. Hakuta. 1994. In Other Words: The
Science and Psychology of Second-Language
Acquisition. New York: Basic Books.
An easv-to-read survey presenting theories of
second language acquisition illustrated bv real-
world examples. The book pats special atten­
tion to issues of bilingualism and the impact of
culture on language learning.
Ellis, R. 1997. Second Language Research and Language
'Leaching. Oxford: Oxford Universitv Press.
An essential reference for ESL. EFT teachers,
this book accessible summarizes the extensive
bodv of research on language learning and links
the findings to classroom practice and opportu­
nities for action research.
Evsenck. M.. and M. Keane. 1995. Cognitive Psychology:
A Student’s Handbook. East Sussex, UK:
Psychology Press.
A psychology textbook useful as a general refer­
ence because of its clear explanations of the
workings of memory, knowledge creation,
attention and awareness, and language com­
prehension and production.
Hinkel. E., and S. Fotos. eels. 2001. .Yew Perspectives on
Grammar Teaching in Second Language Classrooms.
Mahwah, Nj: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
A useful collection of articles presenting a range
of grammar teaching approaches and activities
for ESL/EFL classrooms.
Skehan. P. 1998a. A Cognitwe Approach to Language
Processing. Hong Kong: Oxford University Press.
A kev book for understanding the cognitive
aspects of language acquisition and the role of
individual differences, such as learning style, in
promoting favorable learning outcomes. The
book also presents a strong rationale for task-
based instruction.
Tomasello. \E. eel. 1998. The Sew Psychology of
Language: Cognitive and Functional Approaches to
Language Structure. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence
Erlbaum Associates.
This edited volume presents papers bv authors
working in the area of Cognitive-Functional
Linguistics, an approach to grammar develop­
ment based on consideration of the communica­
tive function of a form and the cultural context
for expressing that function. Tomasello's intro­
duction is especially useful.
ENDNO TES
1 Give)n (1998) suggests that the use of grammar
appeared relatively late in human cognitive evolu­
tion. commenting that hominoids appear to possess
both noun and verb concepts as well as the neces-
san brain neurology for semantic and episodic
memory. He therefore considers grammar to con­
sist of the following components: (1) morphology;
(2) intonation, including clause-level intonation
contours and word stress; (3) rhythmics, including
length and pattses; and (4) sequential order of
words and or morphemes (pp. 48-49).
- In this chapter, declarative knowledge is consid­
ered to be the same as explicit knowledge and pro­
cedural knowledge is considered to be the same as
implicit knowledge. However, some researchers
distinguish among each type. For a fuller discus­
sion. see Skehan 1998a.
 Vocabulary Learning
and Teaching
IEANETTE S. D EC ARRICO
"Vocabulary Learning andTeaching" focuses initially on current issues in teaching, i.e., deciding which items
to teach and how to teach them; on explicit and implicit learning and vocabulary learning strategies; and
on the role of collocations.The other focus is recent corpus studies and their implications for analysis of
multiword phrasal units and for new directions in vocabulary instruction.
IN T R O D U C T IO N
Vocabulary learning is central to language acqui­
sition, w hether the language is first, second, or
foreign. A lthough vocabulary has not always
been recognized as a priority in language teach­
ing, interest in its role in second language (L2)
learning has grown rapidlv in recent years and
specialists notv emphasize the need for a system­
atic and principled approach to vocabulary bv
both the teacher a n d the learner. T he increased
interest in this topic is evidenced bv a rapidly
expanding body of experim ental studies and
pedagogical material, most of which addresses
several kev questions of particular interest for
language teachers. For example, what does it
m ean to know a word? Which words do learners
n e e d to know? How will they learn them? These
questions reflect the c urrent focus on the needs
of learners in acquiring lexical com petence and
on the role of the teacher in guiding them
toward this goal.
H IS T O R IC A L O V ER V IEW
T h e re is now general a greem ent am ong vocabu­
lary specialists that lexical c om petence is at the
very h e a rt of communicative com petence, the
ability to com m unicate successfully an d a p p ro ­
priately (Coaclv and H uckin 1997). Given the
cu rre n t focus on vocabulary study, many n o n ­
specialists m ight be surprised to learn that, in
past years, this area o f teaching was often neg­
lected because it was th o u g h t that vocabulary
could simply be left to take care o f itself.
.Although bv the late 1970s a n d early 1980s m ore
an d m ore voices began to challenge this view
(Judd 1978; Meara 1981; McCarthy 1984; Laufer
1986), in 1988, Carter an d McCarthy were still
taking note of the relative neglect o f vocabulary
in previous years. By th en its rep u ta tio n as the
p o o r relation in language teaching was rapidlv
com ing to an end.
T h e low status of vocabulary stuciv and
vocabulary teaching was in large part due to lan­
guage teaching approaches based on А т г а . о .
linguistic theories that had been d om ina nt
th ro u g h o u t the 1940s, 1950s. and I9b0s. Most
influential in the earlv years was Charles Fries's
Teaching and Learning English as a Foreign Language
(1945), based on American structural linguistics,
which emphasized grammatical and phonologi­
cal structure. Fries believed that gram m ar should
be the starting point of language learning, and he
also adopted the view, borrowed from behaviorist
psychology, that learning was a m atter of habit
formation. His audiolingual m eth o d incorporated
these ideas bv paving systematic attention to inten­
sive drills of basic sentence patterns and their pro­
nunciation. Because the em phasis was on
teaching grammatical and phonological struc­
tures. the vocabulary needed to be relatively
simple, with new words introduced only as they
were n eed ed to make the drills possible (Larsen-
Freem an 2000b; Zim m erm an 1997). The assump­
tion teas that once students learned the structural
frames, lexical items to fill the grammatical slots
in the frames could be learned later, as needed.
 Although the shift to generative (transfor­
mational) linguistics in the 1960s brought about
revolution a n 1 changes in linguistic theorv, trig­
gered bv Chomskv (1957). it did little to chal­
lenge the idea that the role of lexis was secondary
to that of grammar. Chomskv rejected the behav-
iorist notion of habit formation and supplanted it
with a rationalist framework, the central assump­
tion being that language is represented as a
speaker's m ental grammar, a set of abstract rules
for generating grammatical sentences. The rules
generate the svntactic structure, and lexical items
from appropriate grammatical categories (noun,
verb, adjective, etc.,) are selected to fill in the
corresponding slots in the svntactic frame. The
interests of generative linguists centered mainlv
on rule-governed behavior and on the grammati­
cal structure of sentences and did not include
concerns for the appropriate use of language.
Language learning approaches based on this the­
orv viewed learning as rule acquisition, not habit
formation, and emphasized grammatical rules.
Vocabularv was afforded somewhat m ore im por­
tance, but the focus on rules of gram m ar still
served to reinforce the idea that lexis was some­
what secondarv (Carter and McCarthv 1988).
Hymes (1972), while not rejecting Chontskv's
model, extended it and gate greater emphasis to
the sociolinguistic and pragmatic factors governing
effective use of language. Hvmes was especiallv
concerned with the concept of communicative com­
petence, which emphasized using language for
meaningful communication, including the appro­
priate use of language in particular social contexts
(for example, informal conversation at the dinner
table versus formal conversation at the bank,
etc.). T he teaching approach that evolved from
these notions (see also Hallidav 1973), referred to
as communicative language teaching, prom oted
fluencv over accuracv and consequently shifted
the focus from sentence-level forms to discourse-
level functions (e.g., requests, greetings, apolo­
gies, and so on). Once again, though, vocabulary
was given secondarv status, taught mainly as sup­
port for functional language use. As in precious
approaches, it was generally assumed that vocabu­
lary would take care of itself (Schmitt 2000).
This picture has changed dramatically within
the last two decades. The challenge to the status
quo began in the late 1970s an d early 1980s, and
bv the late 1980s an d early 1990s, vocabulary
studies were dev e lo p in g e x p o n e n tially a n d
vocabularv teaching was com ing into its own.
O n e reason for the resurgence of interest on the
p a rt of researchers was that com puter-aided
research was providing vast am ounts o f inform a­
tion that ha d not previouslv been available for
analvsis, such as inform ation about how words
behave in actual language use, larger units that
function in discourse as single lexical items, and
differences between written an d spoken com ­
m unication. Further, psvcholinguistic studies
were pro v id in g insights c o n c e r n in g m ental
processes involved in vocabularv learning, such
as memorv, storage, and retrieval. Interest in
these issues led in tu rn to related studies con­
c e rn e d with developing m ore effective vocabu­
larv teaching an d learning strategies.
C U R R E N T ISSUES
A central debate em erging from these studies
deals with w hether effective vocabularv learning
should focus on explicit or implicit learning.
In the 1970s and 1980s, the communicative
a pproach led naturallv to a focus on implicit,
incidental learning. Teachers e n c ouraged stu­
dents to recognize clues to word m eanings in
context and to use m onolingual dictionaries
rather than bilingual dictionaries, and textbooks
emphasized inferring word m eaning from con­
text. Currentlv. however, while acknowledging that
exposure to words in various contexts is extremely
important to a deeper understanding of a w ord’s
meaning, most researchers recognize that provid­
ing incidental encounters with words is only one
m ethod of facilitating vocabularv acquisition, and
that a well-structured vocabulaty program needs a
balanced approach that includes explicit teaching
together with activities providing appropriate con­
texts for incidental learning.
Explicit Learning
In explicit vocabulary learning students engage
in activities that focus attention on vocabulary.
Sokm en (1997) highlights several kev principles
of explicit learning that can help guide teachers
in deciding basic questions of what to teach an d
how to teach. These principles include the goal
of building a large recognition vocabulare. inte­
grating new words with old, providing a n u m b e r
of encounters with a word, p ro m o tin g a deep
level of processing, facilitating imaging, using a
varietv of techniques, and encouraging inde­
p e n d e n t learning strategies.
W h a t to Teach
How do we decide how manv words to teach and
which ones to teach? Manv researchers notv advo­
cate that learners should initially be taught a
lai ge productiv e vocabularv of at least two th o u ­
sand high frequence words. Meant (1993). for
example, argues against earlier "vocabularv con­
trol’' approaches in which students were taught
only a basic vocabularv of several hunch ed words,
and l ead restricted sorts of texts such as language
textbooks and graded readers. He maintains that
students should learn verv large vocabularies
when thev first start to acquire a language. In fact,
this base of two thousand words now seems to be
the most commonly cited initial goal for second
language learners.
T he justification for this view is that, first,
any given language has a small n u m b e r of words
that occur manv times in material we see most
often and a large n u m b e r of words that occur
only once or twice. The actual figures for English
suggest that a basic vocabulary of about two th o u ­
sand words accounts for approximately 80 per­
cent of what we regularly see or hear. For almost
any com m on context, a learner restricted to five
h u n d r e d words or so would e n c o u n te r a verv
large n u m b e r of unfamiliar words and the reallv
im portant meanings would be carried bv the
words that the learner is not likeIv to know.
Meant concludes that a vocabularv of five h u n ­
d red words is relatively useless, while a vocabu­
lary of two thousand words goes a long wav
towards achiev ing a realistic level of lexical com ­
petence. A second reason whv it would be sensible
to teach beginners a yen large vocabulary verv
quickly is that most learners expect to have to
learn vocabularv, and it would be a mistake not to
capitalize on these expectations.
T he most famous list of high-frequency
words is the General Semite List of English Words
(West 1953). It contains about two thousand
words with semantic and frequency inform ation
drawn from a verv large corpus of several million
words and. though quite old. has still not been
replaced. It is often cited as the most useful list
available because it lists the different parts of
speech a n d the different m eaning senses and, in
terms of frequency, gives the frequency of the
main headw ord plus the relativ e frequency o f its
m eanings (Nation 1990: Sbkmen 1997; Schmitt
2000). It has been verv influential, perhaps
because "it is claimed that knowing these words
gives access to about 80 p ercent of the words in
anv written text a n d thus stimulates motivation
since the words acquired can be seen lw learners
to have a dem onstrably quick r e tu r n ” (Carter
1998. p. 207). However, it is based on very old
word counts and is currently being revised.
Some researchers also emphasize that, for
certain groups of students, a base of two th o u ­
sand words will be inadequate. Learners with
special goals, such as university stuclv, n e e d to
acquire a further one th o u sa n d high-frequency
words beyond the initial two tho u sa n d base, plus
the strategies to deal with the low-frequencv
words they meet. A list to consider for academic
English is the Academic Word List, in an appendix
in N ation (1990), u p d a te d in Coxheacl (2000 n
Another ven' im portant consideration is that
we can maximize vocabularv' considerably by
teaching word families instead of individual word
forms. A word family is a set of words that includes
a base word plus its inflections a n d / o r derivations.
For purposes of teaching, especially, it makes
more sense to view sets such as talk, talked, talking,
and talks as members of a closely related "family,”
not as four single words, and to help students rec­
ognize them as such. Presenting word families,
with manv words built around a particular root,
gathers words together so that associations am ong
them can be seen. The psychological literature
also supports this view, providing evidence that the
m ind groups members of a word family together.
An important implication is that when we think of
teaching a productive vocabularv of two to three
thousand "words," we should actually be thinking
in terms of word families as the unit for counting
and teaching (Schmitt 2000).
 M eaning associations attached to words are
also im portant. Words a p p e ar to be organized
into semantically related sets in the mind, an d
thus the associations attached to a word will
affect the wav that it is stored in the brain.
Psychologists investigate these associations by
presenting subjects with a word and asking them
to suggest o th e r words that it brings to mind. For
example, they present the word table an d ask
what o th er words first come to mind. For table,
the most c o m m o n association is chair; for boy it is
girl, a n d so on.
Teaching Techniques and Activities
New words should not be presented in isolation
and should not be learned bv simple rote m em o­
rization. It is im portant that new vocabulary items
be presented in contexts rich e nough to provide
clues to m eaning and that students be given
multiple exposure to items thev should learn.
Exercises and activities include learning words in
word association lists, focusing on highlighted
words in texts, and plating vocabulary games.
More recently, com puter programs that include
the sounds of the words as well as illustrative
pictures provide opportunity for practice with a
variety of contexts, both written and spoken.
Especially at beginning levels, the teaching
o f word lists through word association techniques
has proven to be a successful wav to learn a large
n u m b e r of words in a short period and retain
th em over time. N ation (1990) notes, for
instance, that knowing meaning and hopeful can
m ake the learning of meaningful easier. This result
should not be surprising, given that words are
associated in various wavs and that these associa­
tions reflect underlying relationships in the mind.
That is, as noted previously, the m eaning of a
word depends in part on its relationship to simi­
lar words, and words in a word family are related
to each o ther through having a com m on base.
Semantic m apping is an activity that helps
bring into consciousness relationships am ong
words in a text and helps d e e p en understanding
bv creating associative networks for words (see
especially Stahl and Yancil 1986). A text is chosen
based on the words to be learned a n d students
are asked to draw a diagram of the relationships
between particular words found in the text. A
variation on this technique, a ''vocabulary net­
work,” could be designed to help even beginning
students learn to make semantic associations
within particular superordinate headings. As a
somewhat simplified example, consider a text
describing a scene with a red house, a blue skv,
and a vard with green grass and puppies and kit­
tens plaving on it. The teacher could first discuss
the chosen words, provide superordinate categoiy7
headings such as animal and color in circles on the
chalkboard, and then help students learn to illus­
trate the relationships am ong the words bv hav­
ing them first identify the related words in the
text, then draw circles below each category head­
ing connected bv associative lines, and finally write
the appropriate related words in the circles con­
nected to the headings (e.g.. animal connected
with puppy and kitten in associated circles: color
connected with red. blue, and green in associated
circles).
Word association activities can also be con­
structed with lists of words that are to be learned.
For example, students could be given word-match
lists such as the following and asked to draw lines
from words in the left colum n to those that seem
most closelv related in the right column.
cough blue
grass pepper
red tea
salt kitten
pupp\ sneeze
coffee green
The pairs. to be m atched should have a clear
associative link, such as those given in the list, but
closelv related svnonvms or antonvms should
probable be avoided. Research shows that simi­
larities between words can make learning m ore
difficult because of interference, or "cross-associ­
ations." In particular, care should be taken with
pairs whose meanings are verv similar. Learners
can easily confuse pairs such as left a n d right, for
example, because thev have the same semantic
features except for “lateral direction." Research
indicates that 25 percent of similar words taught
together are typically cross-associated. Antonvms
are a particular problem because the\ ten d to
come in pairs such as deep/shallow and rich/pour.
Synonyms and o ther closelv related semantic
groupings (food, clothing, bodv parts) are also
problematic. T he way to avoid cross-associations
in closely related semantic groups is to integrate
new words with old by teaching the most frequent
or useful (i.e., "unm arked”) word first (e.g.. deep).
and only after it is well established introduce its
less frequent ("marked”) antonym p artner (e.g..
shallow) (Nation 1990; Schmitt 2000).
For presenting word families, one wav is
simple to introduce such a family along with the
definitions for each word, as for example, the
derivational set act, action, active, actively, activate,
actor. A n o th e r wav to isolate the word families
that occur in a particular text is bv highlighting
them so that students can see the relationships.
Highlighting passages in texts has tire advantage
of prov iding a more natural context in which stu­
dents can trace words through the discourse and
observe how the forms change according to dis­
course function. Texts mav be authentic materials
or, for initial learning, mav be simple but natural
texts constructed bv the teacher. For example:
A conductor o f tm orchestra must spend
years studying music and must also
learn how to conduct other musicians so
thev can plav together. The proper
conduct of'each musician will contribute
to the success of the performance.
A n o th e r consideration in teaching vocabu­
lary is p ro m o tin g a deep level of processing.
T he reason is that learning mav involve either
short-term memory or long-term memory. Short-term
m em ory has a small storage capacity and simply
holds inform ation temporarily while it is being
processed, usually for only a m atter of seconds.
T he im portance of prom oting a deep level of
processing is to transfer information from short­
term m em ory to long-term memory, which has
almost unlim ited storage capacity. The m ore stu­
dents m anipulate and think about a word, the
m ore likely it is that the word will be transferred
into long-term memory. Research indicates that
efficient learning of vocabulary is an increm ental
process, one that requires meaningful recurring
encounters with a word over time. With respect
to classroom activities, for instance, a semantic
m a p p in g o r o th e r semantic network activity
could be followed later with pair m atching activ­
ities. along the lines illustrated earlier. For sug­
gestions on how to use word set grids a n d o th e r
gamelike tasks for m ore advanced learners, see
Carter (1998).
Teachers can add variety to the techniques
employed in the classroom bv alternating other
activities with language games that recycle vocab­
ulary. e.g.. Scrabble. Word Bingo, Concentration,
Password. Jeopardy. Language games have the
added advantage of being fun, competitive, and
consequently, memorable. These games are also
activities that students can be encouraged to do
on their own.
Implicit Learning
Incidental vocabulary learning is learning that
occurs when the m ind is focused elsewhere, such
as on understanding a text or using language for
communicative purposes. A com m on view in
vocabulary studies is that we have not been explic­
itly taught the majority of words that we know,
and that beyond a certain level o f proficiency in a
second language, vocabulary learning is m ore
likelv to be mainly implicit (incidental). Various
researchers have concluded that learners should
be given explicit instruction an d practice in the
first two to three thousand high-frequency words
(i.e.. word families), while beyond this level, most
low-frequency words will be learned incidentally
while reading or listening. The reason that ex­
plicit learning is thought to be necessary in the ini­
tial stages is that, unless a high percentage of words
on a page are known, it is very difficult to guess the
meaning of new words from context. A two to
three thousand word base is considered a mini­
m um "threshold" that enables incidental learning
to take place when reading authentic texts.
just as having multiple exposures to a word
is im portant in explicit learning, so it is im por­
tant for incidental learning. Tack o f exposure is a
com m on problem facing language learners; a
good wav to combat this problem is to expose stu­
dents to extensive reading, sometimes referred
to as a "book flood" approach, in which reading
is do n e consistently over a period of time. For
beginning students, graded readers will probably
give the best access to a huge am o u n t of input.
For interm ediate students just on the threshold
of reading authentic texts, it ntav be appropriate
to read nu m ero u s authentic texts, blit till on the
same topic (narrow reading) so that the texts
will provide multiple exposure as topic-specific
vocabularv is rep e a te d throughout. Advanced
students, on the o th er hand, should be e n c o u r­
aged to read a wide varieiv of authentic texts
(wide reading). This tvpe of exposure is im por­
tant because m eeting a word in different con­
texts expands what is known about it, thus
improving qualitv of knowledge, with additional
exposures helping to consolidate it in memorv.
Given an increm ental view of vocabularv acqui­
sition. both elaboration a n d consolidation are
crucial (Schmitt 2000).
V O C A B U L A R Y LE A R N IN G
ST R A TE G IE S
Incidental learning from exposure to texts will be
greatlv facilitated if learners use vocabularv learn­
ing strategies. These strategies will undoubtedlv
be required initiallv. in anv case, as students are
encouraged to make the transition to in d ep e n d ­
ent learning bv determ ining meanings of the less
frequent words tliev read or hear. Strategies
should aid both in discovering the m eaning of a
new word and in consolidating a word once it has
b e e n e n c o u n te re d . Thus, learners should
approach in d e p e n d e n t learning of vocabularv bv
using a combination of extensive reading and
self-stuclv strategies.
Guessing Meaning from Context
O n e of the strategies most often discussed in the
literature is guessing word m eaning from con­
text. M aking the transition to in d e p e n d e n t
learning can be easier and m ore efficient if
teachers help students learn to recognize clues
to guessing word m eaning from context. This
strategy is a kev vocabularv learning skill for
dealing with low-frequencv vocabulary, particu­
larly in reading authentic texts.
Factors that affect the likelihood of success
in inferencing include a context rich e n ough to
provide adequate clues to guess a word's m ean­
ing. Because many contexts are not rich enough,
a single context is often not sufficient to allow
students to guess the full word meaning. This
fact underscores the need for repeated e n c o u n ­
ters with a word in diverse contexts. It is clear, of
course, that background knowledge about the
topic and the culture greatlv aid inferencing and
retention bv providing a framework ("schema”)
for incorporating the new word with information
already known, but even without such a back­
g ro u n d learners can become skilled in guessing.
T he kev is to learn what clues to look for and
where to find them.
Clarke and Nation (1980) propose a guess­
ing strategy based on such clues (also in Nation
1990). A beginning step is to get the learner to
look closclv at the unknown word, next to look at
its immediate context, and then to take a much
broader view of how the clause containing the
word relates to other clauses, sentences, or para­
graphs. Clarke and Nation also include a svstem
for learners to check that the guess tliev m ade was
the best one possible.
The basic steps in this svstem include first
deciding the part of speech of the unknown word
(e.g.. noun. rerb. adjective, adverb), and then
examining the context of the clause or sentence
co n ta in in g the word. For instance, if the
unknown word is a noun, what adjectives describe
it? What verb is it near- If the nets word is a verb,
what nouns does it go with? Is it modified bv an
adverb? If the new word is an adjective, what
n o u n does it go with? The next step is looking at
the relationship between this clause or sentence
and other sentences or paragraphs. Signals to
look for might be a coordinating or subordin­
ating conjunction such as but, bemuse, if. when or
an adverbial such as however, or as a result.
Fven if there is no explicit signal, it is h e lp ­
ful to be aware of the possible types of rhetorical
relationship, which include cause an d effect,
contrast, inclusion, time, exemplification, and
summary. P unctuation mav also be helpful as a
clue, since semicolons often signal a list or an
inclusion relationship, an d dashes mav signal
restatem ent or clarification. Reference words
such as this, that, an d such also provide useful
inform ation if the an te c e d en t can be identified.
 Final steps include using knowledge gained
from such clues to guess the m eaning of the
word, an d then checking in the following wavs to
see if the guess is correct: See if the part of
speech of the unknow n word is the same as that
of the guess; if so. replace the unknow n word
with the guessed word; if the sentence makes
sense, the guessed word is probably a good par­
aphrase for the unknow n word. As a final check,
break the unknow n word into its prefix, root,
an d suffix, if possible, to see if the m eanings of
the prefix, root, an d suffix correspond to the
guessed word; if not, check the guessed word
again but do not m ake changes if it still seems to
be the correct choice.
T h e steps in this strategy focus mainly on
context ra th e r than looking at word parts, a step
that is delaved until last. T he reason is that, in
the experience of Clarke and Nation, using
affixes an d roots alone is not a very reliable aid
to guessing, whereas using the context is m ore
likely to lead to correct guesses.
An im portant assumption of this procedure
is that, once the strategy is mastered, learners
can begin to skip some of the steps a n d the
o th e r steps will becom e m ore automatic. A sec­
o n d assum ption is that guessing word m eanings
in context also leads to dictionary work, but only
as a final wav of checking since learners will
often be unable to choose the m ost suitable
m eaning from those given unless they already
have some idea of what the word might mean.
Mnemonic Devices
A m ong various o ther strategies often discussed
in the literature, one that requires a considerable
a m o u n t of m anipulation and deep processing is
the Keyword Method, an aid to memory, or a
“m nem onic device." which helps to link a word
form and its m eaning and to consolidate this
linkage in memory. There are three stages. First,
the learner chooses an T1 or 1hi word, preferably
a concrete entity, based on a phonological or
orthographic similarity with the T2 target word.
T h e n a strong association between the target
word and the keyword must be constructed so
that, w hen seeing or hearing the target yvord, the
learner is rem in d ed immediately of the keyword.
Finally, a visual image is constructed to com bine
the referents of the keyword an d the target word,
preferably an o d d o r bizarre image that will help
m ake it m ore m em orable (Hulstijn 1997).
T he im p o rta n t point to re m e m b e r is that
the student m ust learn to concentrate on rem e m ­
bering the image of the interaction between the
keyword a n d the foreign yvorcl. .An example cited
bv Kasper (1993) illustrates this point. T he target
word is the Spanish word payaso (“clown”), and
the keyword is the English pie. The association
between the target word and the keyword is to
think of the image of a clown thrcnving a pie at a
friend. Students can also be encouraged to draw
simple pictures with stick figures to illustrate the
image and thus further aid m em o ry — in this
case, stick figures representing the clown a n d the
friend, with the pie in midair between them.
Vocabulary Notebooks
A fu rth e r suggestion for a m em ory aid in in d e ­
p e n d e n t learning is setting up vocabulary n o te ­
books. Schmitt an d Schmitt (1995) re c o m m e n d
arranging the n o teb o o k in a loose-leaf b in d er or
index card file, in which, for instance, students
yvrite yvord pairs a n d semantic maps which help
th em visualize the associative network of rela­
tionships existing between neyv a n d familiar
words. O th e r activities related to the notebooks
include keeping a tally of every time they he a r or
see a neyv yvord yvithin a certain p eriod a n d n o t­
ing its frequency, learning roots a n d derivatives
in the word's family7by studying what affixes are
used to change its part of speech, m aking notes
on sty listic aspects of the yvord, o r writing a sen­
tence illustrating its use.
Other Learner Strategies
Various o th e r learner strategies can help in dis­
covering yvord m eaning an d in consolidating it
in memory. Teachers can encourage students to
check for an LT cognate, study an d practice in
pe e r groups, connect a yvord to personal experi­
ence o r previous learning, say a neyv yvord aloud
yvhen studying, use verbal an d written repeti­
tion, a n d engage in e x te n d e d rehearsal (review
neyv material soon after initial learning a n d then
at gradually increasing intervals).
 It is, ofcour.se, neither possible n o r desirable
for learners to try to use all strategies all the time,
but they mav find it useful to vary strategies that
seem m ore appropriate to a given situation, for
example, d e p e n d in g on w hether the context is
explicit classroom learning activities or in d e ­
p e n d e n t learning such as reading or speaking.
Often, individual preferences will d e term ine
strategy use.
C O L L O C A T IO N S
So far we have considered vocabulary onlv in
term s o f single words a n d w ord families.
However, vocabulary knowledge involves consid­
erably m ore than just knowing the m eaning of a
given word in isolation: it also involves knowing
the words that tend to co-occur with it. These
patterns, or collocations, consist of pairs or groups
o f words that co-occur with very high frequence
a n d are im p o r ta n t in vocabulary le a rn in g
because, as N attinger notes, "the m eaning of a
word has a great deal to do with the words with
which it com m only associates" (1988. p. 69).
These associations assist the lea rn er in com m it­
ting these words to m e m o ir and also aid in
defining the semantic area of a word.
If collocational associations are not learned
as part of L2 vocabulary knowledge, the resulting
irregularities will immediately m ark the learner's
speech or writing as deviant or odd in some wav
an d as decidedly non-native. Native speakers of
English, for example, refer to "spoiled" butter as
rancid butter a nd "spoiled" milk as sour milk, but
not as ^sour butter or *rancid milk. A few examples
of wrong word combinations that have occurred
in non-native speech are *feeble tea, *laugh broadly,
*hold a burial, and *healthy advice (Balms 1993).
It is also im portant for learners to recog­
nize that collocational relationships are n o t
equally powerful in both directions, so that ran­
cid strongly suggests the collocate butter, for
instance, but butter onlv weakly suggests rancid, if
at all. Thus rancid does not readily co-occur with
o th e r nouns, but butter can co-occur quite freely
with any n u m b e r of o th er adjectives, such as
sweet butter, soft butter, dairy butler, unsalted butter,
creamy butter, tasty butter, artificial butter, an d so on.
T h e word in the com bination that is restricted in
this way, such as rancid or sour, is known as the
"key” word of the collocation. T he key word does
n o t always occur as the first word in the colloca­
tion, as for example, the keyw ord fire in set/start
a fire, b u t not *begin/ commence/ initiate a fire.
Very commonly, collocations are associated
pairs such as adjective-noun o r verb-noun, b u t it
is misleading to think of them in terms o f pairs
onlv. O n e reason is that thev often occur as m ul­
tiword linear sequences three to five words long,
e.g\, a short-term strategy, to pay attention to some­
thing/ someone. A n o th e r reason is that a collocate
m em b e r mav co-occur with a cluster or range of
words, rath e r than being limited to one word
with which it pairs. Thus even a highly restricted
pair m em ber such as rancid co-occurs with several
o ther nouns, mainlv rancid lard, rancid oil, rancid
dressing (as in salad dressing). Likewise, sour co­
occurs with other nouns, as in sour cherries, sour
apples (i.e.. describing the taste o f nonsweet fruit,
or a similar non-sweet fruit taste in certain
candv). or even metaphorically, as in sour note,
sour disposition. However, the range of restricted
collocates for words like rancid a n d sour is quite
limited. We do not normally sav, for instance,
rancid cheese, rancid jam. rancid syrup or sour meat,
sour beets, sour fish.
These restrictions mar- at first glance seem
to present additional learning problem s to over­
come. but in fact thev mav be in co rp o rated into
vocabulary studv as useful aids in learning. This
is what Nattinger has in m in d when he maintains
that collocational associations assist the learner
in com m itting these words to m e m o ir a n d help
in defining the semantic area of a word.
C oncerning collocational associations as m em ory
aids, researchers have noted that vocabulary is
best learned in context and that words that are
naturally associated in a text are m ore easily
learned than those haring no such associations.
Semantic Associations
With respect to their usefulness in helping to
define the semantic area o f a word, note that in
the examples discussed earlier the words in each
collocational range are clustered according to
certain semantic features they have in com m on.
For instance, rancid co-occurs with butter, lard, oil,
salad dressing, all of "which have in c o m m o n the
semantic feature of “oily” as part of their base,
thus disallowing rancid cream, rancid milk, rancid
cheese, rancid jam, rancid syrup- Similarly, sour co­
occurs with milk or fruit, having in com m on the
semantic feature “tvpe of bad taste” o r “tart taste,"
both of which are associated with causing the lips
to pucker, thus disallowing sour butter, sour lard,
sour meat, sour beets, sour fish, sour tomatoes.
Teachers can exploit these characteristics of
restricted collocational clusters bv presenting
them in contexts in which they naturally occur
and by pointing out the semantic links am ong
them. Notice also that the words in these clusters,
while having semantic features in com m on, are
not so similar as to be a likely cause of confusion.
Recall the cautionary note m entioned earlier con­
cerning the problem of cross-association when
teaching closely related semantic pairs or groups
such as synonvms and antonyms. Cross-association
difficulties are not likely to be caused bv these clus­
ters because, although the collocational members
have associated semantic links, their meanings are
not nearly as closely associated as are svnonvms or
antonyms, which either have verv similar m ean­
ings or have only one opposing feature.
Syntactic Collocation Types
Collocations fall into two main syntactic groups.
They mav he either grammatical collocations or lexi­
cal collocations. Grammatical collocations are those
in which a noun, verb, or adjective frequently co­
occurs with a grammatical item, usually a preposi­
tion. Examples are reason for, account for, rely on,
afraid of, leery of, by accident, in retrospect. Lexical col­
locations differ in that they do not contain gram­
matical words, but consist of combinations of full
lexical items, i.e., nouns, verbs, adjectives, and
adverbs. They include combinations such as verb
+ noun (spend money, inflict a wound), adjective +
n o u n (rancid butter, densefog), verb + adverb (laugh
loudly), and adjective + adverb (deeply absorbed).
Bahns (1993), in a contrastive study o f col­
locations, reports that learners seem to rely on a
“hypothesis o f transferability,” w hereby the
majority of collocational errors fo u n d in learner
English can be traced to LI influence. Examples
are *drive a bookshop instead of run a bookshop,
based on influence from a Polish equivalent;
'■'■make attention at instead of pay attention to, from
a F rench equivalent; a n d *finish a conflict instead
o f resolve a conflict, from a G erm an equivalent.
Bahns rec om m ends that, whenever possible, it
would be helpful to identify those collocations
(of the set to be learned) that a lea rn er with a
p a rtic u la r L I b a c k g ro u n d “knows a lre ad y ”
because of an equivalent in the LI a n d in
English. Teachers could th e n h e lp students
focus on identifying the differences for a chosen
g roup of semantically equivalent L 1 /L 2 pairs.
Teaching Activities
As we have seen in the previous discussion, col­
locations plav an im p o rta n t role in vocabulary
learning. "Knowing a w ord” includes not only
knowing the m eaning o f a word, its p a rt of
speech, a n d its word family a n d o th e r associa­
tions, but it also m eans knowing if its occurrence
is restricted bv certain collocations. And if so, it
also m eans knowing the range o f these colloca­
tional patterns (for a m o re detailed discussion of
various collocational sets, ranges, and restric­
tions, see Garter 1998, C h a p te r 3). For m ore
a dvanced learners, know ing a word should
include at least some knowledge of collocation'
to the extent possible.
Classroom activities can be designed for
this purpose. For example, following presenta­
tions in which collocations have b e e n illustrated
in context, perhaps by highlighting them in pas­
sages from texts, word-match activities can help
in consolidating the patterns. As an illustration,
a n o u n such as intellect can be given with lists of
adjectives with which it does an d does n o t co­
occur, with directions to circle the appropriate
collocates an d th en check answers against a key
given on a separate sheet.
rkeen key: keen, sharp,
sharp superior,
high exceptional
H e has a superior intellect.
exceptional
strong
, healthy
A similar m atching exercise can be constructed
for verbs (in traduce collocates with a person, a bill,
a motion, an amendment, but not an idea, an object,
a conclusion), for adjectives (likely collocates with
choice, prospect, story, tale, but not article, memoir,
belief), and so on.
Gap-filling activities provide another type of
practice. Students are asked to choose all possible
words from a thematicallv related list, some of
which will be needed m ore than once, and some
of which will not be needed at all. For example:
job work labor occupation
position task emplovm ent
a. T hat j o b requires h ard phvsical______ .
b. In to d a v 's ______ market, co m p u te r
skills are im portant.
c. I ’ll m eet vou for d in n e r a f t e r ______
todav.
d. You n e e d to concentrate on t h e ______
at hand.
e. W hat line o f _____ are vou in?
f. H er c h o s e n _____ is carpentrv.
g. He was p ro m o te d to a supervisorv
Finallv, with respect to when collocations
should be introduced, a word of caution is in
order. For vocabularv instruction in the earliest
stages, some researchers recom m end that colloca­
tions not be included at all. Thev represent a more
advanced tvpe of word knowledge that should be
left to higher-level students who are enhancing
a n d consolidating vocabularv alreadv partially
learned. Beginners should focus instead on devel­
oping a large basic vocabularv and learning the
typical contexts in which the words occur.
Idioms
In the previous section, collocations were dis­
cussed in terms of restricted pairs or sets of multi­
word combinations. Restrictions on patterns are
described in terms of kev words and the range or
set of associated words that can co-occur with
them. Not all collocational patterns are entirely
equal, however, as some are relativelv m ore
"fixed” than others.
Idioms are multiword units that are com ­
pletely fixed. Thev are fu rth e r distinguished as
having a unitarv m eaning that ca n n o t be derived
from the m eanings of the c o m p o n e n t parts.
T h a t is, the com bination of words in blow one’s
mind have the u n i ta n m eaning astonish; those in
be under the weather have the unitarv m eaning feel
ill. This unitarv m eaning is the main characteris­
tic that sets idioms apart from ordinarv colloca­
tions. in which the m eanings do reflect the
m ea n in g of each constituent part.
It is the unitarv m eaning of idioms that
makes them particularlv troublesome for second
language learners since the m eaning cannot nor-
mally be guessed bv the m eaning of the words
that make them up. Learners are likelv to be mys­
tified bv idioms such as to let the cat out of the bag (to
reveal a secret), to shoot the breeze (to engage in
casual conversation), to shed crocodile tears (to be
insincere), or to bite the dust (to die). O n the other
hand, thev are likelv to be entirelv misled bv what
appears to be a transparent literal m eaning of
other idioms such as to have cold feet (to lack
courage), to hair second thoughts (to have doubt),
to tighten one's belt (to be m ore economical), or to
have a good heart (to be a kind person).
Idioms are a commonlv occurring tvpe of
multiword unit in English, especiallv in informal
conversational settings, and should not be ignored
in vocabularv studies. Activities for the classroom
could include presentation in authentic texts,
such as dailv newspaper cartoons comic strips and
dialogues from m odern drama, and exercises that
match idioms and their meanings, similar to the
matching activities suggested earlier for other
tvpes of collocational units.
R E C E N T D EV E LO P M E N TS
Corpus Studies
Recent developm ents in corpus studies have led
to m ajor changes in language description and
have greatlv e x p a n d ed ou r knowledge of collo­
cations. idioms, a n d o th e r multiword units (see
especiallv Sinclair 1991). O n e problem in teach­
ing collocations, for example, is deciding which
ones ought to he included. Researchers h a te
p o in te d out that, given the huge n u m b e r of pos­
sible collocations for even a limited n u m b e r of
words, there needs to be some principled wav to
limit the total to a m anageable num ber. Data
from corpus studies have provided new possibil­
ities for finding solutions to such problems.
Computers have made possible the collec­
tion of huge databases of language ranging in
length from short phrases or sentences up to
entire books. These corpus studies allow access to
a variety of samples from language as it is actually
used in real-world settings in a wide range of gen­
res, both written and spoken. O ne of the most
often cited studies is the COBUILD project (The
Collins-Birmingham University International
Language Database), with a corpus of many mil­
lions of words. This project has also produced
several dictionaries and grammars, including a
dictionary of collocations.
O ne insight from corpus studies is that mam-
words collocate with other words from a definable
semantic set. This insight gives teachers guidance
by providing a n o th e r criterion for choosing
which collocational sets to include in vocabulary
lessons. Stubbs (1993). for instance, shores that
cause tvpicallv collocates -with unpleasant things
such as problems, difficulties, trouble, damage, death,
pain, anguish, and disease. Conversely, provide col­
locates mainlv with positive things such as insights,
information, sendees, aid. assistance, support, and
money. This difference can be highlighted with the
word work. To provide work is considered a good
thing, but to cause work is not.
T he results of corpus studies has been
in co rporated into recent dictionaries such as the
Collins C 0BL1ID English Dictionary (1993) or the
Dictionary of Selected Collocations (Hill a n d Tewis
1997). Advanced learners can be e n c ouraged to
use these dictionaries themselves to look up col­
locations for p a rtic u la r words they mav
e n c o u n te r incidentally in reading or elsewhere.
Also, teachers can refer to such dictionaries to
select collocational sets for words chosen from
frequency lists for explicit vocabulary studies.
A nother innovation from corpus research
concerns Sinclair's observations of patterns that
extend bevond the collocational units them ­
selves. In particular, there are cases in which a
word that is chosen guides an d constrains the lex­
ical choices several words awav. Schmitt (2000)
discusses this discourse pa tte rn in g in relation to
the word sorry. He describes various contexts
and patterns for this word and notes that, for
example, one of its collocates is so, creating the
sequence so sorry. If the c oncordance data from
the corpus are exam ined m ore carefully, how­
ever. it turns out that the pa tte rn in g is m uch
m ore restricted.
T he main occurrences of so sorry are in two
patterns, one with so sorry to an d o n e with so sorry
for. T he form er is usually followed bv some
in c o n v e n ie n c e the sp e ak e r regrets having
caused, such as being late or troubling someone.
An exam ple is I'm so sorry to have to ask you these
personal questions. The latter, on the o ther hand, is
normally followed bv a reference to people who
have experienced some tvpe of unfortunate situa­
tion such tts injure or loss of a loved one, and it
tends to cluster with some form of the verb feel, as
in / feel so sorry for that dead boy's family. Schmitt
notes that, from this perspective, we see that
words are not chosen in isolation, but rather, can
have ramifications some distance awav from their
actual placement in the discourse.
While it is difficult to see how this sort of
patterning could be taught explicitly, it does
seem worthwhile to at least point it out in vocab-
u la n lessons. Ifle a rn e rs are m ade aware of such
patterns as part of the context in which colloca­
tions occur, thev can then be encouraged to pav
attention to similar patterns in the context of
new words thev encounter.
Lexical Phrases
Lexica!phrases represent an o th e r com m on tvpe of
multiword unit. Xattinger and DeCarrico (1992)
define lexical phrases as "chunks" of language' of
varying length, conventionalized form /funclion
composites that occur m ore frequently and have
m ore idiomatically determ ined m eaning than
language that is put together from scratch. Some
are completely fixed expressions such as by the
way. how do you do?, give me a break. Others are
relativelv fixed phrases that have a basic frame
with slots for various fillers. Thev include shorter
phrases such as a ___ ago, or longer phrases or
clauses such as the___erX, the___ er Y; If I X, then
I ’ll Y. Examples with the slots filled are a year ago;
a month ago; the higher the mountain, the harder the
climb; the longer you unit, the sleepier you get; if I hear
that one more time, I'll scream.
Lexical phrases are tvpes of collocations
a n d thev are m ore or less idiomatic (e.g., m ore
so in by the way, how do you ?, but less so in the high­
er the mountain, the harder the climb). However,
they differ from idioms and o ther ordinary collo­
cations in that each is associated with a particular
discourse function, such as expressing time,
greetings, relationships a m o n g ideas, or condi­
tion. T he evidence from various studies, espe­
cially c o m p u te r analyses of texts, indicates that
lexical phrases a n d o th e r prefabricated units are
pervasive in language.
Types of Lexical Phrases
In o rd e r to make lexical phrases m ore pedagogi-
cally useful, thev har e been classified according
to function and g rouped into three broad cate­
gories. A few representative examples are the fol­
lowing (for m ore detailed lists of tvpes and
functions, see Xattinger and DeCarrico 1992):
Social Interactions
greetings/
closings: hi; how are you?; what's up?/ gotta
run now; see you later
politeness/
routines: thanks so/very much: if you don 7
mind; if you please
requesting: Modal + P ronoun + Verb phrase
(i.e., would/could you [mind] X?)
complying: of course, sure thing; I'd by happy to;
no problem (at all)
etc.
Necessary Topics
language: do you speak X?; how do you say/spell
X?; I speak X (a little)
time: when is X?; to X for a long time; a X
ago; since X; it '.s X o’clock
location: where is X?; across from X; next to X;
how far is X?
shopping: how much is X?; 1 want to buy/see X;
it tdoesn 7) jilts)
etc.
Discourse Desires
logical
connectors: as a result (of X); nevertheless;
because (of) X; in spite o fX
tem poral
con nectors: the day/week/month/year/before/
after X; and then
qualifiers: if depends on X; the catch here is X;
it \ only in X that Y
relators: on the other hand: but look at X:
in addition: not only in X hut )
exemplifiers: in other words: for example; to give
you an example
etc.
In general, social interactions and discourse
devices proride lexical phrases for the framework of
the discourse, whereas necessary topics proride
them for the subject at hand. These phrases are the
primary markers which signal the direction of dis­
course. whether spoken or written. When they
s e n e as discourse devices, their function is to sig­
nal. for instance, whether the information to fol­
low is in contrast to. in addition to. or an example
of information that has preceded. Those such as
on the other hand, hut look at X signal contrast; in
addition, moreover signal addition: it depends on X,
the catch here is A signal qualification of previous
comm ents, a n d so on. W hen lexical phrases
serve as social interactional markers, on the
o th e r hand, their primary function is to describe
social relations and. in general, to help structure
discourse in wavs appropriate to m aintaining
social relations.
W h y Teach Lexical Phrases
Lexical phrases offer various advantages for teach­
ing conversation and other tvpes of discourse. Lor
example, because they are stored and retrieved as
whole chunks, they allow for expressions that
learners mav as yet be unable to construct cre­
atively. Thus even for lower level learners, thev can
help ease frustration and prom ote motivation and
a sense of fluency. These phrases also ought to
prove highly m em orable, since thee are e m b e d ­
de d in socially a p p ropriate situations. More
importantly, they provide learners with an effi­
cient m eans of interacting with others about self-
selected topics.
A n o th e r advantage in te a c h in g lexical
phrases is that they can first be learned as unseg­
m e n te d wholes, together with their discourse
functions, and in later encounters can be ana­
lyzed an d learned as individual words, thus pro­
viding additional vocabulary.
Teaching Activities
O n e wax of teaching lexical phrases is to start
with a lew basic fixed routines, which learners
th en analyze as increasingly variable patterns as
thev are exposed to m ore varied phrases. Thus,
practice with a few phrases in appropriate con­
texts can be followed fix pattern drills as a wax of
pro m o tin g fluency with certain basic fixed ro u ­
tines. T he challenge for the teacher is to use
such drills to allow confidence and fluencx. \et
not overdo them to the point that thev become
mindless exercises, as was often the u n fortunate
result in strict aucliolingualism.
T he next step is controlled variation in
using these basic phrases with the help of simple
su b stitu tion drills to d e m o n s tra te that the
chunks learned previously tire not invariable
routines, but instead patterns with open slots.
For example, in teaching formulas for sympathy
the phrase I'm treally/so i ivery) sorry to hear
(that/about) X can be in tro d u c ed first as. I'm sorry
to hmr that you ain't come to the part y. followed
later bv substitution drills with m ore expanded
patterns, such as Гт very sorry to hear that you haul
the flu, an d then later on. I'm really very sorry to
hmr that there was a death in your family. To high­
light the appropriate variation for given con­
texts. the first version should be practiced in the
c ontext of m in o r inconvenience (missing a
parts), the second, a m ore serious misfortune
(Taxing an illness), and the third, a very u n fo r­
tunate situation (a death or o th er personal
tragedy). Xattinger and DeCarrico (1992) also
provide suggestions for incorporating lexical
phrase activities into listening or reading classes
(see especially C hapter b).
Lexical Approaches
W hereas N attinger a n d DeCarrico emphasize
that c urrent texts and teaching approaches can
be adapted to include lexical phrases, some
a p p lie d linguists have recently' p r o m o t e d
approaches that take lexis itself as the basis for
organizing the syllabus or the overall teaching
ap p ro a c h (Sinclair an d R e n o u f 1988; Wallis
1990: I.exvis 1993: 1997). T he basic organizing
principle of these approaches is the frequency
and usef ulness of words and xvord combinations.
Lewis (1993). for instance, concentrates on
lexical chunks themselves as the foundation of
teaching. For I.exvis. "language consists of grarn-
maticalised lexis, not lexicalised grammar," and
language teaching needs to develop awareness
of and ability to "chunk" language successfully
(p. vi). C om m on words are co m m o n precisely
because thev occur in so m am expressions.
Lewis stresses the im portance of learning
chunks of language m ade up of lexico-grammat-
ical patterns, a large n u m b e r of which tire pre-
p a tte rn e d an d can be used by learners in
form ulaic, r e h e a rs e d wavs. T hese c hunks
include lexical phrases, but also include o ther
txpes of collocations, such as nouns learned in
appropriate chunks with adjectival and verbal
collocations, verbs learned with probable adver­
bial collocates, c o m m o n m e ta p h o rs an d
m e ta p h o r sets, an d so on.
C O N C L U S IO N
Lexical com petence is a central part of c om m u­
nicative competence, and teaching vocabulary a
central part of teaching language. While some
questions remain concerning how to teach and
what to teach, considerable progress has been
m ade concerning the issues of explicit versus
implicit learning, which strategies to teach, and
which and how many lexical items to include in
initial instruction. Recently, corpus studies have
yielded important insights concerning the nature
of lexis. As these studies continue to expand inves­
tigations into patterns of lexis in discourse, they
hold great promise for exciting new directions in
vocabulary learning and teaching.
D IS C U S S IO N Q U E S T IO N S
1. In the past century, vocabulary was a neg­
lected area of study in the ESI- EFE class­
room. Discuss several reasons for this period
of neglect as well as the major influences
that resulted in the c urrent emphasis on
vocabulary studv.
2. Should m o re emphasis be given to explicit
or implicit vocabulary learning at the begin­
ning level? At m ore advanced levels? Whv do
you think so?
3. From vour own experience, e ith e r as a
teacher or as a learner of an 1 .2. which vocab­
ulary learning strategies or com bination of
strategies do vou feel would be the most
effective for incidental learning? Which do
vou feel m ight be m ore helpful in motivating
students to learn vocabulary at a faster rate
while at the same time helping them to co n ­
solidate words in long term memory?
4. Do vou agree that collocations, idioms, and
lexical phrases should be included in vocab­
ulary studv? Whv or whv not? If thev are to be
included, what are some of the difficulties
that need to be considered? What are some
possible solutions?
5. Explain some of the wavs in which insights
from corpus studies pro tid e guidance for
incorporating collocations and o th er pat­
tern e d phrases into vocabulary teaching and
learning.
S U G G E S T E D A C T IV IT IE S
1. Select ten words a n d com pare their entries
in three or four dictionaries. W hat differ­
ences do vou find in the definitions? Does it
seem to vou that some entries would be
m ore useful than others for second language
learners? Whv?
2. Select a n d evaluate a vocabulary text accord­
ing to the following criteria:
a. Do the words seem to vou to be fre q u e n t
and useful ones:
b. Are at least some words presented in sets
of word families, either inflectional or
derivational?
c. Does the text involve explicit learning
only?
d. Does it include suggested strategies for
implicit learning?
3. Select one beginning reading text and one
advanced reading text. From one chapter in
each, identilv ten lexical items that vou think
might present problems for learners. Discuss
how vou would approach teaching these lexi­
cal items, first for the beginning level learn­
ers and then for the m ore advanced learners.
4. Explain how von would use the following
dialogue to teach m ore advanced learners
various lexical phrases as appropriate to par­
ticular tvpes of contexts.
Situation: The two speakers are acquaintances
who work for the same company and live in
the same apartm ent building, but are not
close friends. [Man knocks on J o h n ’s apart­
ment door.]
J: Well, hello. M an. What a surprise.
M: Hello. Jo h n , i l l I'm sorry / didn't call
before coming over (apology), but my
p h o n e is out of order.
}: O h well. (2) that's OK (acceptance of
apology). (3) (dome on in (invitation).
M: Look Jo h n , the real reason I came over
is that I need a favor. I have to catch a
plane to Chicago an d I just discovered
mv car has a flat tire. (4) / wonder if sou
would mind terriblу driving me to the airport
right own у (request).
J: (3) Sure thing (com pliance). Mary. I
know vou'd do the same for me.
M: (6 ) Thanks so much. (7) You saved ms life!
(6 a n d 7: expressing gratitude)

FU R T H ER R EA D IN G
Learning Strategies
Nation, I. S. P. 1990. Teaching and Learning Vocabulary.
Boston, MA.: Heinle & Heinle. (Also good for
classroom activities and exercises.)
Schmitt, N. 1997. Vocabulary learning strategies. In
Vocabulary: Description, Acquisition, and Pedagogy,
edited by N. Schmitt and M. McCarthy.
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
— 2000. Vocabulary in Language Teaching.
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Classroom Activities and Exercises
Allen. Y. F. 1983. 'Techniques in Teaching Vocabulary.
New York: Oxford University Press.
Gairns. R.. and S. Redman. 1986. Working with Words:
.4 Guide to leaching and Learning Vocabulary.
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Redman, S.. and R. Ellis. 1989. A Way with Words.
Book 1. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
UNIT III

Integrated Approaches
Since the 1980s, w e nave witnessed a gradual movement away from
rather narrow language teaching methods toward broader integrated
approaches in language teaching, approaches that encourage the team -g
of all four skills within the general fram ework of using o 'g w g e w *
learning as well as for communication.The first such appro am w e s e m e :
in this section is content-based language teaching, which s c s c w s e c '
Snow's chapter This approach assumes that language s cost ewe:
when it is used as a medium of instruction for learning s ec ern ' g e m
such as academic content. McKay's chapter advocates a oem swe-sese;
approach by showing the teacher how to use well-se^ctec c ece: w
literature in the target language as content for a variety of act . ces mat
enhance language learning, Eyring's chapter shows how the leame-s w
experiences (those he or she has already had and those the class initiates,!
can form the basis for meaningful language development and use. Finally
M cGroarty's chapter surveys the various models used in bilingual
education, noting that the more effective maintenance and two-way
models offer learners an opportunity for quality content education along
with a mastery of at least tw o languages. All four of these multiskills
approaches prom ote effective language development; they indicate both
the cutting edge and future directions for the profession,
 Content-Based and Immersion
Models for Second and Foreign
Language Teaching
M A R G U E R IT E A N N
n "Content-Based and Immersion Models," Snow orcvices a rationale for Integrated language and
content instruction as well as detailed descriptions of orogmm models in both second and foreign
language teaching. She also provides examples of instructions, strategies that can be used by language
and content instructors and discusses current and future trends in content-based teaching.
IN T R O D U C T IO N
T h ro u g h o u t the history of second foreign lan­
guage teaching, the word contmt has had mans
different interpretations. Historically in m ethods
such as gram m ar-translation, content was defined
as the gram m atical structures of the target lan­
guage. In the aucliolingual m ethod, content con­
sisted of gram m atical structures, vocabulary or
sound patterns presented in dialogue form . Metre
recently com m unicative approaches define con­
tent in an altogether different was. C ontent in
these approaches generally is defined as the com ­
m unicative purposes for svhich speakers tise the
second 'foreign language. Tims, in a class follow­
ing a notional functional orientation, the con­
tent of a unit m ight be im itations, and individual
lessons m ight cover question types, polite versus
inform al im itation forms, and wavs to accept or
decline im itations. Similarly the co n ten t o f a
Natural A pproach lesson m ight be a game in
svhich students m ust locate the person who
m atches a certain description bv asking each
o th er questions, thereby using language for prob­
lem solving.
M ore recently a n o th e r definition o f con­
ten t has em erg ed in an ap proach th at is the
focus o f this chapter. C ontent, in this in te rp re ta ­
tion, is the use of subject m atter for s e c o n d /
foreign language teach in g purposes. Subject
m atte r mas consist o f topics o r them es based on
stu d e n t interest or n eed in an adult EFL setting,
S N O W
or it mas be s e n specific, such as the subjects that
students are currently studsing in their elem en­
tary school classes. This approach is in keeping
with the English for Specific Purposes (ESP) tra­
dition. w here the vocational or occupational
needs of the learn er are identified and used as
the basis for curriculum and m aterials develop­
m en t (see the c h a p te r bv Jo h n s and Price-
M achado in this volum e). C ontent-based second
language in stru ctio n generally has a stro n g
English for Academic Purposes (EAP) orienta­
tion. in which the m ain instructional goal is to
prepare second language students for the types of
academ ic tasks they will en co u n ter in school, col­
lege. or university.
C ontent-based m odels can be fo u n d in
both the foreign and second language settings.
They can be im p lem en ted to teach foreign lan­
guages to English-speaking ch ild ren at the ele­
m entary school level in im m ersion program s or
applied to secondary a n d postsecondary set­
tings. M odels of content-based instruction differ
in im plem entation cltte to such factors as educa­
tional setting, program objectives, a n d target
p o p ulation. .All share, however, a com m on p oint
o f d e p a rtu re — th e in te g ra tio n o f lan g u ag e
teaching aims with subject m atte r instruction.
This c h a p te r begins with a rationale for content-
based instruction followed bv descriptions of
well-established m odels a n d m ore re c e n t varia­
tions. Later, sam ple activities for in teg ratin g lan­
guage and c o n te n t are presented. T he c h a p te r
concludes with a discussion of current and future
tre n d s in in te g ra te d language an d c o n te n t
instruction.
C O N T E N T -B A S E D
IN S T R U C T IO N :A R A TIO N A LE
T h e theoretical fo u ndations for content-based
instru ctio n can be draw n from a variety o f
sources, including second language acquisition
research a n d work in educational a n d cognitive
psychology. C ontent-based instruction fulfills a
n u m b e r of conditions which have b een posited
as necessarv for successful second 'fo re ig n lan­
guage acquisition. A ccording to K rashen (1984),
second language acquisition occurs w hen the
le a rn e r receives c o m p re h e n sib le in p u t, not
w hen the le a rn e r is m em orizing vocabularv or
c o m p le tin g g ra m m a r exercises. T h e re fo re ,
m ethods that provide students with m ore com ­
p reh en sib le in p u t will be m ore successful. He
states th a t “c o m p re h e n sib le su b je c t-m atter
teach in g is language teaching" (p. 62) since
learners acquire language w hen thcv u n d e r­
stand messages in that language. In content-
based instruction, the focus is on the subject
m atter a n d n o t on the form or. as Krashen says,
on “what is being said ra th e r than lwur (p. 62).
B ased on m anv large-scale studies of
C anadian im m ersion program s. Swain (1986.
1993) suggests that in o rd e r to develop com m u­
nicative c o m p e te n c e , le a rn e rs m ust have
e x te n d e d o p p o rtu n ities to use the second for­
eign language prodttctivelv. Thus, in addition to
receiving com preh ensible input, thev m ust p ro ­
duce com prehensible output: in o th e r words,
explicit atten tio n m ust be paid to the productive
language skills o f speaking and writing. She
m aintains th at learners n e e d to be "pushed
tow ard the deliverv o f a message th at is . . . con-
vevecl preciselv, c o h e re n tly an d ap p ro p riately ”
(1986, p. 249). C ontent-based instruction can
provide this push since students learn to p ro­
duce language which is ap p ro p riate in term s of
b o th c o n te n t an d language.
M ore re c e n tly sociocultural ap p ro ach es
which draw theoretical support from the work
of Yvgotskv have been used to prom ote first lan­
guage (L.1 ) literacy developm ent in m ulticultural
e le m en ta rv school settings (see T h a rp a n d
G allim ore 1988) an d offer prom ise for e n h a n c ­
ing o u r u n d e rsta n d in g of second language (T2)
lea rn in g (L antolf a n d Appel 1994: Schinke-
Llano 1993). Yvgotskv's notions of (1) the zone
of proxim al developm ent (in which learners are
assisted bv teachers or "m ore capable peers” in
their developm ent) and (2 ) inner speech (inter­
nally directed speech as strategies for problem
solving and rehearsing) can be effectively realized
in content-based settings w here students have
opportunities to negotiate not ju st language, bttt
content as well, in increasinglv com plex wavs.
G rabe and Stoller's (1997) review of the
research foundations of content-based instruc­
tion looks outside the second language acquisi­
tion literature to research in educational and
cognitive psvchologv for some of the most per­
suasive support. Research in learning theorv
(A nderson 1993) has b een used to support
the Cognitive A cadem ic T anguage L earning
A p p ro ach (CALLA) (C ham ot an d O ’M ailer
1994). A nderson's theorv reinforces teaching
approaches which com bine the developm ent of
language and co n ten t knowledge, practice in
using this knowledge, and strategy training to pro ­
m ote in d ep e n d e n t learning. A nother area of
cognitive investigation, depth-of-pi ocessing
research, reveals that when learners are exposed
to co h eren t and m eaningful inform ation and
have opportunities to elaborate the inform ation
their linkages are m ore com plex and recall is bet­
ter (A nderson 1990). Content-based approaches
prom ote extended practice with c o h eren t con­
tent coupled with relevant language learning
activities such as teaching how knowledge struc­
tures can be realized through language and con­
tent (see M ohan 1986; Tang 1992. 1997).
Research on the nature of expertise also pro­
vides sup p o rt for content-based approaches.
B ereiter and Scardam alia (1993) argue that
expertise is a process in which learners reinvest
their knowledge in a sequence of progressively
m ore com plex problem-solving tasks. As learners
are exposed to increasing complexitv in learning
activities, their learning improves and thev develop
intrinsic m otivation. They seek connections
between sets of inform ation, acquire the relevant
skills to accomplish tasks, and becom e increasingly
m ore adept at problem solving. Grabe and Stoller
(1997) note that effective content-based instruc­
tional approaches “com bine coherent and interest­
ing informational resources to create increasing,
but manageable, task complexity" ip. 14).
M O DELS O F C O N T E N T -B A S E D
IN S T R U C T IO N
M odels of content-based instruction can be dis­
tinguished from each o th e r by several different
m eans. O ne is by setting; som e m odels are typi­
cally im p lem en ted in the foreign language set­
ting while others are m ore com m on in the
second language context. A n o th e r wavy to distin­
guish content-based m odels is by instructional
leyel. T h ere are m any well-developed exam ples
re p o rte d in the literatu re o f in teg rated language
and c o n te n t teaching at the elem entary school
level; o th e r m odels have tvpicallv b een im ple­
m ented successfully at the secondary or post-
secondarv levels with adolescents or adults. A third
wav to capture underlying differences in content-
based models is to look at the degree of emphasis
on language and content which underlies a partic­
ular program (Met 1998). In Figure 1, Met (1999.
p. 7), envisioning a continuum , places ''content-
driven" models at one end while "language-driven"
models appear at the other end.
In the sections that follow, five m odels of
content-based instruction are described. T he first
two are w ell-developed exam ples of m odels
designed to teacli foreign languages to English-
speaking children at the elem entary school level.
The last three m odels hav e been im plem ented in
secondary and postsecondarv second language
C on ten t-D riven
-<
Total Partial Sheltered
Immersion Immersion Courses
Figure I . Content-Based Language Teaching: A Continuum of Content and Language Integration
settings. Some can be classified as m ore “language-
driven," others as m ore “content-driven," d epend­
ing upon the objectives o f the program , its target
student population, and the dem ands o f the
instructional setting.
Immersion Education
T he im m ersion m odel of foreign language ed u ­
cation is perhaps the prototypical content-based
approach. First established in 1965 in a suburb of
M ontreal. Canada, im m ersion program s can now
be found across C anada and the U nited States,
providing education in such foreign languages
as F rench. Spanish. G erm an, C hinese, a n d
Japanese. 1 In the total im m ersion m odel, English-
speaking elem entary school students receive the
majority of their schooling th ro u g h the m edium
of their second language. Im m ersion students, in
Culver City. California, for instance, learn to read,
to do m athem atics problem s, an d to conduct
science experim ents in Spanish; in fact, they
go about the business o f school like all o th er
children, albeit in their second language. T he
im m ersion m odel is one o f the most carefully
researched language program s (see G enesee
1987: J o h n so n and Swain 1997). Im m ersion
children consistently perform at o r above grade
lev el scholastically, are on par with th eir m onolin­
gual peers in English language developm ent, and
bv the end of the elem entary school, becom e
functional bilinguals.
T he Culver City Spanish Im m ersion pro ­
gram is an exam ple of early total im m ersion; in
earlv im m ersion the foreign language is generally
used for most or all academ ic instruction begin­
ning in kindergarten or grade 1. O th e r variations
Language-Driven
►
Adjunct Theme-Based Language Classes
Model Courses with Frequent Use
of Content for
Language Practice
have developed over the years which differ with
respect to the am o u n t of tim e the foreign lan­
guage is used for instruction an d the grade in
w hich the p rogram begins. In m iddle o r delayed
im m ersion, onset o f instruction in the foreign
lan g u a g e b egins in the m id d le e le m e n ta ry
grades, usuallv in the fou rth grade. Late im m er­
sion program s do not tvpicallv begin until the
e n d o f elem entarv school or the b eg in n in g of
secondare school. In earlv partial im m ersion
program s, th ere is usuallv a 50 50 tim e alloca­
tion o f English a n d the foreign language to
teach academ ic co n ten t.- W hile the bulk o f
im m ersion program s exist in C anada and the
Lhiited States, the m odel has also been im ple­
m e n te d in in te rn a tio n a l settings such as
H ungary, Spain, a n d F inland (Johnson and
Swain 1997). A ccording to Cloud. G enesee, and
Ham ayan (2000). despite differences in program
design and deliverv, most im m ersion program s
share the following four objectives:
1. grad e-ap p ro p riate levels of prim arv lan­
guage (LI) developm ent.
2. g rad e-ap p ro p riate levels of academ ic
achievem ent,
3. fu n c tio n a l pro ficien cv in th e seco n d
foreign language,
4. an understanding of and appreciation for the
culture of the target language group (p. 5).
Content-Enriched Foreign Language
in the Elementary School
D uring the 1950s an d 1960s. Foreign Language
in the E lem entarv School (FEES) program s were
w idespread across the L n ite d States. In this
m odel, “traveling” language teachers m et with
elem entarv school children for approxim atelv
20 to 30 m inutes, several tim es p e r week, for
instruction in the foreign language. These classes
ten d ed to focus on form al studv o f the foreign
language and were often criticized for their fail­
ure to produce functional users of the foreign
language. “C ontent-enriched" FLES offers an
u p d ated approach to traditional FEES, in which
subjects from the standard school curriculum
are selected for introduction o r reinforcem ent in
the FLES class (Curtain and Pcsola 1994). In this
content-based approach to the teaching o f foreign
language, teachers find points of coincidence with
the standard school curriculum which can be
paired with the objectives of the foreign language
curriculum . So. for exam ple, terms and structures
for describing weather are coordinated with a
science unit on m eteorology rather than being
presented in isolation.
T h e re are a n u m b er o f advantages that the
c o n ten t-en rich ed approach has over traditional
FLES. First, students in c o n ten t-en rich ed FLES
have a m ore relevant, m eaningful context for
language learning. They use the foreign lan­
guage to talk ab o u t the c o n te n t o f the unit
instead o f com pleting gram m ar exercises, which
was m ore tvpical of traditional FLES. Second,
since students base alreadv been exposed in
English to the c o n te n t u n d e r study th ere is a
rich er context for use o f the foreign language
for m eaningful com m unication, which is espe-
ciallv im p o rtan t given the learn ers' lim ited expo­
sure to th e fo reign language. T h e foreign
language class thus takes on the new role o f p ro ­
viding reinforcem ent o f content. Finally the
foreign language teacher does not have to search
for m aterial for the language class because the
school curriculum provides a wealth of ideas
which can be incorporated into instruction.
T h ere are at least th ree distinct m odels ol
content-based instruction that have b een devel­
oped in the second language instructional set­
ting (B rinton. Snow, and W esche 1989). These
ten d to be fo u n d in ele m en ta ry seco n d ary and
postsecondarv school settings.
Theme-Based Model
T hem atic curricula h a te been widelv im ple­
m e n te d in L.S. ele m en ta rv schools serving
native English-speaking populations (see, for
exam ple. Walmsley 1994; Kovalik with Olsen
1997). special ed u cation students (Falvcy 1995).
and second language learners (Gianelli 1997).
T he them e-based m odel is a tvpe o f content-
based instruction in which selected topics or
them es provide th e c o n te n t from which teachers
extract language learn in g activities.
 T h e m odel has also b een widely im ple­
m en te d in language institutes at the college or
university level, w here classes are often com posed
of students o f diverse language backgrounds or
interests whose com m on goal is to atten d college
or university' in an English-speaking country. T he
tea c h e r’s goal is to select topics suitable for a h e t­
erogeneous class o f in te rn atio n a l students who
n e e d to im prove th eir academ ic English (EAP)
skills. T hus, a u n it on advertising m ight engage
th e students in a variety of EAP activities such as
designing a n d adm inistering a m ark etin g survey,
p lotting a graph o f the survey results, a n d com ­
p aring a n d contrasting co n su m er attitudes.
To gauge the ex ten t of im plem entation of
them e-based instruction in intensive English pro­
grams, H afernik, M esserschm idt, and Yandrick
(1996) analyzed the results o f a survey o f 32 pro­
gram s to see how thev defined an d incorporated
con ten t-b ased in stru ctio n in th e ir curricula.
W hile the majority of the program s surveyed
described their curriculum as still predom inantly
skills-based (60% ), the results indicated that skills
instruction integrated with them atic co n ten t was
increasing. T he program s rep o rted that content
was incorporated th rough a variety of m eans. O ne
approach was the adoption of content-based,
com m ercial ESL textbooks. O th e r program s
in c o rp o ra te d c o n te n t th ro u g h instructor-
designed them atic materials. Still a n o th e r avenue
for incorporating content was the developm ent of
them atic courses such as C om puter English, or
English for Special Purposes (ESP)-tvpe courses
such as Business English.
Stoller a n d G rabe (1997) offer the first sys­
tem atic fram ew ork for them e-based instruction.
T h eir Six T ’s Approach is a p rin cip led ap p ro ach
to th e organization o f co n te n t resources an d the
selection of ap p ro p riate language learn in g activ­
ities.3 T he first T is theme. T hem es are the central
ideas that organize m ajor curricular units selected
for their appropriateness to student needs and
interests, in stitu tio n a l ex pectations, p ro g ra m
resources, and teacher abilities an d interests.
Insects m ight constitute an elem entary school
them e while dem ography m ight be chosen for a
postsecondary ESL program . T he second T, topics,
is the subunits o f c o n ten t which explore m ore
specific aspects of the them e. A them e unit on
Native A m ericans m ight include as topics the
Navajo, the H opi, a n d the Apache. Texts, the
th ird T, are defined in a broad sense as the con­
ten t resources which drive the basic planning of
them e units. Texts could include readings from
various genres, videos, audiotapes, maps, soft­
ware, lectures, graphic representations, guest
speakers, or field trips. Threads, the fou rth 1] are
linkages across units th at create greater curricular
coherence. They are relatively abstract concepts
(e.g., responsibility, ethics) that provide a natural
m eans of linking them es. T he thread responsibility,
for exam ple, m ight be used to link the units
developed aro u n d the them es of civil rights, pol­
lution, or Native Am ericans. T he fifth T, tasks, is
the day-to-day instructional activities utilized to
teach content, language, and strategy instruction.
Tasks in a typical RAP curriculum include listen­
ing to lectures and taking notes, participating in
small group discussions, p erform ing reading and
writing activities across various genres, an d prac­
ticing test-taking strategies. Finally, transitions, the
sixth T, are explicitly p lan n ed actions which p ro ­
vide coherence across the topics in a them atic
u n it and across tasks within topics. An exam ple of
a topical transition in a them e unit on dem og­
raphy would be shifting the em phasis from trends
in global population to trends in developing
countries, to developed countries, and, finally, to
students’ hom e countries.
Sheltered Model
S heltered courses currently exist in a variety of
secondary a n d postsecondary settings. T h e term
sheltered derives from the m o d e l’s deliberate sep­
aratio n o f se c o n d /fo re ig n language students
from native speakers of the target language for
the pu rp o se o f c o n te n t instruction. T he original
sheltered program was im plem ented in the post­
secondary setting at the University o f Ottaw a in
1982 as an alternative to the traditional university
foreign language class (Edwards et al. 1984). At
the University of Ottawa, students could o p t to
take a c o n ten t course such as In tro d u ctio n to
Psychology- conducted in th eir second language
in lieu o f taking a traditional second language
class. All instruction in the sheltered class was
given in the second language by c o n te n t faculty
m em bers who gauged th eir in struction to an
aud ien ce m ade up o f second language stu­
d e n ts .4 F rench sections were offered for native
English speakers a n d English sections for native
French-speaking students. At the b eg in n in g of
each c o n te n t lecture, the ESL/FSL instructors
h eld sh o rt sessions of ab o u t 15 m inutes in which
th e\’ w ould go over key term s o r provide stu­
dents with useful expressions, such as polite wavs
to in te rru p t the professor to request clarifica­
tion; however, th ere was no separate language
class p e r se.
C om parisons o f sheltered psychologv stu­
dents with students atten d in g m ore traditional
ESL an d FSL classes have found no significant
differences in the gains of the two groups in sec­
o n d language proficiencv despite the fact that
the sheltered students did n o t “stud}” the second
language. In addition to th eir gains in second
language proficiency, the sh e lte re d students
dem o n strated m astery of the co n ten t course
m aterial at the same levels as did com parison stu­
dents en rolled in regular native-speaker sections
o f psychologv. F urtherm ore, the sheltered stu­
dents rep o rted greater self-confidence in their
abilities to use th eir second language as a result
of participation in the sheltered class. Since the
first sheltered courses were developed in the
early 1980s, several form ats for discipline-based
instruction have been tried, including adjunct
classes which require fewer financial resources
(see Burger, W esche, and M igneron 1997 for an
u p d a te d discussion of “late, late” im m ersion at
the Universitv o f Ottawa).
In elem entarv an d secondary school set­
tings in the U nited States, ESL students are
often placed in sh eltered c o n te n t courses such
as “ESL M ath” or “ESL Social Studies.” These
courses are frequentlv an alternative to c o n te n t
courses tau g h t in the stu d e n ts’ native languages
in settings w here train ed bilingual teachers are
n o t available or the stu d e n t p o p u latio n is so h e t­
ero g en eo u s as to p reclu d e prim arv language
instruction. S heltered courses offer language
m inority students an alternative to traditional
ESL classes, which are often taught in isolation
from the rest o f the school curriculum , giving
th em access to school subjects from w hich they
m ight otherwise be barred on the basis o f their
lim ited English proficiency. Students in sheltered
classes follow the regular curriculum ; however,
instruction is geared to their developing levels of
second language proficiency through the use of
various instructional strategies and m aterials (see
Rosen and Sasser 1997; Echevarria and Graves.
1998; see also Strategies for C ontent-B ased
Instruction in this chapter). W hen properly con­
ducted, sheltered courses can offer an effective
approach to integrating language and content
instruction for interm ediate ESL students whose
language skills nrav not vet be developed enough
for them to be m ainstream ed with native English
speakers in dem anding content courses.
Adjunct Model
T he adjunct m odel is a content-based approach
in which students are concurrently enrolled in a
language class and a co n ten t course. This m odel
is tvpicallv im plem ented in postsecondary set­
tings w here such linking or “adjuncting” between
language and content departm ents is feasible.
However, it has also been successfullv im ple­
m en ted in paired biology/ESL or historv/ESL
classes in a California high school (Wegrzecka-
Kowalewski 1997). A kev feature of the adjunct
m odel is the coordination of objectives and assign­
m ents between language and content instructors.
T he language class becom es content based in the
sense that the students' needs in the co n ten t class
dictate the activities of the language class.
In the Freshm an S um m er P rogram (FSP)
at the Universitv of C alifornia, Los Angeles, for
exam ple, native and non-native English speakers
concurrentlv enroll in one o f six u n d e rg ra d u a te
survev courses and an English or ESL com posi­
tion class. T he m aterial o f the c o n te n t courses
becom e a springboard for activities an d assign­
m ents in the E nglish/E SL classes, as students
have their im m ediate academ ic needs treated as
well as being exposed to m ore general academ ic
skills that could be tran sferred to o th e r co n ten t
courses. C om parison of the ESL students who
have p articipated in FSP with students who have
followed a m ore typical EAP curriculum revealed
that, despite h aring significantly lower ESL place­
m en t scores, the FSP students p e rfo rm e d as well
as the higher proficiency students on a task requir­
ing them to use lecture and reading m aterial in
the com position of an essav (Snow and Brinton
1988).'’ In the EFL setting, a m odified adjunct
m odel was im plem ented in the People’s Republic
of C hina at the Social Science English Language
C enter (SSELC) in Beijing. In the SSELC pro­
gram , Chinese students atte n d ed English-lan­
guage lectures in selected social science topics
given by visiting American professors. T he EFL
classes focused on general academ ic skills devel­
opm ent before the professor’s arrival a n d then
coordinated with the content course once it was
u n d e r way.6
A n o th e r exam ple of an ad ju n ct m odel can
be fo u n d in Project LEAP: L earning English for
Academ ic Purposes, a p roject at C alifornia State
University, Los Angeles (Snow 1997; Snow an d
Kamhi-Stein in press). In this m odel, language
m inority students were concurrently en ro lled in
two linked courses: an u n d e rg ra d u a te general
education course (e.g., In tro d u c tio n to C ultural
A nthropologv, H um ans a n d th e ir Biological
E nvironm ent) an d a studv g ro u p team taught bv
a p e e r studv g ro u p lead er an d a language spe­
cialist. P articipating c o n te n t facultv m odified
th eir syllabi a n d teach in g m ethods to integrate
language and content instruction with the aim of
improving the academ ic literacv skills of the stu­
dents enrolled in the adjunct courses. Evaluation
of the project revealed that, overall, the perform ­
ance of students in the adjunct courses approxi­
m ated o r exceeded that o f the students who had
not been enrolled in the studv group courses in
which content-based acthities were introduced
and practiced (Snow and Kamhi-Stein 1997).
Expansion o f Content-Based Models
The five content-based models described in the
preceding section present well-docum ented proto­
types of content-based instruction. In recent vears,
the m odels har e evolved into new formats and dif­
ferent features have been borrow ed, blurring
manv o f the key distinctions. B rinton, Snow, and
Wesche (1989) anticipated this trend: “T he key
p oint to be m ade is that d ep en d in g on the set­
ting, the configuration o f the m odel may differ
significantly, and the features o f the three m odels
[them e-based, sheltered, and adjunct] may ten d
to blend to g eth er” (p. 23).
N um erous exam ples exist in re c e n t litera­
tu re of the application o f a m odel d esigned for
one pop u latio n to a d ifferent target p o p u latio n
or of a program traditionallv im p lem e n te d at
a p articular educational level b ein g used in
another. O n e such exam ple took place at UCLA
in the ESL Service Courses; the curriculum of
the multiskill courses has evolved from them e-
based units used in the 1970s an d 1980s to the
"sim ulated" a d ju n c t m o d el cu rren tly in use
(B rinton an d Je n se n in press). In this hybrid
m odel, videotapes o f actual lectures by UCLA
c o n te n t facultv a n d assigned course readings
provide the c o n te n t base for the ESL courses.
.Another case is the them e-based m o d el’s growing
popularitv in the EFL context. M urphey (1997)
reports on the challenges of im plem enting “work­
sh o p ” courses (e.g., “Rock ’if Roll History',”
"H ealth and Fitness Awareness”) in a traditional
university EFL setting in Jap an .
A n o th e r area o f significant expansion for
content-based instruction is foreign language
teach in g at the postsecondarv level. Ryan a n d
K rueger (1993 ) p rese n t an in terestin g set o f case
studies o f "discipline-based” program s devel­
o p ed bv foreign language a n d discipline faculty,
reflecting a variety of configurations a n d ways to
com bine language an d co n ten t. For exam ple,
the Foreign Languages across the C urriculum
(FLAG) p rogram at the Lhiiversity o f M innesota
links the m ajor E u ro p e an languages with social
science disciplines. Students enroll in weekly
sem inars co n d u c te d in the target language an d
devoted to com parison o f news coverage in the
A m erican press an d a m ajor dailv new spaper
p u blished in Spanish, F rench, or G erm an. In
a n o th e r variation, an anth ro p o lo g y professor, an
East Asian studies d e p a rtm e n t professor, a n d an
a n th ro p o lo g v g ra d u a te s tu d e n t at Brown
LTiiversity d e sig n e d “Ja p a n e s e C u ltu re a n d
S ociety” an existing course to which a content-
based co m p o n e n t in Jap an ese was added.
 Two o f the m ost dram atic exam ples of the
changing configurations of m odels can be seen
in the U nited States. Starting in the mid-1980s,
two-way im m ersion program s began to appear.
Also called bilingual immersion o r dual language,
they are a b len d in g of im m ersion a n d develop­
m en tal bilingual program s. L anguage m inority
(lim ited English speaking) an d language m ajor­
ity stu d e n ts (native E nglish speaking) are
g ro u p ed in the same classroom with the goal o f
academ ic excellence an d bilingual proficiency
fo r b o th stu d e n t groups. Bv 1995, after ap proxi­
m ately a decade of im p lem en tatio n , m ore than
182 two-way program s have b e e n established in
the U n ited States (C hristian et al. 1997).
T h e second exam ple, also an application of
the im m ersion m odel, is the use o f "structured
im m ersio n ” (also called English im m ersion) in
states such as C alifornia to teach lim ited English
p ro fic ie n t stu d e n ts (K u h lm an a n d M urray
2000). O f English im m ersion, Cloud, G enesee,
a n d H am ayan (2000) state:
T here is no generallv accepted defini­
tion o r set of criteria to define English
im m ersion program s. Thev are recom ­
m en d e d by some educators and policv-
m akers as pro g ram s for English
language learners in the U.S. It can
refer to regular program s for native
E nglish speaking stu d en ts w here
English is the only language o f instruc­
tion. They may o r mav not include spe­
cial provisions for English language
learners such as ESL instruction. They
aim for proficiency in oral and written
English a n d full academ ic achieve­
m ent; thev do not aim to m aintain or
develop language m inority students’
prim arv language o r culture (p. 205).
According to Ovando and Collier (1998), struc­
tured im m ersion is a “m isnam ed program m odel
that was prom oted bv English-only proponents
with a political agenda in the 1980s” (p. 56). T here
are strong feelings in manv quarters that struc­
tured im m ersion represents a m isapplication of
the original C anadian im m ersion m odel designed
to teach French to English-speaking students.
Strategies for Content-Based
Instruction
This section is divided into two parts. T he first
provides instructional strategies for use by lan­
guage teachers to exploit c o n te n t m aterial. T he
second part is directed to co n ten t teachers to pro­
vide ideas for m aking co n ten t m ore accessible to
se co n d /fo re ig n language learners while simulta-
neouslv teaching language skills. Sample lessons
are provided for both settings to illustrate the
strategies in use.
Strategies fo r L a n g u a g e T each ers C ontent-
based in struction provides a rich context for
teaching the traditional fo u r skills— listening,
speaking, lead in g , an d w riting— in the E S L /
EFL class. In addition, since the focus of m any
content-based ESL EFL courses is on academ ic
language learning, teaching strategic com pe­
tence is essential. To be successful academically,
all students m ust, for exam ple, be able to take
good lecture notes. Thev m ust develop strategies
for co n d en sin g large am ounts of reading m ate­
rial in to re a d in g no tes o r p re p a rin g study
guides. Clearlv. students n e e d to learn to m an­
age th eir tim e wiselv and to develop effective
test-taking strategies. These and o th e r study
skills are perhaps even m ore critical for the
ESL EFL students who mav n eed m ore tim e to
read a n d m aster c o n te n t m aterial an d who may
lack fam iliaritv with the e d u c atio n a l system
a n d or lack experience with com m on W estern
m odes of critical thinking an d writing.
Strategies to teach the fo u r skills, discussed
inclividuallv in o th e r chapters o f this volum e, can
be used effectivelv in content-based instruction.
T he purpose o f this section is to illustrate how
the four skills, plus study skills, can be in teg rated
in content-based instruction. T h ree sam ple units
are p rese n ted (see pp. 311-312) that integrate
the teaching o f the five skills w ithin an instruc­
tional unit. T he units were developed for use in
the ad ju n ct p ro g ram at UCLA for a high in te r­
m ediate ESL course paired with Introductorv
Psvchology.” T he units reflect a “receptive to
productive” teach in g cycle. Each u n it begins
with a recognition o r exposure activity. Students
are p rese n ted with m odels which illustrate the
teaching p o in t o f the unit. These m odels mav be
in the form of a passage taken from the c o n te n t
textbook a n d used for a dictation, as in U nit 1:
alternatively, the m odel m at take the form of an
exam ple text to in tro d u c e the n o tion of co h e r­
ence, which is the locus of U nit 2. T he second
activity of each unit engages the students in a
d irected exercise with the teaching point. So, for
exam ple, in Unit 1. students u n d e rlin e the logi­
cal co nnectors of classification or, in U nit ?>, thev
com plete a cloze passage constructed from the
ESL instructor's m odel lecture notes in which
key term s or inform ation has been deleted.
S ubsequent activities provide e x te n d e d practice;
for instance, in U n it 2, students reco n stru ct a
p arag rap h (i.e., dictocom p) after listening to the
instructor read it aloud. T he culm inating activity
of each unit requires the students to put their
newlv acquired knowledge to work in the produc­
tion of a text, such as a com position or a sum-
m a n . In som e cases, th e re are im m ed ia te
follow-up activities such as analysis of com m on
e rro r pattern s found in the com positions as in
U nit 1. In o th e r cases, persistent problem s such
as essay organization, source m aterial d o c u m e n ­
tation. or p u n ctu atio n becom e the focus o f
peer-editing groups or are recycled into o th e r
types of practice activities th ro u g h o u t the term .

Unit I: Focus— Classification

SKILL: AC TIV ITY I:
Listening Dictation— Model paragraph of classification on the topic “ Personality”

SKILL; A C TIVITY 2:
Prewriting Using their dictations, students underline the nouns describing categories (e.g., types, kinds,
stages) and the logical connectors of classification; discussion of the rhetorical organization
of classification

SKILL: A C TIVITY 3:
Prewriting Using a list of characteristics of individuals, students classify the information into the appro­
priate categories and label them (e.g., shyness, assertiveness, aggressiveness)

SKILL: AC TIV ITY 4:

Reading Students reread their content text to check their categories and the accuracy of their
classifications

SKILL: A C TIVITY 5:
Speaking In groups, students compare/defend theircategories and classifications

SKILL: A C TIVITY 6:
Writing Students are giventhe following prompt:“ Grace Ursini, a junior high school student, has an
IQ of 140. She does well in school, especially in English, Spanish, and music." They are also
given several explanations such as “ Grace’s mother is president of the local Parent-Teacher
Association” to use as supporting data for their claims. Using this situation, students take
the example of Grace Ursini and compose a classification essay on the topic “ Environment
vs. Heredity”

SKILL: A C TIVITY 7:
Grammar Group w ork— Students examine sentences taken from their compositions, determine the
error patterns, and make the appropriate corrections; review of passive voice based on
error analysis of compositions
Unit 2: Focus— Text Coherence
SKILL: AC TIV ITY 1:
Reading/ Instructor introduces notion of text coherence; students read passage from content text
Speaking on “ The Development of Language” and underline elements of cohesion (e.g., pronouns,
logical connectors, lexical chains, etc); discussion of different ways in which ideas can be
joined (includes a review of articles/pronouns and a review of synonyms/word forms)

SKILL: A C TIVITY 2:
Listening/ Dictocomp— Teacher reads a short passage on “ Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Develop­
Prewriting ment” two times; the students listen the first time, take notes during the second reading,
then recreate the passage in their own words; students compare their reformulations
with the original passage from the content text, noting the different types of cohesive
devices used

SKILL: AC TIV ITY 3:

Writing Students compose an essay comparing Bruner’s and Piaget’s theories of child development

SKILL: A C T IV IT Y 4:
Speaking/ Students critique each other’s essays in peer editing groups and discuss ways to improve
Writing their papers; students revise their papers based on the feedback

Unit 3: Focus— Understanding Lectures

SKILL; A C TIVITY 1:
Listening Lecture on “ Altered States of Consciousness” (simulated by the ESL instructor or pre­
sented on video); students take notes

SKILL: A C TIVITY 2:
Study skills Students complete a cloze passage constructed from instructor’s model lecture notes

SKILL: A C TIVITY 3:
Speaking Group work— Students compare their notes with the model notes and discuss ways to
determine relevant/extraneous material, use of abbreviations, organization of notes

SKILL: A C TIVITY 4:
Writing Students prepare one-page summaries of the main points contained in their lecture notes
Strategies fo r C o n ten t Instructors T he first part
o f this section p rese n ted techniques which tiie
ESL 'EEL instru cto r can use to teach language
skills th ro u g h co n ten t. In this case, the instruc­
to r is using the c o n te n t as a vehicle to p resen t
a n d practice language in the ESL, EFL class; the
prim ary objective is the teaching o f language
skills, alth o u g h the c o n te n t is clearly reinforced
in the process. In c o n te n t classes, on th e o th e r
h an d , the in stru cto r is prim arily c o n c ern e d with
delivering subject m atte r instruction. Im m ersion
a n d sh eltered m odel instructors, for exam ple,
are resp o n sib le fo r p re s e n tin g cognitively
d e m a n d in g subject m atter in a m a n n e r th a t is
c o m p re h en sib le to s e c o n d /fo re ig n language
students. T he same is true for regular classroom
teachers who have ESL students in their classes.
T he ch allenge to c o n te n t teach ers lies in
“unpacking"— to use a new te rm — difficult con­
tent in wavs appropriate to the learner's develop­
ing language svstem. To do this, teachers must
utilize a variety o f techniques and strategies for
m aking c o n te n t in stru ctio n com p reh en sib le.
These instructional techniques fall into lo u r gen­
eral categories:
1. Modifying InputRecalling that second lan­
guage learners have difficulty with the cognitively
dem and ing language of academ ic texts, it is criti­
cal that content teachers adapt the delivery of
instruction to the second language learners' level
of proficiency. T he following techniques are use­
ful wavs to modilv input:
a. slower (vet natural) rate of speech;
b. clear enunciation:
c. controlled vocabulary lim ited initial use of
idioms.
2. Using C o n tex tu al C ues C o n te n t teachers
m ust provide second language learners with m ul­
tiple cues to m eaning so that thev do not have to
rely solely on the spoken or written word to
und erstan d difficult m aterial. These contextual
cues include
a. gestures:
b. dram atization o f m eaning th ro u g h facial
expressions, pantom im e, role plav;
c. visuals, in clu d in g pictures, p h o to g ra p h s,
slides, maps, graphs, diagrams:
d. realia (i.e., actual physical objects);
e. bulletin boards;
f. word banks (e.g., charts which associate m ath
vocabulary with their corresponding symbols);
g. b u ild in g p red ic ta b ility in to in stru c tio n a l
routines such as o p e n in g and closing activi­
ties. directions, a n d hom ew ork assignm ents
so that students can figure o u t w hat to do
from the context even if they do not com ­
pletely u n d e rsta n d the spoken instructions;
h. building redundance' into lessons through
repetition, restatem ent, and exem plification.
3. Checking for Understanding T here are a variety
of techniques which can be used to insure that
students understand both the language used in
instruction and the concepts being im parted.
Am ong these checks of com prehension are
a. asking students to decide if inform ation is
true or false;
b. asking students to proside exam ples;
c. having students parap h rase im p o rtan t term s
in their own words;
d. having students sum m arize kev inform ation;
e. asking students both factual questions (e.g.,
Who?, What?) a n d re fe re n tia l q u estio n s
( Why? an d What would you do if. . . ?);
f. hasing students ask each o th e r questions.
4. Designing Appropriate Lessons All effective
instruction requires adequate pacing, attention to
students' developm ental levels, specification of
appropriate objectives, a variety of actisity types,
and ongoing, formative evaluation. In addition to
these basic considerations, content teachers work­
ing svith second language learners must take extra
m easures in lesson planning in the following
areas:
a. Vocabulary instruction Systematic activities
for vocabulary instruction m ust be devised
since second language learn ers often lack
the basic and specialized vocabulary th at
characterizes academ ic texts.
b. Prioritizing objectives T he c o n te n t teacher
m ust d ecid e w hat kev co n c ep ts sh o u ld
receive the m ost a tten tio n since covering all
o f the m aterial may not always be possible.
c. Providing schema-building activities T ech­
niques such as reviewing previously covered
 m aterials, relating ideas to the students' own
experiences, an d using brain sto rm in g or
clustering activities help students develop a
fram e of reference for cognitiveh d e m a n d ­
ing cp o n te n t m aterial. Advance organizers
such as outlines, charts, and studs' guides
also help students see the in h e re n t structure
o f academ ic m aterial.
d. Learner grouping strategies A variety of
grouping arrangem ents should be emploved.
Students can work in pairs, in small groups,
and in stru c tu re d cooperative learn in g
groups to maximize different sources of input
and output and to increase interaction.
C U R R E N T A N D FU TU R E
T R E N D S IN C O N T E N T -B A S E D
IN S T R U C T IO N
O n e o f the m ore noticeable current trends is the
innovative wavs in which teachers have incorpo­
rated com m unicative teach in g practices into
content-based instruction. T he recen t literature
is rich in exam ples. Stoller (1997). for instance,
describes how she in teg rated project work into
c o n ten t-b ased in stru ctio n a n d S hort (1997)
reports on the use o f graphic organizers to teach
social studies: similarlv. B rinton an d H olten
(1997) applv ''into, thro u g h , an d bevond" tech­
niques into a content-based lesson p lan n in g
fram ew ork. Teachers are also in teg ratin g tech-
nologv into content-based instruction, increas-
inglv looking to the Internet as a rich resource for
language and content activities. The need to teach
inform ation c< im potence in ESL classes to prepare
students lot content-area classes has also been
u n d e rsto re d t Minima and Son 1999). A rich col­
lection of teaching techniques for integrating
language and content can Ire found in Brinton
an d Masters i 1 9 9 / !.
Expansion and innovation in content-based
instruction will undoubtedh be boosted bv the
tren d toward stanclards-based instruction and
assessment. In the U nited States, educational
reform has led to federal legislation supporting
the developm ent of standards for the public

Making Lectures Comprehensible8

O b je ctiv e : To make lectures more comprehensible by defining, simplifying, and recycling content-
specific and noncontent vocabulary.
R a tio n a le: Defining, embedding, and restating terminology helps students learn new content-
specific terms (e.g., com m unalist, d em ocratic, centralism ) and noncontent terms in new
contexts (e.g., the left, a w a tershed event).
P ro c e d u re s: I. It is very important to expose ESL students to sophisticated academic vocabulary
during lectures.
2. Before the lecture, review lecture notes to anticipate difficult or unfamiliar content-
specific and general academic vocabulary items. D uring the lecture, monitor what you
are saying to help yourself become aware of your use of difficult terminology. Use
the strategies below to help students understand new terms and expand their
academic vocabulary.
• Define and explain new terms—whether or not they are content specific.
• Embed and restate new terms. For example, “The impetus for reform, that is, the
driving force or stim ulus for reform , was the Watergate scandal.”
• Break down terms for the students so that they can understand the meanings.
For example, bicam eral: b i- t w o , ca m era = chamber.
• Explain the meaning of colloquialisms or slang expressions. For example, take
care to describe what a phrase like to beat a d ea d horse means and clarify its
relevance to the conceptual point.
schools in arts, chics an d governm ent, economics,
foreign languages, English, history, geography,
m athem atics, and science (Gomez 2000). Reform
has also influenced se co n d /fo re ig n language
teaching. T he standards of the Am erican Council
on the Teaching o f Foreign Languages were p u b ­
lished in 1996 (ACTFL 1996; also,'see AGTFLs
website), and the ESL Standards for Pre-K-12
Students in 1997 (TESOL 1997; also, see TESOL’s
website). Both docum ents prom ote an expanded
role for integrated language and co n ten t learning.
For example, in Goal 2 of the EST Standards, stu­
dents are "to use the second language to achieve
academically in all content areas.” Standards 3.1
and 3.2 of the AGTFL Standards call for students
to "connect with o th er disciplines and acquire
inform ation." With the developm ent o f national
standards (and state local standards in some
locales) for foreign language and ESL. teachers
h a te useful guidelines around which to design
curricula and instruction. It should also be pointed
out that the standards m ovem ent is a broadlv
based reform. Work on bandscales in Australia
(National Languages and Literacy Institute of
Australia 1993) and learner outcom es in Canada
(Alberta Education 1997) indicates the interna­
tional scope: moreover. TESOL has begun to
explore the feasibility of international standards
for English language institutions (Fujimoto 2000).
Perhaps one of the greatest challenges in the
ongoing expansion and innovation of content-
based instruction is the search for the right bal­
ance of language and content teaching. Swain
prophetically stated in 1988 that "not all content
teaching is necessarily good language teaching”
(p. 68). Echevarria. Vogt, and Short (2000),
B rinton (2000). Crandall (1998), Lorenz and Met
(1988). and Peterson (1997). am ong others, have
pursued this issue from the p oint o f Mew o f
tea c h e r p rep aratio n . W hat are the requisite skills
n e e d ed in o rd e r to be an effective teach er
o f c o n te n t-b a se d in stru ctio n ? O th e rs have
a p p ro a c h e d the issue with a call for m o re
systematic planning of instruction. T here seems to
be an in terestin g reversal, with “language-
driven" models seeking a stronger emphasis on
content (see Stoller and Grabe's Six T ’s Approach)
and the “content-driven" models prom oting a
stronger language focus (see Kinsella 1997 ).
To this end, Snow, Met, a n d G enesee (1989)
developed a fram ew ork in which language and
c o n ten t teachers work collaborativelv to define
two tvpes of language teaching objectives. T he first
tape of objective is content-obligatoiv language.
Content-obligatory language is the language (e.g.,
vocabulary, functions, structures) w hich is
required for students to m aster concepts o r m ate­
rial in anv given co n ten t class. W ithout content-
obligatorv language, students will n o t be able to
handle the dem ands of academ ic tasks which are
cognitively d e m a n d in g a n d co n tex t-red u ced .
T he second objective is content-com patible lan­
guage. This includes specification of the types of
language which pair naturally with co n ten t m ate­
rial. C ontent-com patible language instruction
allows teachers to proMcle students with extended
practice with a troublesom e gram m ar point, such
as irre g u la r past-tense form s, for exam ple,
through contextualized academ ic tasks.
A final tre n d is a grow ing c o n cern with
em pow erm ent an d equity within content-based
instruction m ethodology. Kinsella (1997) argues
that "the pedagogical em phasis on c o m p re h e n ­
sibility and contextualization o f instructional
delivery in m uch o f CBI [content-based instruc­
tion] has been som ew hat too ‘teach er d riv e n ’
a n d 'cu rricu lu m c e n te re d ,’ with less careful con­
sideration given to the developm ent o f effective,
self-directed learners" (p. 50). She takes aim at
sh eltered instruction, in particular, n o tin g th at
this ap proach does n o t "necessarily c o n trib u te to
the ESL students' ability to confidently a n d com ­
p e te n tly e m b a rk on in d e p e n d e n t le a rn in g
endeavors. . . . students instead [are] frequently
assigned a relatively passive role . . . ” (p. 51).
T he faculty d evelopm ent c o m p o n e n t in
Project LEAP described earlier in this ch ap ter is
a n o th e r wav to address the equity and em pow er­
m ent issue. In a significant d e p artu re from the
traditional adjunct m odel, in which ESL instruc­
tors tvpicallv have had lim ited in p u t in the
instructional decisions of content faculty, partici­
p a tin g c o n te n t faculty in this project were
req u ired to revam p their syllabi, assignm ents, and
instructional styles to m ake their courses m ore
accessible to language m inority students. Snow
an d Kamhi-Stein (in press) p resent a case study of
the successes and challenges of requiring c o n te n t
faculty to assum e g rea ter responsibility for m eet­
ing the needs o f second language learners.
Still oth ers in content-based in struction
have looked to critical pedagogy, with its roots in
Freire's a p p ro ach (1970, 1998). in discussions of
le a rn e r em pow erm ent. B enesch (1993) notes
th at EAP has developed an "accom m odationist
ideology instead of an ideology of opposition
an d change" (p. 714), a n d calls for teachers to
“n e g o tia te academ ic cu rricu la responsive to
social, econom ic, and political issues, rath e r
th an serving one th at is so narrowly focused on
c areer p rep aratio n " (p. 714). An exam ple of an
ideology o f change can he fo u n d in Benesch
(1996), w here she, as the EAP teach er in an
ad ju n ct ESL /psvchologv course, co n d u c te d a
“critical needs analysis" which revealed co n tra­
dictory dem ands on h e r students h o rn the aca­
dem ic hierarchy (university, college, English,
a n d psychology dep artm en ts) and developed a
set o f activities to help students m anage these
dem ands a n d create possibilities for change.
O n e such activity teas having the students gen er­
ate questions for the professor to answ er in the
psychology class; a n o th e r was to invite the pro ­
fessor to the ESL class to engage in m ore infor­
m al in te ra c tio n with the students. A n o th e r
exam ple o f stu d en t em pow erm ent com es from
H ones (1999), who created a content-based
course on the L.S. justice svstem. with particular
focus on the provocative case of death row
in m a te M um ia Abu-Jam al. T he course teas
designed to challenge international students to
im prove th eir English language skills while devel­
oping th eir awareness of issues of social justice.
C O N C L U S IO N
C ontent-based in struction differs from m ore tra­
ditional second language teaching m ethods in a
n u m b e r of wavs. First, the roles of the language
te a c h e r and the c o n ten t teach er are necessarily
ex p an d ed . Since the c o n te n t dictates the selec­
tion a n d sequence of teaching points, the lan­
guage teach er m ust learn to exploit the c o n te n t
m aterial for its language teaching potential.
This m eans that the language teach er m ust
select c o n te n t m aterial judiciously, o r in the case
w here the m aterials are already selected (such as
in adjunct classes), seek o u t m aterial which is
m ost suitable for language teaching aims. It also
m eans that the language teach er m ust becom e
fam iliar e n o u g h with the c o n te n t m aterial to p u t
it to m eaningful use. This is one o f the m ost dif­
ficult. vet indispensable, requirem ents of content-
based teaching. Bv the same token, the c o n te n t
teach er in content-based approaches needs to
becom e sensitized to the language needs of
se co n d fo re ig n lan g u ag e stu d e n ts. F or the
im m ersion teach er who wears two hats, both lan­
guage an d c o n te n t considerations m ust stay
indelibly at the forefront. No m atter the model,
content-based teaching entails systematic planning
of integrated instruction using a rich repertoire of
strategies and techniques.
C ontent-based instructors m ust also develop
appropriate curricula and m aterials which reflect
the assum ptions of the approach. Thus, while
com m ercial language texts mav be appropriate
for some activities and are certainly useful refer­
ences. con ten t-b ased in stru ctio n necessarily
requires extensive developm ent of curricula and
m aterials which integrate the teaching of lan­
guage skills with content, and hence, mav be yen'
labor intensive. T he sample lessons presented
previously in this chapter reflect m anv hours of
preparation and planning.
Content-based instruction is a student-cen­
tered approach. Choice of content should revolve
aro u n d considerations of students' current profi­
ciency levels, academ ic or vocational objectives,
interests, and needs. W hen selecting a content-
based instructional m odel, these considerations
must be taken into account. Assessment, there­
fore. plavs an im portant role on a n u m b er of
levels. First, the needs of the learner m ust be
determ ined. These mav be very general in the case
of students who are enrolled in college prepa­
ratory program s in intensive language institutes,
or verv specific, as in the case of ESL students in
the public schools who will be m ainstream ed
quicklv into regular content classes. T he needs of
foreign language students m ust be considered as
well, guided bv the standards developed for this
particular teaching context. Second, the stu d en ts’
language proficiency levels m ust be carefully
assessed in determ ining the type of content which
will be most appropriate to select for instruction.
Finally, once a content-based approach is im ple­
m ented. assessment m ust be carefully plan n ed to
take into consideration both language develop­
m ent and co n ten t master}' (see C o h e n ’s chapter
in this v olum e).
T he teaching o f language th ro u g h c o n te n t
is n o t so m uch a m eth o d as a reo rien ta tio n to
w hat is m ean t bv content in language teaching.
T h e literatu re offers strong th eoretical su p p o rt
fo r content-based ap p ro ach es a n d a b u n d a n t
exam ples of successful program s in b o th the
foreign a n d second language settings which
effectively teach language th ro u g h content. As
we have seen, content-based in struction crosses
over age groups a n d settings an d is very m uch in
k eep in g with the com m unicative a p p ro ach to
second language teaching.
D IS C U S S IO N Q U E S T IO N S
1. If vou were studying challenging content in
vour second language, which of the tech­
niques and strategies listed in the chapter do
you think would be particularly helpful in m ak­
ing the subject m atter m ore com prehensible?
2. T he a u th o r states th at the im m ersion m odel
m ig h t be c o n sid e re d the pro to ty p ical
content-based program . U pon com pletion
o f elem entary school, im m ersion students
have acq u ired nativelike read in g a n d listen­
ing skills, but tvpicallv are n o t nativelike in
the productive skills of speaking a n d writing.
How m ight these findings be explained in
term s of the notio n s of co m p reh en sib le
in p u t a n d com prehensible output?
3. Recall Kinsella's concern with "teacher-driven"
and "curriculum -centered" m ethods. She sug­
gests that students in content-based classes be
taught strategy usage or "learning to lea rn ”
strategies. W hat do vou think she m eans by
this? Give exam ples o f "learning to lea rn ”
strategies.
4. Several points were raised at the end o f the
chapter about wavs in which content-based
instruction differs from m ore traditional m eth­
ods. Can vou think of anv other differences?
S U G G E S T E D A C T IV IT IE S
1 . im agine th at you are a fo u rth grade teach er
who has lim ited English proficient students
in vour class. You are p lan n in g a u n it on
explorers o f the New W orld. W hat content-
obligatory language skills should vou antici­
pate? W hat c o n ten t-co m p atib le language
could vou reinforce in vour lesson?
2. T he a u th o r describes five different m odels
currently in use which integrate language
an d c o n te n t instruction. C om pare an d co n ­
trast them in term s of
a. the degree to w hich they are “language-
driven” o r "content-driven”;
b. the degree of explicit language teaching;
c. the types of curricula a n d m aterials used;
d. the role of the language a n d /o r c o n te n t
teacher;
e. the purp o se o f assessment.
3. Ellis (1985) states: “D ifferent features mav
aid developm ent at different times. For in­
stance, in [his studv] teach er self-repetitions
were m ore fre q u e n t at an early stage o f
developm ent, and teacher expansions at a
later stage. . . . Both the learn er an d the native
speaker adjust their behavior in the light of
the continuous feedback about the success of
the discourse with which they provide each
other" (p. 82). C onsider these findings in
term s of the list of techniques and strategies
for co n ten t instruction. C onsider the four cat­
egories (modifying input, using contextual
cues, checking for understanding, and de­
signing appropriate lessons) and decide which
techniques m ight be m ost appropriate for
a. beg in n in g students;
b. advanced students;
c. teaching m athem atics;
d. teaching history;
e. im m igrant students;
f. intern atio n al students.
4. Using the receptive to productive cycle illus­
trated in the sample ESL/psychology units,
design an integrated content-based unit for
teaching:
a. com parison /co n trast
b. conditionals
c. guessing the m ean in g o f words from
context

FU R T H ER R EA D IN G
e loud, N., Genesee, F.. and E. Hamavan. 2000.
Dual Language Instruction: .4 Handbook for
Enriched Education. Boston. MA: Heinle &
Heinle Publishers.
A handbook for K-12 teachers, educational pro­
fessionals, and police makers who teach students
in two languages.
Genesee, F. 1987. Learning Through Two Languages.
New York: Newbury House.
A thorough discussion of the history of the
immersion model and research findings in
Canada and the United States.
Johnson, R. K., and M. Swain, eels. 1997. Immersion
Education: International Perspectives. Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press.
Descriptions of both U.S. and Canadian immer­
sion programs and those in other international
settings such as Spain, Finland, and Hungary.
Kasper, L. F., ed. 2000. Content-Based College
Instruction. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
A collection of articles by experienced content-
based professionals dealing with issues such as
the role of technology, grammar, and materials
development.
Snow, M. A. 1998.Trends and issues in content-based
instruction. Annual Rrview of Applied Linguistics.
18: 243-267.
A review of recent research in content-based
second/foreign language instruction.
Snow, M. A., and D. M. Brinton. eds. 1997. The
Content-Based Classroom: Perspectives on Integrating
Language and Content. New York: Longman.
A comprehensive anthology covering theoretical
underpinnings, K-12 and postsecondarv instruc­
tion, teacher preparation, assessment, alternative
models, and practical issues.
О
W E B S IT E S
American Council on the Teaching of Foreign
Languages (ACTFL):
www.actfl.org
Center for Applied Linguistics:
www.cal.org
Project LEAP:
http://curriculum.calstatela.edu/facultyri
asnow/ProjectLEAP/
Teaching English to Speakers of Other Languages
(TESOL):
www/tesol.org
EN DN O TES
1 A list of existing U.S. immersion programs and key
programmatic information for each program can
be found on the website of the Center for Applied
Linguistics. To locate the list, look under the head­
ing "Databases and Directories."
- For a more detailed discussion of the features of
immersion programs, see Genesee (1987).
3 For a more detailed description of the Six T ’s
Approach, see Stoller and Grabe (1997).
4 For an interesting discussion of the strategies used
bv a French-speaking professor and an English-
speaking professor lecturing in psychology, see
Wesche and Ready (1985).
■’ For a more detailed discussion of the Freshman
Summer Program, see Brinton. Snow, and Wesche
(1989).
b For more information on SSELC, see Brinton,
Snow, and Wesche (1989).
' These units were jointly developed bv the author
and Donna Brinton.
s This activity was devised bv Project LEAP partici­
pants and political science professor Dr. Nadine
Koch for use in ''Introduction to American Politics
and Society" at California State University. Los
Angeles. This activity and others designed to teach
academic literacy skills can be found on the
Project LEAP website.
 Literature as Content
for ESL/EFL
SAND RA LEE MCKAY
In "Literature as C ontent for ESL/EFL," McKay ai'gues that using literature as content provides three
major benefits for learners: ( I ) it demonstrates the ''importance of authors' choice of form to achieve
specific communicative goals. (2) it is an ideal msource for integrating the four skills, and (3) it raises
cross-cutural awareness. Example classroom activities are developed based on tw o short stories.
IN T R O D U C T IO N
Whv use literature in ESL EFL classes? T here are
those who m aintain that due to the special nature
o f literarv texts, literature can contribute little to
language learning (see МсКах [1982] for a sum-
m an of these argum ents). However, in this chap­
ter I argue that using literature as content in ESE
EFL classes provides three m ajor benefits. First,
because literarv texts depend on how the language
is used to create a particular effect, literature
dem onstrates for learners the im portance of form
in ad h e rin g specific communicative goals. Second,
using literature as content in the 1.2 classrooms
provides an ideal basis for integrating the four
skills. .And third, in an era when English is used in
a great varietv of cross-cultural encounters, literarv
texts are valuable in raising students' and teachers'
cross-cultural awareness. (See also Hinkel's chapter
on cross-cultural com m unication in this volume.)
This chapter opens with an exam ination of what is
m eant bv literarv texts. T hen each advantage listed
above for using literature is exam ined in detail.
T hroughout the chapter, examples of classroom
activities are prorided to show how such activities
can be designed.
D E F IN IN G L IT E R A R Y T E X T S
The H ow of Literary Texts
Tvpicallv. language is used to convex a message
bv relaving inform ation. Although literarv texts
exemplifv o th er features of norm al com m unica­
tion. thee generally lack this purpose. Rather, their
aim is to convex "an indiridual aw areness of reality ”
(Widdowson 1975. p. 70). W hat makes literarv texts
unique is that in literature the what and how of the
text are inseparable. As Widdowson puts it,
.An u n d erstanding of what literature
com m unicates necessarily involves an
u n d e rsta n d in g of how it com m uni­
cates: what a n d how are n o t distinct.
It is for this reason that literarv works
cannot be satisfactorilv paraphrased or
explained bv anv single interpretation:
to do so is to recast their essential ambi-
guitv into the definite shape of conven­
tional statem ent. T he basic problem in
the teaching of literature is to develop
in the student an awareness o f the
what how of literarv com m unication
and this can onlv be done bv relating it
to, without translating it into, norm al
uses of language (1975. p. 70).
T he fact that in works of literature the "what and
how are not distinct" m akes literatu re valuable
for ex ten d in g learn ers' awareness that how thev
sav som ething is im p o rtan t in two wavs. First,
how so m eth in g is said often c o n trib u te s to
speakers' achieving their purp o se in co m m u n i­
cation: and second, in deciding how som ething
is said, speakers often com m unicate som ething
about them selves — thev establish th eir voice.
kram sch (1993) offers a simple illustration
of the im portance ol form in conveving inform a­
tion. At a conference workshop she attended, the
linguist A. L. Becker asked the participants to
describe in one sentence w hat he was ab o u t to
do. H e then walked up the steps to the podium
a n d laid a book on the desk. Following this, he
asked a variety of participants to read th eir
descriptions. A fter several people read th eir sen­
tences, it was clear that even in describing such
a sim ple act, each text provided a u n iq u e p e r­
spective on what h ad been observed. W hereas
som e participants referred to Becker as “a lin­
guist," o thers refe rre d to him as "the m an,"
“von,” or “he." W hereas som e stated that Becker
“p u t” the book on the podium , others stated that
he “slapped” or “placed" the book on the podium .
W hereas some described the action in the simple
past (“vou step p ed o n to the stage"), others
described it in the past continuous ("he teas walk­
ing up the steps”) (p. 107).
For Kramsch, this exercise is significant
because it dem onstrates that even w riter has
available a variety o f choices for conveying a
m essage. For exam ple, the fact that the partic i­
pants wrote ra th e r th an spoke affected the shape
o f th eir text. T he choice of gram m atical form
en a b le d th em to relate the act to a particular
tim e a n d place and to define what teas new and
old inform ation. P erhaps m ost significantly, the
participants had a choice of what to sac an d what
n o t to say. For Kramsch, the particularity of lit­
erary texts rests on an a u th o r's use of six aspects
o f text developm ent. Specifically, in creating a
literary text, au th o rs shape the m edium of writ­
ten texts, m ake gram m atical and lexical choices
th at enable th em to define spatial an d tem poral
fram es o f referen ce, n eg otiate in terp erso n al
relationships with th eir readers, look th roug h
language to a believed world, evoke p rio r lan­
guage, an d leave m anv things unsaid. It is these
dim ensions o f literary texts that c o n trib u te to
th e "w h a t/h o w o f literary c o m m u n ic a tio n ."
m aking them difficult to paraphrase.
C arter (1996) makes a case for ex ten d in g
the n otion o f literary texts to include such things
as advertisem ents, new spaper headlines, jokes,
and puns since the\ all provide exam ples of verbal
play. As he points out. "the language used in such
texts does n o t refer to activities, entities and
events in the external world; it displays an d cre­
atively patterns its discourse in such a wav as to
invite readers to interpret how7 it represents that
world" (pp. 7-8). He supports this by providing
several instances of the literary qualities present in
evetvdav examples of language, such as an adver­
tisem ent from a British airline on its wider and
m ore com fortable seating, which states "Relief
from aches on planes." or an advertisem ent for
the Swiss chocolate bar Toblerone, which reads
"The one and Tobleronlv." Such examples offer a
com incing argum ent for introducing learners to
the playfulness ofiiterarv language bv drawing on
selected instances of evet vdav language use.
Literary Texts and the Reader
W hereas Wicldowson. Kramsch, and C arter define
literary texts bv their unique form . Rosenblatt
(1978) defines literatv texts primarily in term s of
how readers interact with them . She m aintains
that the com m on wav of distinguishing literary
works of art from o ther o pes of texts has been to
exam ine the text itself. For Rosenblatt, a text is
merely an object of paper and ink until a reader
interacts with it. H ence the question of defining
Iiterarv texts does not d epend on exam ining how7
literary and nonliterarv texts differ, but rather
depends on considering what a reader does in
these different kinds of reading.
A ccording to R osenblatt, readers perform
verv different activities d uring aesthetic and non-
aesthetic reading. To illustrate these differences,
she relates the exam ple of a m o th er whose child
has just swallowed a poisonous liquid and is fran­
tically reading the label to discover what course
o f action to follow. T he m other's m ain concern is
to get the essential inform ation in the text.
R osenblatt describes the type of reading in which
the m ain purpose o f the read er is to d ecip h er
what message cati be carried awav from the text
as efferent, from the Latin, efferre “to e a rn awav.”
In efferent reading, the read er focuses on the
message of the text. In contrast, in aesthetic read ­
ing. "the reader's prim ary concern is with what
happens duririgxh^ reading process” (p. 24).
The distinction between efferent and aes­
thetic reading rests on the stance a read er adopts
in relation to a particular text. Rosenblatt m ain­
tains that the same text can be read either effer-
entlv or aesthetically. H ence, a reader could read
a literary text aestheticallv so that his o r h e r
"attention is c e n tered directly on w hat he [or
she] is living th ro u g h d u rin g his relationship
with that particu lar text" (p. 25) or he o r she
could read it efferently bv g a th erin g specific
inform ation. For R osenblatt, too often literature
classroom s focus on the latter type o f read in g in
th at they analyze the form o f the text and thus
red u ce learn ers' en g ag em en t with literature.
This co n cern with conscious atte n tio n to form in
a literatu re class reflects an ong o in g debate
am ong teachers of literature.
T h ere are m any who argue th a t stylistics, or
literary text analysis, can be o f great value to lan­
guage learners (e.g.. Wicldowson 1975; C arter
1996). Carter, for exam ple, sum m arizes the
advantages of using stylistics in language class­
room s in the following wav:
(i) stylistics provides students with a m eth o d
o f scrutinizing texts, a "wav in" to a text,
o p e n in g up starting points for fuller in te r­
p retation. . . .
(ii) basing in terp retatio n on systematic ver­
bal analysis reaffirm s the centralitv of lan­
guage as the aesthetic m edium of literature.
(iii) non-native students possess the kind of
conscious, systematic knowledge about the
language which provides the best basis for sty­
listic analysis. In m am respects, therefore,
non-native students are often better tit stylistic
analysis than native speakers ( 1996. pp. 5-6).
O thers, however, argue that a focus on styl­
istics underm ines the reading of a literary text
fo r enjoym ent, for an aesthetic ex p erien ce.
Gower (1986). for exam ple, poses the following
question: "Can we. then in am sense, sav that 'sty­
listic analysis' helps the EFL student, when its
declared aim is to illum inate the 'm echanism ' of
a 'tex t' u n d e r the m icroscope . . . ? This, as 1 have
said, is a very different thing from reading: the
students operate on the 'tex t' rath er than let a
poem or novel speak to them " (pp. 129-130).
Gower, like R osenblatt, believes that literary texts
should be read and enjovecl and that literary
analysis necessarily u n derm ines this possibility.
The question o f w hether or not to use stylis­
tics o r language analysis in L2 classroom s
depends on what is m eant bv stylistics. Clearly, if
stvlistics entails m ere analysis of literature to sup­
p ort one central m eaning o f a text, usually one
arrived at by so-called literary scholars, th en
th ere is little possibility th at this will engage lan­
guage learners o r contribute to th eir enjoym ent
of reading a literary text. If, on the o th e r hand,
stvlistics p ro tid es learners with the tools to justify
their own opinions of a text, th en the analysis
o f the text can be related to the stu d e n t’s own
aesthetic reading o f it. W iddowson (1992) term s
this approach one of practical stylistics in which
the goal is "to stim ulate an engagem ent with
prim ary texts, to encourage individual in te rp re ­
tation w hile re q u irin g th a t this sh o u ld be
referred back to features o f the text” (p. xiv).
C arter (1996) m akes a distinction betw een what
is traditionally tho u g h t o f as stvlistics and what, he
term s a language-based approaeh to literature. For
Carter, a language-based approach is student
centered, activity based, and process o rie n ted in
that classroom tasks help students su p p o rt th eir
in terpretation o f a text by engaging them in the
process of m eaning-m aking.
How then can language analysis be p roduc­
tively used in L2 classrooms to enhance students'
enjoym ent in reading literature and develop their
awareness o f language?
U SIN G L IT E R A R Y T E X T S
TO D E V E LO P L A N G U A G E
Comparing Two Short Stories
In o rd e r to illustrate how literary texts m ight be
a p p ro a c h e d in L2 classroom s, let us com pare
how two short stories that rec o u n t the ex p eri­
ence of voting adolescents in th eir school envi­
ro n m e n t m ight be used ("Eleven” bv Sandra
Cisneros [an excerpt from h e r novel entitled
Woman Hollering Creek] and "O ut o f O rd e r” by
W illiam Sarovan). "Eleven" tells the story o f
Rachel on h e r eleventh birthday. T he storv takes
place at school w here the teacher, Mrs. Price,
asks who in the class owns a red sweater th at has
b een "sitting in the coatroom for a m o n th .” No
one in the class savs it belongs to th em until sud­
denly one of the students, Sylvia Saldivar, savs, “I
think it belongs to R achel.” A lthough Rachel
states that it is not hers, the teacher answers, “O f
course it's vottrs. . . . I rem em b er y o u w earing it
once.'' W hen Rachel shoves the sweater to the
edge o f h e r desk, Mrs. Price tells her, "You put
that sweater on right notv an d no m ore n o n ­
sense." T he incident ends right before the bell
rings for lunch w hen Phvllis L ope/, a n o th e r stu­
d en t in the class, rem em bers that the sweater is
Iters Rachel takes it o il and gives it to her.
“O ut o f O rder" tells the store o f William
Saroyan's first clav in seventh g rad e at
L ongfellow Ju n io r H igh School. T h e store
begins with the an cient historv teacher. Miss
S henstone, telling the students to tu rn to page
192 in th eir books. W illiam com m ents that "it
w ould seem m ore in o rd e r to tu rn to page one
for the first lesson." T he tea c h e r responds be
telling William to be quiet and let h e r clo the
teaching. T hen she points to a p h o to g ra p h in
the textbook of two stones that she savs are
20,000 \ea rs old. William questions how she
knows this. This leads Miss S henstone to "fling"
h erself at W illiam, resulting in his leaving the
room . H e returns five m inutes later, and again
Miss S henstone "dings" herself at William. This
results in W illiam going to see Mr. M onsoon, the
principal of the school, to tell him whv he left
the class. Mr. M onsoon m eanw hile wants to
know W illiam's nam e a n d who he is. specifically
what nationality he is. W hen William tells him
th at he is A rm enian, the p rin c ip al replies.
“N obodv but an A rm enian w ould have asked a
question like that." W illiam's m eeting with the
principal ends with the principal saving that he
“m ust give him a thrashing." At this point.
W illiam goes h o m e a n d tells his U ncle
Alecksancler what occurred. He th en retu rn s to
the school accom panied bv his uncle, who talks
to the p rin cip al alone. A fter a sh o rt tim e.
W illiam is asked to com e into the office to talk
with the principal, Miss S henstone, and his
u n c le a n d is told bv his u n c le th a t Miss
S henstone has agreed to look into the m atter of
how the age of the stones was d e te rm in e d . H e is
also told th at it was with “ad m iratio n ” th at Mr.
M onsoon co m m en ted that only an A rm enian
w ould ask a question like that. In the en d
William has to spend the rest o f the day away
from school an d th en re tu rn to his classes the
next day as th o u g h "n o th in g h ad h a p p e n e d .”
W hen he retu rn s to school, William apologizes
to b o th th e p rin cip al a n d Miss S h en sto n e.
However, after lo u r davs. Miss S henstone leaves
the school. M eanwhile. Mr. M onsoon talks ab o u t
m an n ers at several student both m eetings, but
after a m onth he leaves, too.
In o rd e r to p ro m o te aesthetic reading, it is
im p o rtan t to begin bv having students read and
enjov the stories. Obviously students will enjov
reading literature onlv if the text is accessible to
them . H ence, it is im p o rtan t in selecting literary
texts to ensure that the th em e o f the text is
engaging for the students and that the text itself
is not too difficult on e ith e r a linguistic or con­
ceptual level. To encourage aesthetic reading,
the initial discussion o f the stories should focus
on having students discuss what they enjoyed or
d id n 't enjov about the story, what it m eans to
them , how it relates to their own personal expe­
riences. and so on. It is this very kind o f discus­
sion that can lead to what W iddowson (1992)
term s practical stylistics, in which students are
e n co u rag ed to express individual in te rp re ta ­
tions and m ust refer these in terp retatio n s back
to the text. To illustrate how this m ight occur in
L2 classroom s, let tts consider how stu d e n ts’
individual in te rp re ta tio n o f the characters in the
two stories described above could be the basis
for a literary task.
Characterization
Readers assess characters in a story based on
what the ch aracter savs an d does, what others in
the storv sav about the character, and how the
a u th o r describes the character. To encourage
students' own responses to the stories, a teacher
m ight begin bv having students describe both
Rachel and William. This could involve stu d e n ts’
listing the adjectives they believe best describe
each character, describing each in a short p ara­
g rap h . g a th e rin g p ictu res th a t d e p ic t th e ir
im age of Rachel a n d William, o r com paring
each ch aracter with som eone they know.
T he next part of the literary task should
encourage students to retu rn to the text to justify
their interpretations. O ne activity m ight be to
have students com plete a character web, such as
the one suggested by McCloskev and Stack (1993,
pp. 154-155) for each character. Students would
com plete the following type of chart, citing spe­
cific details from the story.
H ow O thers W i l l i a m ’s O w n
See W illiam W o rd s a n d A ctions
D escriptions Y our Ideas
o f W illiam a b o u t W illiam
bv th e A u th o r
T he list o f w hat W illiam says w ould include
the following passages from Saroyan’s story.
“How do vou know?’’
“She said the rocks were twenty th o u ­
sand years old . . . .All I said was, ‘How
do you know?’ I d id n 't m ean they
weren’t th at old. I m eant that maybe
the}' were older, mavbe thirty th o u ­
sand years old. How old is the earth?
Several m illion t ears old, isn't it? If the
book can say the rocks are twenty
th o u san d years old. som ebody ought
to be able to say how the book got that
figure. This isn't Em erson School, it's
Longfellow Ju n io r H igh. I cam e here
to learn. I d o n 't expect to be p u n ish ed
because I want to learn."
T he list of w hat Rachel says, on the o th e r
h and, w ould include the following:
“T h a t’s not, I d o n 't, you're not . . . Not
m in e .”
“But th a t’s not."
O nce students com plete th eir individual
webs, teachers can th en encourage them to
exam ine the language o f the text. T he contrast
in length o f both characters' responses illus­
trates aspects of th e ir personality. However,
m ore subtle features such as the false starts in
Rachel's speech an d the use of questions in
W illiam ’s speech also suggest differences in th eir
characters.
Because b o th stories are told from the first
person p o in t o f view, stu d e n ts’ in te rp re ta tio n of
W illiam a n d R achel will u n d o u b ted ly be affected
bv w hat they learn ab o u t the characters from
their thoughts. H ence, with these stories, the
teacher may w ant to draw atten tio n to the con­
cept of first person p o in t of view. In using litera­
ture in the classroom , exactly w hat tasks are
developed should d e p e n d on what features of
the text are salient in the story and on what ele­
m ents o f the text are relevant to stu d e n ts’ in ter­
p retation o f it. Let us then consider how teachers
m ight address the elem en t o f point o f view in
relation to these two stories.
Point o f View
Fowler (1986) distinguishes three types o f point of
riew: (1) spatio-temporal, (2) ideological, and (3) psy­
chological. The spatio-tem poral point of riew refers
both to the sense of time that the a u th o r conveys
bv using such techniques as flashbacks or the
interweaving of stories (the tem poral dim ension),
and to the m an n er in which an a u th o r depicts
items such as objects, buildings, and landscapes in
relation to one an o th er (the spatial dim ension).
T he ideological p oint of riew, on the o th er hand,
refers to the “set o f values, or belief system, com ­
m unicated bv the language o f the text” (p. 130).
T he psychological p o in t o f view is the one
m ost frequently refe rre d to in literary analysis
a n d involves the question o f “who is p rese n ted as
the observer o f the events of a narrative, w h ether
the a u th o r o r a participating c h a ra c te r” (p. 134).
Fowler delineates two types o f psychological
points of view: in tern al and external. In the
internal psychological p o in t o f view, e ith e r the
storv is told from first person p o in t of view by a
ch aracter who shares his or h e r feelings ab o u t
the events a n d characters o f the story o r it is told
bv som eone who is n o t a p articipating ch aracter
b u t who has know ledge of th e feelings o f the
characters, the so-called om niscient author. In
the external psychological p o in t o f view, the n ar­
rato r describes the events a n d characters from a
position outside o f the m ain c h aracter with no
access to the ch a ra c te rs’ feelings a n d opinions.
Psychological Point of View
“Eleven” an d “O u t of O rder" are both told from
the first person point o f view bv Rachel and
W illiam, who share th eir feelings ab o u t the
events. In both stories, the authors let the read er
into the thoughts o f the ju n io r high student. T he
o p e n in g o f each storv illustrates this first person
p o in t o f view.
“Eleven” begins with the following:
W hat thev d o n 't u n d e rsta n d about
birthdavs and what they never tell to n
is that w hen you're eleven, vou're also
ten, and nine, and eight, and seven,
and six, and five, and four, and three,
and two, and one. And when von wake
u p on vour eleventh birthday von
expect to feel eleven, but you don't.
You open vour eves and everything's
just like yesterday, only it's today. And
t on d o n 't feel eleven at all. You feel like
vou’re still ten. And von a re — u n d e r­
neath the vear that makes vou eleven.
“O ut of O rd er,” on the o th e r h and, begins
in the following wav.
Longfellow High was not strictly speak­
ing a high school at all. It teas the sev­
enth and eighth grades of gram m ar
school, and its full nam e was Longfellow
Ju n io r High School. The Longfellow
in question was of course the Mr.
Longfellow, o r H enrv W adsworth,
although nothing m uch was ever m ade
of that.
It was in ancient history class that I
first astonished mv class into an aware­
ness that h ere was a truly original
m ind. It h ap p en ed that this was the
first class of the v e il first dav.
In o rd e r to help students recognize how the
difference in tone betw een the two openings
is achieved, a teach er m ight pose a series of
questions for students to consider, such as the
following.
"E leven”
1. W ho does tlm refer to? Why do you think the
au th o r chose to ttse they rath er than a specific
reference? W ho do vou think you refers to?
Why do you think the au th o r chose to use уout
2. W hat effect does the a u th o r achieve bv h a t­
ing Rachel list all of the years of h er life rath er
than just saving "W hen vou're eleven, vou’re
also all the o th er vears of t o u r life"?
“O i l of O rder”
1. W illiam is in seventh grade vet points o ut the
first a n d m iddle nam es of Longfellow. Why
do vou th in k W illiam Sarovan (the adult
a u th o r o f the storv) has William, the seventh
grader, p o in t this out?
2. W hat kinds o f things astonish vou? W ht do
to n think S arotan chose to describe him self
as a seventh g rad er using that word? Whv do
vou think S arotan described him self as a
tnils original mind}
The aim of such questions is to help students rec­
ognize the wav in which their assessment of the two
characters has been influenced bv how the authors
have used first person point of tietv to develop a
childlike voice for Rachel and a self-confident and
arrogant voice for William. In the case of “O ut
of Order." the relationship of the author and
narrator is even m ore complex since Sarot an, the
author, is writing about his own youth.
A nother activity that could be used to high­
light the m an n er in which the authors depict the
characters is to have students list all of the sen­
tences in "Eleven" that sound childlike. This list
m ight include such sentences as the following:
1. "Like some davs you m ight sav som ething
stupid, and th a t’s the part of vou that's still
ten."
2. "O r mavbe som e davs you m ight n e e d to sit
on vour m am a ’s lap because v o u ’re scared,
and that's the p a rt o f you that's live.”
Students m ight also m ake a list of com m ents
William makes that dem onstrate his outspoken
self-confidence. This m ight include com m ents
like the following:
1. "I rem arked th at it would seem m ore in o rd er
to turn to page one for the first lesson."
2. “I was asked mv nam e, w h ereu p o n , I was only
too glad to say honestly, ‘William Saroyan."'
T he m ain p o in t o f such activities is req u irin g stu­
dents to re tu rn to the text to exam ine how the
story is told and in w hat ways this has influenced
th eir ju d g m e n t o f the characters.
Spatio-Temporal Point ofView
Cisneros chose to tise th e p re se n t tense to
reco u n t h er storv while Saroyan uses the past
tense. To explore the difference that verb tense
has on telling a storv, teachers m ight refe r to pas­
sages such as the following a n d ask students
which of the two accounts thev felt thev were
actually witnessing.
“E i .fat.x "
“W hose is this?" Mrs. Price savs, and she
holds the red sweater up in the air for
all the class to see. "Whose? It's been
sitting in the coatroom for a m onth."
“O ut of O rder"
Miss S henstone flung h erself at me
with such speed that I was scarcely able
to get awav. For h alf a m o m en t she
clung to mv hom ek n it sweater, and
dam aged it before I got awav.
Such com parisons are useful in helping students
recognize that the use of the present tense in sto­
rytelling suggests the im m ediacy o f events, incit­
ing the reader to witness them .
T he tem poral point of view also involves the
o rd er in which the events of a store are told. In
some instances the store time and real time are
identical, whereas in others the au th o r uses flash­
backs so that the store time and real time differ.
In dealing evith such stories, teachers m ight have
students com plete a chart such as the one at the
bottom of this page in which students use clues
from the text to guess at the actual time o f the
event. This tvpe of chart is particularly useful in
situations where the store- line is quite com plex
temporally.
Tine N u m b er H istorical Tim e
A n o th er way of addressing the tem poral
p o in t o f view is to ask students to visualize key
events in a story by com pleting a collage. In the
case o f “O u t o f O rd e r,” students could be asked
to identify what they consider to be central
events erf the store, such as Miss S h e n sto n e ’s chas­
ing William, the p rin c ip al’s q u estio n in g William,
and U ncle A lecksander’s com ing to the p rin ci­
pal's office. T hen individually o r in small groups,
students create a collage o f these events using
photo g rap h s, objects, line drawings, a n d texts.
As m en tio n ed earlier, what Fowler calls the
spatial p o in t ofview addresses how objects, b uild­
ings. and landscapes are described. For exam ple,
in "Eleven" the red sweater is in tro d u c ed in the
storv when Mrs. Price “holds the sweater u p in
the air for all the class to see.” E ater she takes the
“ugh sweater with red plastic bu tto n s a n d a col­
lar an d sleeves all stretched out like you could
use it for a ju m p ro p e ” an d puts it on R achel’s
desk. This leads Rachel to "move the red sweater
to the co rn er o f mv desk” until eventually she
shoves “the red sweater to the tippv-tip c o rn e r” of
h e r desk an d "it's hanging all over the edge like a
waterfall." To address the spatial dim ension,
teachers m ight begin bv asking students why they
think Rachel felt so hum iliated bv having the
teacher insist that the sweater was hers. This
undoubtedly would lead to a discussion of what
the sweater was like. At this point, students m ight
be asked to list all o f the descriptions of the
sweater in the storv. T he goal o f such an activity’ is
to help students recognize th at th eir o p inion of
the sweater has been influenced by how the
a u th o r chose to describe it.
Ideological Point ofView
Exam ining stories' ideological point of view is
closelv related to what has been term ed critical
literacy or critical reading, Kress (1985) m aintains
that readers should approach all texts with three
questions in m ind; namelv, whv is the topic being
written about, how is the topic being written
about, and what o th er wavs could the topic have
been written about? In critical reading, readers
are encouraged to exam ine the values and belief
L ocation C haracters Events
systems th at u n d erlie a text or what Fowler
(1986) refers to as the ideological p oint o f view
o f a storv. A ccording to Fowler, the n a rra to r or
characters in literary texts frequently rely on
m odal structures to convey th eir beliefs an d atti­
tudes. These structures include such things as
m o d al auxiliaries (e.g., may, might, should),
m odal adverbs or sentence adverbs (e.g., surely,
perhaps, It is certain that . . .), evaluative adjectives
a n d adverbs (e.g., lucky, fortunate, regrettably), an d
verbs o f know ledge, prediction, and evaluation
(e.g., seem, believe, foresee, dislike).
O n e suggested wav of enco u rag in g students
to see the ideological p o in t o f view in "O ut of
O rd e r” is for the tea c h e r to begin bv asking stu­
dents why thev think the storv was en titled "O ut
of O rd er.” As a follow-up to this question, a
tea c h e r could have students u n d e rlin e all the
references to the “old school" (i.e.. w hen teach­
ers do the questioning) and the "new school"
(i.e., w hen students do the questioning) and
have them use these references to d eterm in e
w h eth er or n o t they th ink the a u th o r is sympa­
thetic to the old or the new school, citing sen­
tences from the text to su p p o rt th eir view. Such
an a p p ro ach would lead students to consider
such passages as the following one. which occurs
after W illiam questions how Miss Shenstone
knows the age of the stones tit Stonehenge.
W illiam com m ents that "the tru th of the m atter
is that n e ith e r Miss Shenstone . . . n o r Mr.
M onsoon himself, the principal, had anything
like a satisfactory answer to am legitim ate ques­
tion o f this sort, for thev (and all the o th e r teach­
ers) had always accepted what thev h ad fo u n d in
the textbooks.” T he goal of this tvpe of an exam ­
ination of a literary text is to help students see
th at au th o rs often have a particular set o f values
that inform how thev choose to tell a storv.
In concluding this com parison of these two
short stories, it is im portant to em phasize several
points regarding the use o f literary texts to
develop students' language awareness. First, in
o rd e r to pro m o te students' enjoym ent of reading
literary texts, classroom actirities should alwavs
begin with haring students individually or in small
groups share their personal reactions to a literary
text. Second, as a wav of developing students'
awareness of how th eir in te rp re ta tio n o f the text
has been influ en ced bv how the storv is told,
classroom tasks should encourage students to go
back to the text to su p p o rt th eir in terpretations.
Finally, exactly what tvpe o f classroom tasks are
used will d e p e n d on what features of the story
a re m ost salient (e.g., te m p o ra l o r spatial
description, p oint of view, or characterization).
U SIN G LITER A R Y T E X T S
TO IN T E G R A T E SKILLS
Reading
Using literature as c o n ten t provides an ideal way
to integrate the developm ent o f the four skills. As
the previous discussion has m ade clear, en co u r­
aging students to carefully exam ine a literary text
to support their interpretations prom otes stu­
dents' close reading of texts, a skill which will
b e n e fit th e ir re a d in g o f o th e r m aterial.
Literature, of course, is also ideal as c o n ten t for
extensive reading program s in L2 classrooms.
Becom ing engaged with a piece o flite ra tu re will
certainly increase students' interest in reading
often and widely in English. (For a good source
of literature for language learners, see Dav and
Bam ford [1998], which includes six h u n d re d
titles divided bv levels of difficulty as well as bv
age group, genre, and region o f the world.)
Listening
W hen read aloud, literatu re also offers an excel­
lent c o n tex t for developing global listening
skills. T he m any books available on audiotape
can be used as a basis for an extensive listening
library. O n e clear advantage o f enco u rag in g stu­
dents to listen to literature read bv professionals
is that such m aterial exposes students to a variety
of dialects an d voice qualities.
A nother type of listening task that can be
used in L2 classroom s involves storvtelling.
M organ and Rinvolucri (1988) in their book, Once
Upon a Time, argue convincingly that the quality
of listening that occurs when som eone is telling
;t storv "is radically different from that during
listening c o m p r e h e n s io n fro m a tape. T h e latter previously o c c u rre d . S tu d e n ts th u s have a g reat
is a l w a y s third-person listening, a kind o f eaves­ deal o f relevant in fo rm atio n to d r a w o n to w rite
dropping that is s t r a n g e l y u n com pelling. To be a dialogue.
t o l d a s t o r e b v a live s t o m e l l e r , o n th e contrary, Plavs p r o v i d e a ric h c o n t e x t f o r d e v e l o p i n g
involves o n e in 'I-tb o u ' liste n in g , w h e r e th e liste n ­ stu d e n ts' sociolinguistic a n d p ra g m a tic aw aren ess
ers can directly in ilu en ce the telling” (p p.1-2). (see M cKav [ i n p r e s s ] ) . It is i m p o r t a n t , h o w e v e r ,
T heir book contains a variety of strategies for to r e c o g n i z e th a t plavs d iffe r in s ig n ific a n t wavs
u s i n g s t o r y t e l l i n g t o d e v e l o p l i s t e n i n g skills. from natural conversation. As S im pson (1997)
points out. dram a and naturally o ccurring dis­
c o u rs e a re n o t id e n tic a l types o f c o m m u n ic a t io n .

Speaking The m ost obvious d iffe re n c e betw een

the t w o is t h a t c h a r a c t e r s i n p l a v s a r e
Perhaps th e greatest b en efit o f using literature
n o t real p e o p le in t h e wav that in ter­
in t h e l a n g u a g e c l a s s r o o m lies i n its p o t e n t i a l f o r
lo c u to rs in conv ersatio n are. A n o th e r
d e v e l o p i n g s t u d e n t s ' s p e a k i n g skills, p a r t i c u l a r l y
difference is that w hereas naturally
th e ir sociolinguistic a n d p ra g m a tic c o m p e te n c e .
occurring co nversation is straightfor­
U nlike d ialo g u es w ritten for trad itio n al lan ­
w ardly "hue to lace," itt dram a dia­
guage learn in g texts, м о гу d ialo g u es tvpicallv
lo g u e the channel o f co m m u n icatio n
offer a d etailed account o f the speakers' back­
is m o r e c o m p l e x . T h i s is b e c a u s e t h e r e
g ro u n d s a n d role relationships. I Ience. such d ia ­
are tw o c o m m u n ic a tiv e l a y e r s at. w o r k
lo g u e s p r o v id e s tu d e n ts w ith a basis f o r ju d g in g
in dram a discourse. . . . O n the one
th e a p p r o p r ia t e n e s s o f lan g u a g e use. F o r e x a m p le ,
h a n d , t h e r e is i n t e r a c t i o n w i t h i n a p l a y :
in " O u t o f O rd e r." W illiam a p o lo g izes to th e p r i n ­
this is th e character-to-character
c i p a l a n d h is t e a c h e r , s a v i n g to Mr. M o n s o o n . "I'v e
dialogue w hich is d i s p l a y e d on stage
c o m e to a p o lo g iz e . I d o n 't w a n t a n v sp ecial privi­
o r in the text. O n th e other, there is
leges." a n d to M iss S h e n s t o n e . " I'm sorn about
c o m m u n ic a tio n b etw een th e d ram atist
t i r e t r o u b l e I m a d e . I w o n ' t d o it a g a i n . " B e c a u s e
a n d a u d i e n c e o r r e a d e r (p. 164).
th e sto re itself h a s p r o v i d e d th e background on
w hy W illiam is a p o l o g i z i n g and to w h o m he is N e v e rth e le s s , plavs c a n b e u s e d to e x a m i n e
ap o lo g izin g , stu d e n ts have a c o n te x t for evaluat­ such th in g s as t h e sequencing o f tu rn s in con­
ing th e app ro p riaten ess o f p articu lar linguistic v e rs a tio n . sttiied a n d i m p l i e d m e a n i n g s , ellipsis,
form s. S tudents also have a lull co n tex t for a n d so o n . Fish (1989) suggests o n e strategy for
d eterm in in g w hen discourse is n o t a p p r o p r i a t e in creasing stu d en ts' aw areness o f th e n atu re of
as. for exam ple, w hen M iss S henstone tells c o n v e rsa tio n . H e r e c o m m e n d s giving s tu d e n ts a
W illiam , "I m ight saw M is lc r W i l l i a m Sarovan. list of the cast of characters in a plav. w hich
just s h u t u p and let m e do the teaching o f the includes som e background inform ation on the
a n c i e n t h i s t o r y class." characters (e.g.. a journalist, a coach, a black
T e a c h e r s c a n also u se lite ra ry te x ts as a basis athlete, a sponsor). W ith this in fo rm atio n and
for h av in g students w rite their own dialogues. th e title and setting of th e plav. students are
F o r e x a m p le , in " O u t o f O rd e r," S aro v an leaves asked to m ake hypotheses about th e plav in
u n t o l d w h a t W il li a m 's u n c l e a c tu a lly says to t h e te rm s o f th e plot, th e m e , a n d so o n . T h e n Fish
prin cip al r e g a r d in g W illiam 's b e h a v io r a n d the s u g g e s t s gi v i n g s t u d e n t s a s e c t i o n o f t h e p l a v w i t h
p rin c ip a l's q u estio n in g o f W i l l i a m ’s n a t i o n a l i t y . t h e lin e s blit w ith th e c h a r a c t e r s ' n a m e s d e le t e d .
H ow ever. S arovan does re c o u n t w h at a g re e m e n t S tudents f i r s t t r v t o g u e s s w h o is s p e a k i n g f r o m
th e u n c le a n d p rin c ip a l r e a c h at th e c o n c lu s io n t h e list o f c h a r a c t e r s . F in a l ly , s t u d e n t s a r e a s k e d
o f their m eeting, giving learn ers several clues to sequence th e lines o f th e plav. In d o in g so,
as to what m ight have been said. In addition, students can dev elo p sensitivity to th e fact th at
learn ers have a sense o f b o th th e u n c le 's and "conv e rs a tio n s a re c o m p lic a te d , b u t o r d e r ly a n d
M r. M o n s o o n 's p e rs o n a litie s , b a s e d o n w h a t h as ru le -g o v e rn e d events" (B u rto n 1 9 8 2 , p. 8 6 ) .
Writing
L iterature can be used to develop students' writ­
ing abilities bv having students react in personal
jo u rn a ls an d form al essavs to the literarv texts
they read. L'sing writing in this wav offers two
benefits. First, it provides students with a way to
express their personal in te rp re ta tio n of a story,
thus pro m o tin g the tvpe of aesthetic response to
readin g literary texts referred to earlier. Second,
to the extent that students are asked to refer to
the text to justifv th eir conclusions about the lit­
erary selection, tliev learn to support their opin­
ions with relevant inform ation, an im portant skill
for various types of academ ic writing.
Using literary texts in writing classes is also
valuable for helping students becom e aware of
voice a n d p o in t o f view in written texts. For
exam ple, with "O ut o f O rder" a n d "Eleven.” one
strategy for developing point o f view w ould be to
have students rew rite these stories from the
p o in t o f view of the teacher. A n o th er possibilitv
would be to have students rew rite "Eleven" as if
told an d ex p erien ced bv William. In this case,
students w ould n eed to consider how William,
given what thev know of him from "O ut of
O rd e r,” w ould react to being wronglv accused of
ow ning an old red sweater, a n d th en assum e
W illiam's voice in reco u n tin g the storv.
O ne excellent genre for develop fluencv in
writing, particularly for less proficient language
learners, is poetrv. Because p o e m is less restricted
by the gram m atical and lexical constraints of
o th er types o f discourse, poem s can provide learn­
ers with a m edium for exploring and plating with
language. Malev and Duff (1989) present a variety
o f strategies for enco u rag in g students to create
their own poems. O ne strategy, for example,
involves having students draw several familiar
shapes, such as a ladder or staircase. Next, students
list words that thev associate with this shape. T hen
they use some of these words to write a poem in the
shape of the object itself. To increase students'
awareness of the im portance of word choice, Malev
and Duff suggest giving students poem s in which
descriptive words have been deleted and haring
students fill in the blanks. Students th en com pare
their choices and discuss the differences in effect
that arise from m aking specific wTord choices.
W iddowson (1999) m akes a convincing arg u ­
m en t for using poetrv in the language class­
room . H e argues that, although the c o n te n t of
poem s can often be red u ced to ordinary obser­
vations (e.g.. tim e passes, life is lonelv), "the
essentials o f poetrv lie in the wav language is
used to elaborate on such sim ple propositions so
that thes apre reform ulated in unfam iliar term s
which som ehow cap tu re the underiving mvstery
of the com m onplace" (p. 9). T he simple them es
of poetry and the unconventional m eth o d of
expressing these them es thus provide an avenue
for language learners to use the English thev have
to express sophisticated ideas, unrestricted bv the
typical constraints of conventional discourse.
U SIN G L IT E R A R Y T E X T S
TO D E V E LO P C U L T U R A L
A W A R EN ESS
A third benefit o f using literarv texts in the lan­
guage classroom rests in their potential for devel­
oping cross-cultural awareness. This is especially
im portant in an era when learners com m unicate
in English, not onlv with native speakers of
English in Western countries, but also with other
non-native speakers aro u n d the globe. In o rd er to
discuss the benefits of using literarv texts to
develop cultural awareness, it useful to distin­
guish various dim ensions of culture. Aclaskou,
Britten, and Fahsi (1989) distinguish four dim en­
sions of culture: the aesthetic sense in which a lan­
guage is associated with the literature, film, and
music of a particular country; the sociological sense
in which language is linked to the custom s and
institutions of a country; the semantic sense in which
a culture's conceptual system is em bodied in the
language: and the pragmatic sense in which cul­
tural norm s influence what language is a p p ro ­
priate for what context.
A literarv text frequently exemplifies several
dim en sio n s o f cu ltu re. For exam ple, w hen
considering “Out. o f O rd e r” an d "Eleven." the aes­
thetic sense o f culture is evident in the m ention of
H enrv W adsworth Longfellow and Stonehenge.
T he sociological sense of culture is dem onstrated
in various ways— in the assum ption in “Eleven"
about the im portance of clothes in A m erican
schools and in the accepted role o f the teacher
to question and com m and students. The sem an­
tic sense of culture is clear in word choice when,
for exam ple, William reports that the teacher
"flung herself” at him rather than saving she
chased him or ran after him, and it is evident in
the m etaphorical use of language in “Eleven"
w hen Rachel, for exam ple, states, “T he wav vou
grow old is kind of like an onion or like the rings
inside a tree trunk or like my little wooden dolls
that fit one inside the other, each vear inside the
next one." Finallv. the pragm atic sense of culture
is exem plified in the dialogue passages in “O ut of
O rder" when, for exam ple, the form al contractual
sense o f U ncle A lecksander an d Mr. M onsoon's
a g reem en t reg ard in g William is sealed with the
exchange of the uncle saving. "I shall be in te r­
ested in his progress." a n d Mr. M onsoon
responding. “We all shall."
T here are those who argue that a language
c a n n o t be tau g h t w ithout cu lture. Kramsch
(1993). for exam ple, m aintains that if language
“is seen as social practice, culture becom es the
verv core of language teaching. C.ultural aware­
ness m ust then be viewed both as enabling lan­
guage proficients and as being the outcom e of
reflection on language proficients" (p. S). She
argues, however, that knowing about a culture
(i.e.. gaining cultural com petence) does not
m ean that one has an obligation to behave in
accordance with the cont entions of that culture.
Thus the ultim ate goal of cultural learning is not
to convev inform ation about a culture no r to pro­
m ote the acquisition o f culturallv influenced wavs
of behaving, but rath er to help learners see their
culture in relation to others so as to prom ote
cross-cultural understanding.
If one accepts this view of cultural learning, it
is clear that literals texts preside an ideal context
for ex ploring cultural differences. However,
approaching literature to develop cross-cultural
understanding requires that teachers first carefullv
exam ine the cultural assumptions present in a par­
ticular literals- work and then structure activities
that help students gain an understanding of those
assum ptions. Teachers and students n e e d to
explore how their cultural assum ptions differ.
both from each o th e r’s and from those portrayed
in the literarv text. As a wav of clarilving this
approach, let us consider how a specific text m ight
be used in a second language classroom to pro­
m ote cross-cultural un d erstan d in g .
In general, im m igrant literatu re offers a
rich context for exploring cultural differences
since the stories frequentlv deal with individuals
who have literallv and figurativelv crossed borders
and, hence, have experienced m am cultural dif­
ferences in their lives. A short store be Hi save
Yamamoto entitled "Seventeen Svllables” exem ­
plifies this type of cultural b o rd e r crossing. It
recounts the experience of a Jap an ese im m i­
g ra n t familv w orking as to m a to pickers in
California. T he Havashi family is com posed o f
Rosie, a young teenager, a n d h e r parents. Rosie
is involved in m am aspects o f A m erican culture
an d has acculturated to the ex ten t o f p referrin g
to use English instead o fja p a n e se . In the course
o f the store she falls in love with Jesus, a n o th e r
young im m igrant worker, who is H ispanic. T he
store revolves a ro u n d Rosie’s m other, Tome,
who assum es a pen nam e for w riting haiku to
subm it to a contest sponsored be the Mainichi
Shimbu newspaper. Mrs. H ayashi’s talent in writ­
ing haiku results in h e r receiving an award from
the ed ito r of the newspaper, one o f his favorite
H iroshiges prints depicting fo u r sam pans on a
pale blue sea. Hoevever, Rosie’s father, u p set by
the disturbances that the haiku w riting has
caused the familv, destroys the H iroshige his wife
receives. T he storv ends with Mrs. Havashi
ad m itting to h e r d a u g h te r that she cam e to the
U nited States as part of an arra n g e d m arriage
after Inn ing given birth out o f wedlock to a still­
b orn son. After the birth. Tom e had w ritten to
h e r favorite sister in the U nited States, th re a te n ­
ing to kill herself if h e r sister did n o t send for
her. H e r sister then had arra n g e d a m arriage for
h e r in the U nited States with a voting m an who
h a d recentlv arrived from J a p an . T he storv con­
cludes w hen Rosie's m o th e r kneels on the floor
and takes Rosie bv the wrists: “’R osie,’ she said
urgently. 'Prom ise m e vou will never m arrv!”’
T his storv contains several cultural
schem as— the schem a of the Japanese im m igrant
familv in which various Japanese traditions such
as arranged m arriages and particular g en d er
roles are still upheld; the schem a of A m erican
p o p u lar culture, with references to movie stars
like Shirley Tem ple and songs like "Red Sails in
the Sunset”; an d finally, the schem a o f farm
w orkers with expectations ab o u t tom ato picking
a n d p o o r housing conditions. W hich schem as
are fam iliar to teachers and students depends
u p o n th eir cultural background. In teaching the
story, however, the first step the teach er needs to
u n d e rta k e is to exam ine what cultural schem as
the story portrays. This m ight be accom plished
by sim ple clustering all of the exam ples in the
text th at relate to a p articular cultural schem a.
Next, teachers need to design wavs to make
these differences accessible to students. O ne strat­
egy for doing this is to merely present some of the
assum ed cultural inform ation. In this case, a
teacher m ight show pictures of farm workers, read
some exam ples of haiku, or familiarize students
with relevant aspects of U nited States' popular cul­
ture. This level of cultural awareness is not difficult
to exemplify. The significant cultural differences
in the story, however, rest in such factors as the
assum ed gen d er roles of the Japanese father and
m other, the acceptance of arranged marriages,
and T om e’s thoughts of suicide as a result of a sig­
nificant loss of face. With these kinds of cultural
assum ptions, the goal should not be to evaluate
these assum ptions but rather to help students
understand why the characters acted as tliev did.
Ultimately, this should lead students to clarify
their own understanding of such culturalh bound
p h en o m en o n as gender roles, l o s s of face, and
m arriage.
How these aspects o f c u ltu re are
a p p ro a c h e d in the classroom d ep en d s largely on
the background o f the teach er and the students.
If, for exam ple, the store is taught in Japan with
Japanese students and a Japanese teacher, then
the classroom participants most likelv share mans
cultural assum ptions evident in the behavior of
Mr. a n d Mrs. Havashi. W hat m ight seem unusual
to this class is the fact that Rosie has not kept
up h e r Japanese and is willing to m eet secretly
with Jesus. O n the o th er hand, if the store is
taught in the U nited States with an Am erican
teacher and some Japanese students, the teacher,
while fam iliar with mans' references to Am erican
culture an d svith an u n d erstan d in g of the farm
svorker com m units. mas not u n d erstan d the
mans' references to Japanese culture n o r be
willing to accept Mrs. Havahsi's svillingness at the
end o f the stors to gis e up her writing o f haiku.
In short, to the extent drat English language class­
room s represent indis iduals from sarious cultural
backgrounds, the cultural inform ation in particu­
lar literal's- texts mas be known to and accepted by
some of the classroom participants, s et unfam iliar
to others.
Ultim atels. sshat the literals text provides is
a m edium for sharing and illum inating the
cross-cultural differences it exem plifies. T he
s alue of selecting texts that portras' aspects o f the
culture of some o f the classroom m em bers is
that those students who com e from this culture
can explain mans of the cultural elem ents that
mas not be un d ersto o d 1m m em bers o f o th e r cul­
tures. Idealist the cultural discussion that occurs
will illum inate svhs particular characters from a
specific cultural background acted as tliev did.
Such an ap proach hopefttlls will avoid the cul­
tural stereotvping that can occur svhen dis­
cussing cross-cultural differences, since these
discussions ss'ill be g rounded in specific behasior
portrased in a particular literal's context. This
is one of the m ajor cross-cultural benefits that
literal's' texts can bring to L2 classrooms.
C O N C L U S IO N
Using literature as co n ten t in EST EFI. classes
has a s ariets’ o f benefits. W hile read in g literature
should be prim arily an enjoyable aesthetic expe­
rience. using literature in T2 classroom s can also
deselop stu d e n ts’ language awareness. Because
literals texts are u n iq u e in th eir ability to illus­
trate that what is com m unicated cannot be sepa­
rated from how it is com m unicated, thev provide
an ideal context for dem onstrating the im por­
tance of form in language learning and language
use. Exactly how thes are used in a particular class­
room depends on a wide variety of factors—
students' language learning goals, proficiency les el
in English, and personal interests, as svell as the
teachers' knowledge of and interest in literature,
the teacher's teaching philosophy, and his or her
classroom objectives. Perhaps the greatest benefit
of using literature as content in an era of increas­
ing globalization is that literary texts provide an
ideal context for exam ining cross-cultural differ­
ences and exploring them in a m anner that partic­
ularizes rather than stereotypes these differences.
D IS C U S S IO N Q U E S T IO N S
1. Drawing on the ideas presented in this chap­
ter. discuss what you believe are the essential
differences between literary and nonliterarv
texts.
2. Discuss what vou believe are the m ajor
advantages and disadvantages of using liter­
ary texts with second language students.
3. Do vou think explicit atten tio n should be
giv en to exam ining the form of literary texts
in L2 classrooms? W hat reasons do vou have
for vour opinion? Do vou believe this a tte n ­
tion to form detracts from students' aesthetic
experience with a text? Whv?
4. This c h a p te r has argued that even though
th ere are differences betw een dialogues in
literary texts and natural conversation, such
m aterial is valuable in developing students'
pragm atic com petence? Do vou agree or dis­
agree? Whv?
5. Discuss wavs in which vou would find infor­
m ation ab o u t unfam iliar cultural schem as in
literary texts.
S U G G E S T E D A C T IV IT IE S
1. Select a short storv th at vou believe would be
engaging for a g roup o f language learners
vou are fam iliar with. T h en design one o f the
following:
a. an activity that encourages students to
draw on the text to su p p o rt th eir opinion
of a p articular ch aracter in the store
b. an activity that encourages students to
explore how the text w ould be different
if told from a n o th e r p o in t o f view
c. a series o f activities that involve the devel­
o p m e n t of all fo u r skills— reading, writ­
ing, speaking, a n d listening
2. Select a piece of literatu re that involves sev­
eral cultural schem as. Begin bv analyzing the
cultural schem as th at exist in the text, listing
specific details th at c o n trib u te to each
schem a. T hen describe how vou w ould m ake
those schem as accessible to a p a rtic u la r
g roup of language learners.
3. Select a second language textbook that uses
literary texts as content. Review the follow-up
activities that are inclu d ed in the text and
discuss w h ether vou believe the activities
c o n trib u te prim arily to stu d en ts' aesthetic
reading o f the text, th eir efferent read in g of
the text, or both.
4. Observ e an F.SL o r EFT class th at uses liter­
ary texts. Describe the activities in the class
that c o n trib u te to stu d e n ts’ awareness o f the
language in the text an d the activities th at
develop students' awareness o f the cultural
schem as in the text.
FU R TH ER R EA D IN G
Carter. R.. and J. McRae. 1996. L a n g u a g e , Literature a n d
the Learner. London: Addison Wesley Longman.
T his collection of essays is derived from three
international seminars on the teaching of liter­
ature in second and foreign language class­
rooms. held at the University of Nottingham.
The editors note that the papers in the volume
share a commitment to practical, classroom-
based activities, particularly those that are lan­
guage based and student centered.
Collie. |.. and S. Slater. 1987. Liter a tu r e in the L a n g u a g e
Classroom: A Resource Book oj I de as a n d Activities.
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
1he opening chapter of this book examines whv
literature should be included in second language
classrooms, how texts should be selected, and
how thev should be used. The other chapters are
devoted to illustrating specific classroom activi­
ties to use with literary texts in the prereading,
while-reading, and postreading process.
K ram sch, С. 1993. C o n te x t a n d C u ltu r e in L a n g u a g e o f tasks a n d activities t h a t t e a c h e r s c a n d o o n
'l e a c h i n g . O x f o r d : O x f o r d U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s . their own or w ith other teachers to develop
The text co n tain s two e x c e lle n t c h a p te r s th a t t h e i r sk i l l i n l e s s o n p l a n n i n g u s i n g l i t e r a r y t e x t s .
a r e p a r t ic u l a r ly r e l e v a n t to u s i n g l i t e r a t u r e as M cCloskev, M. L... a n d L. S t a c k . 1993. 1995, 1996,
c o n t e n t . T h e first, " S t o r i e s a n d D i s c o u r s e . " e l a b ­ 2 0 0 0 . Voices in Literature. B o s t o n . \ L \ : H e i n l e &
orates o n the dim ensions o f a text that con­ H e in le Publishers.
trib u te to its uniqueness. The second, T h is three-level series o f lite ra tu re -b a se d s e c o n d
“T e a c h i n g t h e L i t e r a r y T e x t , " d e s c r i b e s v a r i o u s language texts is organized bv them e. Each
strateg ies fo r d e a li n g w ith literary texts in th e b o o k in th e series in c lu d e s a variety o f literary
classroom . g e n r e s . Al l o f t h e l i t e r a r y t e x t s h a v e a s e r i e s o f
Lazar, G. 1993. L i t e r a tu r e and Language Teaching. p r e r e a d i n g a n d p o s t r e a d i n g activities t h a t d e a l
C a m b r i d g e : C a m b r i d g e U n iv e rs ity Press. w ith students' personal response to the texts
T his is a d d r e s s e d to language teachers who w hile at the sam e tim e prom oting their lan ­
w a n t to e x p l o r e h o w th e y c a n u s e l i t e r a t u r e in g u a g e a w a re n e s s . T h e tex ts a r e b e a u ti f u l ly illus­
th e ir c lassro o m s. T h e b o o k consists o f a series tra te d w ith p h o t o g r a p h s a n d line draw ings.
 Experiential and Negotiated
Language Learning
JA N ET L. EYRING
Eynngs chapter derives the W e s te rn “ Experiential and Negotiated Language Learning" movement
from the humanistic classroom of the 1960s and I 970s and the community-based learning and project
w o rk of the 1970s and 1980s. Because it provides rich opportunities for negotiation and attends to
individual and collaborative learning, teachers of all cultures may find this approach relevant well into
the 2000s,
IN T R O D U C T IO N
E x p erien tial learn in g , a c o n c e p t as old as
Socrates, Confucius, and the G arden of Eden,
m ade a com eback in schools in the late 1960s and
early 1970s, when educational and social institu­
tions were u n d e r attack in the L'nited States and
in o th er industrialized nations aro u n d the world.
An exam ple o f this was the "open classroom" of
the 1960s, in which traditional seating arrange­
m ents and classroom levels were dissolved and
students of different ages were allowed to freelv
interact on tasks or larger projects without sepa­
ration of walls.
Experiential language learning, borrow ing
from these experiential learning roots, is right­
fully placed within the context of the C om m u­
nicative Language Teaching (CLT) m ovem ent
which began in the mid 1970s and continues until
todav (see Savignon’s chapter in this volume).
Legutke and Thom as (1991) label it a "strong ver­
sion of CLT” and a solution to the negative class­
room cultures o f so-called “com m unicative
classrooms," which thev have observed as being
characterized bv ( 1 ) dead bodies and talking
heads: (2 ) deferred gratification and the loss of
adventure; (3) lack o f creativitv; (4) lack of o ppor­
tunities for com m unication: (5) lack of autonom v;
and (6) lack of cultural awareness (pp. 7-10).
Thev emphasize that experiential language learn­
ing is not a new m ethod but an “educational
framework" aro u n d which to organize learning
tasks. T h e roots o f this prom ising fram ew ork in
hum anistic and dem ocratically organized class­
room s and its reliance on “negotiation” in the
learning and teaching of com m unication will be
discussed in this chapter. Guidelines for organiz­
ing an experience-oriented curriculum using
project work will also be discussed.
E X P E R IE N T IA L A C T IV IT IE S
IN A H U M A N IS T IC CLA SSRO O M
To u n d e rs ta n d e x p e rien tial le a rn in g in the
W estern world, it is im p o rta n t to review the soci­
ocultural clim ate of A m erican societv in the m id
1960s. D uring this period, awareness o f the n eed
for warm, h u m an ex perience was raised to new
levels as large num bers o f individuals railed
against the bureaucracv a n d depersonalization
of m o d ern societv. Legutke an d T hom as (1991)
provide a concise discussion of this period:
This was a crisis whose m ain character­
istics were the d eadening o f hum an
c o m m u n ic a tio n w ithin tech n o cratic
and bureaucratic institutions, the pro­
gressive destruction of livable space in
the cities, the aggravation of spiritual
im poverishm ent a n d poverty in spite of
a rapid growth of affluence, the obvi­
ous chauvinism o f the so-called civi­
lized world and its dem ocracies towards
 the countries of the T hird W orld and
th e exploitative rela tio n sh ip with
n a tu re w hich led to a progressive
red u ctio n o f the qualitv o f life in the
nam e o f progress (p. 41).
Some psvchologists arg u ed that the solution to
this alienation and lack of awareness was to raise
p erso n al consciousness a n d self-recognition.
R ogers’s work in client-centered psvchotherapy
1961) , Maslow's psvchologv o f self-actualization
1 962) , a n d P e ris’ G estalt T h e rap v (Peris,
H efferline, an d G oodm an 1951) were widelv dis­
cussed in psvchological and psvchotherapeutic
circles.
Subsequcntlv, these ideas infused into the
field of education. Legutke and Thom as (1991)
>tate that “G onfluent E ducation” (Galvean 1977)
fo llo w e d greatlv from psvchotherapeutic princi-
nles and pro m o ted certain awareness-raising prin­
ciples such as sensitivitv training, perception and
activation of em otions, bodv training (relaxation,
breathing, m ovem ent), psvchodram atic expres­
sion of feelings (dram a), em pathv training, train­
ing in com m unication skills, and the stim ulation
of im agination, projection, and creativitv (p. 47).
NTot surprisingly confluent education m ade
cm im pact on language teaching m ethods as well.
Counseling-Learning (Curran I960) adopted the
client-counselor relationship. Total Phvsical
Response (Asher 1977) adopted bodv m ovem ent
for language train in g rein fo rcem en t, and
Suggestopedia (Lozanov 1982) adopted relax­
ation training. Moskowitz's (1978) then innova­
tive book Caring and Sharing in ike Foreign
Language Class offered m am suggestions for intro­
ducing trust building and em pathv into the lan­
guage classroom.
Today, the aspect of experiential language
learning which acknowledges the socioaffective
co m ponent of the learning process and the
im portance o f the learner in instruction (learner-
centeredness) is well established (X unan 1995).
Teachers wishing to hum anize the classroom
experience treat students as individuals, patientlv
enco u rag e self-expression, seriously listen to
learner response, provide opportunities for learn­
ing by doing, and m ake learning m eaningful to
students in the here an d now.
E X P E R IE N C E
FO R D EM O C R A TIC LE A R N IN G
Incorporating experiences that address the affec­
tive needs of learners has been an im portant
them e in the educational literature. Providing
learning experiences as a backdrop to learning
about cooperative principles has also been an
im portant em phasis in western education. Dewey
(1916) believed that the classroom should reflect
societv outside the classroom. He argued for
dem ocratized classrooms in which students were
not simple funneled inform ation but w here they
participated with the teacher and with each other
in Socratic dialogue about subjects near to their
own life experiences. Schm uck (1985) sum m a­
rizes Dewev s philosophv:
Dewev argues that if hum ans are to
learn to live cooperatively thev must
experience the living process of coop­
eration in schools. Life in the class­
room should represent the dem ocratic
process in m icrocosm , and the heart of
dem ocratic living is cooperation in
groups. Moreover. Dewev argues that
classroom life should em bodv dem oc­
racy not onlv in how students learn to
make choices and carrv out academ ic
projects together, but also in how thev
learn to relate to one another. This
approach could involve being taught to
em pathize with others, to respect the
rights of others, and to work together
on rational problem solving (p. 2 ).
In an egalitarian learning communitv such
as this, all hav e the opportunity to voice opinions.
Consensus is favored in decision m aking but
majoritv rules. W hat gets done or does not get
done is d e p e n d en t upon individual initiative and
group cooperation. Logical reasoning and discus­
sion tire essential in group problem solving.
Kilpatrick (1918) fu rth er explicated Dewev’s
ideas and p ro p o sed that classroom s should
"provide it place for the adequate utilization of the
laws of learning” but no less “for the essential
elem ents of the ethical quality of conduct" (p. 9).
He also introduced The Project Method. Kolb (1984)
has extended Dewev s and Kilpatrick's ideas by
em phasizing th at observation o f experience is
insufficient for learn in g but m ust be followed bv
abstract conceptualization, reflective observa­
tion. a n d active ex p erim entation.
Dewey introduced projects as an ideal expe­
riential m ethod to develop citizens for a dem o­
cratic societv. T he a d o p tio n o f the project
m ethod, sometim es called Project Work or com ­
munity-based learning, within the Com m unicative
Language Teaching approach, has again rein­
forced the im portance o f groups working toward
mutually beneficial goals. Students learning col-
laboratively have been shown to use h igher level
learning strategies (Johnson and Jo h n so n 1985).
are m ore m otivated to learn (Dornvei 1997), and
are able to learn th rough cooperative problem
solving (Swain and Tapkin 1998). Thev also pro­
duce m ore significant projects than thev could
have as individuals. Some o f these include con­
d u c tin g large-scale surveys, cataloging large
am ounts of inform ation, writing m ultiai tid e m ag­
azines. and producing feature films. In addition,
these projects often have social benefits (e.g.. to
orient handicapped individuals to accessible sites
in a citv or to teach elem entary school students
about intern atio n al cultures), which hearken
back to the original political and ethical goals of
the project work m ethod.
L E A R N IN G A S A
N E G O T IA T IO N P R O CESS
T he "experiential" classroom of the tventv-first
centurv com bines features of the two aforem en­
tioned philosophies— experiences that address
the needs of the individual in the learner-
centered classroom and experiences that reinforce
the goals of a group in a dem ocratic classroom in
which the teacher is an active coparticipant in the
learning process.
T he potential conflict in this arran g em en t,
betw een the needs and interests of the individual,
the group, and the teacher, is resolved through
som etim es difficult negotiation. Breen (1985)
claims that all classrooms are jointly constructed
bv teachers and learners; this is even m ore
a p p a re n t in the experiential classroom with its
restru ctu rin g o f power, in which learners are
elevated to assum e m ore responsibility for deci­
sions a n d teachers suppress th eir d o m in a n t roles
to becom e facilitators an d colearners. This p a rt­
nership ap p ro ach to language learn in g som e­
times involves conflict resolution as teachers
train them selves to stand back an d su p p o rt while
learners are trained to initiate, cooperate, and
explore (E rring 1989; Foster 1998).
Besides the social negotiation of roles and
goals, experiential learn in g provides o p p o rtu n i­
ties for the negotiation o f m eaning betw een
learners in pair work and g roup work activities.
M uch research has confirm ed the im p o rtan ce of
such interaction for second language acquisition
(Ivrashen 1978; Swain 1985). This sociocultural
explanation for learning has also been con­
firm ed in studies of le a rn e r developm ent based
on Vygotsky's (1978) zone of proxim al develop­
m ent. in which learning is conceptualized as a
m ediated process betw een experts and novices
(teachers and students), peers and peers, self
(through private speech), an d o th e r sources
such as com puters an d the com m unity th ro u g h
which people learn various subject m atters with
the assistance o f others (L antolf 2000).
E xperiential classroom s in which learners
negotiate with th eir classmates and the teacher
th ro u g h o u t a course w hat thev want to learn,
how thev want to learn, an d how thev want
to be assessed acquire “process com petence"
(L.egutke and Thom as 1991). N egotiating infor­
m ation inside an d outside the classroom with
som etim es unsym pathetic in terlo cu to rs a n d n at­
ural. unsim plified texts creates an extrem ely
rich language learn in g en v iro n m en t for the
developm ent of "com m unicative c o m p e ten c e ,”
which includes not onlv linguistic com petence,
but sociolinguistic, strategic, and discourse com ­
petence as well (Canale 1983).
T H E N E G O T IA T IO N
OF C U R R IC U LU M
Ntm an (1995. 1999) claims that students can be
moved m ore or less easily along the continuum of
a "negotiation curriculum" as thev learn how to
learn. His first three steps relate to course content
and the last six to course learning processes.
1. Make instructional goals clear to learners.
L earners m ust u n d e rsta n d what thev are
doing and why. Teachers should ensure the
topic and focus of learning activities are
appropriate for learners and should explicitly
identify an d explain to them what the goals
are. Students also benefit from a simple
review o f goals accom plished after a lesson.
2. Allow learners to create their own goals. Some
learners mav be com fortable with teacher-
selected goals. However, learn ers should
increasingly be given o p p o rtu n ities to create
th eir own goals, or at the verv least, choose
from am ong a set of provided goals. These
self-selected goals are som etim es m ore pow­
erful if they are written up in the form of
learning contracts o r have been negotiated bv
consensus with o th er m em bers o f the class.
3. Encourage learners to use their second language
outside the classroom. W hen purposes are real
a n d au th en tic, learners will be m ore m oti­
vated to obtain language input from a u th e n ­
tic sources a n d real people outside the
classroom (Strevens 1987). Teachers need to
prepare students for the language dem ands
a n d unp red ictab ility of natu ral discourse
settings. Functional language use and negotia­
tion strategies should be emphasized.
4. Raise awareness of learning processes. Students
taking greater responsibility for their own
learn in g in a cooperative classroom n eed to
be m ade aware o f possible learning strate­
gics (W endeii a n d R ubin 1987: O xford
1990), such as m em ory, cognitive, c o m p en ­
sation, m etacognitive. affective, and social
strategies, an d be given opp o rtu n ities to
overtlv verbalize while using them d in in g
learn in g tasks (Swain 2000). G reater aware­
ness o f strategies as well as rehearsal in the
classroom can lead to fu tu re transfer of
learn in g to in d e p e n d e n t learn in g situations.
5. Help learners identify their own preferred styles and
strategies. Inventories for identifying one's
learning stele an d strategies are now avail­
able (see O xford 1988 for an exam ple).
Knowledge of these preferred ste les and strate­
gies, which som etim es differ according to cul­
tural background of the students (O xford and
A nderson 1993), makes it possible for the
teacher to include learn in g activities which
address these p referen ces. L earners also
b eco m e m o re p ro fic ie n t at c h o o sin g
approaches that reinforce their p articular
wavs of learning.
6. Encourage learner choice. Learners should be
presented with opportunities to m ake choices
of various tvpes— from whom thev want to
work with, to which task thev want to do first,
to what task thev want to elim inate altogether.
7. Allow learners to generate their own tasks.
Students who have d e te rm in e d th eir own
goals are now reach' to create som e o f their
own learn in g tasks, such as bringing in th eir
own texts, w riting quizzes to test th eir class­
mates. o r d eterm in in g pretasks leading to a
final target task.
8. Encourage learners to become teachers. A lea rn er
who is able to logically plan tasks is also able
to plan learning environm ents for others. In
the learn er-cen tered classroom , students can
s e n e as tutors and teachers for each other,
sharing th eir expertise or p resen tin g infor­
m ation that thev have m astered.
9. Encourage learners to become researchers. In a true
experiential course, learners will becom e
researchers o f inform ation thev want to know.
Thev m at state hypotheses, verify th em
through data collection, and analyze and
report their results to o th er m em bers of the
class or to o th er audiences.
PRO JECT W O RK:
T H E Q U IN T E S S E N T IA L
E X P E R IE N T IA L LA N G U A G E
LE A R N IN G A P P R O A C H
Legutke and Thom as (1991) note that it was not
until the m id 1970s that language teachers real­
ized the rich potential of projects for prom oting
m eaningful interaction and seriously began im ple­
m enting this approach in the language classroom.
Project work epitom izes every dim ension of
Ixohonnen's (1992) experiential education m odel
in term s of its view of learning, power relations,
teacher and learner roles, view of knowledge, view
of curriculum , learning experiences, control of
process, m otivation, a n d evaluation. It also
provides the ideal context to move learners
along a neg o tiated curriculum , as described bv
N'unan (1999).
Successful projects have been im plem ented
in kindergartens, elem entarv schools, secondare
schools, intensive language program s, com m u­
nity colleges, adult schools, and university7settings
from the beginning to advanced levels. They have
also been im plem ented in ESL and EFT settings,
although some argue with far greater case in
English-speaking contexts and with westernized
populations (Evring 1989; Legutke and Thom as
1991; X unan 199b: Beckett 1999). T he greater
integration of m ultim edia, com puters, a n d the
In tern et in language projects th ro u g h o u t the
world, however, has m ade the advantages o f living
in the target culture less im portant for authentic
com m unication and discourse-oriented learning
todav (Sved 1997: W arschauer 1997; Adair-Hauck,
'Willingham-McLain. and Youngs 1999).
Because of the difficulty o f train in g stu­
d en ts to w ork on e x te n d e d projects, som e
researchers have advised doing projects along­
side o th e r regular classroom activities in o rd er
to provide traditionally-oriented students with
fam iliar classwork (Evring 1989: H aines 1989).
O th e r researchers have suggested "preparatory
projects" (H enrv 1994) to p rep a re students for
project work bv giving them practice w orking in
groups on stru ctu red m ini-projects before the
actual project begins. At the very least, m ost have
h ig h lig h te d th e n e e d fo r lead-in activities
(H aines 1989) o r pretasks (Legutke and Thom as
1991) along the wav. This allows for rehearsal
a n d m o deled problem solving of various positive
g ro u p work routines a n d research structures
necessary for project com pletion.
O R G A N IZ IN G A PRO JECT
Various authors have provided guidelines for
organizing projects (see Fried-Booth 1982, 1986;
H aines 1989; Henrv 1994 for exam ples). T he
use of different skills (listening, speaking, rea d ­
ing. and writing) a n d com binations of skills are
m ore im p o rta n t at som e stages th an others.
S to ller's (1997) ten-step m odel a p p lie d to
English for Academ ic Purposes content-based
classes is a straightforward wav to design m eaning­
ful projects at anv level of ESL/EFL instruction:
1. Agree on a them e
2. D eterm ine the final outcom e
3. Structure the project
4. P rep are students for the language dem ands
of Step b
5. G ather inform ation
6. Prepare students for the language dem ands
o f Step 7
7. Com pile and analyze inform ation
8. P repare students for the language dem ands
o f Step 9
9. P resent final p ro d u ct
10. Evaluate the project
Steps 1 and 2 rep re sen t the stages in which
the teacher a n d students are negotiating the
n a tu re o f the course project. First, learners con­
sider several topics the tea c h e r has provided or
brainstorm som e of th eir own from scratch.
O nce students have reach ed a consensus about
the topic, thev consider a final outcom e they
w ould like to p ro d u ce , such as a booklet, a d Lo .
a dem o n stratio n , or a debate. W hen stu d e n t'
have determ in ed the final outcom e, thev work
backward with the help of the teacher to organize
how thev will accomplish their final goal. In Step 3.
thev mav specify an outline, flow diagram, learning
contract, or project proposal for what needs to be
done and when.
At Step 4, the tea c h e r in consultation
with the students plans language intervention
lessons activities which they will require for gath­
ering inform ation from text materials, native-
language inform ants, m edia broadcasts, or other
sources. These activities may include reviewing
a p p ro p riate citation p ro ced u res in academ ic
research, exam ining question form ation for inter­
views. or listening for transition cues in spoken dis­
course. D uring Step b, students actually gather
inform ation inside and outside the classroom.
Again, in Step 6. the teacher discusses with stu­
dents techniques for com piling and analyzing the
large am ounts of written or spoken data thev have
accum ulated, alwavs with the final project out­
come in m ind. This step mav involve guiding stu­
dents to categorize inform ation in grids or charts.
 In Step 7, which is often considered the
m ost difficult step in term s of tim e and effort, stu­
dents think about what they have collected, how
one p art relates to another, and begin sum m ariz­
ing and extrapolating from their data. In Step 8,
students again receive input from the teacher on
possible language dem ands in the final activity. If
students are involved in creating a poster, organ­
izing a debate, o r writing a booklet, language con­
ventions and audience expectations m ust be
discussed. In this wav bv Step 9 students will be
readv to present their research and findings to
fellow classmates or to a n o th e r audience. Step 10,
which is in m any wavs the most im portant, is a
tim e for reflection on and evaluation of the
entire project— what worked, what didn't, whv it
d id n 't, how it could be im proved if redone, and
what m ight be the next logical step.
Legutke and Thom as (1991) also present a
similar process for organizing projects. T heir
seven phases are opening, topic orientation,
research and data collection, preparation of data
presentation, presentation and sharing, evalua­
tion, and follow-up. A ppendix 1 elaborates on
these phases and includes detailed inform ation
ab o u t in p u t options and exam ples of stimulus
questions, activities, and learner texts. Im portant
to note is the inclusion of awareness raising, trust
building, and values clarification activities in the
first three phases of the project, anticipating the
ch allen g e o f n e g o tia tin g m eanings betw een
teacher and learners in this pow er-reconstructed
classroom.
In both Stoller's and Legutke and Thom as's
frameworks, assessment occurs not only at the
e n d but th ro u g h o u t a project. It is normally col­
laborative in the sense that both the teacher and
individual students pro tid e input in the evalua­
tion process. Ty pes of com m on progress assess­
m ent m easures include checklists, questionnaires,
weekh' reviews, draft evaluations, frcew riting,
notetaking, class discussions, reflective journals,
observation tasks, and oral presentations. G rading
scales and rubrics are often tailored to the needs
of a particular project task. Sometimes an unbiased
evaluator or an invited audience mat' participate in
the evaluation process.
PRO JECT T Y P E S
Many types o f projects have been rep o rted in the
literature. Table 1 presents four general tvpes
with their accom panying final products. Some
have been com pleted in F.SL settings; others in
EFL o r foreign language classroom settings (in
which case this is no ted ). Collection projects require
students to collect m aterials or phy sical objects in
o rd er to meaningfully categorize or interrelate
them . Informational projects, probably the most typ­
ical. require extensive am ounts of interpersonal
contact (through intervieyvs or surveys) o r exten­
sive am ounts of leading or library research to
obtain inform ation about a yvide range of topics.
Orientation projects also require extensive am ounts
of research, but th eir m ain purpose is to o rie n t
people to a nets place. Social yvelfare projects,
the m ost altruistic of the projects, are designed
to se n e the needs of audiences o th e r th an the
students them selves. They can be considered
the most experiential o f the projects because
they truly reflect the hum anistic, social, and
dem ocratic principles of this frameyvork.
"Process'' has generally been considered
what is most im portant in the project yvork expe­
rience. Hoyvever. final "products" such as the ones
listed in Table 1. highlight the im portance of
group-selected goals and the negotiated curricu­
lum to motivate students to participate and stay
engaged for long periods of time.
C O N C L U S IO N
This c h a p te r has revieyved the benefits o f an
experiential learn in g env iro n m en t for language
acquisition o p p o rtu n itie s. This e n v iro n m e n t
provides for the em otional and social needs of
learners as they negotiate m eaning inside and
outside the classroom . Projects, yvhicli have
been exceptional environm ents for p ro m o tin g
language learn in g in the W estern yvorld, exem ­
plify the best of the hum anistic ap p ro ach es in
facilitating negotiation of m eaning.
Table I. P ro je cts and T h e ir P ro d u cts

Collection Projects
a. Scavenger hunt to collect items from a list (a twig, something red, something brittle, etc. (Jerald and
Clark 1983)

b. Map display showing the origin of various collected bottles, food labels, wrappings on cartons, tins,
packets from around the world (Fried-Booth 1986)

c. Cookbook with favorite collected recipes from around the world (G aer 1995)

d. Creation of a rock and fossil museum for real audience after collecting and borrowing various rock
and fossil specimens (Diffily 1996)

e. Classification guide for authentic English language materials (newspapers, tourist brochures, letters,
etc.) for a library for future project work use (EFL setting) (Haines 1989)

f. Report on how English-speaking cultures have influenced the way of life in the students’ native
country after collecting photographs, realia, videos, etc. (EFL setting) (Haines 1989)

g. Report on potential English language institutes or schools for students wishing to study English out­
side their native country after collecting language school prospectuses, maps, and tourist information
(EFL setting). (Haines 1989)

Informational Projects
a. Report on recorded interviews between students and English-speaking travelers in airport (EFL
setting) (Legutke 1984/1985)

b. Article for local newspaper based on a news event (EFL setting) (Fried-Booth 1986)

c. Cafe-Theater Evening/Day which informs guests of food, music, and entertainment of target culture
(foreign language/EFL settings) (Semke 1980; Haines 1989; Fried-Booth 1986)

d. Buffet luncheon for invited second language guests hosted by students preparing for an overseas
assignment (foreign language setting) (Kaplan 1997)

e. Report on interviews with performers (members of a circus and of the Theater Royale) about their
crafts (Victoria Markee 1988, personal communication)

f. Report on training and education needed for jobs after researching employment information (W rigley
1998)

g. Correspondence project report after students write letters and get information from school waste­
basket or junk mail or from a week’s post delivery from another school (EFL setting) (Legutke
and Thomas 1991)

h. Survey report after interviewing townspeople about their knowledge of English (EFL setting) (Haines
1989)

i. Simulated political debate related to American elections after reading newspapers and magazines,
writing letters to political parties, locating relevant organizations (Stoller 1997)

j. Videotape and dossier on a contemporary topic incorporating sketches, interviews, discussions, music,
etc. (foreign language setting) (Coleman 1992)
 Orientation Projects
a. City guide for Los Angeles after investigating beaches, parks, amusement parks, restaurants, and night
spots (Eyring 1989)

b. Slide show and oral presentation to Rotary Club and elderly residents on cultural and recreational
opportunities in one city (Candlin et al. 1988)

c. Magazine to assist international students adjusting to American life (Gertzman 1988)

d. Leaflets and advertisements for university self-access center to orient other students to available
computer software, satellite channel access, magazines, etc. (Aston 1993)

e. Orientation handbook for women after researching no-cost activities in the city (Cray 1988)

f. Videotape documentary on a field trip to places in a city (Padgett 1994)

Social Welfare Projects

a. Report on the homeless situation after interviewing homeless people on the street (Victoria Markee
1988, personal communication)

b. Jumble (rummage) sale after collecting items to sell for charity (Legutke and Thomas 1991)

c. “Animals in Danger” article and poster about threatened species (Hutchinson 1991)

d. Oral histories created for elderly interviewees (Jerald and Clark 1983)

e. W heelchair guide for handicapped visitors, which was shared with city tourist offices and the media
(Fried-Booth 1986)

f. Third W orld display and shanty house based on research of people living in developing countries
(Fried-Booth 1986).

g. Videotape of spastic unit in a hospital which was shown to prospective patients’ parents (Fried-Booth
1986)

h. Storytelling performance of native Laotian folktales to middle school children (Gaer 1998)

i. Teaching four-day unit to elementary school students following extensive preparation in the subject
matter (C arter and Thomas 1986)

Looking ahead, we need to know m ore
about the best conditions for achieving negotia­
tion o f m eaning betw een learners an d their
teachers as well as between learners and their
environm ent in o rd e r for this approach to be
im plem ented on a wider scale. T he effects of age,
language proficiency, and educational context on
student learning m ediated by teacher experts,
peers, texts, and com puters d em an d fu rth e r
inv estigation. M ore also needs to be known about
how to train teach ers to im p le m e n t this
approach. Tim e will tell if experiential learning,
cultivated largelv in W estern civilizations and
dem ocracies in the tw entieth century, will be
adopted bv learners and teachers aro u n d the
world in this new inform ation age. If the trans­
lated and fam iliar words o f Confucius in 451 B.C.
are a reflection o f what, was and is to com e in
Eastern populations aro u n d the globe, it is very
likelv that project-based learning will take root
and be adapted to cultures far different politically
and culturallv than the ones in which it originated.
Confucius savs, ‘‘W hat I hear, I forget: what 1 see, I
rem em ber: W hat I do, I understand."
D IS C U S S IO N Q U E S T IO N S
1. Is experiential language learn in g a viable
a p p ro a c h fo r fo ste rin g se co n d lan g u ag e
acquisition? W hy or \vhv not?
2. W hat are th e sim ilarities a n d differences
betw een S toller’s a n d L egutke a n d T hom as's
steps for organizing project work? W hich
fram ew ork do you p refer an d why?
3. W hat rela tio n sh ip does “p o w er” have to
neg o tiatin g a curriculum in an experiential
language lea rn in g classroom?
4 . W hat are some of the challenges an d benefits
o f incorporating com puter-assisted language
learning into the project work classroom?
5. Based on student backgrounds, ages, inter­
ests, learning styles, etc. o f English learners in
your community, how well do the goals of
experiential language learning correspond to
the goals for vour schools?
S U G G E S T E D A C T IV IT IE S
1. Review Table 1 sum m arizing class projects
and products an d th en brainstorm various
topics for large-scale relevant projects which
co uld be c o n d u c te d in so u r com m unity.
C hoose one o f these topics an d outline how
lib rary rese a rc h , ob serv atio n , interview s,
q u e stio n n a ires, a n d field trips could be
in co rp o rate d into the learn in g process.
2. Read the pivotal work on experiential learn­
ing by J o h n Dewev (Experience and Education.
Xew York: MacMillan. 1938). T hen, jo in the
Detrey discussion group linked to the website
for the C enter for Dewev Sttidies at Southern
Illinois University at C arbondale. Provide
com m ents about how Dewey's original ideas
can be applied to experiential language learn­
ing today a n d sum m arize for vour classmates
the on-line responses to n receive.
http: / / www.siu.edu/~deweyctr/
3. N egotiation is a kev elem en t o f project work
instruction. W ith a g ro u p of th re e o r four
o th e r te a c h e r train ees, sp e n d o n e h o u r
negotiating a topic an d a plan for a ten-week
social welfare project in vour com m unity.
W rite a sh o rt re p o rt on (1) the roles that
g ro u p m em bers assum ed (e.g., secretary.
leader, passive observer) d u rin g the discus­
sion and (2) the problem s or surprises which
o cc u rre d d u rin g th e n eg o tiatio n process.
FU R T H E R R E A D IN G
Haines. S. 1989. Projects for the EEI. Classroom.
Edinburgh: Thomas Nelson and Sons.
A practical handbook with case studies of past
projects in EFL settings, resource material, and
step-bv-step instructions for additional projects
to be implemented in international contexts.
I.egutke. M.. and H. Thomas. 1991. Process and
Experience in the Language Classroom. Harlow, UK:
Longman.
A comprehensive book about the theoretical
roots of experiential language learning and key
components of the framework.
Xunan. D. 1995. Closing the gap between learning and
instruction. TESOL Quarterly 29 (1): 133-158.
An article that proposes that giving learners a
kev role in selecting experiential content, learn­
ing processes, and language content will lessen
the gap between teaching and learning.
W E B S IT E S
This on-line version of Eocus on Basics, a publication
of the National Center for the Study of Adult
Learning and Literacy, focuses on project-based
learning. It includes the Gaer and Wriglev articles
mentioned in this chapter.
http:/ g sew eb.h arvard .ed u /-n csall/fo b / 1 9 9 8 /
fobv2id.htm
EORl'M. a traditional paper-based as well as on-line
journal, published bv the United States
Information Agency, focuses on the teaching of
English abroad. This particular issue presents a use­
ful framework bv Stoller for organizing projects.
http: e . u s i a .g o v / f o r u m / v o l s / v o l 3 5 / n o 4 /
p2.htm
The National Society for Experiential Education is a
national organization committed to all forms of
experiential learning in the classroom, workplace,
or community. It sponsors conferences and publi­
cations for anvone wishing to extend their knowl­
edge in this area.
http: / / wvcvv.nsee.org
The National Service [.earning Clearinglmme. main­ kindergarten to university levels. Consult the
tained bv the University of Minnesota, is a consor­ Frequently Asked Questions page, which has special
tium of various organizations committed to links to English and foreign language projects.
service learning project work opportunities from www.nicsl.coled.umn.edu

A P P E N D IX I
General Structure for Project Work

Inputs Process Phases Stimulus Questions Activities Learner Texts

(teacher/learner) (examples) (examples) (examples)

(1) O P E N IN G
- process materials • introducing learners • what did l/we feel doing • awareness and - posters
- information to a communicative the task? trust building - profiles
materials approach • what was the purpose for me/ • information sharing - stories
• developing group us of the task? • problem solving - drawings/
dynamics • how did 1 communicate • process evaluation photographs
• introducing use of with others? • imagination gap and captions
media for text • how did we organize - diary entries
retrieval and ourselves? - collages
production • what communication
• introducing texts difficulties did we have?
as data for research

PR O JE C T ID EA

(2) T O P IC
O R IE N T A T IO N
- open-ended • sensitizing towards • what do we know about • imagination-gap - word-roses
stimuli (pictures, the theme the problems, the theme as projection (word clusters)
words, sentences, • mobilizing existing shown in pictures or texts? • awareness activities - associograms
titles) knowledge • how do 1 react to the picture? • communicative tasks - slogans
- short texts • arousing curiosity • what do we associate it with? • values clarification - collages
- slogans • exchanging personal • what makes us stop and think? • plus/minus interesting - posters
- preceding experiences • what does not seem evaluation
learner texts • creating awareness interesting at first glance? • brain/heart-storming OHP-hypotheses
and information of the research area • which of the items attract me poster-hypotheses
materials • appreciation of most or least?
difficulties
• formulation of
hypotheses after
evaluating prior
knowledge and
experience
Inputs Process Phases Stimulus Questions Activities Learner Texts
(teacher/learner) (examples) (examples) (examples)

(3) R ES E A R C H
A N D DATA
C O L L E C T IO N
- teacher lecture • focusing on the • which of the items, topics • communicative tasks - list of themes
- language input theme would 1 like to w ork on? (interpersonality - project plan
- information • articulating • who would 1 cooperate with? and interaction: - work contracts
materials interest • how much time is needed values clarification)
- process materials • defining project to accomplish the task? • language exercises
- preceding learner tasks • does the group have • skills training
texts • weighing up time sufficient knowledge to go • determined by the
factors about working on the tasks? group themselves
• determining areas • how can 1 collect more • interim plenary
of deficit in terms information on the topic? process evaluation
of skills and
competence
• carrying out the
target tasks of the
project

(4) PR E PA R IN G
DATA
P R E SE N T A T IO N
- information • selecting results for • which parts of our results • determined many types of texts:
materials presentation would be interesting for the by the group - poster/collage
- process materials • deciding on the whole class? - minutes/essays
- preceding learner form of the • how can we put our results - commentary
texts presentation across to the class? - summary
• practicing the • what should we tell the others - listening text
presentation in spoken text, in writing. - information - film text
• allocating areas of pictures? handout - drama script
responsibility • what could be difficult - song texts
• creating the to communicate? - mime instructions
presentation texts • what kind of help do our - programme
classmates need to o f events
understand our presentation?
• do we have to produce extra
worksheets?
• do we want to use media for
our presentation (OHP,
blackboard, tape, film)?

(5) PR ESEN T A T IO N
A N D S H A R IN G
- preceding learner • giving a lead-in • determined
texts to a video film by groups: many
• giving a short forms of
lecture communicative task
• acting in a drama/ possible (learners
sketch/mime as leaders
• giving a show-and- and participants)
tell session
• presenting a tape/
slide show
• singing a "song"
 Inputs Process Phases Stimulus Questions Activities Learner Texts
(teacher/learner) (examples) (examples) (examples)

- teacher lecture
- teacher feedback
- group feedback
(evaluation sheets)
(6) EV A L U A T IO N
• evaluating process
and product
• extending ability to
make judgements
• raising cognitive
sensitivity
• evaluating input
materials
• evaluating the roles
of the experts
• evaluating the group
dynamic processes,
etc.
how did the project tasks, • process-evaluation - theme list
the demonstration w ork out? activities for follow-up
which activities/presentations
were particularly effective,
ineffective?
what could o r should
be improved?
were there any language
problems?
what could or should be
done about them?
how did the group
cooperate with the teacher?
could the group make use of
his/her competence?
was the textbook/workbook/
resource package
a satisfactory help?
etc.

(7) FO LL O W - U P
- preceding • further w ork on
learner texts areas of language
weakness
• w ork on gaps in
knowledge of
content
• agreeing on
follow-up projects
• changing to
related/non-related
themes as basis for
new project idea

E X T E N S IO N
PR O JEC T S

(So u rce : L e g u t k e a n d T h o m a s 1 9 9 1 . p p . 1 8 2 - 1 8 6 . U s e d b v p e r m i s s i o n . !
 Bilingual Approaches
to Language Learning
MARY MCGRO ARTY
"Bilingual Approaches to Language Learning” describes the various bilingual models found at different
levels (elementary, secondary, post-secondary, and adult education), identifying key instructional
features and emphasizing the drive for quality
consideration of the political contexts as well as pedagogical factors affecting the choices and
outcomes related to bilingual instruction.
IN T R O D U C T IO N
In m anv parts o f the world, the attain m en t of
proficiency in two o r m ore languages is viewed
as a highly desirable goal. Som etim es the devel­
o p m en t o f bilingual skills takes place outside the
b o unds o f form al education, im pelled bv indi­
vidual factors in the sociocultural context. This
c h a p te r is not co n c ern e d with persons who
becom e bilingual outside the bounds o f form al
in stru ctio n . (R eaders in te re ste d in lea rn in g
m ore about the m any wavs people mav becom e
bilingual should consult am o f the several good
general intro d u ctio n s to bilingualism a n d lan­
guage learning, such as Bialvstok and H akuta
1994; H offm an 1991; H a k u ta 1986; an d
G rosjean 1982. am o n g o thers.) R ather, the
em phasis here is on u n d e rsta n d in g how two (or
m ore) languages are used within an educational
system to p rom ote the goal of bilingual profi­
ciency for en ro lled students.
Some definitions are in order, because both
the term s bilingual and bilingual education are used
to refer to a great variety of p h en o m en a (indeed,
lack of uniform ity regarding the term bilingual
education is one of the manv reasons whv it is dif­
ficult to com pare program data; see H akuta 1986
and H o rn b erg er et al. 1999). In this chapter,
bilingual, when used to refer to an individual,
m eans a person who has age-appropriate lan­
guage skills in two languages, though the nature
and extent of skill in each language will vary
according to m any individual and situational
instruction. The chapter makes reference to
in flu en ces.1 A person with bilingual oral skills in
two languages may o r may n o t be bilitemte, that
is. able to read an d write in two lan g u a g e '
(H o rn b e rg e r a n d Skilton-Sylvester 2000). A
bilingual education ap p ro ach is o n e in which tw<
languages are used as m ed ia o f classroom
instruction for the same g ro u p o f s tu d e n t'. '
that students receive som e o f th eir instrtictn : :
one language an d som e in the other, wub
nature and p ro p o rtio n of each language •. amw._
according to p rogram tvpe. instruction..-.; _ To.
a n d various contextual in flu e n ce '.- B L m g u . L
program s may or mav not be aim ed at p ro d u c ­
ing students with biliterate skills; this is one ot
the features on which they differ, as will be dis­
cussed presently.
Before p ro ceed in g to describe bilingual
approaches, a crucial clarification is in order:
T h e re is no necessary opposition betw een use of
bilingual instruction a n d English as a second
language (ESI.) in stru ctio n . In d ee d , in the
U nited States and w herever the language o f the
d o m in a n t society is English, it is generally
expected that ESI. should be a p art o f any good
bilingual p rogram because a principal goal of
any instructional program is the developm ent of
high-level academ ic language skills in the lan ­
guage (s) used as the m edium o f instruction.
Such developm ent does not com e about auto­
matically th ro u g h sim ple exposure to a lan­
guage: it re q u ire s in stru c tio n th a t is well
p lan n e d and carefully sequenced. For this rea­
son. it is im p o rta n t that any bilingual program
include systematic attention to the developm ent
o f students' first as well as second language skills,
necessitating a sound, com prehensive curricula
to support increased proficiency in each lan­
guage. H ence. ESL should be a part of any bilin­
gual program in an English-speaking context.
This c h a p te r first discusses the audience for
bilingual approaches, then presents the m ost
com m on p rogram types found u n d e r the b ro ad
b a n n e r o f bilingual education: next, it discusses
the pedagogical features that help to d eterm in e
the level o f quality in anv bilingual instructional
program ; and, last, it notes som e c u rren t educa­
tional concerns th at bear on provision o f bilin­
gual education.
W H O C A N B E N E FIT FROM
B IL IN G U A L A P P R O A C H E S?
Any stu d en t has the potential to benefit from a
bilingual ap proach to instruction as long as the
p articu lar ap proach chosen suits the student's
linguistic situation and provides good quality
instruction. Bilingual education is not onlv for
re c e n t im m ig ran ts: th e re are p a rtic u la r
approaches aim ed at m onolingual students who
speak onlv the majority language and wish to
develop strong proficiency in an o th er language
(TESOI. 1992). It is potentially appropriate for
linguistic m ajority stu d en ts — students whose
native language is that spoken in the larger
natio n al co m m u n ity e.g.. native speakers of
English in the U nited States or in A nglophone
C anada— as well as linguistic m inority students—
students whose native language is not the same as
that used in larger national community, e.g.,
native speakers of Spanish. Chinese, or Navajo in
the U nited States. F urtherm ore, som e of the
approaches used in bilingual education may also
prove useful for bidialectal students (that is, stu­
dents who regularly use a dialect different from
the sta n d a rd , such as speakers o f African-
Am erican V ernacular English in ET.S. schools, for
whom Adgcr. Christian, and Taylor [1999] suggest
some particularly pertinent issues). ’W hile the lin­
guistic and sociocultural circumstances of bilin­
gual and bidialectal students are not com parable
in m any respects (Baugh 2000; Dillard 1978),
there are reasons to explore the utility o f bidialec­
tal approaches, particularly in the area of initial
literacy acquisition (Rickford and Rickford 1995;
Siegel 1999) and expansion oflinguistic range in
a hom e language (Wildes 1995). H ence, bilingual
approaches are potentially useful for anv student
at anv educational level. However, their appropri­
ateness and feasibility for particular instructional
levels and settings varies and depends in part on
school-related factors and in part on m atters o f
the social context su rro u n d in g the school. T he
following review of typical bilingual program
tvpes provides some sense o f the wide range of
bilingual approaches note fo u n d in various parts
of N orth Am erica.
B IL IN G U A L A P P R O A C H ES:
PROGRAM T Y P E S
T he following discussion of bilingual program s is
m ean t to illustrate the co n sid erab le variety
observed in program s designated bilingual. It is
not exhaustive and is based on program tvpes
most com m on in N orth America, draw ing on the
descriptions in Crawford 1999: G enesee 1999;
H o rn b e rg e r et al. 1999: a n d K uhlm an a n d
Murray 2000. It should attain be noted, though,
that the degree to which anv educational pro­
gram in N orth .America or elsewhere can reason­
ably be called bilingual can onlv be established by
direct observation of the language use p a tte rn s—
oral and literate — observed in the classrooms
concerned. Program s are labeled bilingual for a
variety of reasons, onlv some of which reflect the
actual language of instruction, the criterial feature
em phasized here. Each of the program m odels
sum m arized here has different implications for
program length, type of curriculum , materials
n eed ed , teach er qualifications expected, an d
nature of assessments used to determ ine success.
Most bilingual program types com bine considera­
tions of the language of instruction with the age
of the students involved. H ence, it is com m on
to see somewhat different types at elementary,
sccondan. and postsecondary levels.
Elementary-Level Program Models
Bilingual program s fo u n d at the elem entary
school level are generally one of three types:
early-exit (or transitional) bilingual instruction;
late-exit (or m aintenance) bilingual instruction;
o r im m ersion/dual-language im m ersion (see also
Snow’s ch ap ter in this volum e for m ore inform a­
tion on the im m ersion approach to language
education). Each o f these is explained below.
Early-exit, or transitional, bilingual educa­
tion program s are usually developed to serve
voting students who are rec e n t im m igrants to a
new country (and thus are language-m inoritv
students). T hese program s aim to use two lan­
guages for classroom in struction u p until the
p o in t at which children have developed suffi­
cient oral a n d literacy skills to receive all class­
room in stru ctio n in th eir second language.
(Thus the label transitional; two languages, the
ch ildren's native language an d the d o m in an t
societal language, are used in classroom instruc­
tion onlv until the ch ild ren can m ake the transi­
tion to receiving all instruction in the do m in an t
language.) Earlv-exit program s alwavs include
oral use of the c h ild re n ’s native language in the
classroom ; thev mav o r mav n o t include the
active teaching o f literacy skills in the children's
native language. To the degree thev do, thev
may aim to develop biliteracv. hut onlv the
degree o f biliteracv n e e d ed to m ake a transition
to literacv in the d o m in an t language. Program
length varies, usually from one to th ree tears.
Most such program s begin in kind erg arten or
first grade. T he goals of transitional bilingual
program s are to ensure m astery o f grade-appro­
p ria te acad em ic c o n te n t a n d facilitate the
speedv acquisition o f the d o m in an t language so
that children can move into m ainstream class­
room s within th re e tea rs o f p rogram entry
(G enesee 1999, p. 14). Transitional program s
req u ire a sufficient n u m b e r of certified bilingual
teachers able to teach at the c o rresp o n d in g
grade level; access to sufficient academ ic m ateri­
als in the stu d e n ts’ native language; specialized
in struction in the second language (English, in
m ost cases in the U n ited States) so that students
are p re p a re d to move into classroom s using onlv
th at language, a n d specialized linguistic support
for students d u rin g a n d after the transition;
a p p ro p riate an d reg u lar assessm ent of stu d e n t
progress; a n d su p p o rt for an d from stu d e n ts’
family an d com m unity m em bers. O n e such p ro ­
gram , b e g in n in g at k in d e rg a rte n level a n d
described by G enesee a n d his collaborators
(1999, pp. 17-19), is fo u n d at a school they call
Kinney Elem entary, located in a Spanish-speak­
ing com m unity. E x p erien ced bilingual teachers
a n d th e bilingual program c o o rd in a to r work
with students e n te rin g the school in grades К
a n d 1 to assist th em in developing literacv skills
a n d conversation skills in Spanish an d English.
Teachers in grades 3 and 4, with t ears o f experi­
ence in h elp in g students in the process o f tra n ­
sition, use m anv sh eltered English techniques
(see Snow’s c h a p te r in this volum e) to su p p o rt
stu d e n ts’ academ ic progress d u rin g th e transi­
tion to m ainstream English-m edium instruction.
Late-exit. or m ain ten an ce (or developmental
bilingual, in som e sources), m odels also aim to
serve voting students who are e ith e r im m igrants
to a country o r who are m em bers o f relatively'
large groups w ithin a country a n d who speak a
native language d ifferent from th e d o m in a n t
one. T hus such program s, too, have b e e n estab­
lished to serve language-m inority students. The
goals of such program s ty'picallv include develop­
m en t o f literacy skills in both the nativ e language
an d the second language, a n d developm ent
of academ ic literacy skills in both languages th e­
oretically continues fo r the d u ratio n of the
program . Thus such program s explicitly aim to
develop biliteracv. (T he designation of mainte­
nance refers to the p rogram goal o f m aintaining
the use of the c h ild ren ’s native language all the
wav th ro u g h the program . This goal does n o t in
am wav exclude the learning of academ ic literacy
skills in the second language. O n the contrary',
m aintenance bilingual program s are m eant to use
and develop two languages to the point o f age-
app ro p riate academ ic literacy skills.) Because
such program s aim to m aintain and develop skills
in two languages, there is no theoretical limit on
the n u m b e r of vears thev m ight extend. In prac­
tice. however, such progrants are usually fo u n d
at the elem entary level, and ex ten d from grades
К th ro u g h 6. d e p e n d in g som ew hat on how the
p a rtic u la r school system organizes levels o f
instruction.
 W hat kinds o f resources are req u ired to
im p lem en t a n d sustain such program s? Like
transitional bilingual program s, m ain ten an ce
bilingual program s req u ire a sufficient n u m b er
of certified bilingual teachers to teach all the
grade levels inclu d ed in the program ; access to
sufficient academ ic m aterials in the stu d e n ts’
native language a n d in the second language
(English, in the U nited States): specialized sec­
o n d language instruction; a p p ro p riate assess­
m ent; an d paren tal an d com m unitv support.
Because the program s ex ten d lo n g er th an tra n ­
sitional program s, thev require a greater n u m ­
b e r o f certified bilingual teachers and native
language academ ic m aterials that cover a wider
range o f grade levels. In m ain ten an ce bilingual
education, teachers are enco u rag ed to keep the
languages separate, a n d the entire school staff
a n d com m unitv is expected to create an atm os­
p h e re o f eq u al status fo r b o th languages
involved. M a in te n an c e b ilin g u al p ro g ra m s
d e p e n d to som e degree on the interest of a p ar­
ticular language com m unitv in suppo rtin g the
academ ic use o f its language, along with the sec­
o n d language, a n d insisting on high academ ic
standards in both languages. G enesee and col­
laborators (1999, pp. 21-24) describe a K-5
m ain te n a n c e bilingual p ro g ram at M ariposa
E lem entarv School, which grew out of a previ-
ouslv im p lem en ted transitional bilingual p ro ­
gram . C ah n m an n (1998) shows how the deliverv
o f bilingual in stru ctio n at o n e P hiladelphia
school shifted over tim e from transitional to
m ain ten an ce to transitional, in p art as a result of
changes in fu n d in g sources a n d leadership.
Im m ersion program s, pioneered in C anada
to serve language majoritv students, in this case,
native speakers of English desirous of developing
high levels of skill in French (see also G enesee
1987, and Snow's chapter in this volum e), aim to
im m erse students in a language different from
their native language. T he ultim ate goal is to
build strong academ ic literaev skills in that lan­
guage and to give students access to subject m at­
ter taught entirelv through the second language.
In the classic im m ersion m odel, students receive
in stru ctio n com pletelv o r alm ost com pletely
through the m edium of the second language for
the first few vears of their educational experience,
with literaev instruction in their native language
ad d e d once thev have established a base of liter­
acy in the second language. Bv the latter vears of
the program , thev usuallv receive instruction in
each language about half the time. This progres­
sion of tim e allocation is thus referred to as start­
ing with 90 10 (most instruction initiallv takes
place in the second language, with little or no use
o f the students' native language) and moves to
50 50. Im m ersion m odels mav extend all the wav
through elem entarv and even secondarv educa­
tion. For exam ples of im m ersion approaches
used in various in te rn a tio n a l contexts, see
G enesee 1987 and Jo h n so n and Swain 1997.
In the U nited States, there is a great deal of
interest in dual-language im m ersion (also called
two-wav im m ersion), a variant of the im m ersion
m odel, designed to serve both language-m inority
and language-majoritv children who wish to learn
through the m edium of two languages and de­
velop literaev skills in b oth languages (see
Christian 1996 and Christian et al. 1997). Such
program s tvpicallv begin in k in d erg arten or
grades 1 or 2 and extend all the wav through ele­
mentarv school. Instructional allocation of lan­
guages follows one of several patterns: It mav be
based on subject m atter (i.e.. m ath taught in one
language, social studies in the o th er): on partic­
ular davs of the week (e.g.. two days p e r week are
"English" davs. three davs are "Spanish" davs, then
the allocation is changed the following w eek); on
parts of the dav (e.g.. m orning in Spanish, after­
noon in English): or on weekly assignm ent (a
week in Spanish, then a week in English, etc.).
W hatever pattern is chosen, the teaching staff and
students know and follow it. Initiallv. children
entering such program s are proficient in only one
of the two languages but, because the enrolled stu­
dents are nativ e speakers of each of the languages
used, children teach each o th er in addition to
learning from the adult m odels around them .
Because there are native-speaker or highlv profi­
cient m odels of both languages am ong both
teaching staff and student participants, the likeli­
hood that students will in fact dev elop high lev els
of proficiency in both languages is increased.
Freem an (1998) provides a com prehensive
description o f the history and function of a
Spanish-English dual language program at the
Oyster School in northw est W ashington, D.C.
H e r acco u n t offers m any insights into the con­
fluence o f p aren tal an d com m unity interest,
presence of qualified a n d ded icated teachers
a n d adm inistrators, a n d o th e r issues to be con­
sidered in im p lem en tin g such program s.
Secondary Bilingual Approaches
At the secondary level, issues o f program m odel
and choice o f instructional language are affected
by the departm entalized nature o f instruction
found in m ost secondary schools. Moreover, the
greater cognitive dem ands of secondary school
instruction also create pressures for both students
an d teachers to cover m ore, and m ore challeng­
ing, co n ten t m aterial in a lim ited p eriod of time.
H ence, bilingual program s found at the second­
ary level are usuallv some variant of earlv-exit or
transitional bilingual program s in which the stu­
d e n ts’ native language is used just long enough to
help them m ake a transition to the sociallv and
politically do m in an t language, which thev are
th en expected to use th rough the rest of second­
ary school.
Because o f the specialized nature of instruc­
tion at the secondarv school level, it is rare to find
an entire program th at is com pletelv bilingual.
Some secondary schools serving students who
com e largely from a single language background
have b een successful in establishing bilingual
in struction th a t continues th ro u g h school; for
an exam ple o f one such p rogram serving Navajo
students, see M cLaughlin 1992. N onetheless,
th ere is grow ing interest in devising adaptations
o f the two-way im m ersion a p p ro ach for second­
arv schools (M o n to n e a n d L oeb 2000).
A lthough the n u m b er o f two-wav im m ersion
(TWI) program s in m iddle schools a n d second­
ary schools is still quite small, mans' districts
a ro u n d the L’n ited States, especiallv those in
which elem entarv level dual im m ersion p ro ­
gram s have b eco m e b e tte r estab lish ed , are
exploring the possibilitv of ad apting this m odel
to suit older students. Tim e a n d subject alloca­
tions v a n considerable, according to stu d e n t
p o p u latio n a n d tea c h e r expertise. For exam ple,
at Bowen H igh School in Chicago, a 5 0 /5 0
Spanish-English two-way im m ersion p rogram ,
students spend m ost of the day to gether; con­
ten t courses such as algebra, biology, an d w orld
historv are tau g h t in b o th languages, with lan ­
guages altern atin g by u n it of instruction w ithin
am given subject. T he program -w ithin-a-school
m odel is also followed at Casey M iddle School in
B oulder, C olorado, w here TWI students are
in structed to g eth e r for two o n e-h o u r blocks, one
in science an d social studies a n d the o th e r in
language arts. For all o th e r classes, TWI students
are m ixed with o th e r students. O th e r secondarv-
level TWI program s have b een established in
A rlington, Virginia; Brooklyn, New York; and
Santa M o n ic a /M a lib u a n d Valiev C enter,
C alifornia (all p rogram in fo rm atio n cited is
from M ontone an d Loeb 2000).
A dditionallv, in som e localities, notably
large cities w here th ere are new com er schools
(or new com er program s within schools)4 th at
se n e large num bers o f im m igrant students from
the sam e language background, th ere mav well
be bilingual content-area classes, n u m b ers o f stu­
dents a n d availability o f qualified teachers p e r­
m itting. For exam ple, core secondarv school
classes such as social studies a n d science have
been offered in Spanish, C hinese, and Bengali,
according to the prevalent language groups
en ro lled , at N ew com ers H igh in Q ueens. New
York (Schnailberg 1996, p. 36). W hile som e p ar­
ticular classes may be offered p red o m in an tly in
languages o th e r th an those used in the m ain­
stream , th ere is still program w ide em phasis on
assisting students to develop the English lan­
guage skills n e e d e d to m ake a speech transition
to English language instruction. H ence, while
such program s are n o t called transitional bilin­
gual program s, certain classes w ithin them (and
the overall goal of transition to English) m ake
them som ew hat com parable to such program s.
E ducators a n d others have som e concerns about
separating new com er students from o thers for
too long a period, but this ap p ro ach has been
used successfullv in parts o f C alifornia a n d in
som e o th e r large cities across the country with
large num bers o f secondarv level students from
the sam e language groups (A dger a n d Peyton
1999; C hang 1990). H ence it should figure
am ong the options to be co n sid ered as teachers
a n d adm inistrators seek alternatives to provide a
variety o f paths to success for secondary level
students (Lucas 1997).
Postsecondary Bilingual Approaches
Postsecondary institutions s e n e students beyond
the age o f com pulsory attendance. In the US,
postsecondary students are an extrem ely diverse
lot of traditional- and nontraditional- age stu­
dents whose goals range from very specific occu­
pational training to m ore general aims such as
acquiring a liberal education to highly specialized
prep aratio n for fu rth e r professional study The
role and extent of bilingual approaches observed
for each such stu d en t g roup varies considerably
Because no national body or organization is
c h arg ed with collecting related data, it is quite
difficult to d e te rm in e w hen a n d w here bilingual
ap p ro ach es are used.
Som e bilingual program s for adults in the
U n ited States h a te b e e n developed to provide
short-term , highly focused vocational training
for special populations such as refugees who
qualify for special governm ent support. W here
th ere are large nu m b ers of English learners who
share a native language background, native lan­
guage in struction mav be included as a part of
relatively short (less than six m onths) program s
aim ed at help in g participants find em ploym ent
as soon as possible.■’ Bilingual program s that
include native language literacy instruction for
adults ten d to be fo u n d in the geographic areas
rep re sen tin g the largest p ro p o rtio n al settlem ent
o f re c e n t im m igrants: Xew York. California.
Texas, and Illinois (Gillespie 1994).
Postsccondarv students en ro lled in degree
program s mav have access to language instruc­
tion designed to accom m odate various profes­
sional a n d personal goals. Som e universities
offer im m ersion program s that are best viewed
as a variant of foreign language im m ersion p ro ­
gram s (again, see Snow's c h a p te r in this vol­
u m e ). U niversity im m ersio n p ro g ra m s mav
com bine intensive language in struction (th at is,
instruction from fo u r to six hours p e r day for a
sem ester o r sum m er term ) with a p e rio d o f resi­
d en ce in a n o th e r country w here the language is
spoken, with the goal of rapidly b u ilding profi­
ciency. (In such cases, the instruction is m ainly
in th e second language, so these program s
w ould not necessarily qualify as bilingual pro ­
gram s, alth o u g h they are aim ed at pro d u cin g
students who becom e bilingual to som e degree
as a result o f participation.) Many colleges and
universities in the U nited States offer special
language courses ("heritage language”) th a t may
be taught e ith e r bilinguallv or entirely in Spanish
for native speakers of Spanish: often, though not
always, the goal o f such courses is language m ain­
tenance and developm ent o f form al literacy skills
in Spanish for students who have received all or
most of their form al education in schools in the
U nited States and thus have not had the o p p o r­
tunity to build advanced literacy skills in Spanish
(Valdes 1995). Finally, some postsecondarv institu­
tions in the U nited States offer courses that com­
bine language instruction with occupationally
relevant material in courses designed for particu­
lar majors such as education or business. Courses
em phasizing Spanish for teachers or business-
people mav or mav not be taught bilingually,
d ep en d in g on the level of proficiency shown by
the students and the instructor's language capa­
bilities. In Canada, some univ ersities offer highly
proficient students the option o f taking special
content area courses com pletely th ro u g h the
m edium of their second language, either English
or French: such courses, a kind of te rtia n ’ "shel­
tered" approach, offer graduates of secondary
level im m ersion program s a wav to m aintain and
develop proficiency while learning new subject
m atter (see Snow's ch ap ter in this volum e).
FROM PROGRAM M O DELS
TO Q U A L IT Y IN D ICA TO R S
From the 1960s until a b o u t 1990, m ost discus­
sion of bilingual ed u cation c e n te re d on the pos­
sible p rogram m odels. T hus, m any m ethods
texts em phasized taxonom ies, often elaborate,
of tvpes of bilingual ed u cation an d descriptions
of various bilingual approaches (e.g., Mackey
1978). Increasingly, th ough, researchers, policy
m akers, a n d practicing educators have realized
th ere are, in fact, very few “p u re ” bilingual pro­
gram m odels in existence, a n d that, in practice,
m ost bilin g u al p ro g ra m s co m b in e e le m en ts
fo u n d in various m odels. Consequently, it makes
little sense to discuss educational m odels w ithout
reference to the social, political, an d econom ic
contexts in which they are im p lem en ted (Brisk
2000, 1998). C ontem porary discussions of bilin­
gual ed u catio n (August a n d H akuta 1997; Brisk
1998. 2000; D en tler an d H afn er 1997; G enesee
1999) em phasize the m atch betw een the charac­
teristics o f an ed ucational program , the socio­
cultural context o f the students it serves, an d the
resources (both tangible and intangible) avail­
able to su p p o rt educational efforts. All these
affect the n atu re o f related tea c h e r expertise,
choice of instructional ap p ro ach , an d outcom es
to be expected in anv instructional program ,
including bilingual approaches. We now turn to
those quality indicators m ost closelv related to
1a n g u age t e ac h i n g.
Availability of Qualified Teachers
and O ther School Staff
It is im possible to im plem ent anv sort o f bilin­
gual p rogram w ithout qualified bilingual teach­
ers. For this reason, availability of qualified staff
m em bers is the c o rn ersto n e of successful bilin­
gual program s (D entler and H afn er 1997. pp.
40-49). Teachers m ust be both highly proficient
in at least one o f the languages o f the program
a n d appropriately certified to teach the grade
level or subject area for which thev will be
responsible. M oreover, program effectiveness is
e n h a n c e d if teachers share the linguistic an d cul­
tural backgrounds of the students then teach.
A lthough teachers are vital, thev are not the onlv
relev an t p e rso n n e l; th e p re se n c e o f school
adm inistrators com m itted to bilingual instruc­
tion (Soto 1997) an d o th e r instructional p erso n ­
nel such as classroom aides in crease the
likelihood o f effective a n d consistent instruction.
Sound Curriculum
and Instructional Organization
Q ualified staff m em bers m ust establish a n d fol­
low high quality age-appropriate curricula. Too
often, bilingual ed u catio n program s are viewed
as rem edial ra th e r than enriching. T he use of
stu d e n ts’ first o r native language for instruction
is p art o f any bilingual p rogram , but is not bv
itself sufficient to g u aran tee program quality
(C um m ins 1999), which is influenced by addi­
tional factors. Effective bilingual ap p ro ach es
exem plify the sam e characteristics as o th e r effec­
tive program s, including access to the core cur­
riculum ; close articulation of grade an d subject
levels; flexible groupings; team teaching; use of
m eaningful tasks and pedagogy th at actively
involve the students in instruction; teaching
m aterials a p p ro p riate in quantity and quality to
subjects taught: p e e r a n d cross-age tutoring; and
collaborative staff p lan n in g (D entler an d H afner
1997. p. 40; Brisk 1998). Such cu rricu lar m atters
require careful p lan n in g and m onitoring, and
must be im plem ented sensibly, keeping in m ind
local conditions such as average class size, budget
for m aterials and teacher training, and o ther
resources, tangible and intangible, available to
support and m aintain bilingual instruction.
To this must be added, specifically for bilin­
gual approaches, the selection an d consistent
im plem entation of a school- and program w ide
plan for language allocation th ro u g h o u t the
school dav and across the length o f the school
program (Baker 1996, pp. 232-241). A ppropriate
decisions ab o u t language allocation d e p e n d
greatlv on the particular school, neighborhood,
and com m unity context (fre em a n 1998; Perez
and Torres-Guzman 1992); thus, it is impossible to
m ake blanket rec o m m e n d a tio n s, e x c ep t to
observe that, if both languages are to be devel­
oped appropriately, both m ust be accorded the
status of m edium of instruction for a variety of
curricular activities and. d ep en d in g on student
age and program tvpe. both may also be school
subjects. (For fu rth er considerations related to
sound pedagogical techniques for second lan­
guage developm ent and subject m atter m asterv in
classrooms, see chapters bv Fdiger and Hawkins
in this volume.)
Appropriate Regular Assessment
G ood bilingual program s dem onstrate a regular
and systematic approach to assessment o f student
progress in all curricular subjects in the relevant
language. In assessm ent o f overall p ro g ram
quality, these two aspects o f evaluation are related
b u t distinct. Each requires attention, though the
natu re and tvpes of assessments used to gather
relevant data varies considerable according to
local and national assessment traditions and prac­
tices. In the U nited States for the last several
decades, public (and most private) schools have
d e p e n d ed on large-scale, norm -referenced stan­
dardized tests given in English as indicators of stu­
d e n t progress, hr some states, standardized tests
in Spanish may also be used, particularlv w here
elem entarv level bilingual program s have existed
for some tim e.1’ Tests that relv on lead in g and
w riting certainly have a place in all educational
program s, but researchers caution that, p articu­
larly for second language learners, ant test that
uses a second language reflects, in part, lan­
guage proficiencv as well as w hatever o th e r con­
structs or concepts are being tested (AERA
2000). C onsiderable tension su rrounds the use
o f such tests in all school program s, and bilin­
gual program s are no ex cep tio n .' O n the one
h an d , m am politicians and state legislators are
com m itted to the idea that institution of large-
scale testing program s will im prove education: on
the other, practicing educators, researchers, and
professionals in assessm ent express concerns
about the inordinate im portance accorded to
standardized testing (H eubert and H auser 1999).
In the U nited States at present, scholars in edu­
cation generallv (Shepard 2000) and those con­
cerned specificallv with second language (Gottlieb
2000; Katz 2000) a n d bilingual assessm ent
(M iram ontes, N adeau, and Com m ins 1997). call
fo r a m ore diverse, curriculum -specific, and
engaging philosophv of the assessment of student
progress. W ithin the realm of inform ed second
language practice, then, there is growing consen­
sus about the need for alternative m ethods of stu­
d e n t assessm ent, in cluding portfolio svstems.
learning logs, checklists of student learning, etc.
(see also C o h en 's c h a p te r in this volum e).
Because m anv n o n tra d itio n al ap p ro ach es to
assessment are so labor intensive to develop and
score, thev require some investm ent of time
and resources bevond conventional, published
m ultiple-choice tests. T heir use thus dem ands
increased teacher training and administrative and
public support.
Multiple Channels of Parent/Community
Outreach
Besides h a rin g the leadership n e e d ed to recru it
a n d retain qualified teaching staff and plan and
im p lem en t a sound curriculum , bilingual p ro ­
gram s o f till sorts m ust d eterm in e the m ost effec­
tive wavs to establish and m aintain links betw een
school-level efforts and the activities of stu d e n ts’
fam ilies and com m unities (M cG roartv 1998).
(O ptim ally all educational program s should do
this, but the n eed for com m unitv linkages is par­
ticularlv crucial w hen one o f the languages in a
bilingual p rogram represents a language regu-
larlv used bv the students' families.) Individual
teachers can take m anv steps w ithin th eir own
classroom s to draw on parents' interests in their
ch ild ren 's ed u catio n (see M cCaleb 1994 for
m am relevant suggestions), but effective com ­
munitv linkages also require schoolw ide lead er­
ship and support. Explicit efforts to create such
links are particularlv crucial w hen teachers do
not share the linguistic a n d cultural characteris­
tics o f their students. T he challenge is greater
still w hen students rep resen t not one single lin­
guistic a n d cultural background b ut mans dif­
feren t ones, as is often the case in large urban
and suburban school districts. C om m unitv out­
reach is an area in which verv few teachers or
o th e r school p ersonnel receive am systematic
training, but it is one that shows up repeatedly as
a characteristic of eflective school program s for
second language learners and bilingual students
(D e n tle r a n d H a fn e r 1997; M iram ontes,
N adeau, and C om m ins 1997).
Ongoing Concerns
T he im p lem en tatio n of good bilingual educa­
tion program s requires co n certed efforts on the
parts of teachers, school leaders, students, and
families. To establish good program s, schools
m ust d elin e p rogram goals an d instructional
designs th at focus on the developm ent of profT
ciencv in twro languages while at the sam e tim e
p ro m o tin g access to the full range o f curricular
subjects a p p ro p riate to students' ages and devel­
o p m en ta l levels. In stitu tin g a p ro g ram th a t
m eets am definition o f bilingual instruction is
not alwavs an easy task, b u t it is certainly feasible
given train ed personnel, leadership, an d sup­
port. M oreover, successful bilingual program s
have been established in m am places in N orth
A m erica a n d internationally.
T h e re is no single best m odel for bilingual
instruction; a range of possibilities exists, each
with p articular requirem ents. At the same tim e,
results o f bilingual program s are in p a rt a func­
tion o f the com m unity contexts su rro u n d in g
schools. As Crawford (1998) notes, it is ironic
(an d u n fo rtu n a te ) that, even as th e fo u n d atio n
of research results a n d in fo rm ed practice sur­
ro u n d in g bilingual education in th e U nited
States has becom e b e tte r established since the
1960s, public opposition, based partially on mis­
u n d e rsta n d in g . has grown. It is often believed
th at bilingual instruction m eans instruction in
one non-English language onlv, w hen, as e m p h a ­
sized in this discussion, the bilingual approaches
m ost com m only used in the U nited States ahvavs
involve the use of !u>o languages, one o f which is
English. Associations o f linguists (e.g.. AAAL
1996. 1997; LSA 1996) and language educators
(NCTE 1982; TESOL 1992) have, for some t ears,
endorsed the usefulness and potential com ple­
m en tarity of both bilingual o r bidialectal
approaches and specific second language tech­
niques in education and hat e opposed ant sort of
official language designation that would restrict
access to bilingual instruction. As teachers-in-
training an d practicing language instructors,
readers of this chapter can be instrum ental in
clarifying some of the m isunderstandings related
to bilingual instruction while at the same time-
working to provide good quality- language educa­
tion program s. D e p e n d in g on co n tex t a n d
resources, m am such program s m ight well
include some o f the bilingual approaches to lan­
guage proficiency and academ ic progress
described here.
D IS C U S S IO N Q U E S T IO N S
1. In your country o r state, what is m ean t by the
term bilingual? W hich languages does this
term usually' refer to. an d which o f these are
fo u n d in the educational svstem?
2. In vour teach in g context, whv are teachers,
students, an d fam ilies in terested in bilingual
a p p ro a c h e s to lan g u ag e learn in g ? W hat
kinds o f goals do they h o p e to achiev e?
3. In vour locality, are th ere any o th e r institu­
tions, co m m u n ity g ro u p s, o r b ro a d c a st
m edia w here use o f a language o th e r th an
the d o m in a n t one is usual? Identify any
settings w here use of a n o th e r language is a
regular occurrence; co m m en t on w h eth er
and how the use o f language in such a set­
ting m ight pro m o te an in te rest in bilingual
in struction in th at language.
4. In your view, is com prehensive academ ic liter­
acy in two languages a reasonable goal for
students enrolled in the bilingual program s
vou know about? Whv or whv not? W hat con­
ditions are conducive to the developm ent and
m aintenance of literacy in two languages?
5. Has vour citv o r state ever considered any
kind o f language legislation? W hat was the
proposal, an d w hat kinds of public discus­
sion su rro u n d e d it? Did the discussion o f this
language m easure reveal anything about atti­
tudes tow ard language a n d O r education?
S U G G E S T E D A C T IV IT IE S
1. Call vour local school district to find out
w h eth er they have any classroom s that follow
som e sort o f bilingual m odel. If thev do. trv
to visit a classroom for an h o u r o r two to
observ e som e typical classroom activities and
see how the teachers a n d students negotiate
the use of two languages.
2. If th ere are any bilingual program s located
at schools (public o r private) n e a r you,
arrange to talk with one o f the teachers in
the program . Ask the tea c h e r how the cur­
ricular design and m aterials are em ployed to
develop p ro ficien cy in two languages.
E xam ine the m aterials used fo r literacy
instruction in each language to get. som e
idea o f the language m odels used to h elp stu­
dents becom e biliterate.
3. G ather some inform ation on student assess­
m ent from one o r two schools o r school dis­
tricts. W hat kinds of student assessments are
 regularly ad m inistered, a n d in what lan­ A cle a r a n d re a d a b le a c c o u n t o f th e d e v e lo p ­
guage? If the district includes nun-native m ent and program v a rie tie s o b s e r v e d in c o n ­

speakers of English, are testing and assess­ te m p o r a r y b ilin g u a l e d u c a t io n p r o g r a m s in th e

U n ite d S ta te s, w ith d is c u s s io n o f th e p o litic a l
m ent req u irem en ts m odified or altered in
i m p e t u s as w ell as p e d a g o g i c a l q u e s t i o n s r e l a t e d
any was to accom m odate them ? If so, how7?
t o its e s t a b l i s h m e n t .
4. Ask staff m em bers from schools seis ing dif­
Policy and Practice in
G a rc ia , O .. a n d C. B ak er, ed s. 1995.
feren t lev els of students (elem entary-'m iddle
Bilingual h.ducation: l:\tending the Foundations.
sch o o l/seco n d ary ) how they address issues C le v e d o n . U K : M u ltilin g u a l M a tte rs.
of family contact an d com m unity outreach. A fin e c o lle c tio n o f many- o f th e s e m in a l a rtic le s
G ather samples of anv com m unications sent th a t h a v e s h a p e d c u r r e n t a p p r o a c h e s to b ilin ­
to students' hom es. See which languages are g u al e d u c a tio n re s e a rc h a n d p ra c tic e .
used to com m unicate with families: find out G enesee. E. ed. 1999. Program Alternatives for
hosv often and whs families are asked to Einguistically Diverse Students. ( E d u c a t i o n a l
com e to the school. Do sou think such m odes P r a c t i c e R e p o r t N o . 1.) W a s h i n g t o n . D C : C e n t e r

of outreach are likels to engage students' for R esearch on E d u c a tio n . D iv e rsity , and

families? Whs- o r whv not? E x c e lle n c e C e n t e r fo r A p p lie d L in g u istic s.

A c o n c is e a n d p ra c tic a l d isc u ssio n o f th e p rin c i­
5. Contact the legislative analyst's office for s our
pal a re a s to b e a d d r e s s e d w h e n c o n s id e r in g th e
state to see w hether am legislation affecting
c h o ic e a n d d e s ig n o f b ilin g u a l a n d E n g lish as a
language use o r studs has been proposed
second la n g u a g e pro g ram s fo r sch o o ls in th e
within the last two sears. See if s ou can iden­ l n itc c l S ta te s, w ith d e s c r i p t i o n s o l s e v e r a l p r o ­
tify the sponsors and the intent of this legisla­ g r a m tv p e s .
tion. If it has passed, ask some bilingual and
ESI, teachers if it has affected their work in
any wav.
W E B S IT E S
C e n t e r to r A p p lie d L in g u is tic s (C A E )
CAL is a n o n p ro fit o rg a n iz a tio n d e v o te d to
FU R T H ER R EA D IN G p ro v id in g reso u rces in la n g u a g e e d u c a tio n to
re s e a rc h e rs, e d u c a to rs , p a re n ts, a n d stu d e n ts.
T hese s o u r c e s svill h e l p th o se in te re ste d in un d er­
http: www.cal.org
sta n d in g m ore about th e d e s ’e l o p m e m and im p le ­
N a tio n a l A ss o c ia tio n fo r B ilin g u a l E d u c a tio n (X A B E )
m e n ta tio n of b ilin g u a l ap p ro ach es to la n g u a g e
X.ABF. is a p r o f e s s i o n a l a n d a d v o c a c y a s s o c i a t i o n
le a rn in g .
d e d ic a te d to " a d d r e s s in g th e e d u c a t io n a l n e e d s
Foundations of Bilingual Education
B a k e r , C ., e d . 1 9 9 b . o f la n g u a g e m in o rity stu d e n ts in th e U n ite d
and Bilingualism. 2 d e d . C l e v e d o n . U K : S ta te s a n d a d v an cin g th e la n g u a g e co m p e te n ­
M u ltilin g u a l M atters. cies and m u ltic u ltu ra l u n d e rsta n d in g of a ll
A c o m p reh en siv e. in te rd isc ip lin a ry p re se n ta ­ A m e r i c a n s . " It s p o n s o r s a n a n n u a l c o n f e r e n c e to
tio n o f th e th e o r e tic a l a n d p ra c tic a l issu es c e n ­ e n a b le p ra c titio n e rs a n d s u p p o rte rs o f b ilin g u a l
tra l to p ro v is io n o f b ilin g u a l e d u c a tio n . e d u c a tio n to s h a r e t h e i r e x p e r i e n c e s , p r o v i d e s
B risk , M. E. Bilingual Education: From
1998. advocacy o n b e h a lf o f b ilin g u a l e d u c a tio n a n d
Compensators to Oiudity Schooling. M a h w a h , N J .: b ilin g u a l s t u d e n ts , a n d p u b li s h e s a n e tv sle tte r.
L a w re n c e E rlb a u m . http: yvwyv.nabe.org
A t h o r o u g h p r e s e n t a t i o n o f is su e s r e l a t e d to p r o ­ X atio n a l C le a rin g h o u se for B ilin g u a l E d u c a tio n
v is io n o f g o o d q u a lity b ilin g u a l e d u c a tio n pro ­ iAC B E )
g r a m s d e f i n e d in lig h t o f p r e s e n t- d a y in t e r e s t in XCBE is a f e d e r a l l y f u n d e d c l e a r i n g h o u s e f o r
o v e ra ll e f f o r ts d i r e c t e d at s c h o o l i m p r o v e m e n t in in fo rm a tio n re la te d to b ilin g u a l e d u c a tio n
t h e U n i t e d S tates. w h o s e c h a r g e is t o “ c o l l e c t , a n a l y z e , a n d d i s s e m ­
C raw ford. J. \V. 1 9 9 9 . Bilingual Education: H is to ry , in a te i n f o r m a t i o n r e l a ti n g to th e e ffe c tiv e e d u ­
Politics. Theory, mid Practice. 4 t h e d . L o s A n g e l e s : c a tio n o f lin g u istic a lly and cu ltu rally - d iv erse
B ilin g u a l E d u c a t i o n a l S erv ices. le a r n e r s in th e U n ite d S t a t e s . ' ' It o f f e r s m a n v
 fr e e a n d lo w -co st m a te r ia ls r e l a te d to b ilin g u a l o v ersh ad o w ed by p o litic a l co n cern s, som e
e d u c a tio n th eo ry , m e th o d o lo g y , a n d asse ssm e n t, e x p r e s s e d o v e rtly a n d s o m e n o t, t h a t h a v e little o r
h ttp ://www.ncbe.gwu.edu n o t h i n g to d o w ith t h e d aily c h o ic e s f a c in g te a c h e r s
U n iv e rsity o f C a lifo rn ia L in g u istic M in o rity R e s e a rc h a n d a d m in is tra to rs as th e y d e te r m in e h o w to b e st
In s titu te (U C L M R I) e d u c a te th e s tu d e n ts th e y s e n e . W h ile p e d a g o g ic a l
The UC L M R I, fu n d ed bv th e U n iv ersity of a n d p o litical q u e s tio n s a r e c e rta in ly re la te d , te a c h ­
C a lifo rn ia sy stem , is a m u ltic a m p u s research e rs n e e d to b e a b le to d is ti n g u is h b e t w e e n t h e m in
e ffo rt d e v o te d to id e n tif y in g effectiv e e d u c a t io n a l o r d e r to fo c u s th e i r e ffo rts a c c o r d i n g to th e s t u d e n t
p ra c tic e s fo r la n g u a g e m in o rity stu d e n ts in a n d c o m m u n it y c o n te x ts in w h ic h th e y w o rk .
C a l i f o r n i a . It s p o n s o r s r e s e a r c h p r o j e c t s , d i s s e m i ­ 4 I.ik e m anv te rm s in e d u c a tio n for lin g u is tic a lly
n a te s in fo rm a tio n th r o u g h re s e a rc h re p o rts, a n d d i v e r s e s t u d e n t s , n n e ro n ie r p ro g ram s \vaxe a r a n g e o f
p u b lis h e s a n ew sletter. m e a n i n g s in a c tu a l p ra c tic e . T h e y s o m e ti m e s r e f e r
h ttp ://lmrinet.ucsb.edu sp e c ific a lly to p r o g r a m s w h e r e n e w ly a rr iv e d i m m i­
g ra n t stu d e n ts are se p a ra te d fro m o th e r stu d e n ts
f o r a p e r i o d o f ti m e , u s u a lly six m o n t h s to a fu ll a c a ­
d e m i c year, in o r d e r to re c e iv e sp e c ia lly d e s i g n e d

ENDNO TES lin g u istic and c u ltu ra l s e n ic e s a im e d at h e lp in g

th e m m a k e a tr a n s it io n to th e m a i n s t r e a m c lasses
1 Z e n te lla (1997) p ro v id es a p a rtic u la rly te llin g w h ic h th e y m u s t a tte n d o n c e th e a llo tte d tim e p e ri­
a c c o u n t o f t h e w av t h a t u s e o f tw o l a n g u a g e s a ls o o d is o v e r ( s e e S c h n a i l b e r g 1 9 9 6 f o r d e s c r i p t i o n o f
c h a n g e s w ith t h e life e x p e r i e n c e s o f a g r o u p of o n e s u c h p r o g r a m ) . I n o t h e r s i t u a t i o n s , newcom er
y o u n g P u e r t o R i c a n w o m e n i n X e w Y o r k C it v . p ro g ra m s r e f e r g e n e r i c a l l v t o a l l p r o g r a m s , i n c l u d ­
2 H e n c e , t h i s c h a p t e r is o n l v c o n c e r n e d w i t h b i l i n ­ in g b ilin g u a l a n d E S I. in s tru c tio n p r o v id e d as p a r t
g u a l p r o g r a m s in w h ic h th e u s e o f tw o l a n g u a g e s o f a n e d u c a t i o n th a t o th e r w is e ta k e s p la c e in r e g u ­
ta k e s p la c e w ith th e s a m e g r o u p o f s tu d e n ts d u r i n g la r c la s sro o m s e n r o llin g n o n - n e w c o m e r s tu d e n ts
t h e s a m e a c a d e m i c t i m e f r a m e . I t is n o t c o n c e r n e d (a m e a n in g used in som e of th e p ro g ram s
w ith e d u c a tio n a l p r o g r a m s w h e re , fo r e x a m p le , a d e s c r ib e d in C h a n g 1990; a n d D e n tle r a n d H a f n e r
s in g le l a n g u a g e m a t b e u s e d in p r e s c h o o l t h r o u g h 1 9 9 7 ) . A s w i t h t h e t e r m b ilin g u a l ed u ca tio n , r e a d e r s
g r a d e 3, w i t h s t u d e n t s a n d t e a c h e r s d o i n g a fu ll are a d v ise d to u s e sp ecific in fo rm a tio n about a
sc a le sw itc h to a n o t h e r l a n g u a g e (u su a lly a la n ­ pro g ram (w h e th e r o r n o t th e fo cal s tu d e n ts a re
g u a g e o f w i d e r c o m m u n i c a t i o n o r n a t i o n a l v isib il­ sep a ra te d fro m o th e r stu d e n ts o f th e sam e age;
ity) i n g r a d e s 4 a n d o n w a r d s ( s e e M a c k e v 1 9 7 8 f o r h o w lo n g th e p ro g ra m la sts; w h a t t h e c u r r i c u l a r
a d d itio n a l p o ssib le c o n fig u ra tio n s of b ilin g u a l a l l o c a t i o n is o f a n y s p e c i a l l a n g u a g e s e r v i c e s s u c h
e d u c a tio n ). In su c h an a rra n g e m e n t, o n e c o u ld as n a tiv e la n g u a g e in s tr u c tio n , E S L in s tr u c tio n , o r
ju s tifia b ly a r g u e th a t th e e n t i r e e d u c a t i o n a l sy stem tu to rin g ; how stu d en t progress is a s s e s s e d ; w h a t
is b i l i n g u a l b e c a u s e o f t h e u s e o f o n e l a n g u a g e a n d k in d s o f a d d it io n a l se rv ic e s to fa c ilita te so c ia l a n d
th en t h e sw itch to a n o t h e r , a l t h o u g h a s tu d e n t's c u ltu ra l a d ju stm e n t m ig h t be p ro v id ed , e tc .) to
ex p erien ce at a m p o i n t in ti m e w o u ld , in th e o ry , d e t e r m i n e w h a t s u c h p r o g r a m s p ro v id e in a g iv e n
b e m o n o lin g u a l. T h is m o d e l o f "successive b ilin ­ set o f c irc u m sta n c e s. The la b e l itse lf su g g e sts a
g u a l e d u c a t i o n " r a is e s s o m e is su e s in a d d i t i o n to r a n g e o f p o ss ib le s c h o o l s tr u c tu r e s a n d serv ices t h a t
th o se n o te d h ere for th e m ore c o m m o n ly d is­ ta n g re a tly in th e ir realiz a tio n a c ro ss sc h o o l d is­
c u sse d " s im u lta n e o u s b ilin g u a l " a p p ro a c h e s. tric ts in t h e U n i t e d S ta te s ( A d g e r a n d P e y to n 1 9 9 9 ).
3 T h is c h a p te r c o n c e n tra te s o n p e d a g o g ic a l aspects -1 In th e U n i t e d S ta te s, b o t h b il in g u a l e d u c a t i o n a n d
o f b ilin g u a l a p p r o a c h e s to e d u c a t io n a n d d o e s n o t c o n sid e ra tio n s o f p ro g ra m s d e sig n e d fo r refu g ees
e x p lo r e th e p o litic a l c o n te x ts o f b ilin g u a l in s tru c ­ a n d im m ig ra n ts a re o fte n m a r k e d by c o n s id e ra b le
tio n in d e p t h . H o w e v e r, g iv e n th e tre n d s to w ard m is u n d e r s ta n d in g , co n tro v e rsy , a n d d is a g r e e m e n t
n a tiv ism in lan g u ag e in stru c tio n in th e U n ite d i n t h e p u b l i c ’s m i n d a b o u t t h e n a t u r e a n d e x t e n t
S tates (M cK av 2 0 0 0 ) a n d th e m a m effo rts b v o r g a n ­ o f se rv ic e s p r o v id e d . H e n c e , in s tr u c t o r s in s o m e
iz e d p r e s s u r e g r o u p s in th e U n ite d S tates to b a n p ro g ram s th a t o ffe r n ativ e la n g u a g e in s tru c tio n
b ilin g u a l in s tru c tio n (see. am ong o th e r sources, a n d s u p p o r t f o r a d u lt s t u d e n ts m a v b e r e l u c t a n t to
C raw ford 1992, K ra sh e n 1999, a n d M c G r o a r t y in a d m i t t o d o i n g s o . i f t h e r e is a s e n s e t h a t i n f l u e n ­
p r e s s ) , it is c r u c i a l t o n o t e t h a t d i s c u s s i o n o f p e d a ­ tial p e r s o n s w ith in f u n d i n g a g e n c i e s o r th e c o m ­
g o g i c a l i s s u e s i n b i l i n g u a l e d u c a t i o n is o f t e n e n t i r e l y m u n ity at larg e d isa p p ro v e (even w h e re p ro g ra m
 re g u la tio n s req u ire or p e rm it n a tiv e la n g u a g e O t h e r c o n s i d e r a t i o n s s u c h as lev el a n d n a t u r e o f s tu ­
u se ). T h is p e rs p e c tiv e w as b r o u g h t h o m e to m e a t d e n t s ’ p r i o r s c h o o lin g , ty p e a n d e x t e n t o f lite ra c y
a T E S O L c o n fe r e n c e p re s e n ta tio n in th e 1990s o n in stru c tio n , m atch b e tw e e n in stru c tio n a l c o n te n t
v o catio n al tra in in g fo r refu g ees, w h e n a p re s e n te r and te st c o n te n t, and th e p o ssib ility th at a test
s t a t e d t h a t h i s p r o g r a m i n C a l i f o r n i a ' s c e n t r a l v a l- in clu d es c u ltu rally irre le v a n t o r m is le a d in g item s
le v u s e d n ativ e la n g u a g e s to c o m m u n ic a te w ith m u s t also b e a d d r e s s e d (see V ald es a n d F ig u e r o a
H m ong and Lao a d u lt stu d e n ts but d id not 1994).
e m p h a s iz e th is in d is c u s s io n s w ith o t h e r a u t h o r i ­ ‘ S p ace d o e s n o t p e rm it a c o n sid e ra tio n o f a re la te d
t i e s , e s t a b l i s h i n g a k i n d o f " d o n ' t a s k / d o n ’t t e l l ” p r o b l e m o f p u b lic p e r c e p t io n , n a m e ly , th a t in f o r ­
p o lic y r e g a r d in g n a tiv e la n g u a g e in s tr u c tio n . T h e m e r d e c a d e s s t u d e n ts in th e U n i t e d S ta te s, i n c l u d ­
p o l i t i c a l s e n s i t i v i t y o f t h e t o p i c is a n a d d i t i o n a l r e a ­ i n g i m m i g r a n t s , a c h i e v e d a t h i g h e r l e v e l s t h a n is
s o n w h y d a t a o n b i l i n g u a l i n s t r u c t i o n f o r a d u l t s is p r e s e n tly th e case. T h is b e lie f, p e rv a siv e in m u c h
h a r d to l o c a t e a n d verify. p u b lic d isc o u rse , has re p re se n te d an in flu e n tia l
h It m i g h t first a p p e a r t h a t t e s t i n g S p a n i s h - s p e a k i n g c u r r e n t in p u b lic d is c u s s io n in th e U n ite d S tates
s tu d e n ts in S p a n ish solves p r o b l e m s o f e q u ity in sin c e a t least th e 1920s. e v e n th o u g h r e s e a r c h c o n ­
a ssessm en t, b u t c h a n g in g th e la n g u a g e o f a test d u c te d th r o u g h a v ariety o f m e t h o d s sh o w s n o s u p ­
d o e s n o t n e c e s s a rily m a k e a p a r t ic u l a r test s u ita b le p o r t f o r s u c h c la im s b a s e d o n re s u lts o f a n v ty p e o f
for a g ro u p o f stu d e n ts w h o use th a t lan g u ag e. test (fo r f u r th e r d is c u ssio n , see R o th s te in 1 9 9 8 ).
UNIT IV

Focus on the Learner

Many of the preceding chapters have focused on what the ESL/EFL
teacher should know or what the teacher can do to facilitate student
practice (and. one hopes, learning and improvement) in a language skill
(o r in all four skills). H o w ever unless teachers tutor individuals, they must
deal with a class— a group of individuals with different needs and ways
of learning, often with diverse linguistic and cultural backgrounds. The

Focus o n the L earn er

chapter in this section by Oxford discusses learning styles and learning
strategies, which are factors that can influence any student's ability to
learn in a particular instructional context. Thus, the teacher needs to be
aware and informed of these variables, Hawkins's chapter describes
appropriate learning environments and materials for teaching both
academic content and English language to ESL children, suggesting that
the instructional context is a more important factor in success than
the distinction many teachers make between basic interpersonal
communication skills and cognitive academic language proficiency. Hilles
and Sutton's chapter offers an insightful overview of the characteristics of
I V:
adult ESL learners with many practical tips to help teachers m eet these
special learners' needs.
UNIT
 Language Learning Styles
and Strategies
REBECCA L. O X F O R D
In "Language Learning Styles and Strategies,” O xford synthesizes research from various parts of the
world on tw o key variables affecting language learning: srx'es, i.e.. ones general approach to learning a
language: and strategies, the specific behaviors or thoughts 'earners use to enhance their language
learning.These factors influence the student’s ability m a particular instructional framework.
IN T R O D U C T IO N
L anguage lea rn in g steles a n d strategies are
am ong the m ain factors that help determ ine
how — and how well— our students learn a second
or foreign language. A second language is a lan­
guage studied in a setting w here that language is
the m ain vehicle of evervdav com m unication and
w here ab u n d an t input exists in that language.
A foreign language is a language studied in an
environm ent where it is not the prim arv vehicle
for clailv interaction and where input in that lan­
guage is restricted. Following the tradition in our
field, the term L2 is used in this chapter to refer
to either a second or a foreign language.
The readers of this book will be primarilv in
the field of English as a second or foreign lan­
guage (LSL or EFL), and most of the studies in
this chapter were conducted in LSL EFL settings.
However, some of the studies here focused on
native English speakers learning French. Germ an.
Japanese, or o ther languages foreign to them .
Learning styles are the general approaches—
for exam ple, global or analvtic. auditorv or vi­
sual— that students use in acq u irin g a new
language or in learning anv other subject. These
stales are "the overall patterns that give general
d irection to learn in g behavior" (C ornett 1983,
p. 9). O f greatest relev ance to this m ethodologv
book is this statem ent: "Learning stale is the bio-
logicallv and clevelopmentallv im posed set of char­
acteristics that make the same teaching m ethod
w onderful for som e and terrible for o th e rs”
(D unn a n d Griggs 1988. p. 3). This c h a p te r
explores the following aspects o f learning stvle:
sensora preferences, personalitv tapes, desired
degree o f generality, and biological differences.
Learning strategies are defin ed as “specific
actions, behaviors, steps, or tech n iq u es— such as
seeking out conversation partn ers, o r giving one-
se lfe n co u ra g em e n t to tackle a difficult language
task— used bv students to e n h a n ce th eir own
learning" (Scarcella and O xford 1992, p. 63).
W hen the lea rn er consciously chooses strategies
that fit his or h e r learning style an d the L2 task
at h and, these strategies becom e a useful tool­
kit for active, conscious, and purposeful self1
regulation of learning. L earning strategies can be
classified into six tapes: cognitive, metacognitive,
m em orv-related. com pensatory, affective, and
social. We avail discuss each of these later.
Because this c h a p te r c o n trib u te s to an
instructional m ethodologv book, it is im p o rtan t
to em phasize that individual stu d e n ts’ learn in g
stales and strategies can work to g eth e r w ith— or
conflict w ith— a giv en instructional m ethodologv.
If there is harm ona betw een (a) the student (in
terms of stale and strategv preferences) and ( b )
the instructional m ethodology an d m aterials,
then the student is likely to perform well, feel
confident, and experience low anxiety. If clashes
occur betw een (a) and (b), the student often p er­
form s poorlv. lacks confidence, an d experiences
significant anxietv. Som etim es such clashes lead
to serious breakdow ns in teacher-student inter­
action. These conflicts may also lead to the dispir­
ited stu d en t’s outright rejection of the leaching
m ethodologv. the teacher, or the subject matter.
Now we move to the detailed discussion of learn­
ing stales.
L E A R N IN G S T Y L E S
Elirm an and O xford (1990) cited nine m ajor style
dim ensions relevant to 1.2 learning, although
m any m ore stole aspects m ight also prove to be
influential. This chapter discusses four dim en­
sions o f learning stole that are likelv to be am ong
those most strongly associated with L2 learning:
sensory preferences, personality topes, desired
degree of generality, and biological differences.
T e a m in g steles are n ot dichotom ous (black
o r white, p resen t o r absent), but generally o p e r­
ate on a co n tin u u m o r on m ultiple, intersecting
continua. For exam ple, a perso n m ight be m ore
extroverted th an introverted, or m ore closure-
o rie n ted th an open, o r equally visual a n d audi­
tory b u t less kinesthetic a n d tactile. Few if anv
peo p le could be classified as having all o r n o th ­
ing in anv of these categories (F hrm an 1996).
Sensory Preferences
Sensory preferences can be broken down into
fo u r m ain areas: visual, auditory, kinesthetic
(movement-oriented), and tactile (touch-oriented).
Sensory preferences refer to the physical, percep­
tual learning channels with which the student is
the most comfortable. Visual students like to read
a n d obtain a great deal from visual stim ulation.
F or th em , lectures, conversations, a n d oral
instructions without anv visual backup can be verv
confusing. In contrast, auditory students are com ­
fortable without visual input and therefore enjov
an d profit from unem bellished lectures, conver­
sations. an d oral instructions. Thev are excited bv
classroom interactions in role plavs and similar
activities. Thev sometimes, however, have difficulty
with written work. Kinesthetic and tactile students
like lots of m ovem ent and enjov working with tan­
gible objects, collages, and flashcards. Sitting at a
desk for verv long is not for them ; they prefer to
have frequent breaks and move around the room.
Reid (1987) dem onstrated thatE S L students
varied significantly in their sensory preferences,
with people from certain cultures differentially
favoring the four different ways of learning.
Students from Asian cultures, for instance, were
often highly visual, with Koreans being the most
visual. Many studies, including R eid ’s, fo u n d th at
H ispanic learners were frequently auditory. Reid
discovered th at Jap an ese were verv nonauditorv.
FST students from a variety o f cultures were tac­
tile a n d kinesthetic in th eir sensory preferences.
See also Reid (1995) and O xford a n d A nderson
(1995).
Personality Types
A nother sole aspect that is im portant for L2 edu­
cation is personality tvpe. which consists of four
strands: extroverted versus introverted; intuitive-
random versus sensing-sequential; thinking versus
feeling; an d closure-oriented judging versus
open pcrcehing. Personality tvpe (often called
psychological tvpe) is a construct based on the
work of psychologist Carl Jung. Elirm an and
Oxford (1989. 1990) found significant relation­
ships between personality ty pe and 1.2 proficiency
in native-English-speaking learners of foreign lan­
guages. For m ore on personality tvpe in language
learning, see Elirm an (1996) and Oxford (1996b).
Extroverted versus Introverted Bv definition,
extroverts gain th eir greatest energy from the
e x te rn al w orld. Thev w ant in te ra c tio n with
people and have m am friendships, som e deep
and some not. In contrast, introverts derive their
energy from the internal world, seeking solitude
and ten d in g to have just a few friendships, which
are often verv deep. Extroverts an d introverts
can learn to work to g eth e r with the help o f the
teacher. E nforcing tim e limits in the T2 class­
room can keep extroverts' enthusiasm to a m an ­
ageable level. R otating the person in charge
of leading L2 discussions gives introverts an
opportunity to participate equally with extroverts.
Intuitive-Random versus Sensing-Sequential
Intuitive-random students think in abstract, futur­
istic. large-scale, and nonsequential wars. They
like to create theories and new possibilities, often
have sudden insights, and prefer to guide their
own learning. In contrast, sensing-sequential
learners are g rounded in the here and now. Thev
like facts rath er than theories, want guidance and
specific instruction from the teacher, and look for
consistency. T he key to teaching both intuitive-
random and sensing-sequential learners is to offer
variety and choice: sometim es a highly organized
structure for sensing-sequential learners, and at
other times m ultiple options and enrichm ent activ­
ities for intuitive-random students.
Thinking versus Feeling T h inking learners arc
o rie n ted toward the stark tru th , even if it. hurts
som e p eople's feelings. Thev want to be viewed
as c o m p e ten t a n d do n o t ten d to offer praise
easilv— even though they m ight secretly desire
to be praised them selves. Som etim es they seem
d etached. In com parison, feeling learners value
o th e r people in verv personal wavs. They show
em pathy a n d com passion th ro u g h words, n ot
ju st behaviors, an d sav w hatever is n e e d ed to
sm ooth over difficult situations. T h ough thev
often wear th eir hearts on th eir sleeves, thev
want to be respected for personal contributions
a n d h a rd work. 1.2 teachers can h elp thinking
learners show g rea ter overt com passion to th eir
feeling classmates and can suggest that feeling
le a rn e rs m ig h t to n e dow n th e ir e m o tio n a l
expression while w orking with thinking learners.
Closure-oriented/Judging versus Open/Perceiving
Closure-oriented students want to reach judg­
m ents or com pletion quicklv and want claritv as
soon as possible. These students are serious, h ard­
working learners who like to be given written
inform ation and enjov specific tasks with dead­
lines. Sometimes their desire for closure ham pers
the developm ent of fluenev (F.hrman and Oxford
1989). In contrast, open learners want to star avail­
able for continuouslv new perceptions and are
therefore sometim es called "perceiving." Thev
take 1.2 learning less seriouslv. treating it like a
gam e to be enjoved rather than a set of tasks to be
com pleted. O pen learners dislike deadlines: thev
want to have a good time and seem to soak tip 1.2
inform ation bv osmosis rather than hard effort.
O pen learners sometim es do better than closure-
oriented learners in developing fluenev (F.hrman
and O xford 1989). but thev are at a disadvantage
in a traditional classroom setting. Closure-oriented
and open learners provide a good balance for
each other in the L2 classroom. The form er are
task-driven learners, and the latter knots how to
have fun. Skilled T2 teachers sometimes con-
scioush create cooperative groups that include
both tvpes of learners, since thev can benefit from
collaboration with each other.
Desired Degree o f Generality
This stran d contrasts the le a rn e r who focuses on
the m ain idea or big p icture with the lea rn er
who concentrates on details. Global or holistic stu­
dents like sociallv interactive, com m unicative
events in which thev can em phasize the m ain
idea and avoid analvsis of gram m atical m inutiae.
Then are com fortable even when n o t having all
the inform ation, a n d thev feel free to guess from
the context. Analytic students te n d to c o n c en ­
trate on gram m atical details a n d often avoid
m o re free-flow ing c o m m u n icativ e activities.
Because of th eir c o n cern for precision, analytic
learners tvpicallv do not take the risks necessary
for guessing from the co n tex t unless thev are
fairlv sure of the accuracv o f th eir guesses. T he
global stu d en t a n d the analvtic stu d e n t have
m uch to learn from each other. A balance
betw een generalitv and specificitv is very useful
lor T2 learning.
Biological Differences
Differences in L.2 learning sty le can also be related
to biological factors, such as biorhythms, suste­
nance. and location. Biorhythms reveal the tim e' of
das svhen students feel good and perform t h e i r
best. Some 1.2 learners are m o rning people, sc h i l e
others do n ot w ant to start learning until t h e
afternoon, and still others are creatures of the
evening, happilv “pulling an all-nighter" svhen
necessarv. Sustenance refers to the n e e d for food
or d rin k while learning. Q uite a n u m b e r o f L2
learners feel verv com fortable learn in g with a
canch' bar, a cup o f coffee, o r a soda in h and, but
others are distracted from studv bv food and
drink. Location ins ols es the nature of the environ­
m ent: tem perature, lighting, sound, and even the
firmness of the chairs. L2 students differ widely
with regard to these environm ental factors. The
biological aspects of L2 learning stsle are often
forgotten, but vigilant teachers can often m ake
accom m odations and com prom ises svhen needed.
Beyond the Stylistic Comfort Zone
L.2 learners clearls need to m ake the m ost o f
th eir stsle preferences. However, occasionally
thev m ust also extend them selves bevond these
preferences. B y providing a wide range of class­
room activities that cater to different learning
styles, teachers can help L2 students develop
beyond the com fort zone dictated ba their natural
style preferences. T he kev is svstematicallv offering
a great variety of activities within a learner-
centered, com m unicative approach.
Assessing L 2 Learning Style
By far the most com m on tape of assessment tool
for L2 learning sta les is the written survev in which
students answer questions that reveal their partic­
ular style preferences. Sta le survevs v a n in reliabil­
ity and validitv, but in the last few decades thee
have provided data from which teachers and stu­
dents have begun to understand L2 stales. See
Reid (1995) for examples of such survevs.
We have touched upon a n u m b er of im por­
tant dim ensions of L2 learning sta le. Xow we are
ready to turn to learning strategies, which are
related to learning stales but are far m ore specific.
L E A R N IN G ST R A TEG IES
As seen earlier, L2 learning strategies are specific
behaviors or th o u g h t processes that students use
to enhance their own L2 learning. The word strat­
egy com es from the an cient G reek word stmtegia,
w hich m eans “steps o r actions generals take for
the pu rp o se o f w inning a war." T he warlike
m ean in g o f strategia has fortunatelv fallen away,
b u t the control a n d goal-directeclness rem ain in
the m o d ern version o f the w ord (O xford 1990).
A given strategy is neither good nor bad; it is
neutral until the context of its use is thoroughly
considered. WTiat makes a strategy positive and
helpful for a given learner? A strategy is useful if
the following conditions are present: (a) the strat­
egy relates t\Tell to the L2 task at hand; (b) the strat­
egy fits the particular stu d en t’s learning style
preferences to one degree or another; and (c) the
student emplovs the strategy effectivety and links it
with o ther relevant strategies. Strategies that fulfill
these conditions “m ake learning easier, faster,
m ore enjovable, m ore self-directed, m ore effective,
and m ore transferable to new situations" (Oxford
1990, p. 8). Learning strategies can also enable stu­
dents to becom e m ore independent, autonom ous,
lifelong learners (Allwright 1990; Little 1991).
Yet students are not alwavs aware of the
pow er o f consciouslv using L2 learn in g strategies
to m ake learn in g quicker and m ore effective
(Nyikos an d O xford 1993). Skilled teachers help
th eir students develop an awareness o f learning
strategies a n d enable them to use a w ider range
o f a p p ro p riate strategies.
Strategy Use Often Relates
to Style Preferences
W hen left to their own devices, and if not encour­
aged bv the teacher or forced bv the lesson to use
a certain set of strategies, students use learning
strategies that reflect their basic learning stales
(Ehrm an and Oxford 1989: O xford 1996a, 1996b).
However, teachers can activelv help students
"stretch" their learning stales bv living some strate­
gies that are outside of their primarv stale prefer­
ences. This assistance can happen through strategy
instruction, as discussed later in this chapter.
Conscious Movement Toward Goals
L earning strategies are intentionally used and
consciouslv controlled ba the le a rn e r (Pressley
with M cCorm ick 1995). In o u r field, virtuallv all
definitions o f strategies implv conscious move­
m ent toward a language goal (Bialastok 1990;
O xford 1990. 1996a). Let us consider Diana,
whose goal is to co nduct research in chem istrv
with the help of articles w ritten in the L2. She is
a bust' professional with no extra tim e for rea d ­
ing journals, but she needs the inform ation thev
contain. To m eet the need, she plans a m anage­
able task: finding an d reading one L2 article per
week on chemistrv until she develops a rapid read­
ing rate and is able to identity- and understand
published research findings. Strategies to help
Dia na accomplish- this task m ight include schedul­
ing time each week to search for an article in the
librara or on the Internet, or preparing herself bv
looking at articles on related topics in h er own lan­
guage. In addition, she could use strategies such as
skim m ing for the m ain points, reading carefully
for supporting details, keeping a notebook for L2
scientific vocabulary, using the dictionary to look
up difficult words, guessing the m eaning of words
from the context, and making a written outline or
summ ary if needed. T he avell-orchestraied set of
strategies Divna uses m ight be called a strategy
chain— a set of interlocking, related, and mutuallv
supportive strategies.
Positive Outcomes from Strategy Use
In subject areas outside o f L2 learning, the use
of learn in g strategies is dem onstrably related to
stu d en t achievem ent an d proficiency (Presslev
and Associates 1990). R esearch has repeatedlv
shown this relationship in c o n te n t fields ranging
from physics to read in g and from social studies
to science. In light o f this rem arkable association
betw een learn in g strategy use an d positive learn ­
ing outcom es, it is n o t surprising th at students
who frequentlv em plov learn in g strategies enjov
a high level of self-efficacy, i.e., a perception of
being effective as learners (Z im m erm an and
Pons 1986).
In the L2 arena, earlv studies o f so-called
“good language learners" (N aim an et al. 1975;
R ubin 1975) d e te rm in e d th at such learners con­
sistently used certain tvpes of learn in g strategies,
such as guessing from context. However, later
studies fo u n d that th ere teas no single set of
strategies alwavs used bv "good language learn ­
ers." T hese studies fo u n d that less able learners
used strategies in a ran d o m , u n c o n n e cte d , and
u n c o n tro lle d m a n n e r (A braham a n d V ann
1987; C ham ot et al. 1996), while m ore effective
learners showed careful o rchestration of strate­
gies. targeted in a relevant, svstematic wav at spe­
cific L2 tasks. In an investigation bv X unan
(1991), m ore effective learners differed from
less effective learners in th eir greater abilitv to
reflect on and articulate their own language
learn in g processes. In a studv of learners of
English in P uerto Rico, m ore successful students
used strategies for active involvem ent m ore fre­
quently than did less successful learners accord­
ing to G reen an d O xford (1995). T he same
researchers also c o m m en ted that the n u m b er
and type of learning strategies differed according
to w hether the learner was in a foreign language
environm ent o r a second language setting. In
their review o f the research literature, G reen and
O xford discovered that second language learners
generallv em ployed m ore strategies with higher
frequence than did foreign language learners.
Strategy Instruction Research
To increase L2 proficiency, som e researchers
an d teachers have provided instru ctio n to help
students learn how to use m ore relevant and
m ore pow erful learn in g strategies. In E SL /EFL
studies, positive effects o f strategy instruction
em erg ed for proficiency in speaking (D adour
an d R obbins 1996; O ’Malley et al. 1985) a n d
reading (Park-Oh 1994), although results for lis­
tening were not significant (O ’Malley et al. 1985).
C ham ot et al. (1996), C ohen et al. (1995), and
C ohen and Weaver (1998) investigated the effects
of strategy in stru ctio n am o n g native-English-
speaking learners of foreign languages an d found
some positive results m ixed with neutral findings.
In o th e r studies, strategy in stru ctio n led to
increased EFT learning m otivation (N unan 1997)
and, am ong native-English-speaking learners of
foreign languages, greater strategy use and self1
efficacy (C ham ot et al. 1996).
T h e m ost effective strategy in stru c tio n
appears to include d em o n stratin g w hen a given
strategy m ight be useful, as well as how to use
an d evaluate it, a n d how to transfer it to o th er
related tasks a n d situations. So far. research has
shown the m ost beneficial strategy' instruction to
be woven into regular, evervdav L2 teaching,
alth o u g h o th e r ways o f strategy instruction are
possible (O xford a n d Leaver 1996).
Six Main Categories
of L 2 Learning Strategies
Six m ajor groups o f L2 learn in g strategies have
b een identified bv O xford (1990). A lternative
taxonom ies base been offered by O ’Malley and
C ham ot (1990) a n d others.
Cognitix'e strategies enable the le a rn e r to
m anipulate the language m aterial in direct ways,
e.g.. through reasoning, analysis, notetaking, sum­
m arizing. svnthesi/.ing, outlining, reorganizing
inform ation to develop stronger schem as (knowl­
edge structures), practicing in naturalistic settings,
and practicing structures and sounds formally.
Cognitive strategies were significantly related to
L2 proficiency in studies bv Kato (1996), Ku
(1995). O xford and Ehrm an (1995), Oxford,
Judd, and Giesen (1998), and Park (1994), am ong
otliers. O f these studies, three were specific ally in
EFL settings: Kn (Taiwan). Oxford. Ju d d , and
Giesen (Turkey), and Park (Korea). The other
two studies involved the learning of Kanji by
native English speakers (Kato 1996) and the
learning o f various foreign languages bv native
English speakers (O xford and Ehrm an 1995).
Metacognitive strategies (e.g.. identifying o n e ’s
own learning stvle preferences and needs, plan­
ning for an T2 task, gathering and organizing
materials, arranging a study space and a schedule,
m onitoring mistakes, evaluating task success, and
evaluating the success of anv tvpc of learning-
strategy) are employed for m anaging the learning-
process overall. Am ong native English speakers
learn in g foreign languages. P u rp u ra (1999)
found that m etacognitive strategies had "a signifi­
cant, positive, direct effect on cognitive strategy
use, providing clear evidence that metacognitive
strategy use has an executive function oxer cog­
nitive strategy use in task com pletion" (p. 61).
Studies o f EFT learners in various countries (e.g..
South .Africa [Drever and Oxford 1996] and
Turkev [Oxford. Judd, and Giesen 199S]) u n ­
covered evidence that metacognitive strategies are
often strong predictors of L2 proficiency .
Memory-related strategies help learners link one
E2 item or concept with another, but do not nec­
essarily involve d eep u n d erstan d in g . Various
memory'-related strategies enable learners to learn
and retrieve inform ation in an orderly string (e.g..
acronym s), while o th er techniques create learn­
ing and retrieval via sounds (e.g.. rhym ing),
images (e.g., a m ental picture of the word itself or
the m eaning of the word), a com bination of
sounds and images (e.g.. the keyword m ethod),
bodv m ovem ent (e.g.. Total Physical Response),
m echanical m eans (e.g.. flashcards), or location
(e.g., on ;t page or blackboard) (see Oxford 1990
for details and m ultiple exam ples). Memory-
related strategies have been shoxvn to relate to E2
proficiency in a course devoted to m em orizing
large num bers of Kanji characters (Kato 1996)
and in L2 courses designed for native-English-
speaking learners of foreign languages (Oxford
and Ehrm an 1995). Hoxvever. m em ory-related
strategies do not ahvavs positively relate to L2 pro­
ficiency. In fact, the use of memory strategies in
a test-taking situation had a significant negative
relationship to learners' test perform ance in gram ­
m ar and vocabulary (Purpura 1997). The prob­
able reason for this is that while m em ory strategies
are often used for m em orizing vocabulary- and
structures in initial stages of language learning,
learners need such strategies m uch less when their
arsenal of vocabulary and structures has becom e
larger and autom atic responses are expected.
Compensatory strategies (e.g., guessing from
context in listening and reading, using synonyms
and "talking around" the missing xvord to aid
speaking and xvriting. a n d — strictly for speaking—
using gestures or pause yvords) help the learner
make up for missing knoxvledge. Cohen (1998)
asserts that com pensatory strategies that are used
for speaking and writing (often knoxvn as one form
of eommuniration strategies) are intended only for
language use and must not Ire considered to be
language learning strategies. Hoxvever. Little (per­
sonal com m unication. January". 1999) and Oxford
(1990. 1999a) haxe contended that com pensation
strategies of any kind, even though tltev m ight be
used for language use. nevertheless aid in lan­
guage learning as yvell. .After all. each instance of
L2 use is an opportunity for m ore L2 learning.
Oxford and Ehrm an (1995) dem onstrated that
com pensatory strategies are significantly related to
T2 proficiency in their stuch of native-English-
spcaking learners of foreign languages.
Apfeetive strategies, such as identifying o n e ’s
m ood and anxiety- level, talking about feelings,
rew arding oneself for good p erform ance, and
using d eep b rea th in g or positive self-talk, haxe
been shoxvn to be significantly related to L2 p ro ­
ficiency in research by D rever an d O xford
(1996) am ong South African ESL learners and
bv O xford and E h rm an (1995) am ong native
English speakers learn in g foreign languages.
Hoxvever. in o th e r studies, such as th at of
M ullins (1992) with EFL learners in T hailand,
affective strategics shoxved a negative link with
som e m easures o f L2 proficiency. O ne reason
might be that as some students progress toward
proficiency, they have less need for aff ectiv e strate­
gies. Perhaps because learners’ use of cognitive,
metacognitive, and social strategies is related to
greater L2 proficiency and self-efficacv, over time
there m ight be less need for affective strategies as
learners progress to higher proficiency.
 Social strategies (e.g.. asking questions to get
verification, asking for clarification o f a confus­
ing point, asking for help in doing a language
task, talking with a native-speaking conversation
p a rtn e r, a n d e x p lo rin g c u ltu ral a n d social
norm s) h elp the le a rn e r work with o thers and
u n d e rsta n d the target culture as well as the lan­
guage. Social strategies were significantly associ­
ated with L2 proficiency in studies by South
African ESL study by D reyer a n d O xford (1996)
a n d the investigation of native-English-speaking
fo re ig n lan g u a g e le a rn e rs by O x fo rd a n d
E h rm an (1995)."
Assessing Learners’ Use o f Strategies
Man}- assessm ent tools exist for uncovering the
strategies used bv L2 learners. Self-report sur­
veys, observations, interviews, le a rn e r journals,
dialogue journals, think-aloud techniques, and
o th e r m easures have b een used. Each one of
these has advantages an d disadvantages, as ana­
lyzed bv O xford (1990) an d C ohen and Scott
(1996). T he m ost widelv used survev, the Strategy
Inventory for Language Learning (an ap p en d ix in
O xford 1990), has b een translated into m ore
th an 20 languages a n d used in dozens of p u b ­
lished studies a ro u n d the world.
Various learn in g strategv instrum ents h a te
disclosed research results bevond those that
have b een alreadv m en tio n ed . These additional
findings in clu d e the following: L2 lea rn in g
strategy use is significantlv related to L2 learning
m otivation, gender, age, culture, brain hem i­
sphere dom inance, career orientation, academ ic
major, beliefs, and the nature of the L2 task. A
n u m b er o f these findings have been sum m arized
in O xford (1999a, 1999b).
IM PLICATIONS FOR L2TE A C H IN G
T he research synthesized in this chapter has four
im plications for classroom practice: assessing
styles and strategies in the L2 classroom, attuning
L2 instruction and strategv instruction to learners’
style preferences, rem em bering that no single L2
instructional m ethodologv fits all students, and
preparing for and conducting strategy instruction.
Assessing Styles and Strategies
in the L 2 Classroom
L2 teachers could benefit by assessing the learn ­
ing stvles and the strategy use o f th eir students,
because such assessm ent leads to greater u n d e r­
standing o f styles an d strategies. Teachers also
need to assess th eir own styles a n d strategies, so
that thev will be aware o f th eir preferences an d of
possible biases. Useful m eans exist to m ake these
assessments, as m en tio n ed earlier. Teachers can
learn about assessm ent options bv reading books
o r journals, atten d in g professional conferences,
o r taking relevant courses o r workshops.
Attuning L 2 Instruction and Strategy
Instruction to Learners’ Style Needs
T he m ore that teachers know about their stu­
dents' stvle preferences, the m ore effectively they
can orient their L2 instruction, as well as the strat­
egv in struction th at can be interw oven into
language instruction, m atched to those style pref­
erences. Some learners m ight n eed instruction
p rese n ted m ore visuallv, while o th ers m ight
require m ore auditorv, kinesthetic, o r tactile types
o f instruction. W ithout a d e q u ate know ledge
about their individual students’ style preferences,
teachers cannot svstematicallv provide the n eeded
instruc tiоnal varietv.
Remembering That No Single L2
Instructional Methodology Fits
All Students
Stvles an d strategies help d e te rm in e a p articular
lea rn er's abilitv a n d willingness to work w ithin
the fram ew ork o f various instructional m eth o d ­
ologies. It is foolhardy to th in k that a single L2
m ethodologv could possibly fit an entire class
filled with students who have a range of stylistic
and strategic preferences. Instead o f choosing a
specific instructional m ethodology, L2 teachers
would do better to employ a broad instructional
approach, notablv the best version of the com m u­
nicative approach that contains a com bined focus
on form and fluencv. Such an approach allows for
deliberate, creative variety7to m eet the needs o f all
students in the class.
Preparing for and Conducting
Strategy Instruction
L2 teachers should consider various wavs to p re ­
p are to co n d u c t strategy instruction in their
classes. H elpful p rep arato rv steps include taking
tea c h e r developm ent courses, finding relevant
info rm atio n in p rin t o r on the In te rn et, and
m aking contacts with specialists.
A lthough we do not yet know all we wish to
about optim al strategy instruction, there is grow­
ing evidence that L2 teachers can and should con­
duct strategy instruction in their classrooms. For
some teachers it m ight be better to start with small
strategy’ interventions, such as helping L2 readers
learn to analyze words and guess m eanings from
context, rath er than with full-scale strategies-based
instruction involving a vast array of learning strate­
gies and the four language skills (reading, writing,
speaking, a n d listening). (See O xford 1990 for a
table o f L2 strategies based on the six categories
cross-indexed by the four language skills.)
O th er teachers m ight want to move rapidlv
into strategies-based instruction. Strategies-based
instruction is not so m uch a separate "instructional
m ethod” as it is sound strategy instruction inter­
woven with the general communicative language
teaching approach noted above. C ham ot and
O ’Malley (1996) describe the CALLA model, a
form of strategy-based instruction for ESL learners
that includes explicit strategy instruction, content
area instruction, and academ ic language develop­
m ent. C ohen (1998) presents a different but some­
what related version of strategies-based instruction
for native English speakers learning foreign lan­
guages. In evaluating the success of any strategy'
instruction, teachers should look for students'
progress toward L2 proficiency and for signs of
increased self-efficacv or motivation.
D ISCU SSIO N Q U E ST IO N S
1. W hat is the difference between learning styles
and learning strategies?
2. How are learning styles and strategies related?
3. Why are learning styles and strategies im por­
tant for L2 teachers to understand?
4. W hat do we know about “optim al” strategy'
instruction?
5. N otetaking is sometim es thought of as an
academ ic survival skill. W hat criteria would
n eed to be present to m ake notetaking an
actual learning strategy?
S U G G E S T E D A C T IV IT IE S
1. Find a published learn in g stvie in stru m en t
an d adm inister it to vourself. Score it. W hat
kind of le a rn e r are vou?
2. Write down wavs that vour learning style
affects vour teaching. C om pare vour findings
with those of a colleague or friend. Consider
in what wav s vou can build flexibility into your
instruction to m eet the needs of vour students.
3. Take a strategy survey, responding according
to the most recent L2 vou have learned (or to
which vou have been exposed). W hat are vour
patterns of strategy use? W hich categories of
strategies do vou use the most, and which do
vou use the least? Consider win this is so.
4. A dm inister a stvie in stru m en t an d a strategy
in stru m en t to vour L2 students. Score these
two instrum ents and com pare the g ro u p ’s
results on both. W hat linkages do vou see
betw een the students' styles and th eir strate­
gies? W hat differences exist?
5. Start weaving strategy instruction into vour L2
teaching. W hat effects do vou see? What m ight
vou do next to strengthen strategy instruction?
FU RTH ER REA D IN G
Cohen. A. D. 1998. Strategies in L e a r n in g a n d U s in g
a Second L a n g u a g e . Essex, UK: Longman.
F.hrman. M. 1996. Second L a n g u a g e l e a r n i n g D ifficu ltie s:
Thousand Oaks, CA:
L o o k in g Benea th the Su rface.
Sage.
O'Mallev. ). M.. and A. U. Chamot. 1990. L e a r n in g
Strategies in Seco n d Language A c q u is itio n .
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Oxford. R. L. 1990. L a n g i a g e L e a r n in g Strategies: W h a t
L v e n Teacher S h o u ld K n o w . Boston, MA: Heinle &
Heinle Publishers.
Oxford. R. L. 1996. L a n g u a g e L e a r n i n g Strategies
A ro u n d the W o rld : Cross-cultural Perspectives. Manoa:
Univ ersity of Hawaii Press.
Reid. J. 1993. L e a r n in g Styles in the. L S L / K F L Classroom.
Boston, MA: Heinle & Heinle Publishers.
 Supporting Second Language
Children’s Content Learning and
Language Development in K-5
BARBARA HAW KINS
Hawkins's chapter examines teaching academic content to children in their L2, basing it on teaching
and learning academic content in the primary language, Sne proposes that teaching academic content
in the L2 is not helped by the Basic Interpersonal Comm unication Skills and Cognitive Academ ic
Language Proficiency distinction, and suggests that it is more useful to concentrate on the context
required to teach academic content successfully.
IN T R O D U C T IO N
This c h ap ter presents what I believe to be two
principal layers involved in c o n te n t area instruc­
tion for second language (L2 ) students in ele­
m entary school (K -5): (1) effective core c o n ten t
in struction in elem entarv school, in d e p e n d e n t
o f L2 issues, and (2 ) the interaction of L2 issues
with the above w hen teaching in the elem entarv
grades. T he first laser provides the groundw ork
for exam ining the second Liver bv telling us the
“business" of elem en tarv school in struction;
w ithout it, the second laver makes little sense. If
we are to provide equal educational access to Т2
students, th en we m ust be s e n clear about the
academ ic goals that exist for native speakers
(XSs). Each laver uncovers elem entarv school
children's learning needs, resealing correspon­
ding knowledge and pedagogical requirem ents
for effective planning and delivers o f in struction.1
T he first laser describes svhat sve trs to
teach in term s of discipline-specific c o n ten t in
elem entarv school. W hat is the teaching charge
as it applies to content-area education? This
laser also considers the language o f tire class­
room as a vehicle th ro u g h svhiclr teachers e a rn
o ut th eir charge to teach discipline-specific con­
tent to their students. Discussing the second laser.
I will exam ine svhat it m eans to teach discipline-
specific co n ten t to T2 children. Can sve proside
equits- of core co n ten t instruction to non-native
speakers (XXSs) of English in grades K-5 svhen
sve com pare it to svhat sve trv to provide th eir
XS peers?
LAYER I—T E A C H IN G
D IS C IP L IN E -S P E C IF IC
C O N T E N T T O C H IL D R E N
As elem entarv school teachers, sw are calico
u p o n to provide the m ost fu n d am en tal u n d e r­
standings o f the core disciplines to o u r students.
T hese fu n d a m e n ta l u n d e rsta n d in g s u n d e rlie
o u r s tu d e n ts’ fu tu re ability to b ro a d e n an d
d eepen their knowledge o f these disciplines.
T herefore, it is essential that ssre ourseKes has7e
both a profound understanding o f the fundam en­
tals of these core subjects as well as a clear, work­
ing knowledge of the pedagogical principles
involved in teaching them . Teachers m ust be in
the position o f "knowing"; i.e.. u n d e rsta n d in g
the desired concept or info rm atio n and the
process th ro u g h which one m ust go in o rd e r to
a n is e at such an understan d in g .
W hat it m eans to teach discipline-specific
c o n te n t to children in grades K-5 is a vast topic.
To narrow it down, we ssill first discuss general
approaches that m ight be taken in presenting such
content instruction. We argue that m ovem ent
toward an experiential approach, based on the
knowledge and practices of adults proficient in
the disciplines is essential to d eep learning.
Second, we will talk about the special role o f lan­
guage in the delivery of content-area instruction.
Language plays a m ajor role in initially gaining
entry to the disciplines, as well as in sustaining and
building future understandings within them.
Some General Ideas on the
Presentation o f Content-Area
Instruction in Elementary School
W hat is content-area education in elem entary
school? A lthough we mav easily identity the m ajor
or core content areas as social studies, science, and
m athem atics (in addition to reading language
arts), this identification is not the same as identi­
fying the specific content elem ents we wish it)
stress in elem entary school. In general, is it learn­
ing about science, m athem atics, and social studies,
o r is it learning to do science, m athem atics, and
social studies? W hat is the difference? W hat is the
role o f factual knowledge within the disciplines,
a n d what is the role of process knowledge?
W ithin education, there has been a push to
haye students und erstan d the disciplines from the
“inside o u t” (A m erican A ssociation for the
A dvancem ent o f Science 1993: B ecker an d
Shimacla 1997; Lemke 1993: Parker 1993). O ne
wav to in terpret this is to consider learning to
think about the co n ten t areas as those proficient
in them think. Bv this we m ean to consider sci­
ence education as learning to think and do as
scientists, m athem atics education as learning to
think and do as m athem aticians, and social sci­
ences education as learning to think and do as
social scientists. Dewev calls for this em phasis
w hen he speaks of "the psychology of occupa­
tion”: “Bv occupation I m ean a m ode of activity
on the p art o f the child which reproduces, or runs
parallel to, some form of work carried on in social
life.” (1990 [1956], p. 132).
L e a rn in g to "do" a d iscip lin e m eans,
am o n g o th e r things, that one gradually moves
tow ard m e m b e rsh ip in th e co m m u n ity o f
ex p e rts re p re s e n te d bv that discipline. This
m o v em en t tow ard fellow ship with scientists,
m athem aticians, an d social scientists involves the
learner in a gradual educational process, a situated
process involving language as one of its main
resources for constructing knowledge over time.
O ne does not only learn facts about a n d /o r from
the disciplines; rather, the goal is to imm erse the
learner in the creative processes that direct the
discipline, the belief being that students will
gradually becom e know ledgeable a b o u t and
control the integral, critical factual inform ation
related to co n ten t as they learn and adopt the
ways o f the discipline. In addition to this factual
base of knowledge, they will also hav e constructed
a sense of the discipline — its m ajor questions, its
approaches to answering those questions, what it
counts as research an d know ledge, and its limits
and crossovers in relation to o th e r disciplines. It
is in building this sense o f the discipline th at
learners will gain factual inform ation about it;
i.e.. bv learn in g to "do" the discipline, they also
learn "about" the discipline.
For clarification, let us present contrasting
examples. Suppose that culinary arts was included
in o u r curriculum . Suppose fu rth er that, as part
of the curriculum for our grade lev el in culinary
arts, we n eeded to teach the students to p rep are
a certain recipe. O u r goals are that o u r students
learn to cook this dish in such a wav that they
can identify what m akes it taste good an d what
the effects of various ingredients and cooking
strategies are on its taste. They should be able to
tro u b lesh o o t the recipe if they get less than
desired results, use ap p ro p riate in g re d ien t sub­
stitutions for various cooking situations, and make
variations based on taste, n um ber of servings
desired, and dietary preferences.
T he first type o f class is co n c ern e d with stu­
dents learn in g “a b o u t” culinary arts. H ere, we
set up ou r instruction as a com pilation o f im p o r­
tant facts about the dish an d its p rep aratio n ,
using a c h a p te r o f the textbook to guide us. It
describes the dish, lists the ingredients an d the
am ounts n e e d ed for it, a n d discusses the p rep a ­
ra tio n o f th e in g re d ie n ts, th e p ro c e d u re s
involv ed in m ixing a n d cooking the ingredients,
the time required to prep are the dish, the calories
and the fat, salt, sugar, and carbohydrate gram s
per serving, and the expected n u m b er of serv­
ings. In o rd er to prov ide context, the ch ap ter mav
include historical info rm atio n on the dish's
developm ent, tim es o f year for which the dish is
most a p p ro p riate, a n d the beverages th at m ight
c o m p lem en t it. In o rd e r to ensure students
le a rn th e in fo rm a tio n p re s e n te d , th e text
includes advanced organizers, vocabularv lists,
b o ld e d vocabularv a c c o m p a n ie d by m argin
a n n o ta tio n , pictures o f th e in g red ien ts and
processes, an outline, and discussion questions at
the end of the chapter. Additionally, it includes
language skill practice activities to ensure student
engagem ent in reading a n d writing across tire
curriculum .
T he teacher's edition lists the applicable
standards that will be addressed in the chapter,
distinguishing betw een those to cover thoroughlv
and those to reced e exposure, but not masterv. It
also includes guided reading questions with pos­
sible stu d en t answers an d suggested class and
hom ew ork activities, som e of which are "hands
o n .” Also fo u n d are titles from children's litera­
ture that could be in teg rated into instruction,
suggestions for in tegration with m athem atics,
science, and social studies, an d a description of
how activities can be introduced to encourage stu­
dents to develop an d use higher o rd er thinking
skills. An assessment packet offers multiple-choice,
m atching, fill-in-the-blank, short definition, and
essav assessments. All qualitative assessments are
accom panied bv clearlv delineated, well opera­
tionalized rubrics. Finallv. we note that the text­
book authors have taken special care to ask "real
chefs" to give their stam p of approval to the con­
tent by m aking sure that all of the factual infor­
m ation contained in the chapter is correct.
W hile covering the c h a p te r in class, we
w ould do read in g circles with the students in
o rd e r to su p p o rt th eir read in g of the text, have
them attack the c h a p te r questions in c o o p era­
tive groups, an d have them draw and write about
each step involved in the p rep a ra tio n o f the
dish. We w ould give the students the various
assessments provided, som e as self-m easures of
th eir u n d erstan d in g , and som e as m ore form al
m easures. We w ould have each student p rep are
a portfolio o f his or h er work, a n d eventuallv
we w ould be able to give the students a grade
in the categorv on the rep o rt card labeled
“C ulinarv A rts.”
Tow ard the e n d o f th e year is the stan d ard ­
ized test req u ired by the state to h o ld b o th the
students a n d the tea c h e r accountable for m eet­
ing the culinarv arts standards. Even th o u g h the
tea c h e r could only cover the sections on d o u ­
b ling an d halving the recipe an d alternative sea­
sonings in the last th ree class before the exam ,
he or she hopes that at least som e of the stu­
dents will be able to recognize those item s on
the test an d to answer the questions correctlv.
Tet us next give a contrasting exam ple of
the same task, this tim e w here em phasis is on
learn in g to "do" the discipline of culinary arts.
We now n eed to look to the experiences o f the chil­
d ren with regard to the dish we want them to be
able to u n d e rsta n d and create. “It is a cardinal
p recep t of the new er school o f ed u catio n that
the b eg in n in g of instruction shall be m ade with
the ex perience learners alreadv have; that this
experience and the capacities that have been
developed during its course provide the starting
point for all furth er learning” (Dewev 1948, p. 88).
We m ight begin bv having the students taste
sam ples of the dish as p re p a re d bv various chef s
We d e a t h assum e th a t thev have tasted food, but
we mav also assum e thee have p m b ab h m ■-
learn ed w hat creates the taste ' с т а : : : : . '
have experienced. If eve begin A T u : : : .
taste the sam ples, eve can then oi e s c : : : the:::
an o p e n -en d ed problem- that will direr; them w
g rea ter ap p reciation of taste while incorporating
th eir com m on experience of the sam ple tasting.
T h e goal is to h are the students learn m ore
a b o u t taste as they try to form alize th eir ex p eri­
ence o f it. “It is also essential th a t th e new7
objects an d events be related intellectually to
those of earlier experiences, a n d this m eans th at
th ere be som e advances m ade in conscious artic­
ulation of facts a n d ideas” (Dewev 1948, p. 90).
We will pose our problem in the form of a
series o f questions: How can vou explain/describe
how all of these versions of the dish taste? Do all of
them taste the same? Different? Are there any sim­
ilarities? How do s ou know?
As students trv to cap tu re th eir taste expe­
rience. the teach er m ight help th em classify it
bv having them first list the in g redients th a t they
taste and then to describe the sim ilarities and
d iffe re n c es thev taste a m o n g th e sam ples.
T h e students m ight spend several classes trying
to characterize an d th en refine th eir ch aracteri­
zations o f what it is that thev taste. As they do so,
thev are engaged in one o f a chef's m ost basic
activities. At the same tim e, thev will be learning
at least the m ost elem entary "taste vocabulary”
used bv chefs. T h eir cheflike attem pts to classify
th eir ex perience will m ost likelv result in m ore
questions. .Among these m ight be w hether every­
one's perception of the food is the same when the
dish is the same, w hether what thev taste is the
same as what the chef tastes, w hether all of the sam­
ples hat e the exact same am ounts of ingredients,
w hether the samples have been cooked differently
(e.g., baked as opposed to grilled ). etc. These ques­
tions m ore closelv resem ble those of the ch ef than
anv which m ight arise from the textbook-driven
u n it described above, and thev can provide the
class with a continual source o f new problem s
a ro u n d which to organize its ongoing investiga­
tion. As this unit develops over tim e, the stu­
dents will have the o p p o rtu n it\ to ex p erim ent in
a truly experiential wav with the ingredients, cook­
ing m ethods, p o rtio n control, etc. T h eir first
trial-and-error attem pts will be fu rth e r cata­
logued into a growing bodv of know ledge about
cooking. At the same tim e, students will be
developing a "‘culinary arts script." learning to
attach new a n d m eaningful language to their
understandings.
We will also take advantage of some tech­
niques used bv the first class. The students will
work cooperatively, in pairs or small groups. Thev
will develop portfolios, which will contain am ong
o th er items an ongoing diarv of their experiences
accom panied bv a notebook showing how then
codified those experiences into descriptions, defi­
nitions, directions, classifications, etc. T here will
be smaller assessments along the wav which will
ask students to identify and select ingredients,
clearly state whv thev chose one ingredient over
another, identify ingredients bv taste both sepa­
rate from a n d w ithin the dish they are p re p a r­
ing, and critique th eir own a n d o th e r classmates'
various cooking attem pts. This critiquing will
help students to develop a rubric that clearly iden­
tifies essential elem ents surrounding the prepara­
tion of the dish. The final assessment will be the
actual preparation of the dish, with individualized.
specific req u irem en ts as to am ounts an d varia­
tions for diet an d taste. W hile this second class
clearly incorporates "skills"— for exam ple, read ­
ing a n d w riting across the curriculum , h ig h er
o rd e r thinking skills — the driving force is always
learn in g to u n d e rsta n d the dish as a ch ef would,
taking notes a n d talking ab o u t the dish as a ch ef
w ould, learn in g to taste and rate the tastes of
food as a chef would, an d p rep a rin g the dish as
a chef would.
T he u nit of instruction su rro u n d in g this
one dish mav take th ree m onths to com plete,
but the students will have delved deeply into the
c o n ten t area, the discipline o f the culinary arts.
How will thev do on the standardized test that
com es at the en d o f the vear? In fact, thev should
do just fine. If we teach well, the test scores will
follow. T he greatest loss at this p oint is that the
standardized test will not begin to cap tu re the
d e p th o f the students' know ledge.3
W hat are we to m ake of these two contrast­
ing examples? Are both m ethods successful? It
depends, of course, on how one chooses to
define success. Let us re tu rn to o u r original
statem ent about what it was that we h a d h o p ed
to accom plish regarding the p rep a ra tio n of our
special dish:
O ur goals are that our students learn
to cook this dish in such a wav that thev
can identify what makes it taste good
and what the effects o f various ingre­
dients and cooking strategies are on
its taste. Thev should be able to trou­
bleshoot the recipe if thev get less than
desired results, use appropriate ingre­
dient substitutions for various cooking
situations, and make variations based
on taste, n u m b er of servings desired,
and dietary preferences.
On paper (i.e ., the standardized test) both groups
appear to bare been successful, with the first
group being perhaps a little m ore successful. T he
m ore serious question, however, is what if success
were defined as actually being able to m eet our
objectives as listed above? Just because students
can read and write about cooking the dish is no
guarantee that they will be able to recognize what
thev have studied about in anv variation o f the
dish. T h e first g ro u p has lea rn ed to cook, taste,
a n d m odify the dish in theory only. T he second
g roup has an experiential, real-world know ledge
of the dish and can parlay this experience into
new know ledge as new ex p erien ces p rese n t
them selves. Thev now have at least the begin­
nings of a p ro fo u n d , fu n d am en tal n o tio n o f
taste, one which can be built u p o n as thev p ro ­
ceed fu rth e r into the w orld of culinary arts. T he
first g roup will probably h a te to review and
re le a rn th e fo u r tastes w h en ev er th e n e x t
tea c h e r decides to take up the them e, following
a “reteach section'" in the te a c h e r’s guide.
However, since "culinary arts'" is n o t a core
c o n te n t area, how do o u r im aginary exam ples
plav out in the elem entary school classroom? We
can gain som e insight if we re-exam ine the sec­
ond ap p ro ach to teaching the students how to
p rep a re a dish, analyzing this ap p ro ach to distill
som e basic principles for p lan n in g instruction.
First, we n e e d to start w here the children are,
providing them with an experience that is easily
u n d e rsta n d a b le , b u t th at will c o n n ect them
directly to the fu n d am en tal issues we wish to
teach. O f course, the students are not vet aware
o f these connections, a n d we m ust carefully
organize the lesson or u n it such th at thev even­
tually becom e clear to the students. The choice
of the initial experience is im portant, since it will
m ark the students' entrv into the instructional
unit; if thev cannot relate to it. thev will be left on
the outside from the verv start. Notice that the
experience of tasting the various versions of the
dish is easily accessible to the students. At the
same time, it is an experience that can be used to
move the students into a d eep er discussion and
u n d erstanding of what it m eans to taste.
O nce we have provided the experience, we
n e e d to p resen t an o p e n -en d ed problem th at
will engage students in an analysis o f the experi­
ence, draw ing them h ea d lo n g into the h e a rt of
w hat we wish to teach. At this point, the children
truly begin th eir em ulation of the com m unity o f
adults who are proficient w ithin the discipline,
for it is h e re th at thev begin th eir initial (i.e., to
be b ro a d e n e d an d d e e p e n e d as they go th ro u g h
school) investigation of a c o n cep t b o th central
an d fu n d am en tal to the discipline. O nce one
und erstan d s how vital the open -en d ed problem
is for guiding the rest o f th e lesson o r unit, one
also realizes the en orm ous im p o rtan ce o f this
step in planning. In fact, this issue o f a “good
p ro b le m ” is easily overlooked as teachers often
becom e ab sorbed in other, less im p o rta n t tasks,
e.g., organizing cooperative groups, p lan n in g
activities a n d the m aterials n e e d e d fo r them , etc.
F inding o r creating a pro b lem th at will act as the
vehicle for m oving the ch ild ren from th eir p e r­
sonal experiences to new, p ro fo u n d u n d e rsta n d ­
ings is actually one o f the m ost difficult, even
vexing, aspects o f p lan n in g instruction (Sawada
1997).4 However, this is also one o f its m ost cre­
ative aspects. T he problem in the culinary arts
exam ple was p u t in the form of a series o f ques­
tions th a t re q u ire d th e stu d e n ts to try to
describe a n d ,/o r explain w hat they tasted a n d to
discrim inate am o n g tastes. An earn est struggle
to do this engages students im m ediately in an
essential activity, pivotal in th eir ability to con­
tinue to develop in culinary arts.
O nce the problem is established a n d stu­
dents u n d e rsta n d it accurately, the teach er m ust
now call u p o n his or h e r own d eep u n d e rsta n d ­
ing of the fundam entals o f the discipline to
guide the students with th eir observations, fin d ­
ings, an d questions, such th a t “the new objects
a n d events be related intellectually to those o f
earlier ex p erien ces,” thus p ro m o tin g “advances
m ade in conscious articulation o f facts and
ideas'" (Dewey 1948, p. 90). This is w here teach ­
ers really n e e d to “know th eir stuff” in term s o f
the co n ten t, because if thev them selves do n o t
have control of fu n d am en tal u n d erstan d in g s o f
the disciplines, it will be im possible to lead chil­
d re n along this p ath of gradually constructing
these understandings. We do n o t m ean th at
teachers have to be som ething they are n o t—
i.e.. scientists, m athem aticians, o r social scien­
tists— b u t it is essential th a t they have a
p ro fo u n d u n d e rsta n d in g of the fundamentals o f
each field, regardless o f the grade level taught.
As Ma (1999) has term ed it w hen speaking ab o u t
teachers' p rep a ra tio n for teaching elem entary
school m athem atics, teachers n e e d “PUFM ”—
a ".Profound F n d e rsta n d in g o f P u n d am en tal
M athem atics” (p. 124)— o r to p a rap h rase Ma, a
p ro fo u n d u n d e rsta n d in g of the fundam entals
o f the discipline.
 Thus far, we have outlined three lesson or
u n it preparation steps from our sample culinary
arts unit: ( 1 ) know what the students' current
understandings are from their life experiences,
(2) set up an experience that can sen e as a bridge
to move the students from their current life expe­
riences to a d eep er understanding, and (3) pres­
en t an open-ended problem that will engage the
students in the very heart o f the core conceptual
understandings that to n wish them to acquire.
W hat happens after these three steps are in place?
T here are m anv helpful techniques that teachers
can use to move students to the kind of analyses
that are required to construct new, im portant
understandings. For exam ple, cooperative group­
ing can be used verv effectively, as can carious
“hands o n ” activities. A m ajor facet of instruction,
however, necessarilv focuses on the classroom dis­
course that results from teacher guidance. This
is not easilv converted into a list o f steps, but it
nevertheless requires o u r full attention.
On the Role o f Language in the
Delivery o f Content-Area Instruction
At the sam e tim e that teachers m ust know con­
ten t, they also m ust know pedagogy. We now
tu rn to one o f the m ajor tools o f pedagogv, lan­
guage. T he language o f a discipline needs to be
situated in the educational process, insofar as
the language of the classroom both defines and
is defin ed bv the discipline. It is th ro u g h class­
ro o m discourse th a t m ost in stru c tio n gets
accom plished. This is to say, th ro u g h watching,
listening, asking, reco rd in g , a n d exam ining,
learn ers fashion “m eaning out of events a n d
p h e n o m e n a th ro u g h p ro lo n g e d , co m p lex
processes o f social interaction" (Schw andt 1994,
p. 118). As thev work to in te rp re t experiential
data, learners construct a reality o f m eanings,
including b o th the processes o f m ean in g con­
struction (i.e., how m ean in g is “m ad e ” in this
field o r discipline), as well as w hat a n d how
m any m eanings are involved in the instruction
(i.e., w hat is to be lea rn ed in this field, the con­
te n t o f the discipline). How m ight this be played
o u t in the elem entarv school classroom?
If the social in teractio n in the classroom
prom otes learn in g about co n ten t, th en th a t is
m ost likely the m eaning that learners will con­
struct over tim e. O n the o th e r h an d , if the social
in teractio n encourages learners to do the disci­
pline, “to conjecture, invent, probe, search for
relationships, value diversity [of explanations
com m unicate and rep re sen t th eir ideas and
findings as thev work b o th collaboratively and
in d ep e n d e n tly to resolve com plex problem s"
(Parker 1993, p. 16), th en that is m ost likely the
m eaning of the discipline that will be constructed
bv them over tim e.-1
A constructivist a p p ro ach to instruction
relies on the integration o f cognitive, social, and
linguistic features to achieve the classroom dis­
course that prom otes learning to do content. (Sec
Schwandt 1994). To u n d erstan d or know some­
thing. one m ust use cognitive powers of elucida­
tion to construct m eaning; this only happen.'
when language and social knowledge are closed
integrated with cognition. Even when we wor-
independentlv, we are invok ed in this integrate
triad of cognition, language, and social knowl­
edge. To separate out anv one of the three is te
und erm in e the process of constructing m eaning
Lem ke, in his work on discourse in science
classroom s (grades 9 -1 2 ), argues th at science >
a social process. “W hen we talk science we arc
h elp in g to create, or re-create, a com m unity o:
people who share certain beliefs a n d value'
(1993. p. x). H e also argues th at language is
m ajor factor in establishing a n d m ain tain in g the
com m unitv o f scientists— language is “n o t jus:
vocabularv an d gram m ar: Language is a system
o f resources for m aking m ean in g s” (p. ix). H e i-
perhaps clearest w hen he states:
"Talking Science” does not simply m ean
talking about science. It m eans doing
science through the m edium of lan­
guage. "Talking science" m eans observ­
ing, describing, com paring, classifying,
analvzing, discussing, hypothesizing,
theorizing, questioning, challenging,
arguing, designing experim ents, follow­
ing procedures, ju d g in g , evaluating,
deciding, co n clu d in g , g en eralizin g ,
 re p o rtin g , w riting, lec tu rin g , an d
teaching in a n d th ro u g h the language
of science (p. x i).
Finally, Lem ke argues that the role of the sci­
ence teacher is clear if we view science teaching as
a social process. Teachers are ’'bridge people" in
that thev already belong to the com m unity of
people that speak the language of science; their
charge is to bring their students, who do not yet
understand this language, into the com m unin'. It
is through their teachers that students trill be able
:o e n te r the discourse com m unity o f scientists.
Lem ke's argum ents about science are also
true for o th er disciplines. T hat is, there is a com ­
m unin’ of people who speak the languages of
m athematics, of social science, of literature. These
are the proficient adults in the com m unities of the
various disciplines. Vitally im portant to recognize
is that this language is socially situated within
these comm unities; not to be identified with spe­
cific yocabularv or gram m atical constructions. To
do so is to simplify- its power and to miss it "as a
system of resources for m aking m eaning" (p. ixt.
In fact, the language of each o f these disci­
plines has m uch in com m on when one com pares
them purely at the level of vocabulary and gram ­
matical constructions. Short (1994) reports on
her group's research of classroom discourse used
in m iddle school social studies classes. T he
researchers analyzed their data in hopes of identi­
fying the academ ic language com petencies T2 stu­
dents would need in ord er to be successful. They
defined the academ ic language of social studies to
include semantic and syntactic features, "such as
vocabulary items, sentence structure, transition
m arkers, and cohesive ties" and "language func­
tions and tasks that are part of social studies class
routines" (p. 593). Contrary to what they expected,
thev found that the academic language used in
“A m erican history classes was com m ensurate
with m uch of the academic language in other
hum anities courses, and in fact, similar to the non­
technical language used in math and science class­
rooms. . . ." (p. 395). As Lemke asserts:
T he c o n te n t of every scientific and
technical subject can be expressed in
language (and in specialized offshoots
of language, such as m athem atics). In
fact, the same scientific ideas can be
expressed in m any d ifferen t wavs,
because the semantics of a language
always alloyvs us to use gram m ar and
vocabulary- in different yvavs it) express
the same m eaning. T he w ording o f a
scientific argum ent may change from
one book to the next, one teacher to
the next, even one dav to the next in
the same classroom. But the sem antic
pattern, the pattern of relationships of
m eanings, always stays the same: That
pattern is the scientific content of what
we say or write (1993, p. x).
If this is the case, then yvhat is a teach er to
do in term s of guiding classroom discourse in
the c o n te n t areas? How does this socialized
learning work? T h ere are many points Vygotsky
(1978) makes. T he first has to do with how chil­
d ren learn to use language to accom plish goals.
He gives an exam ple o f an infant learn in g to
point as a m eaningful gesture (Vygotsky 1978,
p. 36). Initially, the p o in tin g gesture is just an
unsuc cessful attem p t by the child to grasp som e­
thing out of reach. T he child does n o t realize
that he or she has anv pow er over the environ­
m ent o th er than what he or she can do physically
to alter it. As his or h er hands stretch out temards
the object, the m other comes to the c h ild ’s assis­
tance a n d gives him or h e r the object. At this
point, "the situation changes fundam entally,” in
that the child's unsuccessful attem p t to retrieve
the object has b ro u g h t ab o u t a reaction, not
from the object, but from a n o th e r person; at this
p o in t, the ch ild 's g rasp in g actio n becom es
pointing, a gesture for others, even th o u g h the
child mav not yet know it. Eventually', the child
will link this action with the situation as a whole,
and he or she will u n d e rsta n d the m ovem ent as
p o in tin g . "At this ju n c tu re , th e re occurs a
change in that m ovem ent's function: from an
object-oriented m ovem ent it becom es a move­
m ent aim ed at a n o th e r person, a m eans of estab­
lishing relations . . . . Its m eaning a n d functions
are created at first bv an objective situation a n d
th en bv people who su rro u n d the child" (p. 36).
T h e re are several im p o rtan t points that
Vygotskv m akes here. T he first is that “an o p e ra ­
tion that initially represents an external activity
is reco n stru cted a n d begins to occur internally.”
This is to sav, via the ex perience that the child
has in learn in g the po in tin g gesture, th ere is a
transform ation of "grasping" into "p o in tin g ,”
a n d th at m eans a transform ation into a “sign­
using” activity. T he child has lea rn ed the m edi­
atin g pow er o f th e g estu re. S econd, “an
in terp erso n al process is transform ed into an
in trap erso n al o n e ” (p. 57). This is to sav th a t the
reco n stru ctio n process begins as an actual rela­
tion betw een the child and a n o th e r person. T he
child was n o t b o rn with the po in tin g gesture,
an d did n o t u n d e rsta n d it w hen he or she first
used it, com ing to u n d e rsta n d it bv Iris or h er
m o th er's (or others people's) rep e a te d reactions
to it. Thus, Vvgotskv savs that "even’ function in
the c h ild ’s cultural life appears twice: first on the
social level an d th en on the individual level: first
between peo p le (interpsvchological) and then
inside o f the child (intrapsvchological)" (p. 57).
Finally, Vvgotskv sees in the developm ent of the
p o in tin g gesture th at "the transform ation of an
in terp erso n al process into an in trapersonal one
is the result o f a long series o f developm ental
events” (p. 57). Since the internalization process
is accom plished on the basis of external signs,
a n d the signs them selves also u n d e rg o change,
the transform ation from in terp erso n al to in tra ­
personal is gradual.
Vygotsky’s ideas about how language devel­
op m en t is situated in a social context are verv pow­
erful, and verv helpful in term s of our discussion
of co n ten t area education in elem entary school.
His work provides us with a verv credible scenario
for how experiences external to the learn er
becom e internalized. We need to have a way of
understanding how what we d o n 't originally know
or understand becom es a part of ou r working
knowledge, of how what is external to us gets inter­
nalized. A ccording to Vvgotskv, this developm ent
is a m ediated social process, always situated within
a specific context. W ithin any given context, there
are a n u m b er of unexam ined experiences pres­
e n t to the learner. Som e o f these experiences
will be m ore fam iliar th an others, a n d som e may
be so unfam iliar th at they may go u n n o ticed .
L et us re tu rn to the class tasting experience
p rese n ted as the o p e n in g activity to the “lea rn ­
ing to do” group. E xternal to the learners are the
various sam ple dishes that they will all taste.
Som e o f the students mav only be able to ju d g e
the dishes as good or bad tasting, while others
may be able to ju d g e them as sally o r spicy. At the
very m o m e n t that the discussion b egins— i.e.,
w hen language am ong the social actors about the
experience begins— students are confronted with
new possibilities for learning about taste. Perhaps
the teacher m entions that one of the samples
tastes "m ore garlicky" than the others. O n e stu­
d e n t mav have no idea of what that m eans, while
a n o th e r mav agree completely. T he one who has
no idea m ight ask to taste the dishes again, trying
to figure out what "m ore garlicky” m eans. The
teacher mav bring the student a piece of fresh
garlic to smell, then ask him or h e r to com pare
that with the sample dish, and next to com pare
that sample with the others that seem to have less
garlic. W ithin this com m unity o f learners, a com ­
m unity of tasters is gradually being built. It mat
take several instances in several different settings
before the child who had no idea of “m ore gar­
licky" comes to a full realization of what that
means. T he students have the opportunity' to
internalize new inform ation based on highly con­
textualized interaction surrounding a com m on
experience. It is via this kind of interaction that
knowledge verv gradually gets built.
If we th ink about the hypothesized taste dis­
cussion p resen ted above we can see th a t the
teach er had a verv special role of being able to
scaffold new in fo rm a tio n fo r th e stu d en ts.
W ood. B runer, and Ross define scaffolding as
"the m eans wherebv an adult or 'e x p e rt' helps
som ebody who is less adult o r less expert" (1976.
p. 89). Integral to the n o tion of scaffolding is the
idea that learners are in the position o f solving a
p roblem that is initially beyond th eir level of
com petence. At the same tim e, the person who
is helping them can do so precisely becattse he
o r she knows b o th the c o n te n t and how one
arrives at the u n d e rsta n d in g of such content.
T he teacher in the above exam ple knows about
taste and has p resented the students with an
open-ended problem th at is initially bevond their
level of com petence to solve independently; they
are not vet capable of describing on their own the
nuances of taste that they need to describe in
order to solve the problem . T hrough the m edium
of language in the classroom setting, the teacher
interacts with the students, introducing new ideas
about taste. This is the teacher's m ost im portant
classroom work: to provide for the social interac­
tion within the com m unity of learners such that
the learners may move from what they know to
what thev d o n 't vet know, from their own experi­
ences to new understandings o f the disciplines
represented bv the content they are studying.
Summary o f Layer 1
As indicated earlier, know ing o n e ’s students,
th en using that know ledge to offer th em experi­
ences of which thev hat e partial u n d erstan d in g ,
and th en c o n fro n tin g them with a problem that
calls on them to re-exam ine those experiences
to learn new inform ation satisfies the first three
re q u ire m e n ts for tea c h in g discipline-specific
c o n te n t to elem entary school children. Each of
these req u irem en ts does its p art to situate the
learn in g context such that all m em bers o f the
com m unity can have access to the learning
opportunity. T he next m ajor req u irem e n t for
teachers is to scaffold fu rth e r lea rn in g o p p o rtu ­
nities bv gu id in g classroom in teractio n sur­
ro u n d in g the sh a re d ex p erien ces an d th eir
o p en-ended problem s. This involves going from
“talking the discipline" (to parap h rase L.emke
1993), to doing the discipline. It is this s e n highly
situated talking ab o u t co m m o n ex p erien ces
within the environm ent that will lead students,
very gradually, to the com m unity of proficient
adult m em bers of the discipline.
LAYER 2—T E A C H IN G
ELEM ENTARY S C H O O L
C H IL D R E N C O N T E N T IN
T H E IR S E C O N D L A N G U A G E
Now that we have p resen ted and discussed tvhat
we see as the dem ands placed on the elem entary
school teach er for p resen tin g effective content-
area ed u cation in general, we speak to the issues
su rro u n d in g content-area ed u catio n for L2 ele­
m entary school students. T he first p o in t to rec­
ognize is th at the instruction we refer to in this
sectio n is “s h e lte re d ,” also re fe rre d to as
"Specially D esigned A cadem ic Instruction in
E nglish” (SDAIE). (See Snow’s c h a p te r in this
volum e for a discussion o f sh eltered instruction
techniques.) This m eans that the first goal of
instruction is to teach the content, n o t to see the
co n ten t as a vehicle for the acquisition of the sec­
ond language. As it turns out, this is extrem ely
im portant to keep in m ind, as it influences the
entire discussion. T he teach er will absolutely
n eed to su p p o rt the T2 needs o f the ch ild ren as
he or she provides content-area instruction, and
as the instruction progresses, the ch ild ren will
definitely progress in th eir acquisition of the L2.
However, the driving force b e h in d the instruc­
tion is to provide high quality co n ten t-area
instruction in the sense we have b een describing
it thus far.
We will first consider the relation betw een
XXS ch ildren's L2 proficiency an d th eir ability
to learn effectively in the various c o n te n t areas
that are included in the elem entary school cur­
riculum . A com m on idea is th a t it is im possible
to teach children in c o n te n t areas u n til they first
speak English. O n the o th e r h a n d , a n o th e r
often expressed a n d ra th e r w idespread idea
is that ch ild ren can “pick u p ” languages “n a tu ­
rally," often m ore easily and quickly th an adults
can. Bevond these ideas is th e fact th at L2 chil­
d re n are e n ro lled in the K -5 classroom , a n d th a t
we c an n o t wait the 3 o r 7 years, o r how ever m any
years it will take for them to learn English to a
sufficient degree to begin the serious study of
discipline-specific content. W hat, th en , do w?e do
about this issue?
This second layer of o u r discussion will be
divided into three parts. T he first p art will con­
sider some of the theory that has helped shape
what m anv believe about the nature o f content-
area education for L2 speakers. It will present a
b rief sum m ary o f the ideas that com e from a lan­
guage distinction proposed bv C um m ins (1976,
1979. 1981). Basic Interpersonal C om m unication
Skills (BICS) and Cognitive A cadem ic Language
Proficiency (CALP). T he second p a rt suggests
that we ab an d o n the BICS/C A I.P distinction,
a n d presents a rationale for d o in g so. A dopting
this suggestion from p art two, the th ird p art
discusses th e im p licatio n s fo r c o n te n t-a re a
instru ctio n in the elem entary grades for L2 chil­
d ren . An effort will be m ade th ro u g h o u t to link
all this to o u r discussion of laver one above.
A Brief Summary of Second
Language Theory That Has
Helped Shape Our Beliefs
About Content-Area Education
C um m ins’s work on bilingual and second lan­
guage acquisition (SLA) has had an enorm ous
influence upon L2 instructional practices in the
elem entary school setting. Manv program adm in­
istrators, m aterials developers, and teachers have
relied upon his distinctions to organize, describe,
and im plem ent their program s. In this section. I
would like to revisit the work o f Cum m ins in which
he delineates the BICS/CALP distinction (1976.
1979, 1981), since practitioners seem to relv upon
it almost universally, and since it relates directly to
the issue of core content instructional practices
for L2 elem entary school children.
C um m ins outlines his ideas about Basic-
In terp erso n al C om m unication Skills (BICS) and
C ognitive A cadem ic L anguage Proficiency
(CALP) in several articles. In general, "this work
has profoundly in fluenced m ethodology for all
teachers of L im ited English proficient students
by distinguishing betw een language used lot-
social a n d academ ic p urposes" (Sasser and
W inningham 1991, p. 33). In sum m arizing the
distinction betw een BICS an d CALP. C ham ot
an d O ’Mallev note th at BICS is characterized by
social com m unication skills which are context
em b e d d e d an d cognitively u n d e m a n d in g (1994,
p p . 7, 24, a n d 40). BICS has o ften b e e n
described as “the language students use am ong
them selves on the school plat-ground”; i.e., the
language o f BICS takes place in situations which
offer m an\ contextual clues and can becom e
easily routinized since the interaction typically
su rro u n d s evervdav transactions. (Sasser and
W inningham 1991, p. 33). This social language
“typically deals with fairly u n co m p licated topics
th a t are fam iliar to the speaker” (C ham ot and
O ’Malley 1994; p. 40). Proficiency in BICS,
which can usually be attain ed "in ab o u t two
years” (ibid., p. 7). can "fool" the u n in itiated into
th in k in g that learners hat e a h ig h er level o f lan­
guage proficiency than they actually do, simply
because they ap p e ar to be very fluent. BICS.
however, is not considered as critical to success
in the classroom as is CALP, the context-reduced
an d cognitively d e m a n d in g language of the con­
ten t classroom .
CALP requires a "different type o f language
skills" (ibid., pp. 7 an d 40). i.e., those n e e d e d for
successful participation in c o n ten t classrooms.
A ccording to this theory, c o n te n t classroom -
p resen t instruction using language that is “con­
text red u ced " a n d "cognitively dem anding."
"The cognitive dem ands for which academ ic lan­
guage is used, and the fact that academ ic language
is frequently not supported by the rich array or
nonverbal an d contextual clues that ch aracter­
izes face-to-face in te ra c tio n , m ake academic
language m ore difficult to learn" (ibid., p. 7 r
Academic language “mav be less interactive and
mac provide lim ited context clues to assist com ­
p rehension" (ibid., p. 40). CALP is believed to
develop m uch m ore slowlv than BICS, and take-
about 5-7 vears to acquire. D uring the time
w hen students' com petence lies largely- in the
area of BICS, thev mac not have the cognitive
academ ic language proficiency to p e rfo rm well
in school (C um m ins 1981).
Both BICS and CALP are constructs that
align closely with th e th re sh o ld hvpothesi-
(C um m ins 1976: T oukom aa a n d Skutnabb-
Kangas 1976) yvhich:
assumes that those aspects of bilingual­
ism that m ight positively influence cog­
nitive growth are unlikely to com e into
effect until children have attained a
certain m inim um or threshold level of
proficiency in the second language.
Similarly, if bilingual children attain
only- a very low Imel of proficiency in one or
both of their languages, th eir interaction
yvith the env iro n m en t th ro u g h these
languages b o th in term s o f in p u t and
o u tp u t is likely to be im poverished
(C um m ins 1981, p. 38; em phasis
ad d ed ).
T he hypothesis goes on to state th at th ere are
two thresholds, a lower one a n d a h ig h er one.
"The a tta in m e n t o f a lower level of bilingual p ro ­
ficiency would be sufficient to avoid any negative
effects; b ut the a tta in m e n t o f a second, h ig h er
level o f bilingual proficiency m ight be necessary
to lead to accelerated cognitive grow th” (ibid.,
pp. 38-39). Im p o rta n t for this discussion is the
idea th at cognitive academ ic language a n d basic
social language are separated o u t from their
respective settings bv m eans o f the levels o f cog­
nitive d e m a n d a n d c o n te x tu a liz a tio n thev
involve. Cognitive d e m a n d can be m ade onlv
when a certain level of linguistic proficiency has
been attained; if m ade earlier, th ere can be n eg ­
ative effects. These assertions assum e a d e p e n d ­
ency m odel betw een language acquisition and
cognition, with a th resh o ld level o f language
proficiency being a prerequisite for cognitive
developm ent. A causal relationship seem s to be
im plied betw een context and the a tta in m e n t of
the th re sh o ld level o f language proficiency,
since cognitive d e m a n d is m inim al (can it be
nonexistent?) d u rin g this p erio d of initial acqui­
sition, and is th erefo re generally unavailable for
the acquisition process. O nce the th resh o ld p ro ­
ficiency has been reached, however, context
takes an increasingly sm aller role a n d cognitive
forces begin to take an increasingly larger role.
T he distinction Cum m ins makes between
BICS and CALP seems to preclude serious content
instruction for beginning or lower-level L2 profi­
cient children. If T2 students receive core content
instruction (i.e.. in areas that are less apt to be
contextualized and m ore apt to be cognitively
dem anding) too early before thee base had a
chance to reach a threshold level of T2 proficiency
are we not pushing them exactly into the situation
in which “negative cognitive effects" mat' accrue,
or where developm ent in both their IT a n d T2 will
be “impoverished"? M ore specifically if we accept
the dichotom y between BICS and CALP, then the
kind o f cognitively dem anding social interaction
and language required to construct m eaning with­
in the first laver of content areas are simply not
available to L2 learners before they reach the
th resh o ld o f m inim al language proficiency.
Practically speaking, in elem entary schools this
has m ea n t an attem p t to co n tro l c o n te n t a n d
linguistic form s for students n o t m ee tin g a
th resh o ld level of L2 proficiency.6
O n the o th er hand, there have been studies
whose results call into question the BICS/CALP
distinction, as well as the threshold hypothesis.
Flashner (1987) “w ent on a search” for decontex-
tualized language in a fourth grade class, exam in­
ing the daily oral a n d written classroom language
use o f teachers, LI students, and L2 students in all
subject areas over a period of two m onths. She
found that the BICS/CALP distinction did n o t
obtain in h e r classroom data. Rather, she discov­
ered a full array of language in the classroom, its
uses governed by the context in which it occurred.
Flashner concludes, “I suggest that there is no
such thing as decontextualized language. T here
are, rather, varieties o f language that have m ore of
one feature than an o th er yvhen purpose, audi­
ence, m ode, and planning are altered” (p. 165).
Hawkins (1988) reports a study in which she
looked at scaffolded classroom interaction as it
relates to SLA. H er data, collected daily over a two-
m onth period, yvas also from a fourth grade class­
room where the children were both NS and NNS.
W hen she exam ined the data for instances of scaf­
folded interaction, she found that it occurred
most often yvhen the classroom discourse was both
interactively and cognitively dem anding. This
indicates the very opposite o f w hat Cum m ins
(1981) a n d T oukom aa a n d Skutnabb-K angas
(1976) argue in the threshold hypothesis. T hat is,
rath er than cognitively dem anding m aterial being
a possible detrim ent to cognitive and linguistic
developm ent, yvhen com bined yvith high interac­
tive dem and it is actually supportive o f both, in
term s o f the learner receiving scaffolding. As we
have seen earlier, scaffolding is a m ost im portant
yvav for the learner to move from a position of n o t
knoyving to one of knoyving.
An Alternative to the
B IC S /C A L P Distinction
W hat yvould h a p p e n if we were to consider the
BICS/'CALP distinction as rep re sen tin g a false
dichotom y? Instead o f viewing BICS as relatively'
free o f cognitive d e m a n d , wc could recognize
that it “appears" to be relatively free of cognitive
dem and precisely because the context is so well
defined. It is the claritv of the context which allows
the “seemingly rapid" acquisition to proceed, but
this does not m ean that the work a learner does in
becom ing proficient is cognitively undem anding.
Hawkins describes h er efforts to u n derstand “play­
g ro u n d language," language normally tho u g h t to
be a prototypic exam ple o f BICS:
I have been am azed continually at the
cognitively dem anding level of interac­
tion that occurs as students, both LI
a n d L2 , explain an d describe subtle
nuances o f the games they plav: thev
justify; thev prove, debate and persнаde oth­
ers when conflict about procedures,
“unfair” behavior or results arise, and
compare, classify and evaluate aach others'
actions in relation to the rules of the
games, etc. W hen this becom es most
apparent to the teacher is w hen stu­
dents bring a com plaint or problem to
her. If the teacher decides to truly deal
with the issues involved, it can becom e
a cognitive nightm are in trying to sort
out actual events as students inform the
teacher about what has h appened . . . .
Most times it is because the students
have such a com plex understanding of
the details of the game that have been
“constructed” over time, and of how
these details fit into the whole picture,
that a teacher's rudim entary u n d e r­
standings of the gam es— e.g., soccer
or kickball— are simpiv not enough to
understand the issues involved. The
teacher needs instruction, and the stu­
dents becom e the teachers (1996, p. 43).
T he te a c h e r’s difficulty in u n d e rsta n d in g the
ch ild ren is not because the language is d eco n ­
textualized, since in fact, it is firmly ro o te d in the
social context o f the gam es the children play.
Rather, it is because the tea c h e r does n o t com ­
pletely u n d e rsta n d the context of the c h ild re n ’s
language th at m akes its in te rp re ta tio n so diffi­
cult. It is cognitively d e m a n d in g for the teacher
to try to u n d e rsta n d the stu d en ts' language,
even th o u g h one w ould classify it as BICS.
T urning to the o th er half o f the coin, what
would ab an d o n in g the BICS/CALP distinction
m ean about the wav we Hew CALP? L em ke’s
claim is m ost helpful in this regard: “Talking sci­
ence does not simpiv m ean talking about science.
It m eans doing science th rough the m edium ol
language” (1993. p. ix). This statem ent clearlv
implies that science is situated social knowledge,
whose m eaning is clearlv com m unicated among
those who tire proficient m em bers of the science
community. As such, the problem for Lem ke is
n ot that science instruction is too cognitively
dem anding: rather, it is that students do not ve:
belong to the com m unity of scientists, and, there­
fore. do not vet u n derstand what thev are talking
about. For Lemke, it is the teachers’ role to “leant
to see science teaching as a social process, and to
bring students, at least partially, into this com m u­
nity of people who talk science" (p. x).
An u n d erstanding of co n ten t areas as rep re­
senting highly situated social knowledge turns the
idea of CALP on end. Instead of being decontex-
lualized language, the language of discipline-
specific content is so verv contextualized that u
m a\ ap p ear decontextualizcd to the outsider, ti­
the novice, in m uch the sam e wav th at play­
g ro u n d “BICS" m a\ a p p e ar cognitively u n d e ­
m an d in g to the person who fully u n d e rsta n d '
the context. Instead of thinking o f academ ic
content instruction as ('C ontextualized, if teach­
ers thought of it as highly contextualised, thev would
realize that what they need to bring to their stu­
dents in term s of content education is the context
enjoyed by insiders. A nd instead of thinking o:
social language as being cognitively u n d e m a n d ­
ing and generally outside the realm o f academic
content instruction, they yvould realize that it
takes a great deal of cognitive effort to m aster the
various contexts in yyhich the disciplines operate,
to becom e socialised to the disciplines.
Short's finding that the academ ic language
used in ''A m erican history classes was com m en­
surate yvith m uch o f the academ ic language ir.
o th e r hum anities courses, a n d in fact, sim ilar to
the nontechnical language used in m ath and sci­
ence classrooms . . . ” (1994, p. 595), suggests tha:
the decontextualized language of CALP is far
m ore elusive than would be expected. T hat is, it
yve vieyv academ ic language as decontextualized.
then we should be able to isolate linguistic m ark­
ers particular to a given co n ten t area ahead of
time, and then use these features first to predict
difficult}', and ultim ately to im prove o u r deliverv
of instruction. Yet. th at view mav n o t be the case.
If we take the perspective th at there is no such
thing as decontextualized language associated
with the c o n ten t areas, it dim inishes the surprise
that the predicted linguistic differences were not
found. Perhaps it teas because the linguistic fea­
tures were taken out of the context of the co n ten t
area that thev did n o t prove to be significant.
T hat is, bv separating o u t vocabulary7 an d o th er
structures that we think would m ark the decon­
textualized n a tu re o f a discipline, we have
rem oved them from their social situation, at
which p oint thev lose m eaning. O nce again, we
are left with the question of how content knowl­
edge gets constructed b\ learners. If we do n ot
>eparate out two entities— BIOS and CAI.P— will
it affect the way we teach core co n ten t to elem en­
tary school students?
Content-Area Instruction
in the Elementary Grades
for L 2 Children
Fortunatelv, the ideas p rese n ted about a b a n d o n ­
ing the BICS/CALP distinction are c o n g ru en t
with o u r earlier view o f c o n te n t ed u cation as a
-ituated process whose eventual goal is the m em ­
bership of students in the com m unin' o f adults
■jroficient in the discipline. If we wish to prov ide
iuality ed u cation for o u r L2 elem entarv school
'in d en ts, we n e e d to do at least what is asked of
elem entary school teachers for th eir LI stu­
dents. T hat is, we n e e d to com e from a position
of know ing the fundam entals of the disciplines
we teach. A dditionally we n e e d to realize w hat it
m eans to "talk a discipline" in the sense th a t
Lemke (1993) describes it; i.e., we n e e d to real­
ize that o u r role as teachers is to guide o u r stu­
dents in the social co n stru ctio n o f c o n te n t
know ledge such that the norm s o f the discipline
eventually becom e available to them . In doing
so, we need to be able to use language to scaffold
new know ledge structures for o u r students as we
interact with them . We n e e d to be able to build
on th eir language to help m ove th em beyond
w here th eir thoughts currently take them . We
n e e d to know o u r students well, and be able to
provide them with experiences they can readily
e n te r into, th ro u g h which we can provoke new
learnings. W hen o u r students do n o t seem to
u n d e rsta n d w hat we are doing, we n e e d to ask
several questions:
1. Can they relate to the experience I have
provided?
2. Do they have the words to describe w hat it
is th at they are experiencing?
3. Do they u n d e rsta n d the o p en -en d ed p ro b ­
lem th a t I have p rese n ted to them ?
4. Are thev developm entallv ready for the c o n ­
cepts I am trving to teach them ?
5. Do they have e n o u g h situational su p p o rt
to u n d e rsta n d the classroom discourse?
W hat is special for elem entarv school teach­
ers w hen thev teach L2 children in the c o n ten t
areas? T he above questions seem appropriate for
both LI and L2 students. Because o u r L2 students
com e from cultures d ifferent from the “m ain­
stream " culture, we n e e d to be particularly sen­
sitive in term s o f the experiences we provide
th em at the start o f o u r lessons o r units. Since it
is pivotal for learners to be able to relate to the
ex perience in o rd e r to proceed, the teach er
m ust carefullv consider w h eth er so m eth in g he
o r she has chosen is too specific to m ainstream
culture. If learners have trouble w hen we ask
them to describe the experience we give them ,
we n e e d to th in k about whv this m ight be. Is it
because the e x p erien ce is too d iffe re n t for
them ? Is it because thev d o n 't have the words to
describe the experience? Is it because th ere is
too m uch (or too little) info rm atio n in the set­
ting, so thev cannot use the context provided to
help them out? For exam ple, if the teacher wants
a child to distinguish betw een two attributes, the
setting needs to provide at least one clear exam ple
o f each of the two attributes (less than this would
be too little inform ation) such that the child does
n o t confuse them with several o th er possibilities
(too m uch inform ation).
If a stu d e n t has trouble with any o n e o f
these areas, it m ost often m eans backing up a n d
ch anging som ething in the lesson. R etu rn in g to
the culinary arts lesson, u p o n tasting the differ­
ent dishes in the initial experience, a stu d en t
mav stum ble in ri ving to describe what he or she
tastes because he or she does not know how to
sav salty in English. W hat will the teach er do? It
m eans backing up an d providing an experience
of, for exam ple, salty, sour, sweet, a n d b itter so
th a t students will be able to attach that language
to th eir next experience.
In th e case o f L2 stu d e n ts, preciselv
because they are "fu rth er awav" from the context
o f the co n ten t, one o f the biggest differences
will be th at teachers will n eed to take m ore tim e
to cover the sam e a m o u n t o f m aterial. T he back­
ing up that a tea c h e r does w hen th ere are p ro b ­
lem s alwavs takes tim e, and for the 1.2 students
th ere may be m ore instances o f backing up
because the children mav n ot have the language
a n d /o r cultural references to move as quicklv.
T h e m ost im p o rta n t a ttrib u te s th at a
tea c h e r can have are those o f being able to listen
a n d reflect u p o n what the students tell him or
her. In the case of elem entarv school, students
are n o t alwavs able to tell the teacher directlv
w hat is going on in th eir m inds, and this is m uch
m ore true o f T2 students. Teachers m ust learn to
listen a n d observe in new wavs, b ringing everv-
th in g thev know ab o u t pedagogv. developm ent,
a n d language (LI and L2) to bear on the situa­
tion. W ith o u t having this vital in fo rm atio n ,
teaching a n d learn in g becom e trivialized: i.e.,
the teach er sets up his or h e r lesson plans, and
covering the m aterial becom es the p a ra m o u n t
goal, m aking evervthing else subservient to it. In
such a scenario, if students d o n 't u n d e rsta n d the
m aterial, in som e wav or o th e r it reverts back to
them ; i.e., it becom es their fault.
In conclusion, we seek a great deal o f com ­
p eten ce from o u r elem entarv school teachers, in
several arenas. Thev n e e d to know the fu n d a ­
m entals o f th eir subject m atter; thev n eed to
know pedagogv'; thev n eed to know the interplay
betw een language a n d c o n te n t education; they
n e e d to know the cultures a n d experiences o f
th eir students; a n d thev n e e d to know how to
talk a n d listen to children. Teachers can never
know too m uch to teach, an d in the case of ele­
m entarv' school teachers w orking with second
language learners this is especiallv true.
D IS C U S S IO N Q U E S T IO N S
1. A charge often given to K-5 teachers is that
they m ust provide c o n ten t education to L2
learners that does not “w ater dow n” the stan­
d a rd curriculum . Is this an unreasonable
charge? Are LI an d L2 students necessarib
going to receive different coverage o f the
curriculum ? "Will both groups cover the same
am o u n t of curriculum ? In what wav s can the
p resen tatio n of the curriculum be consid­
ered equallv rigorous, of equal depth?
2. Suppose von are going to teach a social stud­
ies unit to a group o f fifth graders who are all
L2 students. You want to in tro d u ce the con­
cept o f the connections betw een culture,
geographv. an d history as thev relate to
Native A m ericans. How will von begin vour
plans? Do the plans change for a m ixed
g ro u p o f LI an d L2 students? Win ? Why not?
3. You have a m ixed group o f LI and L2 stu­
dents in vour second grade class. You have
been teaching the algorithm for subtraction
requiring regrouping (often referred to a*
"borrowing" in the USA) for two to three
weeks. T he majoritv of vour students are not
able to dem onstrate that thev control the
algorithm with am degree of regularity. How
will vou troubleshoot what is going on in the
class? Will there be problem s that exist for the
L2 learners that do not exist for the LI learn­
ers? If so, what are thev ? W hat m ight be prob­
lems that both groups of students are having?
4. How can vou inco rp o rate fourth grade L2
children into a lesson that calls for them to
explain in writing som ething thev cannot
clearlv see? For exam ple, how can thev inves­
tigate and th en write an explanation of the
force of gravitv ? W hat is a context that can be
provided that will help with instruction and
the ultim ate explanation?
5. C hildren often find it h ard to believe th at the
earth is spinning. They mav sav that the world
is spinning, because thev have been told that
it is, but thev do not really u n d e rsta n d what
that m eans. A tvpical and verv good question
that often arises in th ird grade classrooms is.
"Whv a re n ’t we blown off the world if it h
spinning so fast?” O th e r th an the obvious.
 why is this a good question? W hat can it tell
the teacher ab o u t his o r h e r students? Do y o u
th ink this question could com e from a L2
stu d en t who is learning the subject m atter in
his o r h er second language?
S U G G E S T E D A C T IV IT IE S
1. Spend an h o u r or two observing children at
play during recess, focusing especially on their
language. Observe them playing a game or
sport with which y o u arc very fam iliar (e.g.,
soccer, kickball, jum p rope, etc.). Have thev
developed their own set of context-specific
rules to au g m en t those that traditionallv
accom pany the gam e/'sport? How long does it
take you to understand them? If the children
use higher ord er thinking skills, describe them.
2. “W hen a new m aterial is m ade bv com bining
two o r m ore m aterials, it has pro p erties that
are different from the original m aterials. For
th at reason, a lot of different m aterials can
be m ade from a small n u m b e r o f basic kinds
o f m aterials” {Benchmarks for science literacy:
Project 206, p. 76).Given the above b e n c h ­
m ark on the structure of m atter for the end
o f fifth grade, design an o p e n -en d ed ques­
tio n / problem that will in tro d u c e a unit to a
fifth grade class, one which will req u ire that
students learn the inform ation in cluded in
the b en ch m ark in o rd e r to arrive at a solu­
tion. T he class for w hom y o u are designing
the q u e stio n /p ro b le m has equal n um bers of
L I and L2 students.
3. U sing the q u e stio n /p ro b le m you designed
in n u m b e r 2 above, plan how you will m ake
sure that all o f vour students u n d e rsta n d it
clearly, keeping in m ind th at if students do
n o t have a th o ro u g h u n d e rsta n d in g o f the
p ro b le m /q u e s tio n , thev will be left out of
th e ensuing activities.
4. O ne wav to help teachers ensure that thev
move the class at the pace of the students
rath e r than at their pace (or the book's pace)
is to stop and think about how the children
will receive and respond to the inform ation
an d tasks with which you present them . Using
vour plans from num bers 2 and 3 above, write
three short dialogues for each of the follow­
ing groups: a) high-achieving LI and L2 stu­
dents, b) m edium -achieving L I a n d L2
students, and c) low-achieving LI an d L2 stu­
dents. In o rd er for these dialogues to be
successful, they m ust scaffold info rm atio n
for the students, and n ot merely tell them
inform ation or p ro n o u n ce their solutions as
correct or incorrect.
FU R T H ER R EA D IN G
Yvgotskv. L. 1978. M i n d in Society: T h e D evelo p m en t o f
H ig h e r P s y c h o lo g ic a l Processes. Cambridge:
Harvard Universitv Press.
This book presents manv of Yvgotskv's basic
ideas in a verv interesting and readable wav. It is
especially im portant for understanding
Yvgotskv's notions about the mediating nature
of language, wherebv knowledge begins first
/«/■«personally and then nt/rr/pcrsonallv. He also
presents and discusses at length his idea of
the "/one of proximal development,” which
is supportive of later ideas about scaffolded
interaction.
Cummins, J. 1979. Cognitive academic language pro­
ficiency. linguistic interdependence, the opti­
mum age question and some other matters.
W o r k in g p a p e rs on b ilin g u a lis m 19: 121-129.
-------- 1981. The role of primarv language develop­
ment in promoting success for language minority
students. In S c h o o lin g a n d L a n g u a g e M in o r it y
Stu d en ts: Л Theoretical Fram ew o rk (pp. 3-49). Office
of Bilingual Bicultural Education, California
State Department of Education. Sacramento.
Los Angeles: Evaluation. Dissemination and
Assessment Center, California State University.
Both of these seminal works are important to
read in order to understand the theory behind
manv current educational practices in both
bilingual and second language settings. The
theory presented also forms the backdrop for
more recent attempts to define and develop L2
curriculum sensitive to CALP requirements.
Lemke. J. L. 1993. T a lk in g Science: L a n g u a g e , le a r n in g ,
a n d Values. Norwood, NJ: Ablex.
 Although this book focuses on high school
(rather than K-5) science classroom discourse as
the context for studying the language of science,
it is quite helpful in several wavs. It provides a
framework for examining classroom language
as it connects to the language of experts in a
given content area. It also provides useful ways
of looking at teacher language as a bridge
between the students and the language of those
who are experts in a content area. Finally, it
helps define what it means to talk the language
of science, with definite applications for other
content areas.
Ma, L. 1999. Knowing and Teaching Elementary Mathe­
matics: Teachers' Understanding of Fundamental
Mathematics in China and the United States. Mahwah,
NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
The author asked four questions surrounding
four seemingly simple arithmetic problems of a
group of Chinese school teachers and a group
of American school teachers. The book pres­
ents the outcomes of her interviews with both
groups of teachers, and results in a dramatic
picture of the need for teachers to have a pro­
found understanding of fundamental mathe­
matics if they are going to be effective teachers.
Although the book's focus is mathematics, it is
verv helpful towards establishing definitions of
“profound understanding," and "fundamental."
Becker, J. P., and S. Shimada, eds. 1997. The Open-
ended Approach: .4 A'ew Proposal for Teaching
Mathematics. Reston, YA: National Council of
Teachers of Mathematics.
This book presents verv helpful wavs of
approaching open-ended problems for mathe­
matics, as well as several verv clear examples.
Much of what is contained in the book is very
applicable to other content areas.
Schwandt, T. 1994. Constructivist, interpretivist
approaches to human inquire. In N. K. Denzin
and Y S. Lincoln, eds., Handbook of Qualitative
Research. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
This is a rather dense but verv informative view
of constructivism, both as a theory of knowl­
edge, and as a research method. It summarizes
the history of constructivism, and presents some
of its current iterations.
ENDNO TES
1 Although space does not permit a discussion of the
developmental needs of elementary school stu­
dents, it is a yen- important element. There are
many developmental understandings about chil­
dren that teachers need to keep in mind when they
engage their students in core content instruction.
2 We are using Becker and Shimada's (1997) defini­
tion of open-ended problems as those "problems
that are formulated to have multiple correct
answers" (p. 1 ).
3 See Carroll (1997) for the longitudinal compari­
son of student achievement on standardized tests
for students taught via a “reform” mathematics
curriculum as compared to those taught within a
“traditional" framework. He also assesses the prob­
lem solving abilities of the two groups in wavs not
specifically assessed in the standardized test for­
mat. In general. Carroll found that the students in
the ''reform” group matched or outperformed the
students in the ''traditional" group on the stan­
dardized tests after spending minimally two vears
in the program. He also discovered that the stu­
dents in the "reform" group far outperformed the
students in the "traditional" group on the separate
problem solving assessment.
Finallv. an anecdote comes from Sallv Grogg
(1994 personal communication), an experienced
and extremely competent third grade teacher.
Ms. Grogg had spent a good two to three months
on an experientiallv driven social studies unit on
three Native American tribes. At the end of the
unit, she gave the students the unit test from the
textbook. .Although the students did all right on
the test. Ms. Grogg was disappointed because she
had thought they would do better. The next day,
she told the students to simple write whatever they
knew about Native Americans. The children wrote
on and on, their knowledge seemingly inex­
haustible. The unit test had not been able to cap­
ture the true, deep understanding the children
had acquired. From the official assessment point
of view, the children were "adequate” in meeting
the content standards for that unit, whereas in fact
thev were superior in their understanding.
^ Sawada (1997, pp. 24—33) provides information on
classifying, constructing, judging the appropriate­
ness of, and developing teaching based on prob­
lems in mathematics. He also includes criteria for
judging students’ solutions to problems.
3 See Parker (1993, pp. 4—11) for a comparison of
learning "about” mathematics with learning to "do”
mathematics.
b However, because of the large numbers of L2 chil­
dren enrolled in our schools coupled with the inabil­
ity of many school districts to offer bilingual
education, teachers have found themselves in the
position of presenting content to L2 children.
whether those children have achieved a set threshold
proficiency in the L2 or not. Sheppard and his col­
leagues as reported in Snow found that “in sharp
contrast to the widespread belief that students need
intermediate proficiency to benefit from content-
based instruction, 79 percent of the programs sur­
veyed reported no English proficiencv requirement
for participation” (Snowr 1998, pp. 244—245).
 Teaching Adults1
SHARON HILLES • АМОКЁ SUTTON

In "Teaching Adults,” Hilles and Sutton define adult education and briefly review its history.They give
an overview of adults as second language learners and consider one program in depth to construct
an adult-school teacher student, and program profile, They conclude with practical suggestions for
working with this population and a review of recent research directions.

IN T R O D U C T IO N A dult an d continuing education have had a

In the U nited States and Canada, the term adult
education com m only refers to public education for
adults that does not fall within the m ainstream
c re d it/d e g re e objective program s offered by uni­
versities or colleges. This tvpe of ed u cation is
fu n d ed prim arily bv state, local, a n d (som e­
tim es) federal (national) governm ents, a n d is
delivered by ad u lt schools, com m unity colleges,
a n d som etim es university extension divisions or
o th e r units. A dult education has several purposes.
First, it allows students who, for whatever reasons,
were unable to com plete their elem entary o r sec­
o n d a ry e d u c a tio n s to g et th e ir diplom as.
Second, it provides a resource for those who
desire to pursue vocational train in g o r co n tinue
th eir ed u cation after g rad u atin g from secondarv
school o r university, b u t do n o t o p t to do this in
the setting o f a college or grad u ate school.
T h ird , som e adult program s allow c o n c u rre n t
en ro llm en t, i.e., allow students e n ro lled in sec­
o n d ary schools to take ad u lt classes after school
o r on w eekends, which can c o u n t towards grad­
uatio n o r simply provide extra in struction an d
practice in specific subjects. Finally, in recen t
years, the m ajor b u rd e n o f ad u lt ed u cation has
b e e n teach in g English as a Second Language
(ESL) to an ever-increasing im m ig ran t p o p u la­
tion in N o rth Am erica. For this reason, adult
ed u catio n has, to a great degree, b ecom e syn­
onym ous with ESL. In this c h a p te r we shall con­
cern ourselves prim arily with teach in g adults in
this setting.
long tradition in the U nited States, even though
diev have waxed a n d w aned in popularity an d sta­
tus over the years. (For an excellent review o f the
literature, see C otton 1968; M clntire 1988.) It has
been suggested that perhaps the earliest exam ple
of adult education in the U nited States was
B enjam in F ra n k lin ’s J u n ta gro u p s in 1727
(Knowles and Klevins 1975, p. 12; M clntire 1988,
p. 20), which provided weekly discussions of intel­
lectual subjects for adults. Josiah H o lb ro o k ’s
Lvceum M ovement, begun in 1826, m ade the lec­
ture popular as a form at for dissem inating infor­
m ation, and attracted lectures by such lum inaries
as Em erson and L incoln.2A ccording to P. Jo h n so n
(1999), the m ovem ent targeted “young, unm ar­
ried m e n — bank clerks, salesmen, bookkeepers,
and so fo rth — who then m ade up an astonishingly
high proportion o f the population o f the new
towns” and aim ed “to keep them off the streets and
o u t o f the saloons, an d to p ro m o te sim ultane­
ously th eir com m ercial careers a n d th eir m oral
w elfare” (p. 407). T he m ovem ent rapidly spread
th ro u g h o u t the u n io n an d “by the e n d of the
1830s alm ost every considerable town h ad o n e ”
(p. 407). Various o th er program s grew u p follow­
ing the Civil War, including an ab u n d an ce o f cor­
respondence courses, which were very p opular
an d widelv accepted by the public. A ccording to
Knowles and Klevins (1975), the m ain thrust of
early adult education was rem edial. This began to
change in 1919 w hen adult education was recog­
nized as “a p e rm a n e n t national necessity, an
in se p a ra b le a sp ec t o f c itiz e n sh ip ” (p. 13).
Between W orld War I a n d W orld W ar II, adult
ed u cation passed th ro u g h stages, from highly
idealistic no tio n s characterizing it as “a m eans of
brin g in g ab o u t social reform , reco n stru ctio n
a n d progress" to the m ore conservative stance
th a t “the country could be b e tte r served if the
ideals were m odified to th at which could be
ju d g ed realistic” (p. 13). A fter W orld W7ar II,
governm ent a n d p h ilan th ro p ic groups began to
participate in adult a n d co n tin u in g education,
a n d in 1965 the B ureau o f A dult a n d Vocational
E ducation was form ed as a p art o f the ET.S.
Office o f Education.
A ccording to M clntire (1988, p. 48), adult
ed u catio n currentlv serves a diverse p o p u lation,
including the following:
1. Students who did n o t have an o p p ortunitv
to atten d school d u rin g the traditional ele­
m entary a n d /o r secondarv range.
2. S tudents who d ro p p e d o u t of school.
3. Im m igrants who are learning English as a
second language, acquiring basic skills in
English, preparing for citizenship, or obtain­
ing a high school diplom a in English.
4. S tu d e n ts a c q u irin g v o cational tra in in g
skills.
M oreover, adult learners participate in a variety
o f program s. For exam ple, the breakdow n of stu­
dents en ro lled in B elm ont C om m unity A dult
School, the largest adult school in C alifornia in
term s of absolute p o p u latio n , is as follows:3
1. E lem entarv basic skills 1,756
2. Secondarv basic skills 1,993
3. ESL 14,608
4. H a n d ic a p p e d /E x c e p tio n a l Adults
5. Vocational E ducation
6. P aren tin g
7. P rogram for O ld er Adults
8. C itizenship
9. H ealth E ducation
Non-native speakers o f English are p rese n t
in all o f the above categories, th o u g h classes in
ESL are often a steppingstone to o th e r adult
classes. In the U n ited States, ESL classes are typ­
ically offered by e ith e r visa program s o r resident
program s. T he fo rm er are restricted m ainly to
foreign students who are in the U n ited States on
stu d e n t visas. Students p articipating in these
program s m ust be p rese n t in a classroom a spec­
ified n u m b e r o f hours p e r week a n d m ust be
m aking reasonable progress toward a degree
objective in o rd e r to retain th eir visas. They are
allowed up to two vears to m aster English before
b eg in n in g th eir h ig h er education. M ost visa stu­
dents plan to retu rn to th eir respective countries
after finishing th eir h ig h er ed u cation in the
U n ited States. In C alifornia, visa program s are
offered by colleges, universities, an d n u m ero u s
private language schools. O n the o th e r h an d ,
the ESL program s we find in adult schools do
n o t— indeed, mav n o t— enroll foreign students
who h old stu d e n t visas; in fact, m any of the stu­
dents in resident program s are n o t in the U nited
States on any tvpe o f visa at all. This category
includes a n u m b e r o f b o th “eco n o m ic” a n d /o r
political refugees, a n d th eir presence in ad u lt
school classroom s is invariable a reflection (and
often a precursor) of global events.
A D U L T LEA RN ERS
W h e th e r thev are ESL students o r native speak­
ers, in the U n ited States o r in a n o th e r country,
adults differ from “typical” o r “tra d itio n al” K-12
students in that thev brin g a great deal o f life
ex perience a n d cognitive m aturity to th e class­
room . In m anv cases, thev have b o rn e a n d
reared children, ea rn e d a living, seen life a n d
d eath, and, all too often, survived extrem e polit­
ical a n d econom ic hardship. A dult students have
a m aturin' a n d an u n d e rsta n d in g of priorities
that m any younger students do not. A ccording
178
to Knowles (1976), “a prim e characteristic of
361
adultness is the n eed a n d capacity to be self­
227
directing" (p. 181). In o th e r words, adults will, to
590
som e extent, “direct” th e ir own lea rn in g agen­
977
das. If the learn in g en v iro n m en t does n o t to
361
som e degree m atch cultural expectations a n d
perceived needs, the self-direction may take the
form o f challenging the tea c h e r o r syllabus in
class, of filtering o u t w hat they perceive as
nonessential, o f simply leaving the class a n d
seeking some o th er way o f learning, or of aban­
doning the enterprise altogether. This difference
betw een adult and child learners is so crucial that
Knowles a n d Klevins (1975) m aintain th a t the
term pedagogy should n o t apply to adults becatise
th e w ord “taken literally from its roots m eans the
leading o f ch ild ren , the im plication th e re o f
being th at the le a rn e r is guided w ithin a ra th e r
rigid system. A basic pro b lem with pedagogy is
th at m ost teachers have know n onlv how to j
teach adults as if they were c h ild re n ” (p. 14).
Knowles and Klevins argue that “a m ore explicit
an d realistic term which may be applied to adult
education is andragogy. From its root, it denotes
the leading of m an; or the art or science o f help­
ing adults learn” (p. 14). T hough their proposed
term has never really caught on in the literature,
their point is well taken. W ithout question there
are num erous differences betw een adults and
children; m uch too frequently, however, an inex­
perienced adult ESL teacher mav interact with his
or h er students as if they were children, perhaps
because o f their lim ited English proficiency The
results are often a disastrous paternalistic attitude,
one svmptom of which can be babv talk. At the
very least, this presents an unnatural, not to m en­
tion insulting, m odel o f spoken English when
addressed to adults.
In addition to being m ature and self-directed,
adult learners are often, of necessity, m ore focused.
M clntire (1988) points out that “because time is
such a valuable commodity , participating in edu­
cational program s is often a personal sacrifice.
Typically, adults can devote onlv lim ited time to
th eir educational endeavors, which often trans­
lates into th eir being d edicated students who
take learn in g seriously” (p. 47). A ccording to
M c ln tire ’s survey, approxim ately three-quarters
o f ad u lt ESL students work at a jo b 40 hours or
m o re p e r w eek — a d e d ic a te d a n d focused
group, indeed.
Adult learners are also psychologically vul­
nerable, perhaps in a wav that children are not,
precisely because they are adults and have already
form ed a strong sense of who thev are. Thev have
a great deal invested in their identities as profi­
cient speakers of their first language. In h e r ethno­
graphic study of adults learning Welsh as a second
language, Trosset (1986) found that these learners
often experienced anom ie, which L am bert et al.
defined as “the feelings of social uncertainty or
dissatisfaction which characterize n ot only the
socially unattached person b u t also, it appears, the
bilingual o r even the serious stu d e n t o f a second
language an d c u ltu re ” (1963, pp. 38-39 cited in
Trosset, p. 183). In h e r study Trosset also fo u n d
th at “the process o f learn in g a new language
tem porarily takes awav p e o p le ’s ability to talk,
a n d the resu ltan t sense o f inadequacy leads
th em to experience sh am e” (p.184). She points
o ut th at Stengel h ad already observed som e 40
years earlier th at “speech is an accom plishm ent
o f the ego . . . A cquiring a new language in adult
life is an anachronism an d m any p eo p le c a n n o t
easily tolerate the infantile situ atio n ” (Stengel
1930, p. 475-476, cited in Trosset, p.184).
Trosset fu rth e r notes that m any o f the adult
learners she observed e x p erien ced n o t only a
sense o f inadequacy, b u t also fear of failure as
well as fear of success, all o f which seem ed to be
intim ately associated with feelings o f sham e. In
co n n ectio n with Trosset’s observations, it is p a r­
ticularly in te restin g to n o te th a t S ch u m an n
(1997) rep o rts that “th ere is research th at shows
th at sham e experiences g en erate cortisol in the
boclv, which interferes with c o g n itio n ” (p.1551.
A n o th er characteristic th at seem s to set
apart adults learners is the en o rm o u s variability
that they display in th eir goals and reasons for
tackling a second language. O n e class with
w hich we are fam iliar com prised alm ost entirely
K orean g ran d p a re n ts who d id n ’t particularly
want to speak English, b u t w anted very m uch to
u n d e rs ta n d th e ir g ra n d c h ild re n . We have
know n o th e r learners who w anted som e sort of
com m unicative system but w ere n o t particularly
co n cern ed with gram m atical accuracy. Still others
felt that language w ithout gram m atical correct­
ness wTas no language at all. A nother group of
adult EFL students we m et were interested in
studying English because at the tim e studying
English was a fashionable hobby, b u t they were
n o t at all in terested in speaking, reading, writ­
ing, o r u n d e rsta n d in g English. Blev-Vroman
(1988) points out that “som e develop ju st the
sub p art of foreign language co m p eten ce neces­
sary to wait on tables o r to lecture in philosophy;
others mav becom e skilled at cocktail party story
telling. Some have good p ronunciation but prim ­
itive gram m ar. Some lay great im portance on
vocabulary size. Som e work at passing for a native
speaker; others seem p roud of their foreignness
( T h e Charles Boyer p h en o m e n o n ')" (p. 21).
Adults have num erous reasons for studying a sec­
ond or foreign language (L2), and this variety of
reasons presents its own challenges to the teacher.
Variability also characterizes the outcom e
o f adult foreign language learn in g endeavors,
th o u g h native-like proficiency in the L2 is p ro b ­
ably unlikely.4 As Blev-Yroman (1988) points
out, “ [a]m o n g adults, th ere is substantial varia­
tion in degree of success, even when age, expo ­
sure, instruction, a n d so forth are held constant.
A dults n o t only generally do n o t succeed, thev
also fail to different deg rees” (p. 20). This som e­
w hat bleak prognosis is not m ean t to discourage
the adult ESL/EFL teacher or to be construed as
suggesting that adult school teachers ought not
aim for target-like proficiency in their students;
rather, it is m eant to tem per expectations so that
they are realistic and so that teachers do not
dem an d from their students as a whole the u n rea­
sonable goal of native-like proficiency. We hasten
to add that in discussions such as this we feel it is
im portant to rem em ber that social science statis­
tics can predict the behavior o f a group, but cer­
tainly n ot the behavior of anv one particular
individual w ithin that group. E ven- stu d e n t
deserves our best efforts and each new class we
teach may very well be the one that houses an
individual who will learn English to near native
speaker proficiency.
Finally, adult learners are most often volun­
tary learners. Lhilike their vounger counterparts,
who are required bv law or bv their parents to be
in school until a particular age, adult learners are
in school because thev want to be, a desire which
is alm ost alwavs inconvenient and often inter­
ru p te d by family and job responsibilities a n d com ­
m itm ents. As a result, adult learners ten d to have
little patience with classes which they perceive are
n o t furth erin g their own educational agendas.
A T Y P IC A L A D U L T S C H O O L
S E T T IN G
P art of the challenge o f teaching ad u lt school
ESL is the diversity. Iwataki (1981) describes the
typical ad u lt ESL classroom as follows:
Picture a classroom o f som e 30 or
m ore students, ranging in age from
18-80. T he learners com e from h e t­
ero g en eo u s language a n d experiential
b a c k g ro u n d s . . . this is a voluntary, not
a captive audience, fo u n d in churches,
recreation centers, vacant elem entary
o r secondary school bungalow s, or
classrooms unoccupied at night (p. 24).
A dult school classes h aven't changed m uch since
Iw ataki’s original description. H eterogeneous
classes p o p u lated bv n o n tra d itio n al students in
nontraditional venues are certainly characteristic
of the adult school classroom, a n d p art of it-
unique challenge. This notw ithstanding, we car.
speak of at least a statistically typical ad u lt ESL
stu d e n t a n d classroom in each n e ig h b o rh o o d
Let us co n sid er B elm ont C om m unity Aduk
School once again as a case in point. T he typical
B elm ont stu d en t is a single, m ale Hispanic,
betw een the ages of 21 an d 29, who is em ployee
full tim e a n d has betw een a sixth-grade a n d a
secondary school education. At one tim e, this
student w ould have been en ro lled in a large
class (often over 50 students) because large
classes were once characteristic o f m any adult
schools. Toclav, however, given the current budget,
he is studying English in a class of betw een 30 and
35 students. O u r ty pical ESL student feels th at his
teachers are ''excellent." an d that th ere is ade­
quate o p p ortunity for him to get individual help
from them .
Even th o u g h classes are currently o f a m ore
m anageable size th an thev have traditionally
been, m any seasoned teachers a n d adm inistra­
tors fear th at class size will increase dram atically
if bud g et cuts are im plem ented. In the Los
Angeles Lrinfied School District, an adult school
class m ust be closed w hen it ceases to be cost-
effective, regardless o f w h eth er it starts o u t with
30 students o r 55. A ttrition is a natu ral p h e n o m ­
e n o n in adult school; th erefo re, m aintaining
class n um bers is im p o rtan t. O rganized a n d p re ­
p a re d teachers have little trouble. Less experi­
en ced teachers, however, som etim es find this
particularly challenging. It has been o u r experi­
ence that new ESL teachers often begin their
adult school assignm ent with the reasonable
expectation that students com e to school to learn:
soon thev notice, however, that students enjoy the
social aspect o f adnlt education as well. For m am
students, adnlt school is not only a place to learn,
bnt also a place to get together with friends, catch
up on the latest gossip, establish new relation­
ships, and even form an d n u rtu re rom ances.
Unfortunately, new teachers som etim es find the
social aspect of school m ore salient than the edu­
cational, and thev mistakenly assum e that stu­
dents are m ore highly m otivated by social than bv
educational goals. As a result, som e teachers do
not take their adult education teaching responsi­
bilities seriously, but rath er trv to provide an
en tertain in g social atm osphere in o rd er to m ain­
tain class num bers. Perhaps a word o f caution
based on years of experience m ight help in m ain­
taining class size: We h a te found that students
atten d night school as long as thev perceive that
thev are learning. Students expect teachers to be
professional, knowledgeable, and prepared. No
m atter how entertaining or charm ing the teacher
ntav be, and no m atter how m uch students mav
like a teacher, thev can always have m ore fun at
hom e. W hen the teacher is seen as incom petent
or u n p rep ared , and when perceived learning
ceases, so does attendance.
A dult school is also im p o rta n t in a n o th e r
sense. In his book on "Am erica's u n d e rp re ­
p ared, " Rose (1989) recounts how his adult ESL
students w anted to talk to th eir ch ild ren 's teach­
ers, “but felt funnv about seeing the teach er for
th eir English was so bad an d . . . well . . . who
were thev to presum e to talk to the teach er
about what she does?" (p. 130). T he teaching
supervisor p o in te d out to Rose and his col­
leagues that th eir ESL classes w ere b ringing p ar­
ents "com fortably into the schools, breaking
dow n som e of the in tim idating barriers th at tra ­
ditionally keep them away, distant from the
places w here th eir kids were learn in g how? to
read an d write" a n d that " th e re ’s m ore to look
for h e re than ju st an increase in vocabulary”
(p. 131). All too often we forget that m any o f o u r
students are parents, or will be parents in the n e a r
future. Perhaps school was inaccessible to them in
their native lands, but it will be a central and not
necessarily an altogether pleasant experience for
their children. It is vital for all con cern ed that
im m igrant parents be b ro u g h t “com fortably into
the schools” an d adult ESE classes can help
accom plish this im p o rtan t social goal.
Students in a particular com m unity adult
school will usually reflect the (changing) ethnicity
of the neighborhood. As im m igrant populations
tend to concentrate in particular areas and adult
schools draw from the surrounding community, it
is not unusual to see different groups reflected in
different schools. B elm ont C om m unity A dult
School is no exception. Its m ain cam pus student
body (90 percent Hispanic, 4 percent Am erican
Indian or Alaska native, 3 percen t Asian or Pacific
Islander, 3 percent Black, not of Hispanic origin)
is a m icrocosm of the surrounding neighborhood.
At the branch locations, these num bers go up or
down slightly, reflecting the im m ediate com m u­
nity. B elm ont has an active stu d en t bod}' of
approximately 8.300 at anv one given time, with
an enrollm ent of about 27,500 over the course o f
an academ ic year: about 70 percent o f its students
are enrolled in ESE classes.
AD U LT SC H O O LTE A C H E R S
Because B elm ont C om m unity A dult School is
so large, it offers 167 day a n d n ig h t classes in a
variety of locations, including the m ain cam pus,
th re e m ajor branches, retire m e n t hom es, rec re ­
ation centers, churches an d synagogues, conva­
lescent hospitals, com m unity centers, centers for
the h an d icap p ed , businesses, a n d missions an d
hom eless centers. T hese classes are staffed bv
109 teachers, 78 p e rc e n t o f w hom are p a rt
tim ers, w orking 10 hours o r less each week. In
fact, the m ajority o f adult teachers in the Los
Angeles U nified School District fall into the part-
tim e category. This m akes th em ineligible for
benefits th ro u g h th eir ad u lt school assignm ent.
T h e ty pical adult ESL tea c h e r is fem ale an d has
a b achelor's degree. H e r ad u lt school assign­
m en t is 6-12 hours p e r week. A lthough she
teaches ESL at night, she usually has day em ploy­
m en t outside o f the ad u lt ESL ed ucational field.
She participates in district-sponsored workshops
and in-service train in g a n d belongs to at least
one professional organization, th o u g h n o t nec­
essarily one related to ESL teaching. A ccording
to H u rst (1985), ESL teachers in general have
g o o d ra p p o rt with th e ir stu d en ts, a n d are
rem arkably a ttu n e d to w hat thev perceive to be
th eir stu d en ts' needs an d aspirations. Thev do
not, however, tvpicallv read professional jour­
nals or rec e n t publications on second language
acquisition, ESL pedagogy, or m ethodology or
have specialized train in g (such as a m aster’s
d eg ree o r a certificate in teaching ESL).
Iwataki (1981) warns that “those who teach
ESL to adults n e e d to be m ade o f sturdy stock.
They n e e d special qualities o f un d erstan d in g ,
cu ltu ral sensitivity, adaptability, stam ina and
resourcefulness to help them cope with the real­
ities of the ad u lt ESL classroom . F u rth erm o re,
they n e e d to possess full co m m an d an d knowl­
edge of the subject a re a — the English language"
(p. 24). Due to the c u rre n t cred en tialin g p ro ce­
dures in C alifornia, Iw ataki’s last p o in t (full
co m m an d an d know ledge o f the English lan­
guage) is p ro b ab ly th e typical a d u lt ESL
te a c h e r’s weakest area. T he state requires simple
a b a c c a la u re a te w ith 20 se m e ste r units in
E nglish fo r th e A dult D esig n ated Subjects
C red en tial in ESL. Individual districts are th en
allowed to set up th eir own specific standards for
ESL teaching. Virtually anv teach er with a K-12
credential, regardless o f area, is “credentiallv"
qualified to teach ESL. T he Los Angeles L'nified
School District requires onlv a m inim um o f 8
sem ester units in English an d 12 units in anv for­
eign language, linguistics, o r speech to obtain a
tem porary credential to teach ESL. No form al
tra in in g in teaching ESL is required, which mav
be why m ost adult ESL teachers do n o t have this
type o f p rep aratio n . This profile, of course, is
changing as m ore a n d m ore universities p ro ­
duce ESL teaching professionals who e n te r the
ranks o f ad u lt education.
H u rst’s com m ent regarding the unusual
sensitivity of ESL teachers should com e as no
surprise. A cco rd in g to Bley-Vroman (1988),
“ [sjince the early seventies, beginning with the
work o f G a rd n er and L am bert (1972), num erous
em pirical studies have shown significant correla­
tions betw een affective factors an d [language]
p ro ficien cy ” (p. 24). C o m m o n w isdom has
always b e e n th at affective factors are m ore
im p o rta n t in adult second language learning
th an in anv o th e r tvpe o f learning. However.
S chum ann (1997) in his stnclv o f the n e u ro b io l­
ogy o f affect5 in sustained d e e p learning, con­
clu d ed th at affect a n d cognition are inseparable
a n d th at positive affective assessm ent is essential
in o rd e r for learning to take place. Such an
assessm ent causes biochem icals to be released in
th e b rain th at facilitate cognition. Negative
assessm ent has ju st the opposite effect; it blocks
learning. In o th e r words, positive assessm ent of
the stim uli associated with anv sustained deep
le a rn in g (in c lu d in g le a rn in g a seco n d lan ­
guage) is vital. O n the o th e r h an d , the kinds of
factors that will be appraised as positive are
highly individual, th o u g h th ere mav be shared
tendencies am ong m em bers of the same cultural
group. Schum ann's suggestion, that m em bers of
a particular cultural group mav tend to appraise
a classroom in sim ilar wavs (which mav be dif­
ferent from the appraisal tendencies o f individu­
als from a n o th e r culture) seems to resonate with
ou r experience in the classroom. In general, we
have found that some students are m ore com ­
fortable with p e e r interaction an d a noise level
which m ight not be acceptable to o th er ESL
learners. We have also fo u n d that for some
learners it appears th at p e e r in teractio n is the
p re fe rre d m eth o d o f co n stru ctin g m eaning,
while for o thers the p refe rre d m eth o d is taking
m eaning directly from a p rin te d source. Some
students p refer verbal input. This variety in stim ­
ulus appraisal suggests to us that accom m odat­
ing as m anv indiv idual an d cultural preferences
as possible is a logical way to offer the greatest
n u m b e r o f students the best chance at a positive
affective appraisal of the stim uli. This accom m o­
dation could be realized th ro u g h the teach er
providing bim odal input, both w ritten an d spo­
ken. or allowing students som e latitude to nego­
tiate m ea n in g am o n g them selves, especially
w hen a cultural o r individual preference for
doing so is clear. Certainly learning strategies
and preferences (see O xford's c h ap ter in this
volum e) should be taken into account w henever
possible. However, w?e hasten to add that stimulus
appraisal is exceedingly com plex and that it is
impossible for any teacher to conduct a classroom
in such a wav that every student will appraise it
positively every time. Even twins have sufficiently
different life experiences to appraise stimuli dif­
ferently. Because cognition and affect are so inter­
twined, S chum ann has concluded that that we are
all on individual affective/cognitive trajectories as
second language learners. This could account for
the great variabilitv in second language learning
so well do cu m en ted in the literature. A logical
pedagogical conclusion of S c h u m a n n ’s work
resonates with what m am professionals in the
field have argued for decades: We n eed to t a n
our approach in ord er to m eet the needs of as
manv students as possible. In anv case, warmth,
compassion, empathy, and kindness seem to be
constant personal qualities in good ESL teachers,
along with a keen ability to observe and respond.
U N D ER E ST IM A TIN G
ESL S T U D E N T S
Because we often asstime that em otional and
intellectual satisfactions are incom patible (and
the em o tio n al satisfaction in teach in g adult
school is legendary am ong ESL professionals),
and p erhaps because our students frequentlv
have a lim ited form al education, we often tend
to u n d erestim ate the ESL students who populate
our adult school classrooms. It is widelv assum ed
that adult school students have little interest in
or ap titu d e for "m ore academ ic" approaches to
ESL, a n d should be tau g h t "the wav children
learn "— by speaking, with little em phasis at first
on read in g an d writing. Instruction in gram m ar
should be avoided in favor o f m ore practical
"survival E nglish"— learn in g how to ride a bus
or fill out a jo b application. To o u r know ledge
th ere is no evidence su p p o rtin g the assertion
either that adult school students do n o t have the
interest o r abilitv to m aster ESL th ro u g h a m ore
sophisticated ap p ro ach or that adults learn a
second language the wav th at c h ild ren do.
Moreover, students routinelv com plain ab o u t
teachers who do n o t have an easily identifiable
direction in th eir p rogram or syllabus. O u r expe­
rience has been that it is essential for adult stu­
dents to feel that thev are m aking progress; often
this progress translates into m oving from one
gram m atical concept to an o th e r that logicallv
seem s to follow. M oreover, m any students expect
form al gram m ar in struction to be a part of lan­
guage learning, regardless o f w h e th e r o r n o t
thet' have a particu lar ap titu d e for gram m ar
study, a n d thev suspect in co m p eten ce of any
tea c h e r who c an n o t provide at least m inim al
gram m atical explanations.
Most students who enroll in an adult school
already possess a vast storehouse of knowledge.
They frequently arrive in this countiv with an
extensive netw ork o f family and friends who have
come before them . The}’ are quickly tutored in
how to take a bus, use the laundrom at, m ake a call
from a pay phone, and but1 a m oney order.
A ccording to M clntire (1988), m ost adult school
students h a te jobs; moreover, they get those jobs
th rough friends, or through sheer luck, rather
than through reading newspaper ads or using other
m ore conventional job-seeking avenues. Most of
them are "surviting," and doing it quite well.
O ne colleague p o in te d o u t the irony o f
teaching "survival” English onlv (and the key
w ord h e re is onh). W hen she m ade a factual mis­
take in h e r lesson on taking the bus in Los
Angeles, several of h e r students prom ptly cor­
rected her. At that point she realized th a t she
had been teaching som ething about which she
h a d no practical, first-hand know ledge. She h ad
never b een on a bus in Los Angeles. O n the
o th e r h and, m ost of h e r students h ad n o t onlv
com e to school bv bus th a t night, they also knew,
from experience, how to use the bus to get to
work, to the park, to the house o f a friend, or to
a specialty shop in the San F e rn an d o Valley. T he
students accepted the superfluous lesson with
grace. As teachers we w ould all do well to accept
a lesson from them with equal grace: d o n ’t
und erestim ate adult school students. T he point
h ere is not that survival English has no place in
the ESL classroom , for o f course it does; it is p art
o f the adult ESL te a c h e r’s responsibility to Leach
skills that will help students "access the system .”
These kinds of skills are essential. T hat which
has no place in the ESI, classroom is th e p a te r­
nalistic assum ption th at students are capable of
n o th in g else. We have fo u n d th a t basic science,
m ath, a n d social science concepts m ake excel­
lent vehicles for gram m ar, conversation, p ro ­
nu n ciatio n . reading, an d writing lessons. We can
reaso n ab ly p re d ic t th a t m ost s tu d e n ts will
appraise “learn in g m o re ” m ore positively than
“learn in g less.” For som e excellent suggestions
on how to p u t c o n te n t back in the ESL class­
room , see Snow’s c h a p te r in this volum e a n d
Snow a n d B rinton (1997). Follow ing F reire
(1970a, 1970b), in spirit if not in letter, a n d
E yring’s a n d W einstein’s chapters in this volum e,
m any ESL professionals have fo u n d th a t th eir
students them selves an d th eir concerns provide
valid, relevant, and perhaps even essential con­
te n t for lessons. For exam ple, the tem porary
statew ide sta te -fu n d e d C om m u n ity Based
English T raining P rogram (СВЕТ) teaches p ar­
ents at B elm ont the skills an d c o n te n t necessary
to help th eir ch ild ren with hom ew ork. We think
this m ight be a w onderful base for a series of
ESL lessons if o u r students have school-aged
children. T he Secretary o f Labor's Com m ission
o n Achieving Necessary Skills (SCANS) 1991, a
re p o rt on skills and com petencies req u ired in
the w orkplace by all workers, from top m anage­
m e n t down, is also an excellent source of ele­
m ents a ro u n d which to organize lessons; it can
also serve as a vehicle for m anv parts of a class­
room lesson (see G rognet 1997 an d sources cited
th ere in ). SCANS objectives have becom e so p o p ­
ular th at m any ESL texts are notv in co rp o ratin g
the SCANS skills an d com petencies into their
scope a n d sequence. T he SCANS d o cu m en t is
probably a n o th e r one o f those essential refer­
ences for the adult ESL teacher in that its skills
a n d com petencies can (and perhaps should) be
in co rp o rated into virtuallv anv lesson.
As for the second assum ption m en tio n e d
above reg ard in g the n a tu re o f ad u lt second lan­
guage learning, th ere is no em pirical evidence
th at adults learn a second language the way chil­
d re n learn a first. In d eed , th ere is com pelling
anecdotal, logical, a n d em pirical evidence th at
this is n o t the case.1’ Virtually all research on
child first language learn in g tells us th a t overt
in struction an d e rro r co rrectio n is o f no value in
learn in g a first language, but is beneficial to
b o th adults an d children in learn in g a second
language (Long 1983), which is good news for
those o f us who have chosen teaching ESL as our
profession.
A D U L T S C H O O L PROGRAM S
V ER SU S T R A D IT IO N A L
PROGRAM S
Because o f the nature of adult learners outlined
earlier, adult schools have traditionallv been m ore
responsive to students' needs than o th er educa­
tional program s have been, and the courses thev
offer reflect the changing concerns and needs of
the com m unity (M clntire 1988). Adult classes
usually m eet at night, and often on Saturdays.
E x trao rd in ary m easures mav also be taken.
D uring the 1986-87 academ ic year, over 30,000
students were tu rn e d away from ESL classes in
the Los Angeles area because th ere were no
funds for teachers, classroom s, etc. However.
“ [i]n response to a request from the B oard of
E ducation to provide ESL instruction to persons
who could not be accom m odated in overcrowded
classrooms." the Los Angeles U nified School
District's adult education division pro d u ced an
80-lesson ESL series for television (Figueroa et al.
1988). In the 1988-89 academ ic vear, in o rd er to
m eet the req u irem en ts o f am nesty students, a
n u m b e r o f classes in the Los Angeles LTnified
School District were co n d u c te d literallv aro u n d
the clock at Ev ans C om m unity Adult School. The
last class of the clav m et from 9:00 p.m . to m idnight.
T he first class was from m idnight to 2:00 a .m ., and
so on th ro u g h o u t the dav and night. Both sce­
narios are u n u su al, b ut thev illustrate how
responsive adult schools can be to u rg en t and
u n a n tic ip a ted stu d en t needs.
A nother wav in which adult schools differ
from traditional schools in reflecting com m unity
needs is open enrollm ent, a pro ced u re that has
grown out of the reality o f the constant change
and flux characteristic o f im m igrant com m unities
in the Southwest. O p en enrollm ent or entry7
allows students to enroll in and then leave a class
at anv time d u ring the term , up to the last week of
class. This is necessary because there are always
new arrivals and sudden departures in any im m i­
grant community. Jo b schedules also change, m ak­
ing it necessary for students to switch from night
to dav classes, or vice versa. T he attrition rate is
high, vet it is interesting to note that students
surveyed by M clntire identified changing job
or family responsibilities rather than educational
dissatisfaction as the reason for their having left
school (M clntire, personal com m unication). As a
result of these and o th e r factors, the com position
of anv one ESI. class constantly changes. T he
challenge, o f course, is to m aintain class stan­
dards and retain students while accom m odatingо
a constant stream o f new students, som e of
whom have never b e e n in school before. In
response to op en enro llm en t, som e schools have
a m ultilevel "h o lding” class w hich accepts all
newcom ers, tests them , an d teaches basic skills
until an o p e n in g is available at the ap p ro p riate
level. Most F.SL teachers find constant newcom ers
part of the adult school challenge; regular and
consistent review, in greater d e p th than m ight be
expected in a class w ithout open enrollm ent, is
one solution. C ontrary to what one m ight expect,
such review is alwavs welcom ed bv the veteran stu­
dents and goes a long wav toward orienting new
ones. Some teachers also assign stu d e n t “hosts”
or “b u d d ies” to help the new com ers find their
way a ro u n d the school and to explain classroom
p ro c e d u re s, school rules, a n d schedules.
Surprisingly en o u g h , according to m am adult
ESL teachers, open e n ro llm en t is m ore o f a
problem in principle than in fact, and once
accepted bv the tea c h e r as a variable which he or
she has to factor into classroom operations, it is
of little consequence. This notw ithstanding. Kit
Bell, C o o rd in a to r o f th e A dult ESL a n d
C itizenship p ro g ra m s for th e Los A ngeles
U nified School District, has com m ented. "O pen
e n ro llm en t is notv being challenged in som e dis­
tricts th ro u g h o u t the state. It is not m an d ated bv
the state an d ex p erim ental 'm an ag ed enroll­
m e n t’ program s are ex p eriencing great success"
(personal com m unication, 7 /2 4 /0 0 ).
Multilevel Classes
Multilevel classes are also a challenge in ad u lt
ESL, especially at b ran ch locations. A branch is a
site which is responsible to an d adm inistered by
a central school, but which typically has only one
or two classes, th o u g h of course it can have m any
m ore. B ranches are often located in m akeshift
schoolroom s in churches, com m unity centers,
libraries, or som etim es even in hospitals o r busi­
nesses th ro u g h o u t th e com m unity, to m ake
classes accessible a n d convenient, particularly
for those who m ight live som e distance from the
m ain school o r wrh o m ight find it difficult or
even im possible to a tte n d classes at the m ain
school for anv n u m b e r o f reasons. T h ere are fre­
quently n o t e n o u g h students at a b ran c h loca­
tion to su p p o rt an en tire class at any one level.
T h erefo re, a tea c h e r may have a single class in
which th ere are very advanced students as well as
som e beginners who are u n ab le to write th eir
own nam es. In m an) ways, b ran ch locations are
m uch like the old one-room schoolhouse, which
was once typical of the rural U n ited States. T h e
task of teaching such a diverse g ro u p to speak
English m ight seem im possible, b u t the teachers
we have talked to, all e x p erien ced in teaching
m ultilevel classes, say' they w ould never give up
th eir assignm ents for m ore traditional ones.
Thev all agree th at tim ing a n d p lan n in g are the
m ost im p o rtan t factors in h a n d lin g a m ultilevel
class. T he first step is to divide students into
m ore or less hom o g en eo u s groups. Two o r th ree
groups are usual. T he second task is to structure
activities so that the teach er can sp en d equal
tim e with each group. For exam ple, if the class
can be divided into th ree g ro u p s— beginning,
in te rm e d ia te , a n d advanced — th e classroom
m an ag em en t plan m ight look so m ething like
the one in Figure 1 on the nex t page.
N otice th at the o p e n in g activity has the
whole class together. T he activity m ight include
learn in g vocabulary items, p ro n u n cia tio n prac­
tice, o r learn in g a p o p u lar song o r a folk song.
These are all activities in which students with a
wide range o f proficiencies can participate on a
m ore o r less equal footing. An o p e n in g activity
that is an old standby of ESL teachers is bringing
in a shoe box co n taining several item s from
a ro u n d the house. Som etim es the tea c h e r brings
item s from a p a rticu la r ro o m , such as th e
kitchen (e.g.. a knife, fork, can opener, spatula,
saucer, saucepan, an d w ooden sp o o n ). T he
tea c h e r carries the box a ro u n d the room and
various students are allowed to rem ove an item
w ithout looking, w hich m akes the activity fun
a n d holds the in terest o f the students. O nce all
 B e g in n e r s I n t e r m e d ia t e
9:00-9:15 Teacher-directed Teacher-directed
9:15-9:45 Teacher-directed Desk work
9:45-10:00 Break Break
10:00-10:15 Desk work Group work
10:15-10:45 Group work Teacher-directed
10:45-1 1:25 Teacher-directed Teacher-directed
Figure I. Classroom Management Plan for a Multilevel Class
of the item s are distributed, each stu d e n t hold­
ing an item is asked to stand an d tell the class
w hat he or she has. If the stu d e n t c an 't answer,
the tea c h e r elicits h elp from the entire class. If
n o one in th e class knot vs, the teach er provides
the lexical item . A fter the p ro p e r term has been
elicited, it is w ritten on the board, a n d the
teacher m odels the pro n u n ciatio n several times.
H e or she then allows students to repeat bv asking
for the nam e o f the item being held bv their class­
m ate. As the list of items progresses and becom es
longer, the teacher reviews them frequentlv and
random ly, asking the student holding the item to
stand up as the item is called. T he task becom es
m ore and m ore lively as the teacher calls off items
m ore quickly and students stand up and sit down,
often at the en couragem ent of their classmates.
For variety7, a student may volunteer to com e to
the front o f the room and p ro n o u n ce and iden­
tify each of the objects. It is suggested that items
be reviewed frequently, and after items from the
house are exhausted, including cleaning supplies,
teachers may substitute items from business, chil­
d re n ’s small toy animals, or anything else relevant
to the students.
After the opening acti\ity, students divide
into groups according to level. It is essential that
students know exactly what to do at this point.
They n e e d to know w here in the room to go and
exactly what activity to begin with. Early training
is the key to success at this p o in t because teachers
have found that tim e spent directing students to
their p ro p er groups d u ring the first few days of
class is tim e well invested an d results in sm ooth
transitions later. A schedule o f class activities for
A dvanced
Teacher-directed
Group work
Break
Teacher-directed
Desk work
Teacher-directed
each g roup should be posted in each group
area. A dhere stringentlv to the schedule for the
first few weeks, and it will becom e autom atic for
the students. It is not unusual for a tea c h e r to
take a kitchen tim er to class an d set it for each
activity. Som e have watches with alarm clocks,
an d som e brin g in bedside alarm clocks. O nce
the ro u tin e has b een established, students move
from one station to the next with surprising effi­
ciency an d veteran students can help new stu­
dents get used to the routine. A ccustom ing
students to transitioning betw een activities is
crucial if this m odel is to work, but it can be verv
challenging. D ep en d in g on th eir cultural sense
o f tim e, som e students mav find p u n c tu a tin g
th eir experiences in this wav to be bizarre and
deeplv arb itrary
Pedagogically the idea b e h in d such a
tim etable is that all students spend opening and
closing time with the teacher, and one-third or
one-half of the rem aining time (depending on the
n u m b er of groups) in teacher-clirected acthities.
Each teacher-directed lesson leads to individual
desk work, which can then move naturallv into
com m unicative group work. Advanced students
mav be able to work from written instructions, but
m ost students wall n e e d verbal instructions
supplied d u rin g the teacher-clirected lesson,
which can be reinforced by the posted schedule.
Som etim es advanced students can also help
beginning students, u n d e r teacher supervision.
Teachers agree that multilevel classrooms are
challenging b u t definitely m anageable, as long as
the students are properly grouped and sufficient
time is devoted to learning the class routine.
Testing
M anaging a m ultilevel class req u ires a valid a n d
reliable p lac e m e n t in stru m e n t (see C o h en 's
c h a p te r in this volum e). F requently textbooks
have placem en t exam s in the te a c h e r’s guide
th at reflect the scope an d sequence o f th e text.
It is also very likely th at the school will have some
sort o f placem en t in strum ent. In schools in
which m ultilevel g ro u p in g is n o t dictated bv
necessity, it is probably m ost efficacious to place
students with others o f like proficiency.
At B elm ont, for exam ple, all e n te rin g stu­
dents take a p lacem ent test. In the u p p e r levels,
thev are tracked according to th eir language
strengths a n d deficiencies. They are offered
classes in gram m ar, reading, listening, speaking,
w riting, a n d co m p u te r-b a se d in stru ctio n .
S tudents take two classes per night. Those who
are weak in gram m ar but strong in reading m ight
take two gram m ar classes, or a reading class at
one level and a gram m ar class at a lower level.
Over the course of several years, this system
changed the structure of the school's FSL pro ­
gram from a pyram id configuration, with the
majority of students at the lower levels, to a
colum nar configuration. In o th er words, the attri­
tion rate decreased as m ore an d m ore students
m oved on to the u p p e r levels and fewer students
d ro p p ed out. T he school also developed exit
tests for each level so that students with like pro ­
ficiency ten d ed to rem ain grouped. It is often felt
(erroneously, we think) that actual testing is so
stressful that it will cause students to ab andon
classes. T he B elm ont ex perience seem s to ind i­
cate otherw ise. O bservation suggests th a t stu­
dents expect a n d respect form al testing a n d are
challenged ra th e r th an overw helm ed by the
process. In fact, it is not unusual for a tten d an ce
to be particularly high on nights d u rin g which
testing is scheduled, or for som e students to
insist on rem ain in g in a level, regardless of test
results, until thev m eet th eir own criteria for
passing the course. T h e fact th at students a p p re ­
ciate h o n est a n d valid testing should com e as no
surprise a n d is very m uch in keeping with the
adult learn er profile o u tlined earlier. O f course, it
is certainly q u estionable, on the face of it,
w hether a paper-and-pencil test is a valid m easure
o f language at all. Surely a com m unicative test
(Wesche 1987) w ould be closer to the ideal.
U n fo rtu n ately , s h e e r n u m b e rs d isco u rag e a
direct, com m unicative test in m ost schools. (See
Stovnoff 1996 for a helpful review of th ree good
testing books.)
Currently, all California adult schools have
m oved over to com petencv-based program s,
which in theory should require com petency-
based exams. M clntire (1988, p. 15) defines
com petencv-based education as “[cju rricu lu m
based on pred eterm in ed com petencies identified
as necessary' for adults to function successfully.
Students m ust dem onstrate mastery' of these com ­
petencies successfully to com plete a class or a pro ­
g ram .” T he idea, th en , is that a stu d en t m ight be
req u ired to be able to enroll his o r h e r child in
school, write a letter o f excuse to the teacher,
rep o rt the child's h ealth an d im m unization his­
tory, a n d sim ilar details in o rd e r to pass a unit.
A ccording to M clntire, “An underlying p h ilo ­
sophical ten e t of com petency based ed u catio n is
the belief that a student m ust achieve skills rath e r
than 'earn credits.’ Thus adults mat' a tten d a class
for a short or for an extended p eriod of tim e in
o rd er to satisfactorily dem onstrate the attainm ent
of com petencies . . . Success is m easured in the
m asterv of specific com petencies rath e r than
through hours o f attendance, com m only referred
to as ‘seat tim e’” (p. 37).
T he state of California has specified the
proficiencies and outcom es for each level of ESL
(frequently called the model standards) in the
English-as-a-Second Language Model Standards for
Adult Education Programs (1992). This do cu m en t
(or the appropriate equivalent) is vital for teachers
who are teaching in a school with m andated
m odel standards. Programs, assessment, place­
m ent. funding, and accreditation in such a system
will all most likelv be tied to the relevant docu­
m ent and to dem onstrable com pliance with it. At
first blush it mav seem that this takes away from
the autonom y and creativity o f the individual
teacher; based on our experience, however, we
argue that teachers can still be autonom ous and
creative, an d that m odel standards simply help
to focus w here the teacher’s autonom y and creativ­
ity can be exercised. T he m odel standards assure
continuity for the students as yvell as provide
continuity ancl d irection for new teachers. For
e x p e rie n c e d teach ers, th e m o d el sta n d a rd s
m ake “levels of proficiency" com petencies and
outcom es sufficiently explicit that teachers can
m ore accurately select from or e x p an d th eir
rep e rto ire o f pedagogical m aterials and strate­
gies. At the same tim e, the language in the doc­
u m e n t is sufficiently generic to allow teachers to
exercise as m uch o r as little in d e p e n d e n c e and
creativity as they are com fortable with, while
assuring d irection an d benchm arks of progress
for the student. In C alifornia, the m odel stan­
dards are based on the in p u t o f literally th o u ­
sands o f practicing teachers and adm inistrators.
As a result, the outcom es and com petencies are
realistic a n d g ro u n d e d in practice. Thus far. they
have b een well received and ap p ear to benefit
both students and teachers.
The Value o f Adult Education
T he w orkplace is vitally im portant for o u r stu­
dents, an d often the adult EST class has to take
a back seat to our students' w orking overtim e or
train in g for a new jo b . As Iwataki (1981) points
out, ad u lt ESL students have as their fram e of
reference “n ot the school but their families,
jobs, th eir outside responsibilities" (p. 24). Adult
ESL teachers n e e d to be aware o f the im p o r­
tance o f family an d econom ic factors in the lives
o f th eir students. For m any adult students, eco­
nom ic upw ard m obility will be achieved, if not
bv them , bv fu tu re generations. If thee learn
e n o u g h English to survive, th eir children a n d
g ran d c h ild re n will m ost likely be able to take
advantage of the upw ard m obility that education
can bring. Even th o u g h not all of o u r students
will becom e rich as a result of th eir adult ESL
classes, th ere are by-products o f education which
m ost o f o u r students routinely do experience
that n e e d to be considered. In addition to brin g ­
ing students “com fortably into the classroom ,"
adult schools, in m am cases, are the first positive
co ntact im m igrants have with A m erican social
institutions. Increased self-esteem, cultural aware­
ness, tolerance, and a positive affective stance
toward Am erican schools and teachers are im por­
tant e p ip h en o m en a of adult ESL classes, and
th eir significance can n o t be overstated. Both the
im m igrant com m unity a n d the com m unity at
large benefit greatly from such effects, even if
the students do not im m ediately achieve great
wealth an d native-like m astery o f English.
Future Trends
W ithout question, state-m andated standards and
accountability (evidence th rough student per­
form ance that com petencies and outcom es have
been dem onstrated) seem to be the direction in
which adult education as a field is headed. Many
states require them , and it seems likelv that o ther
states will follow. T here are also o th er factors in
the field of second language acquisition that we
think will hav e an im pact on adult education.
R ecent so ciocultural sociohis tori c a l/la n ­
guage socialization studies have dem o n strated
that the d em ands and consequences of o u r pro ­
fession are considerable m ore com plex th an we
m ight previously have tho u g h t. A n u m b e r of
research ers' have argued quite com pellinglv for
a shift in second language research. They have
fo u n d ev idence that learning ancl teaching a sec­
o n d language is considerably m ore com plex, lay­
ered. and p ro fo u n d than we had ever im agined,
ancl that o u r c u rre n t pedagogy does not begin to
reflect or take into account "the com plex social
and cultural worlds into which a second lan­
guage lea rn er m ust enter" (Rvmes 1997. p. 143).
Onlv a sea change in ou r research paradigm will
illum inate these worlds and ultim ately lead to
m ore effective classrooms. Virtually all o f the
researchers w orking from this perspective
place language learning within the
m o re c o m p re h en siv e d o m ain of
socialization, th e lifelong process
through which individuals are initiated
into cultural m eaning ancl learn to per­
form the skills, tasks, roles and identi­
ties ex p ected bv w hatever society
or societies thev may live in . . . T he
lan g u ag e socialization perspective
im plies th a t lan g u ag e is le a rn e d
th ro u g h social in te ra c tio n . It also
im plies that language is a prim ary
 vehicle of socialization: W hen we learn
a second language, we are learning
m ore than a structure for com m unica­
tion; we are also learning (for example)
social and cultural norm s, procedures
for interpretation, and forms o f reason­
ing (Watson-Gegeo 1988, p. 582).
Prelim inary findings from this tvpe o f research
suggest that using o n e ’s first language can be an
act of resistance, as opposed to an unwillingness
to cooperate with the teacher o r to practice
English, an d that what appears to be an o p p o rtu ­
nity for language practice can actually discourage
second language use (Rymes 1996). Rymes and
Pash (2000) fo u n d th at students can be so
involved in “looking like they’re lea rn in g ” th at it
can in te rfe re with learning. In a n o th e r stttdv of
high school students in Los Angeles, Rvmes
(1996) found that collaboration am ong students
is vital for second language learning, though such
collaboration mav be beset bv difficulty- in “inte­
grating students’ own perspectives an d experi­
ences with what collaboration is and how it works"
(p. 409). Hall (1995) found that learn in g a lan­
guage is inseparable from issues of (shifting)
pow er an d that specific social forces ra th e r than
“language proficiency'” constrain the tvpe and
am o u n t o f linguistic participation afforded a sec­
o n d language learner. In fact, the social aspects
o f learn in g a second language mav be m ore
basic th an the intellectual ones. Finally, learning
a se co n d lan g u a g e ch an g es o n e ’s identity
(Trosset 1986). Add to this S chum ann's sugges­
tion (1997) th at cognition an d affect are in prac­
tice inseparable an d th at everyone is on an
individual affective/cognitive trajectory in lan­
guage learning. Clearly these are n o t trivial m at­
ters and very likelv this research d irection yvill
affect the form a n d c o n te n t o f the adult class­
room in the twentv-first centurv.
C O N C L U S IO N
A dult ESL teachers are routinely effusive when
describing their adult ESL experience, as are the
students. Teachers yvho come to work “exhausted”
speak about renew ed energy and of taking several
hottrs to “wind down" after teaching an adult
ESL class because the ex p erien ce is so exciting
a n d intense. T h e b o n d betw een ESL stu d e n t and
tea c h e r is n o th in g sh o rt o f rem arkable, a n d the
satisfaction teachers ex p erien ce is truly p ro ­
found. It has b e e n said th a t in the U n ited States,
the last bastion o f g en u in e respect fo r teachers
and, in d eed , for ed u catio n in general is the
adult ESL classroom . Perhaps Dale M clntire8
said it best: A dult ESL is yvhat you th o u g h t e d u ­
cation yvas going to be yvhen you first decid ed to
becom e a teacher.
D IS C U S S IO N Q U E S T IO N S
1. W hat are som e characteristics o f ad u lt lea rn ­
ers which set th em a p a rt from younger lan­
guage learners o r from university students?
In yvhat wav(s) do you th ink those differ­
ences should or do affect your a p p ro ach to
adult school students?
2. Investigate the adult education program in
the area in which you in ten d to teach. How is
it different from and how is it similar to the
program described in this chapter? You m ight
want to consider the m ajor points covered,
such as the history o f the program , its fu n d ­
ing. the target population, classes available,
placem ent, etc.
3. T he state o f C alifornia currently m andates
that schools that receive public funds p ro ­
vide quantitative and qualitatiy-e evidence
that students are m aking progress. This m an ­
date is tied to fu n d in g (am ong o th e r th in g s ),
so it is taken very seriously. 1 lowever. we
occasionally find learners yvho simply fail to
m ake progress or who insist on rep eatin g a
class with a single teach er over an d over
again. W hat kind of tension m ig h t this situa­
tion create? How m ight th a t tension be
resolved o r at least lived with?
S U G G E S T E D A C T IV IT IE S
1. If von hav e access to the internet, go to the
yvebsite fo r the N ational C learin g h o u se
for ESL Literacy E d u catio n (h ttp ://
www.cal.org.ncle) a n d look at the ten areas in
 w hich th e re are concise overviews of
research a n d best practices. Select th ree th at
you find particularly helpful an d share them
with your group.
2. Find o u t if the state, province, o r country in
which you plan to teach has m an d ated stan­
dards. If so, get a copy of the do cu m en t and
read it carefully. (You m ight begin online with
th e S tate /P ro v in c ia l/N atio n a l D ep artm en t
o f Education.) Based on the docum ent, plan
a lesson to teach the following to adult ESL
students:
a. use o f p rese n t tense
b. p ro n u n cia tio n o f final /d/ in English
c. w riting an absence excuse to a ch ild ’s
teach er
d. w riting a note of explanation to a su p er­
visor o r cow orker
3. Part o f a gram m ar lesson m ight include ask­
ing students to practice using a structure in a
com m unicative context. This would occur
after the presentation a n d the focused prac­
tice phases o f the lesson. Im agine that you are
teaching the p resent perfect to an interm e­
diate adult ESL class and are now readv to
begin the com m unicative phase o f the lesson.
If you have access to the In te rn et, search
u n d e r SCANS Report o r go to one o f the fol­
lowing w'ebsites:
h ttp ://w w w .coe.tany.edu/~epsy/cded/
jennyl.htm
or
h ttp ://www.academ icinnovations.com /
report.html.
W ork o u t several com m unicative exercises
th a t w ould in co rp o rate SCANS into your
gram m ar lesson.
4. Plan in detail a two-and-a-half h o u r lesson
for a m ultilevel ESL class. D ecide the profi­
ciency o f each level. W hat will your o p e n in g
exercise (s) be? Why will this exercise be a
good one for students at d ifferent levels?
How will you tim e the rest o f the lesson? How
wall you move students from one activity to
another? How7 wrill vou assure that when the
teacher is with one group, he o r she will n o t
be n e e d ed by another?
FU R T H ER R EA D IN G
For understanding and teaching English grammar
Celce-Murcia, M., and D. Larsen-Freeman. 1999. The
Grammar Book: An F.SL/EFI. Teacher’s Course,
2d ed. Boston. MA: Heinle & Heinle Publishers.
Celce-Murcia, M., and S. Hilles. (1988). Techniques
and Resources in Teaching Grammar. New York:
Oxford Universitv Press.
For understanding adult education and relevant
pedagogy
Ilvin, D., and T. Tragardh, eds. 1978. Classroom
Practices in Adult FSL. Washington, DC: TESOL.
Rose, M. 1989. Lives on the Boundary. New York: Free
Press.
Other useful resources
Brown, H. Douglas. 1994. Teaching by Principles:
An Interactive Approach to Language Pedagogy.
Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.
U.S. Department of Labor. 1991. The Secretary's Com­
mission on Achieving Necessary Skills. Washington,
DC: Department of Labor.
Your state, provincial, or national standards document.
ЧЩ Г W E B S IT E S
NCLE ERIC Digests and Q&A.
http://www.cal.org/ncle/DIGESTS/
Both the U.S. National Literacy Act of 1991 and the
U.S. Adult Education Act of 1991, along with
related policv resources, are available on-line at:
www.nifl.gov/lincs/ collections/policy/
resource.html
EN DN O TES
1 We are indebted to Dale Mclntire, Marianne Celce-
Murcia, and to the late Sadae Iwataki for their very
helpful comments, suggestions, and discussions
regarding earlier versions of this chapter. We would
also like to thank Marianne Celce-Murcia and Kit
 Bell for their invaluable input. The responsibility
for any errors, omissions, or problems in interpre­
tation is ours, of course.
2 For the complete text of Lincoln’s eloquent 1838
address to the Young Men’s Lyceum of Springfield,
see Current 1967, pp. 11-21.
3 All the statistical data regarding Belmont
Community Adult School are taken from the 1995
Application for Accreditation and current school
demographics. Although many of our illustrations
will be drawn from this one particular adult
school, our observations will be informed by pro­
grams in other schools, as well as conversations
and consultations with colleagues, teachers,
administrators, and students throughout the
United States and in other countries.
4 Work by Bley-Vroman 1988; Celce-Murcia and
Hilles 1988; Higgs and Clifford 1982; Mclndre
1988; Selinker 1972 and sources cited therein
discuss this issue.
0 Affect is a term from psychology, which the American
Heritage Dictionary, Second College Edition (1991)
defines as “a feeling or emotion as distinguished
from cognition, thought, or action” (p. 84).
6 Studies by Bley-Vroman 1988; Hilles 1991; Johnson
and Newport 1989; Krashen, Scarcella, and Long
1982; Long 1990; Richards 1985; Schumann 1997
(among others) address this issue. For a different
perspective, see Bialystok and Hakuta 1994.
' For example, see Hall 1995; Markee 1994; Rymes
1997; Trosset 1986; and Watson-Gegeo 1988.
8 Dale McIntyre, personal communication.
UNIT V

Skills fo r Teachers
W e end with a section on the needs of ESL/EFL teachers. W hat do
teachers need to know to perform their jobs effectively and
professionally? W hat are the skills and competencies all too frequently
left undiscussed? Jensen's chapter shows how lesson plans can be
structured and prepared in the context of an entire course. Byrd's
chapter then discusses textbooks: how to evaluate them for initial
selection and how to analyze them to ensure effective implementation.
Medgyes raises issues important for those ESLVEFL teachers who are
non-native speakers of English. Since these teachers now constitute the
majority of English language teachers worldwide, all ESUEFL teachers—
native and non-native— should be informed of and sensitive to the
issues. Hinkel’s chapter treats culture, a related matter; since all ESL7EFL
learners have a non-English-speaking cultural background, their teachers
must be aware of the cultural differences between their learners and
native speakers of English. Hinkel gives suggestions on how to foster
cross-cultural communication. Next, Brinton shows teachers the genuine
usefulness of instructional media along with demonstrating how both
technical and non-technical resources can be used in lessons to enhance
teaching. Sokolik then gives an introduction to the use of computers, the
most technical of media, in language teaching, stressing that sound
V : Skills for Teachers

pedagogy will be the most important factor in deciding the usefulness

and success of this technology. Bailey defines and distinguishes action
research, teacher research, and classroom research, showing their
potential usefulness to language teachers. Then Murphy’s chapter on
reflective teaching, presents several options teachers can explore for
their long-term professional growth. Cohen’s language assessment
chapter covers many issues (test types, test items, test administration,
reliability, validity); every language teacher should have a general
understanding of this area for every teacher is involved in assessment.
Finally, Crandall reminds ESITEFL teachers of all the resources they can
exploit to keep up to date,The field is growing rapidly, and a major part
UNIT

of any teacher's responsibility is to keep abreast of new developments.

 Planning Lessons
LINDA JENSEN

Jensen’s "Lesson Planning" chapter serves as a guide for novice teachers who need to create
formalized lesson plans.The chapter covers why, when, and how teachers plan lessons, as well as basic
lesson plan principles and a lesson plan template. A sample lesson plan is provided in the context of
a weekly overview, module overview, and course overview.

IN T R O D U C T IO N : D E F IN IT IO N o u r students. As previously m en tio n ed , a lesson

O F A LESSO N PLA N
All good teachers have som e type of plan when
they walk into their classrooms. It can be as simple
as a m ental checklist o r as com plex as a detailed
two-page typed lesson plan that follows a pre­
scribed form at. Usually, lesson plans are w ritten
ju st for the te a c h e r’s own eyes a n d ten d to be
ra th e r inform al. But th ere may be tim es when
the plan has to be w ritten as a class assignm ent
o r given to an observer or supervisor, an d th e re ­
fore will be a m ore form al a n d detailed docu­
m ent. This c h a p te r will serve as a guide for
creating these m o re form alized lesson plans.
A lesson plan is an extrem ely useful tool
th a t serves as a co m b in atio n guide, resource,
and historical d o c u m e n t reflecting o u r teaching
philosophy, stu d e n t p o p u latio n , textbooks, and
m ost im portantly, o u r goals for o u r students. It
can be described with m any m etap h o rs such as
road m ap, b lu ep rin t, or gam e plan (see U r
1996); b u t regardless o f the analog)', a lesson
plan is essential fo r novice teachers a n d conven­
ient for ex p erien ced teachers.
plan is also a reco rd o f w hat we did in class; this
record serves as a valuable resource when plan­
n in g assessm ent m easures such as quizzes,
m idterm s, and final exams. A record of previously
taught lessons is also useful when we teach the
same course again, so that we have an account of
what we did the term or year before to avoid rein­
venting the wheel. W hen we have to miss class, a
lesson plan is a necessity for the substitute
teacher, who is expected to step in a n d teach
w hat had been p lan n e d for the day. In addition,
just as teachers expect th eir students to com e to
class p re p a re d to learn, students com e to class
expecting th eir teachers to be p re p a re d to teach.
A lesson plan is p art o f th at p reparation.
Yet in spite of the im p o rtan ce o f p lanning,
a lesson plan is m utable, n o t w ritten in stone; it
is n o t m ean t to keep a teach er from ch anging
the duration o f an activity or forgoing an activity
altogether if the situation warrants. A good lesson
plan guides b u t does n o t dictate w hat a n d how
we teach. It benefits m any stakeholders; teachers,
adm inistrators, observers, substitutes, a n d o f
course, students.

Why We Plan When and How We Plan

D eciding w hat to teach, in w hat order, an d for
how m uch tim e are the basic co m p o n en ts of
planning. T he lesson plan serves as a m ap or
checklist th at guides us in know ing w hat we w ant
to do next; these sequences o f activities rem in d
us of th e goals a n d objectives of o u r lessons for
To be perfectly honest, a certain a m o u n t o f les­
son p lan n in g takes place the n ig h t before a class
is taught. This p lanning, taking place ju s t hours
before e n te rin g the classroom , sh o u ld be the
fine or m icro tu n in g o f the lesson, n o t the big
pictu re or m acro p lan n in g th a t is based o n a
program m atic philosophy or syllabus design. A
good lesson plan is the result of b o th m acro
p lan n in g an d m icro planning. O n the m acro
level, a lesson plan is a reflection of a philosophy
o f lea rn in g an d teaching which is reflected in
the m ethodology, the syllabus, the texts, a n d the
o th e r course m aterials and finally results in a
specific lesson. In brief, an actual lesson plan is
th e e n d p o in t of m any o th e r stages of p lan n in g
th a t culm inate in a daily lesson.
Before a teach er steps into the second lan­
guage classroom , he or she should have devel­
o p e d his or h e r own u n d e rsta n d in g of second
language lea rn in g a n d teaching. This back­
g ro u n d in clu d es know ledge o f th eo ries of
second language acquisition and lea rn er charac­
teristics (see O xford's ch ap ter in this text) as well
as fam iliarity with both historical and cu rren t
trends in second language pedagogy (see chap­
ters by Celce-M urcia a n d Savignon in this text).
This background know ledge will create a p er­
sonal philosophy th at is realized w henever the
teach er is p rep arin g lessons, teaching classes, or
grading assignm ents or tests. A good teacher
c a n n o t help b u t b ring his or h e r own sense of
good learning a n d teaching into the classroom.
Ideally, this philosophy will be consistent with the
teaching m ethodology em ployed bv the institu­
tion since the m ethodology will then help im ple­
m e n t the syllabus an d influence the choice of
textbooks for m ost program s.
O nce the syllabus an d texts have been
decided, p lan n in g for the year or term takes
place. For m am teachers, especially newly h ired
ones, these decisions have already been m ade
a n d the m acro p lan n in g has been taken care o f
by colleagues o r supervisors. In som e cases, how­
ever, the new tea c h e r mav be responsible for the
m acro p lan n in g as well as the m icro planning.
C onsulting o r p lan n in g with fellow teachers
ab o u t syllabus design a n d textbook selection can
be very helpful in this type o f situation (see
chapters bv N u n a n a n d Bvrd in this text). In
rare cases, n o th in g mav be in place so it may be
entirely up to the in stru cto r to design the course
syllabus, choose the teach in g m aterials, and
plan the daily lessons. G enerally the opposite is
tru e for the novice teacher, however, who will
have verv little input at first in term s o f m acro
a n d even m icro planning. (See A ppendices B.
C, and D for exam ples o f m acro planning:
a course overview, a m odule overview, an d a
weekly overview.)
What a Lesson Plan Looks Like
A lthough th ere are a variety of form ats to use
w hen creating a lesson plan, m ost tem plates
share certain characteristics. W hen creating a
lesson, a teach er m ust consider the background
o f the students, the objectives o f the lesson, the
skills to be taught, the activities, the m aterials
an d texts, the tim e constraints, and the connec­
tions to previous an d fu tu re lessons. Like most
activities, a lesson plan has stages: a beginning, a
m iddle, an d an end. As m en tio n e d previously,
the am o u n t o f detail actually w ritten down will
varv with individual preferences a n d experi­
ence. Som e instructors like to keep n o te b o o k '
of lessons plans for each class; others may use
note cards or loose sheets of p a p e r th at can be
shuffled a ro u n d . Manv instructors now use com ­
puters to write up lesson plans; the advantage'
of this are th at the lessons are neatly typed, easv
to save, an d can readilv be copied an d m odified
as n eed ed . K eeping at least one p a p e r copy filed
awav in case o f a technological breakdow n is also
a good idea.
Most plans begin with a b rief description ot
the class and students; for exam ple, the nam e ot
the course and the level, and the background
o f the students are useful to note. It is also im por­
tant to add the date as well as the week and day ot
the course. Given the trend of adhering to com ­
petency requirem ents and published standards, a
lesson plan mav also need to include the com pe­
tencies an d standards that the lesson addresses.
Som e teachers list the gram m atical stru c tu re '
a n d kev vocabulary term s th at will be introducer,
as well.
Teachers also find it wise to note w hat h a'
been cov e re d d u rin g the previous class o r what
students already n e e d to know for the particular
lesson, especially if it will begin with a review o:
prev ious m aterial. T he day’s goals an d objective'
should be in clu d ed as should a list of texts.
m aterials, and eq u ip m en t such as audiovisual
aids. Som e instructors find it helpful to list the
day’s m aterials a n d audiovisual aids in a box at
the top o f the page to s e n e as a re m in d e r of
what they n e e d to b rin g to class. If m ore elabo­
rate m aterial p rep a ra tio n is necessarv before
class, teachers may also list the steps necessarv to
p rep a re these m aterials. N oting any hom ew ork
or assignm ents to be re tu rn e d or collected that
dav is also useful inform ation to have at the
b eg in n in g o f the lesson plan.
The m iddle com ponent o f a lesson plan is
the lesson's content; this includes procedures or
activities along with transition notes, as well as
time m anagem ent and class m anagem ent notes
such as the students' scaling arrangem ents for dif­
ferent activities. Novice teachers should also trv to
anticipate what mav go wrong or prove to be prob­
lematic so that contingency’ plans are prepared in
advance and written into the lesson plan.
Lessons usuallv begin with warm-up and or
review activities. Teachers n eed to decide how
they will co n n ect the dav's lesson to the prec ious
class m eetin g and how thev want to interest and
m otivate th eir students for the dav's activities.
O nce tvarm ed up. the class is then reach for the
p resen tatio n an d practice stages of the lesson.
These stages hat e been referred to with a varietv
of labels such as into, through, beyond (B rinton.
Goodw in, a n d Ranks 1994); engage, study, activate
(H arm er 1998); lead-in. elicitation, explanation,
accurate reproduction, an d immediate creativity
(H arm er 1991); and verbalization, automatization.
and autonomy (Ur 1996). All o f these labels
describe stages in which first, the language form
or c o n te n t is in tro d u ced and presented; second,
com p reh en sio n is checked before a form of
guided practice is im plem ented; and third, some
type o f less structured, com m unicative activity
takes place so that students can practice what
thev have ju st learned in a less controlled, m ore
natural situation. T he com m unicative stage also
provides an opportunitv for students to integrate
the new knowledge p resen ted in the lesson with
previous knowledge. Finallv. teachers and stu­
dents should evaluate how well the new m aterial
has been learn ed in o rd er to d eterm in e the
shape of future lessons.
Som e teachers find it useful to write b rie f
com m ents on a lesson plan th at help with the
transition from one activity to another, so that
the lesson flows well an d the various activities
have a sense o f co n n ectio n . For exam ple, w hen
transitioning from a listening activitv to a rea d ­
ing activity a teach er can discuss how certain
listening strategies can be a d ap ted as reading
strategies. C reating sm ooth transitions and links
can be challenging for novice teachers, so plan­
ning these moves a n d n o tin g them in a lesson
plan is worthwhile a n d valuable for b oth instruc­
tors and students.
Tim e m an ag em en t can also be challenging
for b eg in n in g teachers a n d even e x p erien ced
teachers c an n o t alwavs accurately pred ict how
long a certain activitv will take o r w hen a discus­
sion will becom e so engaging that it sh o u ld be
allow ed to c o n tin u e lo n g e r th a n p la n n e d .
N onetheless, it is im p o rtan t to n o te the n u m b e r
o f m inutes allotted for each activitv in the m ar­
gin o f the lesson plan; this also m eans th at the
teach er should wear a watch or be able to see a
clock in the classroom in o rd e r to be aware of
the tim e. More often than not, an activitv is
u n d erestim ated in term s o f length, so teachers
should decide ahead o f tim e what part o f a les­
son could be skipped or sh o rte n e d or saved for
the next class. This does not m ean that teachers
should not overplan. T h e re are tim es when an
activitv will take less tim e th an an ticipated or
suddenly seem s too easv or difficult, so the
teach er will decide to sacrifice it; good teachers
e rr on the side o f o verplanning a n d /o r have
som e useful five to ten m inute supplem entary’
activ ities av ailable in th eir rep e rto ire of teaching
tricks. It can be a verv frightening experience for
the novice teacher to look up at the clock and
see that she has ten m inutes left until the en d o f
class and no idea o f what to do. Initiallv, it is use­
ful for inexperienced teachers to plan th eir les­
sons so that each m inute of class is accounted for
before thev step into the classroom.
Seating arran g em en ts for various activities
should also be n o ted in the lesson plan. Pre­
p lan n in g pair and g roup work seating arran g e­
m ents is m ore efficient than standing in fro n t o f
the ( lass and m oving students a ro u n d random lv.
T h e re are tim es w hen ran d o m pairs o r small
groups mav m ake sense b u t th ere are m any
o th e r tim es w hen a rationale is n e e d e d in decid­
ing who works with w hom . O ften we w ant
groups to contain a m ixture o f talkative and
q u iet students; we probable want to mix lan­
guage groups o r separate best friends who talk
only to each other. P la n n in g these seating
arran g em en ts b e fo re h a n d helps the class ru n
sm oothly and sat es tim e. Most teachers also find
it useful to give instructions for g roup or pair
work to the class as a whole before breaking the
class up; once students start m oving a ro u n d ,
they may becom e so active that getting their
a tte n tio n can take up valuable class time.
Teachers also n eed to anticipate w here a
lesson may break down. Especiallv w hen trving
o u t a new activitv o r teaching a gram m ar point
fo r the first tim e, not ice teachers n e e d to think
ab o u t w hat mav go wrong. W hat part of the les­
son may be difficult for the students? W hat kinds
o f questions can the instructor expect? Will there
be problem s with student-student interactions?
This type o f fo re th o u g h t is especiallv im portant
for lessons th at relv on technology or eq uipm ent
th a t may fail o r not be available as planned.
A nticipating problem s and thinking o f solutions
b e fo re h a n d m akes both novice and experienced
teachers feel m ore com fortable an d confident
w hen thev walk into the classroom.
T he final section o f a lesson plan should
in clu d e com m ents that e n d the lesson such as a
review o r sum m ary o f the lesson and th at indi­
cate hom ew ork or o th e r assignm ents. A lthough
hom ew ork mav be n o ted at the e n d o f a lesson
plan, it is probable not a good idea to wait until
the e n d of class to assign it to the students. Find
a place on the b o ard w here hom ew ork can be
consistently p o sted so students always know
w here to check for it. Post it th ere at the begin­
n in g o f class or d u rin g the break so th at every­
one has a chance to write it down before those
final hectic m inutes of class w hen students are
packing up th eir belongings a n d ru n n in g o u t
the door.
Some teachers like to leave a space on their
lesson plans to com m ent on what needs to be
covered d u rin g the next class session based on
w hat w ent on d u rin g the dav's lesson. Perhaps an
activity h ad to be placed on hold or a teaching
point needs to be co te red again. Som e teachers
also like to note students' unansw ered questions
in o rd e r to research th eir responses before the
n ex t class m eeting.
It is also a good idea to include space for
lesson evaluation bv the teach er af ter the class is
over. T he evaluation co m p o n e n t o f lesson plan­
n ing provides an o p p o rtu n ity for h o n est reflec­
tion ab o u t what activities w orked o r did n o t
work an d whv, as well as how the lesson could be
im proved or m odified the next tim e aro u n d .
Teachers also find it useful to add com m ents
co n cern in g stu d en t reactions to the lesson. It is
these evaluative com m ents that can m ake a les­
son plan a trulv useful resource for fu tu re
course and lesson planning. (See A ppendices A
an d E for a lesson plan tem plate and a sam ple
lesson plan.)
Basic Principles of Lesson Planning
As with anv skill, lesson plan n in g becom es easier
over time. As teachers gain experience in the
classroom, thev learn certain principles about
planning. W hen seasoned teachers are asked to
list som e basic principles o f lesson p lan n in g that
novice teachers should be aware of, the ones
that are frequently m en tio n e d are actually basic
principles of good teaching: co h eren ce, variety,
and flexibility. These principles have proven use­
ful for all teachers, not just the second foreign
language teacher.
1. A good lesson has a sense of c o h eren ce and
flow. This m eans th at the lesson hangs
to g eth e r and is not ju st a sequence o f dis­
crete activities. O n a m acro level, links or
threads should c o n n e ct the various lessons
over the davs a n d weeks o f a course. O n a
m icro level, students n e e d to u n d erstan d
the rationale for each activitv; also, thev
learn best w hen th ere are transitions from
one activity to the next.
2. A good lesson exhibits variety. This variety
needs to be p rese n t at both the m acro
and m icro levels. W hile for m ost students, a
 certain degree o f predictability in term s of C O N C L U S IO N
the teacher, the texts, classmates, and cer­
tain adm inistrative procedures is com fort­ Knowing how to go ab o u t p lan n in g a s e c o n d /
ing; however, to avoid boredom and fatigue, foreign language lesson is the result o f m any
lesson plans should n o t follow the same pat­ o th e r stages of p rep aratio n . T he teach er m ust
tern day after dav. O n a m acro level, there be fam iliar with the principles o f second lan­
should be variety in term s of topics (con­ guage learn in g a n d teaching, as well as the
tent), language, and skills over the length of needs of the institution an d the stu d e n t p o p u la­
the course. O n a m icro level, each dailv les­ tion. H e o r she m ust first see th e big pictu re of
son should have a certain am o u n t of variety the course a n d be aware o f the goals a n d objec­
in term s of the pace of the class, such as time tives for th e en tire term before p lan n in g weekly
spent on various activities, d ep en d in g on a n d daily lessons. If the big pictu re is kept in
the difficulty or ease of the m aterial being m ind, the individual lessons will c o n n ect to
covered. T he percentages of teacher-fronted form a learn in g ex perience th a t benefits b o th
time and student-centered activities should the tea c h e r an d the students.
van from lesson to lesson; there are davs
w hen we want our students to participate
and be active, but there are o th er davs when
we want them a bit calm er in o rd er to be
receptive to new m aterial or practice a lis­ D IS C U S S IO N Q U E S T IO N S
tening or reading strategy. Some teacher- 1. How will vour knowledge o f second language
trainers have referred to this as the abilitv to acquisition theories inform vour decisions
“stir” or “settle" our students dep en d in g on in lesson planning? Give som e co n crete
the need. Each lesson should also have some
examples.
variety in term s of classroom organization 2. List what vou consider to be the characteristics
such as whole-class, small-group, pair, and of good students and good teachers. How will
individual activities. T he m ood of different
this affect vour lesson planning?
lessons will van' as well; m ood shifts can
3. How m uch detail do you feel is necessary in
reflect the teacher's disposition on a certain
w riting your own lessons plans? W ould this
dav, the chem istrv o f the mix of students,
change if a supervisor w anted copies of your
the weather, c u rre n t events, or som ething
lesson plans?
unexplainable.
4. As a novice teacher, w hat aspects of lesson
3. A good lesson is flexible. Lesson plans are
p lan n in g are the m ost daunting? How will
not m ean t to be tools that bind teachers to
vou go about g etting assistance in p lan n in g
som e p re o rd a in e d plan. G ood teachers
vour lessons?
th in k on th eir feet a n d know w hen it is tim e
5. How m uch autonom y are you com fortable
to change an activitv, regardless o f w hat the
with in terms o f lesson planning? W ould you
lesson plan savs. An in terestin g stu d e n t
prefer a teaching situation in which lesson
question can take the class in an unantici­
plans are given to you and you are expected to
p a te d direction that creates one o f those
closelv follow them , or would you prefer being
w onderful “teach in g m o m en ts,” n o t to be
h an d ed a textbook and told to write your own
missed. A brilliant idea can com e as the
daily lesson plans? W hat are the advantages
tea c h e r is w riting on the board; som etim es
and disadvantages of each situation?
p u rsu in g these ideas is well w orth a risk
o f failure. Even failure can be a valuable
lesson for b o th the novice a n d ex p erien ced
teacher.
S U G G E S T E D A C T IV IT IE S
1. O bserve several E SE /EFL classes a n d ask
each in stru cto r for a copv o f the day's lesson
plan. How closelv did the in stru cto r follow
the plan? How is the plan sim ilar o r different
from the actual lesson?
2. Interview one or two experienced teachers
about their own lesson planning strategies.
Ask if you can look at some of their lesson
plans. Ask if over the years thev have changed
the way thev plan lessons.
3. Exam ine an ESL /EFL text that von may
have the o p p o rtu n ity to teach in the future.
C reate th re e sam ple lesson plans with a vari­
ety o f skill or language foci. How w ould you
avoid m arch in g th ro u g h the text page bv
page? How w ould vou in co rp o rate supple­
m entary m aterial?
4. C reate a lesson plan for an ESL 7EFL class
in a c o m p u te r lab (see c h a p te r bv Sokolik.
this volum e). W hat lesson plan considera­
tions n e e d to be m ade for teaching in this
situation?
5. List a variety of opening and closing activities.
C om pare vour list with the lists of others
in your class. How do these activities reflect
individual teachers' personalities?
FU R T H ER R EA D IN G
Harmer, f. 1998. H o w to Teach E n g lis h . (Chapter 12:
How to plan lessons). Harlow, UK: Longman.
Excellent discussion of lesson planning for
the inexperienced or not ice teacher. Includes a
“Task File" with a sample lesson plan on teach­
ing the comparative degree to a low-level class
as well as useful activities.
Harmer. J. 1991. T he P ra c tic e o f E n g lis h L a n g u a g e
T e ach in g (New Edition). (Chapter 12: Planning).
Harlow. UK: Longman.
A more detailed chapter on lesson planning than
H o w to Teach E n g lis h with a focats on the teacher’s
background knowledge. Also includes a "speci­
men plan" for an intermediate aclnlt class.
Nunan. D. 1999. Se c o n d L a n g u a g e 'T each in g a n d
L e a r n in g . Boston. MA: Heinle 8c Heinle
Publishers.
A verv humanistic and personal account of
second language learning and teaching.
Enjovable to read, especially for not ice teachers.
Ur. P. 1996. A C o arse in L a n g u a g e T e ach in g : P ra c tic e
a n d Theory. (Module In: Lesson Planning).
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
A reflective approach to lesson planning that is
especially useful for experienced teachers.
Woodward. T.. and S. Linclstromberg. 1995. P l a n n i n g
from Lesso n to L esso n : .4 1Ya\ o f M a k i n g Lesson
Harlow, UK: Longman.
P l a n n i n g E a sie r.
Lots of lesson planning ideas based on the
metaphor of using threads to create continuity.
 A P P E N D IX А
Lesson Plan Template for a 50-minute Class

Background Information: To do before class:

course/level

description of students (if necessary)

aims/objectives

skills focus/grammar/vocabulary Bring to class:

texts/materials

previous class work

work to be collected or returned

Tim e Frame Procedures: Notes:

(in minutes)

3- 5 warm-up transitions

4- 5 review seating plans

10 introduction potential trouble spots

10 presentation activities

15-20 communicative activities contingencies

3-5 questions/homework

extra activities (if necessary)

Comments/Evaluation:
 Course Overview (10 Weeks) E S L 3 3 C / U C L A Service Courses

LISTENING: SPEAKING:
lectures: group work
History 160 and Anthropology 9 discussions/presentations

READING: WRITING:
A ca d e m ic Publishing Services (APS) in-class essays
Farew ell to M a n z a n a r (FM) out-of-class essays
weekly paced and timed readings 3-5 pp. research paper
Insights 1 weekly journals
St. M a r t in ’s H a n d b o o k (SM)

WEEK READING WRITING SPEAKING LISTENING

Module 1— The Immigrant in America (History 160)
1 diag. essay diag. essay diag. intros diag. diet.
previewing
skimming/
scanning

2 FM brief def. group work hist. lect. 1

1-5 relative clause notetaking
paraphrasing

3 FM extended def. group work hist. lect. 2

6-1 1 notetaking/
eye mov. 1 summary

4 FM IN-CLASS W R IT IN G group work

12-15 comp./cont. hist. lect. 3
cause/effect notetaking/
essay exams summary
SM ch.6/46

5 FM IN-CLASS W R IT IN G group work

16-22 articles

Module 11-Kinship and Marriage (Anthropology 9)

6 APS library tour group work anthro. lect. 1

verb tenses conferencing notetaking/
summary

7 APS argumentation group work anthro. lect. 2

SM ch.5 notetaking/

8 S/V1 39—40 passive voice group work summary

research anthro. lect. 3

9 S/V1 41-42 draft 1-paper peer response

S/V1 44 IN-CLASS ESSAY debate

10 draft 2-paper peer response final exam

Final Reading final draft due conferencing notes/summary
 I. Topic = HISTORY 160-The Immigrant in America

II. Rhetorical Modes: Definitions

Comparison and Contrast
Cause and Effect

III. Multiskill Components

A. Listening:Videotaped Lecture— Prof. John Laslett
1. Notetaking

2. Outlining
3. Mapping
4. Summaries

B. Speaking

1. Group work

2. Presentations
C. Reading: Core Readings
1. Previewing/Skimming

2. Scanning for Details

3. Vocabulary Development

4. Comprehension Questions
5. Rate Development
D. Writing/Structure
1. Paraphrasing

2. Summaries

3. Brief and Extended Definitions

4. Relative Clauses
5. Comparison and Contrast Essay Questions
6. Cause and Effect Essay Questions

E. Assignments

1. Journals

2. Video Notetaking: Outlining/Summaries

3. Reading: Outlining/Summaries

4. Skimming and Scanning Exercises

5. Reading Comprehension Exercises

6. Brief and Extended Definition/ln-class Writing

7. In-class Essay
8. Conferencing/Rewrite
 W eekly O v erv iew (W eek 3) ESL 3 3 C /U C L A S erv ice C o u rse s

R EA D IN G
Insights I: Assimilation and Amalgamation
Farew ell to M a n z a n a r (ch. 3-11)

W R IT IN G
using relative clauses in definitions
brief and extended definitions
Journal #3— //p. 124,Task 23

S T U D Y S K IL L S
summary
paraphrasing
predicting exam content

LIS T E N IN G
video seg. 2 “ Variables of Assimilation”
video seg. 3 “ The Melting Pot Model”

S P E A K IN G
group work
class discussions

LESSON SEQUENCING
H our O ne: Insights p. I 16— video seg. 2 “ Variables of Assimilation"
Insights pp. I 17-120 (brief definitions/relative clauses)

H o u r Tw o: FM 3-8, A P S p. 54 (discussion questions)

hw: APS pp. 28-30, 34—37(extended definitions)

/. pp. 120-124 / F M ch. 9-1 I (by Fri)

H o u r T h re e : paraphrasing APS pp. 28-30 / SM pp. 596-600, 6 17-618

extended definitions in APS pp. 34—37, S/VI p. 136

H o u r F o u r: summary / I. 123-124

I. pp. 120-123— video seg. 3 “ The Melting Pot Model”

(Amalgamation)
group work: begin extended definition— amalgamation

hw: finish extended definitions/journal #3 (I. p. 124/task 23)

H o u r Five: go over hw: extended definitions

brainstorm terms for definitions for in-class writing

FM 9-1 I

hw — F M ch. 12-15/prepare for in-class writing

 B ackg ro u n d In fo rm atio n : To do before class:
ESL 33C (advanced multi-skills)/ print in-class writing
content-based course studying models prompts
of assimilation
U C L A undergrads/mostly Asian
O b je ctiv e s: to be prepared for in-class writing B rin g to class:
next class Insights I

S k ills focus: writing extended definitions/ FM

predicting content of a midterm SM

T e x ts/m a te ria ls: Insights I , St. M a r t in ’s H an d b o o k , APS

Farew ell to M a n z a n a r

P revio u s class w o rk : group work writing

an extended definition of amalgamation
W o r k to be co lle cte d and re tu rn e d : return
Journal #2/collect Journal #3

T im e F ra m e P ro ce d u re s: N o te s:
(in minutes)
5 Warm-up: greetings/questions about weekend whole class
plans/check roll

10 Share extended definitions of amalgamation 5 small groups at tables

finished for hw/pick one to put on ovrhd. proj.

15 Group presentations of amalgamation give feedback on

definitions on a transparency in front of class relative clauses

10 Remind class of in-class writing (extended list on board

definitions) on Monday / Brainstorm possible
terms to define

10 Class discussion of F M ch. 9-1 I (discussion large circle

questions in A P S , p. 53)

hw: F M : ch. 12-15 for next Friday/review

for in-class writing

C o m m e n ts/E v a lu a tio n :
Good idea to focus feedback on relative cla uses
only with their extended definitions of
amalgamation; otherwise the activity takes too
much time.
Students did a great job of predicting the terms
that they will be asked to define.
 Textbooks: Evaluation for Selection
and Analysis for Implementation
PATRICIA BYRD

In "Textbooks: Evaluation for Selection and Analysis for Implementation," Byrd argues that the decisions
made in selecting textbooks are different from the decisions made for implementing textbooks. A fter
showing how the processes differ and the confusion that results from using the same approach for
both, she provides guiaelines for selecting as well as implementing textbooks.

IN T R O D U C T IO N
In addition to our students and ourselves, an o th er
constant in the lives o f most teachers is ou r
textbook. Few teachers en ter class without a text­
book— (then a required textbook— that protides
c o n te n t and teaching learn in g activities that
shape m uch of what happens in that classroom.
For teachers, use of a textbook involves first the
selection of a book and then the steps taken to
im plem ent the book in class.
W hile having rational a n d effective selec­
tion pro ced u res is surelv im p o rtan t for educa­
tional svstems, program s, schools, teachers, and
students, the selection process is one th at is not
open to m am E SL /EFL teachers w orking in set­
tings w here tex tb o o k s have b e e n selected
th ro u g h an adm inistrative process— at the m in­
isterial level or bv the school b o a rd or bv the p ro ­
gram d ire c to r o r bv a com m ittee of teachers that
selects texts for the whole program , o r bv the
teach er who taught the course the previous
sem ester b ut who is teach in g som ething else this
term . As a result, although inform ation ab o u t
evaluation for selection is im p o rta n t for teachers
to u n d e rsta n d , m ost teachers have different
e n co u n ters with textbooks as thev m ake deci­
sions about how to im p lem en t and su p p lem en t
m aterials for the m ost effective classes possible
for th eir students an d for themselves. To reflect
on the two different ways in which textbooks are
scrutinized bv teachers, I will separate “evalua­
tion for selection" from "analysis for im p lem en ­
tatio n ” in the following discussion.
EV A LU A TIO N FO R S E L E C T IO N
Evaluation and selection o f textbooks is a com ­
plex process that is carried out in many different
wavs. In a few settings, teachers decide on the
books that thev want to use in th eir classes. For
exam ple, in university settings in the U nited
States a n d elsewhere, ESI. teachers can often
m ake individual decisions ab o u t the textbooks
that thev will use. W ith inform ation from p u b ­
lishers and colleagues, thev select a text or texts,
have tire books o rd e re d th ro u g h the cam pus
bookstore, and th en use them in th eir classes. In
m anv o th e r settings, such text selections are
m ade bv adm inistrators o r bv com m ittees of
teachers. A n o th er scenario, centralized decision­
m aking bv the governm ent, can be seen in
Egypt, w here decisions about the English lan­
guage curriculum and the textbooks used to
teach it are m ade bv the M inistry o f E ducation in
Cairo. In this system, a unified series of text­
books is created for use th ro u g h o u t the country,
ra th e r than selecting textbooks from a generic
collection c reated by com m ercial publishing
com panies. A m uch sm aller centralized approach
is seen in boards o f education in various U.S.
states that have svstems th rough which textbooks
are analyzed and lists of reco m m en d ed books
developed. Because of the decentralized nature
o f U.S. education, no national req u irem en ts
exist, a n d individual schools often have consider­
able flexibility in im plem enting state curricular
requirem ents. Textbooks and supplem ental m ate­
rials are. however, frequently selected th ro u g h a
system th at involves input from supervisors and
colleagues, a n d does n o t em phasize the individ­
ual teach er m aking a personal decision. Even in
schools that are not p art o f centralized m iniste­
rial o r b oard systems, textbook selection is often
the work o f a faculty com m ittee or of a program
adm inistrator. An intensive English p rogram
m ight have a textbook com m ittee to evaluate
textbooks an d to m ake selections as a way of
en suring som e unitv across m ultiple sections of
die sam e course. Overall, few E SL /EFL teachers
use textbooks th at thev have them selves selected
th ro u g h a process that has focused simpiv on
th eir interests a n d the needs of the students in
th eir individual section of a course.
However, teachers can som etim es influence
the decision-m aking process an d thus n e e d to be
aware o f how it works in th eir own situation.
T h a t is, teachers have to he aware not ju st of
th e ir lives inside th eir classroom s, but thev m ust
also be know ledgeable ab o u t the larger system
in which thev work and about possible wavs that
the system m ight allots' for tea c h e r participation
in its adm inistrative processes. Influencing the
selection process in these situations is not just a
m atte r o f pedagogical know ledge but also of
political skill.
S y stem atic E v alu atio n
Systems for evaluation of textbooks (and o th e r
instructional m aterials) generally provide check­
lists built a ro u n d n u m ero u s aspects o f teaching
a n d stu d en t-teach er interactions (B ader 2000;
D aoud an d Celce-M urcia 1979; Gom es de Matos
2000; Skierso 1991). In reviewing such lists, I am
re m in d e d o f the tim e m am years ago w hen a col­
league an d I sat down to m ake a list o f things for
o u r students to check as thev revised th eir com ­
positions. O u r first list h ad over 100 item s on it.
Clearly, it w asn’t going to be very useful for m any
students. We quickly revised it to a m ore reason­
able n u m b e r th at we a n d o u r students could
h andle. But we also realized that o u r checklist
was useful only for a particu lar kind of writing; it
w orked reasonably well for the personal essays
bein g w ritten for o u r course b u t w ould not have
w orked nearly so well if the students had been
writing lab reports or reviews o f books for history
courses. Similarly, m aking a com prehensive yet
reasonable checklist for evaluation of textbooks
is an en o rm o u s challenge that requires different
lists for different types of courses in different set­
tings. Published checklists like those referenced
above are offered as m odels that p resen t im p o r­
tan t categories th at should be considered in the
selection process. Like o th e r suggestions from
colleagues, these m odels n eed to be considered
carefully an d a d ap ted to lit the p articular situa­
tion in which thev will be ttsed. In the body of
this chapter. I will provide a general rationale for
the considerations that seem fu n d am en tal to
such a selection-guicling checklist, d e la tin g until
the "Suggested Activities" creation of detailed
checklists designed to fit the situations o f the
teachers using this book. T he issues that m ust be
addressed in a textbook evaluation system are the
fit betw een the m aterials and ( 1 ) the curriculum .
(2 ) the students, and (3) the teachers.
T h e F it B etw ee n C u rric u lu m
a n d T ex ts
Generally, the first area in cluded in textbook
analysis is the fit betw een the m aterials a n d the
curriculum . For large educational systems, pub­
lishers create m aterials based on published cur­
riculum statem ents. For exam ple, in Egypt, the
Ministry o f E ducation arranges for publication
of its own textbooks. Because the books are cre­
ated for use onlv in Egy pt, the M inistry can be
sure that the m aterials are ap p ro p riate and earn
out its particu lar curricular goals. In the U nitec
States, som e public school systems publish their
curriculum guidelines and invite publishers te
subm it m aterials that fit those guidelines. For
states with large ESI. populations, such as Texan
Florida, New York, a n d C alifornia, p u b lish er'
com pete fiercely to provide m aterials that m eet
the stated curricular guidelines. For these e d u ­
cational systems with th eir considerable p u r­
chasing pow er a n d various m ethods for control
of co n ten t, the fit betw een the textbook and the
curriculum is assum ed to be a reasonable and
achievable goal.
 For sm aller program s and individual teach­
ers, the fit betw een curriculum and textbooks can
be h a rd e r to achieve for two reasons. First, all too
m am program s do not hare clearlv articulated
curriculum statem ents; teachers have groups of
students who want to learn English but the p ro ­
gram lacks a general statem ent o f purposes and
m ethods. Second, when there is a curriculum
statem ent for a sm aller program or an individual
class, it mav har e features that are unique to that
particular program ; however, the program is not
large enough for publishers to provide textbooks
based on its individual curriculum statem ent. In
the first situation, the textbook must be selected
based on features o th er than curricu lu m — and
therefore the text itself becom es the curriculum .
In the second situation, textbooks are unlikely to
be found that are com pletelv con g ru en t with the
pedagogical goals of the program , and the p u r­
pose of the selection process m ust be to find
books that have as good a fit as possible— with the
expectation that the textbooks will n eed to be
adapted and supplem ented with additional m ate­
rials to support the curriculum .
T h e F it B etw een S tu d e n ts a n d T ex ts
Textbooks are for students. To m eet their needs,
the textbook must have not just the English lan­
guage o r com m unication skill content dem an d ed
by the curriculum , but it m ust also fit the needs of
students as learners of English. Textbooks are
m ade up o f three m ajor elem ents: content (and
explanations), exam ples, and exercises or tasks.
In support of these three elem ents, textbooks also
employ a varietv of graphical elem ents, including
print size and stele and white space as well as illus­
trations. In the evaluation-for-selection process,
the person or group m aking the selection needs
to knots' enough about the students to be able to
answer questions such as the following.
1. Content/Explanations: Is the content likelv to
be o f interest or use to the students? Is there
anv chance that the content could be offen­
sive or inappropriate for its in te n d e d audi­
ence? Do the explanations work for these
learn ers— do dies help learners und erstan d
what thev n eed in o rd er to learn?
2. Examples: Are the exam ples ap p ro p riate to
the Uses and interests of the students? Do
the exam ples fit closely with the concepts
they are supposed to be explaining?
3. Exercises Tasks: Do the exercises or tasks
p rot ide e n o u g h varietv to m eet the needs of
different kinds of learners in the class(es)?
Will the\ be o f in terest to these students?
4. Presentation/Form at: Does the book look
rig h t for these students? Are the illustrations
a n d o th e r graphical an d design elem ents
a p p ro p riate for th eir age a n d educational
level? Is th e p rin te d text easy to read an d
a p p ro p riate for th eir read in g level? Is the
m ix betw een p rin t and white space balanced
so th at readability is e n h a n c e d an d a p p ro ­
priate? Does the book have an index, a p p e n ­
dices, or o th e r sections th a t are usable by
students? Is the book well c o n stru c te d — will
it last a term of h a rd use by students?
T h e F it B etw ee n T e a c h e rs a n d T ex ts
Textbooks are also for teachers. As with students,
teachers seek three things from textbooks: con-
ten t/ex p lan atio n s. exam ples, and exercises or
tasks. T he evaluation-for-selection process needs
to find out if the textbook can be used effectively
bv the teachers to whom it will be assigned. T he
basic questions will alwavs be Can our teachers han­
dle this material? and Will our teachers find that the
textbook meets their needs and preferences for teaching
materials ?
Questions such as the following should be
included in the analysis o f the fit between a poten­
tial textbook and the teachers who will use it.
1. Content/Explanations: In all settings, evalua­
tors need to consider if the textbook prorides
content that teachers will find useful to carry'
out the goals of the course and the p ro g ram —
is this a teacher-friendlv textbook? In some
settings, it is im portant to ask if teachers will
have adequate English to be able to u n d e r­
stand the content an d to be able to explain it
to their students. A question of special im por­
tance in English for Specific Purposes texts
but of im portance in all textbook analysis is, is
there a reasonable fit between the content
 a n d th e know ledge-base o f the teacher?
O th e r questions include. Is there an instruc­
to r’s m anual that helps the teacher belter
u n derstand the c o n ten t and wavs o f using the
content with the students? Does the textbook
supply or require ancillaries such as audio-
tapes or workbooks? If so. is the content of
these ancillaries appropriate to and usable by
the teachers in this program ?
2. Examples: Are the exam ples usable for the
te a c h e r— can thee be e x p a n d ed on o r recast
to be useful in the lessons?
3. Exercises/Tasks: Does the text provide
enough things for the teacher to give his or
her students to do for the period of time to be
covered by the course? Are the exercises or
tasks doable in this setting? Do thev pro\ide
for a variety of learning styles? Is there an
instructor’s m anual and does it make sugges­
tions for im plem entation of tlte exercises?
Does it prot ide an answer kev for anv exer­
cises that have discrete answers, such as
gram m ar drills o r vocabulary activities?
4. P resen tatio n /F o rm at: Does the illustrative
m aterial provide the tea c h e r with teaching
opportunities? Is there a close co n n ectio n
betw een the c o n te n t and the illustrations?
A N A LYSIS
FO R IM PLEM ENTATIO N
A lthough th e evaluation-for-selection systems
are created to m ake the selection process as
rational as possible, o u r en c o u n te rs with text­
books in the selection process always involve a
series o f value judgm ents: this is good or this is
bad or this fits well or this d o e sn ’t fit at all.
Evaluation is about m aking a ju d g m e n t call —
ves or no, in or out, buv it o r d o n ’t buy it,
thum bs up o r thum bs down. Because the types
o f analysis an d decision-m aking w hen using a
textbook in the classroom are radically different
from those in the selection process, the experi­
ences o f classroom teachers with the textbook
involve an evaluation th at uses different criteria.
In the evaluation-for-selection process, the basic
question is Does this book have the features that we
want it to have so that we ran adopt it ?After adoption,
the basic question changes to, How do I as a teacher
working with particular students in a particular class
in a particular program make this book work to ensure
effective and interesting lessons?
To avoid confusion over the tvpe o f ’’evalu­
a tio n ” req u ired at this stage in the life o f a text­
book in a course o r program , I would like talk
ab o u t textbook analysis in the implementation process.
T he categories that a tea c h e r can use are the
sam e as in the selection process: the textbook
provides content, explanations, exam ples, and
exercises or tasks. T he text m ight also provide
illustrative or graphic m aterials that can be used
for teaching purposes. A dditionally the publisher
of the textbook m ight provide an instructor's
m anual that should help in the im plem entation
of the materials. While the categories are the
same, the purpose is m uch different and often
m uch m ore urgent, since teachers can find them ­
selves analyzing a textbook only hours before
going into a class to teach a lesson that will be
built aro u n d the m aterials in the text.
G e ttin g a n O v erv iew
o f th e R e so u rc e s in th e T e x tb o o k
Prior to im p lem en tin g a textbook, a teache:
needs to read the whole b o o k — from start to fin­
ish. including anv appendices. In w orking wit:',
in ex p e rie n c e d teachers, I've found th at one :
th eir mistakes in w orking with a textbook is m .'
seeing it as a whole and not finding o u t abou:
the text in detail before the first dav o f class. 1
have repeatedly h ad the ex perience o f having :
new teacher tell m e near the e n d o f a term th.v
he or she has just discovered som e useful featui v
of the tex tb o o k — som ething that was in a law
section o f the book o r in an appendix. A ban.;
rule o f textbook im plem entation: You can or.:
im p lem en t m aterials if vou know thev are there
T eaching usually involves an o v e rla p p ir.
cvcle of presen tatio n , practice, a n d evaluatio:
Presentation can involve in tro d u c tio n o f n c
m aterials or info rm atio n o r a re-introduction t :
a review session; it can be d irect o r indirect; it
whatever the teach er does to get students startc
on a unit o f study. Practice can be anv type
activity, from a drill to w riting an essay, from the
least com m unicative form o f rep etitio n to an
u n scripted discussion; it is w hatever th e teacher
sets up to help the students learn to do whatever
it is they are studying in th at unit. Evaluation is
whatever the tea c h e r does to fin d o u t w hat the
students have learned. This teach in g cycle is
b o u n d e d by the academ ic calen d ar o f the school
system in which the class is taught; a class is
always lim ited in tim e to the n u m b e r o f hours a
week it will be taught a n d to any ad d itio n al tim e
that m ight be ad d ed for hom ew ork, if h o m e ­
work is a p p ro p riate in the setting.
In itial R e a d in g o f a T e x tb o o k
Before u n d e rta k in g a d etailed analvsis of the
textbook to be used in a course, a teach er can
benefit from doing a general overview reading
of the book. A reasonable series o f questions
that a tea c h e r should ask d u rin g an initial read­
ing shou ld include the following.
1. Presentation/Form at: W hat kinds of units
does the book have? How is each organized?
W hat kinds o f illustrations o r o th e r graphic
elem ents are used? How m any o f these
graphic elem ents are there? How are they
co n n e cte d to the rest of the m aterials in the
unit? W hat additional features does the book
have beyond the basic units— appendices,
index, glossary? Are th ere any ancillary m ate­
rials such as w orkbooks or audiotapes?
2. C ontent/Inform ation: W h a t does each u n it
give me to present? W hat is each u n it about?
3. Practice: W hat does each u n it give m e to
use with my students for practice? W here are
the exercises o r tasks placed a n d how do
they relate to the p resen tatio n o f content?
W hat connections are m ade betw een the
activities provided in the various units?
4. Evaluation: W hat does each u n it give m e to
use for evaluation of student learning? W hen
will assessm ent occur d u ring the term ? How
long will each activity take?
5. Support for the teacher: Is th ere an instruc­
to r ’s m anual? Is th ere an in tro d u c tio n for
the in stru cto r th at has inform ation on using
the book? Are the instructions for th e activi­
ties clear e n o u g h for m e to know exactly
w hat the students a n d I are supposed to do?
This initial read in g of the textbook should give
the tea c h e r an overview o f the features o f the
book an d o f the ways th at the textbook organizes
its com bination o f c o n te n t and activities. After
gaining that overview, the teacher needs to ana­
lyze the text in m ore detail while m aking plans
for using the m aterials over the tim e allowed for
th e course.
A nalysis o f th e C o n te n t
o f th e T e x tb o o k
Language textbooks differ considerably from
those in o th e r disciplinary areas. A biology text­
book, for exam ple, is d o m in a te d by p resentation
o f in form ation a b o u t biology— theory, exam ­
ples, and definitions o f term inology. T he p u r­
pose of the book is for students to learn a certain
segm ent of the body o f know ledge th at m akes
op the disciplinary area o f “biology.” Discussions
of problem s with public school textbooks for
o th er disciplines often concentrate on two related
areas: ( 1 ) inaccurate or incom plete c o n ten t (see
for exam ple, Suidan et al. 1995) a n d (2) p o o r
readability for the stu d e n t aud ien ce because
c o n te n t experts do n o t necessarily u n d e rsta n d
how to p rese n t com plex c o n te n t for new, young
learners (see for exam ple, Britton, W oodward,
a n d Binkely 1993). T hese problem s should be
o f c o n c e rn to E S L /E F L p ro g ram s th a t use
a u th en tic m aterials as the basis fo r ESL/EFL
study, especially those th at use content-area text­
books as reso u rces fo r E S L /E F L m aterials.
Kearsev a n d T urner (1999) used genre analysis
techniques to evaluate textbook m aterials written
in Great Britain for secondary science courses;
they reveal a text th at is m ade up o f very simple
exam ples written for the audience (although
probably not accessible to newcom ers to th at soci­
ety), interspersed with h ard nuggets o f scientific
writing to provide the co n ten t th at is the real
focus o f the curriculum .
In contrast, E SL /E FL textbooks te n d to be
m ade up o f two strands o f content: ( 1 ) the lin­
guistic c o n te n t (gram m ar, vocabulary, skill area)
and (2) the them atic content (“school," "gender
issues," “Native Americans." and the topical con­
tent nsed to present and practice the linguistic
co n tent). T he teacher can expect the topics in
content-based m aterials to be em phasized and
clearly risible. In most o th er m aterials, however,
the teacher will n eed to look past the linguistic
c o n te n t to find out what them es have been
included in the textbook. Ik for exam ple, the
teacher notices in his or h er initial analvsis that a
gram m ar textbook includes num erous exam ples
and passages based on biographies of famous
people, then he or she can plan to supplem ent
the text with o th er m aterials and activities (visits
to local m useum s, readings about people fam ous
in the cultures of the students, and so on). The
analvsis-for-im plem cntation angle on c o n te n t
involves both the linguistic and the them atic con­
ten t of the textbook, as shown in Table 1.
Analysis of Exercises/Tasks
in the Textbook for
Implementation in Classes
W hile p lan n in g the wavs in which the textbook
will be used for the whole academ ic term , a
tea c h e r needs to be m aking co n crete if tentativ e
decisions about how different activities will be
used d u rin g the academ ic term , asking ques­
tions such as those in Table 2.
Seeking Help in Implementation
o f the Textbook
Teachers have both form al a n d inform al source'
of inform ation an d su p p o rt as thev analvze text­
books for im p lem entation. Form al reso u rce'
in clu d e th e in s tr u c to r ’s m an u a l as we к
as o th e r w ritten m aterials av ailable in the school
or program . These o th e r m aterials can include
a curriculum statem ent, course svllabi used ir.
previous term s, an d copies o f h an d o u ts used lx
previous teachers. Additionallv, m am school'
prov ide teachers with form al help th ro u g h struc­
tu re d in te rac tio n s with sen io r teachers and
supervisors.
Inform al su p p o rt is generallv available i:
teachers seek it. W hen teaching a course for the
first tim e or for the first tim e with a particula:
textbook, teachers can som etim es get help with
im p lem en tatio n o f m aterials in a course by talk­
ing with colleagues who are teaching the same
course or who have taught it before.

Table I. Analysis of Content for Implementation in Teaching

Linguistic Content W h a t language is b eing ta u g h t? In w h a t c h u n k s and w h a t s e q u e n c e ? W h a t a d ju s tm e n ts

m u s t be m a d e t o fit t h e p ro g ra m 's c u rr ic u lu m ? A r e t h e r e an y a d ju s tm e n ts th a t I w o u ld

like t o m a k e in c o n t e n t an d se q u e n c in g to b e t t e r fit m y c o u r s e an d m y s tu d e n ts ?

Them atic Content W h a t to p ic s a r e u sed in e a c h u nit? W h a t to p ic s r e c u r th r o u g h o u t th e w h o le b o o k ?

W h a t c o n n e c tio n s can I m a k e b e tw e e n th e s e to p ic s an d th e b a c k g ro u n d s / in te re s ts o f m y
s tu d e n ts ? H o w can I m ak e e n ric h e d u se o f th e s e th e m e s ?
Table 2. Analysis of Teaching Activities for Implementation in Teaching

W h i c h o f th e a c tiv itie s The te a c h e r is lo o k in g fo r a v a r ie t y o f a c tiv itie s th a t can be u sed to m e e t th e

p ro v id e d in th is t e x t ­ needs of d iffe re n t le a rn e rs and to a c h ie v e th e p ed a g o g ica l go a ls of th e c o u rs e .
b o o k w ill 1 d o in class? In itial d e c is io n s can be m a d e a b o u t using in d ivid u a l, pair, o r sm all-g ro u p c o n fig u ra tio n s

fo r th e a c tiv itie s . E x p e r ie n c e d te a c h e r s a lso lo o k fo r ch an ge-o f-p ace a c t iv itie s — a

h ig h - e n e rg y ta sk , re q u irin g a lo t of m o v in g a ro u n d , b a la n c e d by s o m e th in g m o re
c o n te m p la tiv e .

W h i c h a c tiv itie s in th e T h is d e c is io n needs to be m ade on th e basis of th e p u rp o s e th a t h o m e w o rk

t e x t b o o k w ill 1 assign has in th is p a r t ic u la r cla ss. G e n e r a lly , te a c h e rs u se h o m e w o rk fo r fo llo w - u p
as h o m e w o r k ? p r a c t ic e and f o r a c tiv itie s th a t m ay h ave s tu d e n ts engaging in “ o u ts id e o f c la s s” u se o f

English. S o m e t e a c h e r s u se h o m e w o r k t o p re p a re s tu d e n ts f o r n e w w o r k , n o t ju s t to

r e v ie w an d p ra c t ic e things a lre a d y p re s e n te d .

W h i c h a c tiv itie s in th e If n o te s ts are p ro v id e d by th e te x t (o r th e in s t r u c t o r ’s m a n u a l), s o m e a c tiv itie s

t e x t b o o k w ill 1 h o ld m ig h t be r e s e r v e d t o use f o r testing .
b a c k t o u se f o r te stin g ?

W h i c h a c tiv itie s in th e S o m e a c tiv itie s m ig h t b e r e s e r v e d f o r re v ie w , o r a v a ria tio n o n an a c tiv ity m ig h t be

t e x t b o o k can b e used u sed f o r r e v ie w la te r in th e te r m .
f o r r e v ie w la te r
in th e t e r m ?

W h i c h a c tiv itie s in th e The initial re a d in g of th e te x tb o o k is e s p e c ia lly im p o r t a n t fo r id e n tify in g ta s k s

t e x t b o o k re q u ir e lo n g e r th a t w o u ld be useful fo r s tu d e n ts to do but th a t r e q u ir e lo n g - te rm p lan n in g

p e rio d s o f tim e to b y th e te a ch e r.
a c c o m p lis h — sp e cia l

p ro je c ts ?

W h i c h a c tiv itie s in th e In m o s t setting s, sp e c ific e q u ip m e n t re q u ire s e x tr a e f f o r t an d p lan n in g a h ea d .

t e x t b o o k m ig h t re q u ire

sp e cia l e q u ip m e n t th a t

has t o b e o r d e r e d
a h e a d o f tim e ?

W h e r e a re c o n n e c t io n s B y re a d in g th e w h o le b o o k p r io r t o th e b e g in n in g o f th e t e r m , th e t e a c h e r can b e c o m e
b e in g m a d e b e tw e e n a w a r e o f to p ic s a n d th e m e s th a t r e c u r in th e b o o k . C o n n e c t io n s can b e m a d e th a t

v a rio u s u n its o f th e give m o r e c o h e r e n c e t o th e class.

b o o k , c o n n e c t io n s th a t
m ig h t r e q u ire r e v ie w ?

W h i c h a c tiv itie s B e c a u s e th e fit b e tw e e n a n y t e x t b o o k a n d th e c u rric u lu m o f a p ro g ra m w ill s e ld o m be

in th e t e x t b o o k d o p e rfe c t, s o m e p a r ts o f th e t e x t m ig h t n o t b e a p p r o p r ia te f o r a p a r t ic u la r c o u rs e .
1 n o t w a n t t o d o a t all? A d d itio n a lly , s o m e c o n t e n t an d a c tiv itie s m ig h t n o t fit a p a r tic u la r g r o u p o f s tu d e n ts.
E q u a lly im p o r ta n t, th e r e a re things th a t m ay n o t fit o u r p e rs o n a litie s as t e a c h e r s an d th a t

w e m ay n o t be c o m f o r t a b le doing. ( F o r e x a m p le , a lth o u g h 1 h ave c o lle a g u e s w h o m ak e

w o n d e r f u l u se o f m u sic in t h e ir classes, 1 d o n o t sing in class and w o u ld n e v e r a t te m p t an
a c tiv ity th a t re q u ire d it.)
C O N C L U S IO N
These are the fu n d am en tal questions asked by
teachers: W hat am I going to do in class (to
achieve the goals of the program and o f the stu­
dents)? W hat are my students going to do in
class (to achieve the goals o f the program as well
as th e ir personal goals)? W hat are thev going to
do for hom ew ork (and how does that connect
to what we do in class))? In the evaluation-for-
selection process, those with the responsibilitv for
choosing textbooks need to consider not just the
fit between the curriculum and the textbook but
also the practical issues of usabilitv bv teachers and
by students. O nce a textbook has been selected,
teachers need to analvze the resources in the text­
book to create a plan for dailv lessons and
for the whole course that helps them both im ple­
m en t and supplem ent what is alreadv given in
the m ost efficient and effective wav (see Jensen's
ch ap ter on lesson planning in this volum e).
In discussions written bv some teacher e d u ­
cators, a com m on dem and is that teachers be free
agents— creating their own m aterials for their
own students. Such discussions are built on a
vision of the teacher as an individual, in his or her
own classroom, m aking unique decisions for that
unique group of students. In this vision, the com-
merciallv published textbook is a restraint forced
u p o n teachers that limits their creativitv (Ur 1996.
N unan 1988b). At the o th er extrem e, and proba­
bly the source of some o f the negative em otions
that teacher educators express about textbooks, is
the adm inistrative desire for a "teacher-proof
tex t” th at can be tau g h t bv even the m ost
u n tra in ed aitd unqualified of individuals; this
magic textbook guarantees that the whole system
or school has com plete uniform ity in the delivery
of administrativelv selected content.
O f course, realitv for m ost teachers lies
som ew here betw een these two extrem es. We are
generally p art of a larger svstem th at does have
legitim ate concerns about being sure th at all
students receive instruction th a t leads to a m ore
o r less uniform result. At the same tim e, each of
us is different in o u r b ack g ro u n d know ledge and
perso n alities— as are o u r students. Having a
textbook with ap p ro p riate c o n ten t an d a variety
o f possible teaching activities can serve both
needs, giving som e uniform in' to the inform a­
tion and activities in class while expecting that
different teachers will adapt, im plem ent, and
su p p lem en t the m aterials based on the needs of
a particu lar class in a particular academ ic term .
D IS C U S S IO N Q U E S T IO N S
1. How are textbooks selected in the K-12
school .svstem w here vou live? Discuss with a
p a rtn e r in vour class.
2. If vou are teaching in an intensive English
program or some o th er tvpe of college or
universitv ESI. program , how are textbooks
selected for that program ? How was the text­
book chosen that vou are using now ? How d<
teachers have in p u t into the selection
process? Discuss vour answers with classm ate'
3. P ublishers at TF.SOl. conventions have
noticed what is som etim es referred to as the
"30-second evaluation." In those 30 seconds.
teacher picks up a textbook. Hips through,
and then puts it down to pick up another
book for a brief studv. Som etim es the short
anahsis leads to a purchase or to a request for
an inspection copv. Discuss what inform ation
can be gained in conference exhibits. What
kinds of things do vou look for when vou have
onlv a m inute or so to look at books before
going on to the next conference event:
Discuss vour categories with classmates.
4. The appendices to this chapter provide tw<
different checklists for evaluation of textbooks
Discuss the categories used in the two check­
lists and the approaches to textbook evalua­
tion that appear to lie behind each svstem.
5. Reviews of textbooks in professional journal'
can be valuable sources of inform ation in the
evaluation-for-selection process. Textboo.-,
reviews can be found in publications such a«
the TESOL journal, the TESOL Quarterly, and
in the newsletters or journals of regional affil­
iates of TESOL. Such reviews generallv pro ­
vide brief sum m aries of the content anc
organization o f a text along with some evalua­
tion of any of a variety of textbook feature'
Because they present a colleague's considered
opinion and u n d erstanding of the features o:
the textbook, thev can provide the person o:
 group evaluating textbooks with additional
inform ation. From recent editions of one or
m ore professional publications, select reviews
of three textbooks that m ight be used for a
course that you are now teaching or that von
m ight teach. W hat criteria do the reviewers use
as the basis for their evaluations of the text­
books? W hat additioiral inform ation would
you have wanted the reviewers to include?
Discuss the reviews with vour classmates.
S U G G E S T E D A C T IV IT IE S
1. Interview a teacher who works in the Ix-12
system w here vou live to find out (a) how
teachers har e input into the selection process
for the textbooks thev use. (b) am flexibilitv
that teachers have in selecting books (per­
haps choosing from a list of required books),
and (c) any flexibilitv that teachers lan e in
supplem enting the text with additional m ate­
rials. In class, com pare the inform ation that
vou obtain from several different teachers.
2. Based on a course that vou have taught
recemlv, that vou are now teaching, or that
you m ight teach in the future, moclifv the
evaluation checklist in A ppendix В to make it
focus as closelv as possible on that particular
course. Discuss the changes that vou have
m ade with vour classmates.
3. Based on reviews in recent issues of profes­
sional publications, select a textbook that
seems potentiallv appropriate for a course
that vou are teaching or m ight teach in the
future. Using as the ev aluation tool one of the
checklists in the appendices to this chapter or
a version that vou modify to lit the particular
course, evaluate the textbook. T hen, com pare
your evaluation with that of the published
review. R eport to vour class on any insights
that vou gained from the review and anv areas
of disagreem ent betw een vou r evaluation and
that of the rev iewer.
4. Select a textbook that is used in a program
w here vou are now teaching, have recently
taught, o r m ight teach in the future. (Select
a textbook that vou have not used before.)
A pproach the textbook as if vou were going
to be using it to teach a class— an d the class
begins soon! Read the textbook to gain an
overview of its c o n ten t an d organization.
C onsider the (a) p rese n tatio n /fo rm a t, (b)
co n te n t/in fo rm atio n , (c) practice activities,
(d) evaluation activities/instrum ents, and (e)
support provided for the teacher. Prepare a
short rep o rt to share the inform ation that vou
have about the general purpose and design of
the textbook. Include ideas about the general
p attern that you would use to im plem ent the
text in an academ ic term .
5. With a partner, select one unit of the textbook
that v'ott analyzed in Activity 4 above. Using
Table 2 on page 421. analyze the activities in
that unit. C om pare vour analysis of how vou
would use the activities to vour partner's
analysis. Discuss similarities and differences in
vour plans for using the activities.
6. After com pleting Activities 1 a n d .5. decide
on content or activities that vou would like to
arid to com plem ent or su p p lem en t the text­
book. W hat is missing from the book that
is req u ired bv vour curriculum or by vour
students? O r bv vour teaching stvle?
FU R T H ER R EA D IN G
B r i t t o n . B. lx.. S. G u lg o z . a n d S. G lv n n . " I m p a c t o f
g o o d a n d p o o r w r it in g o n l e a r n e r s : R e s e a r c h
a n d th e o r y ." In В. K. B r it o n . A. W o o d w a r d , a n d
M. B in klev . e d s. L e m u n i g [ m i n T e x t b o o k s : T h e o r y
a n d P r a c t i c e (p p . 1—16). H ill s d a l e , X): L a w r e n c e
L rlb au m .
T h i s u s e f u l d i s c u s s i o n s h o w s w hv s i m p l i f i e d
l e a d i n g s can m a k e c o m p r e h e n s i o n o f c o n t e n t
m o r e d if fic u l t f o r l e a r n e r s . T h e a u t h o r s also
d e m o n s tra te a m e th o d for e n h a n c in g th e re a d ­
ability o f e x p e r t w r i t i n g by a d d i n g c o n n e c t i o n s
a n d m a k in g re la tio n sh ip s b e tw e e n ideas m o r e
ex p lic it.
C h a m b e r s . F. 1497. " S e e k i n g c o n s e n s u s in c o u r s e -
b o o k e v alu a tio n ." E L T j o u r n a l 5 1 (1 ): 2 9 -3 5 .
T h e a u t h o r d is c u s s e s t h e a p p l i c a t i o n o f s t r a t e ­
gies f r o m b u s i n e s s l o r g r o u p d e c i s i o n m a k i n g in
th e te x tb o o k e v a lu a tio n a n d selectio n process.
H e m a k e s a s t r o n g ca se f o r t h e i m p o r t a n c e o f
involv e m e n t o f all t e a c h e r s in a c o n s e n s u s - b a s e d
m o d e l fo r s h a r e d d ecisio n m ak in g .
C ib o ro w s k i, }. 1995. " U s i n g t e x t b o o k s w ith s t u d e n t s
w h o c a n n o t r e a d t h e m . " R em e d ia l o r Special
E d u c a tio n 1 6 (2 ) : 9 0 - l 02.
T h e o v e r t a u d i e n c e f o r th is a r t i c l e is t e a c h e r s
w o r k i n g w ith p u b l i c s c h o o l s t u d e n t s in t h e
U n i t e d S ta te s w h o b a t e h a d t r o u b l e l e a r n i n g to
r e a d — a n d th e r e fo re tro u b le le a r n in g fro m th e
t e x t b o o k s u s e d i n t h e i r classes. H o w e v e r, t h e
a u t h o r ' s t h o u g h t f u l an alv sis o f t h e wavs in w h i c h
s t u d e n t s a r e r e q u i r e d to u s e t e x t b o o k s in l e a r n ­
i n g n e w c o n t e n t a n d skills c a n s t i m u l a t e t h i n k ­
i n g a b o u t wavs in w h i c h E S I. EFU s t u d e n t s a r e
e x p e c t e d to l e a r n f r o m t h e i r E S I. F.FL t e x t ­
b o o k s . T h i s a r t ic l e a n d o t h e r s o n s t u d e n t l e a r n ­
in g fro m te x tb o o k s su g g est th a t E S L 'E F I.
t e a c h e r s s h o u l d t h i n k a b o u t w h a t it is t h a t s t u ­
d e n t s a r c e x p e c t e d to d o w ith t h e i r t e x t b o o k s in
t h e i r E S I./'K F L classes a n d w h a t s t u d e n t s a r e
s u p p o s e d to l e a r n f r o m s t i t c h i n g t h e t e x t b o o k s .
N e l s o n , G. w ith f. B u rn s . 2000. " M a n a g i n g i n f o r m a t i o n
f o r w r it in g u n iv e rsity e x a m s in A m e r i c a n b is to r t ."
In M a r c ia Pallv. c d . S u s ta in e d C o n ten t T e a c h in g in
A ca d e m ic E S L /E F L (p p . 1.52-157). B o s to n . 5LV:
H o u g h t o n Mifflin.
W h a t c o n t e n t to u s e in te x t b o o k s is a p a r t i c u l a r
c h a l l e n g e in KSL E F L m a t e r i a ls . W e c a n t t e a c h
“p u r e g r a m m a r " o r " w ritin g in t h e a b stra c t." T h e
s t r u g g le to d e f i n e t h e m o s t a p p r o p r i a t e c o n t e n t
h a s l e d to b o t h t h e c o n t e n t - b a s e d a n d t h e task-
b a s e d a p p r o a c h e s . T h is c h a p t e r — a l o n g w ith t h e
re s t o f t h e b o o k — a r g u e s f o r t h e u se o f t h e s a m e
c o n t e n t a c ro s s a n e n t i r e ESI. c o u r s e r a t h e r t h a n
f o llo w in g t h e t r a d i t i o n o f h a t i n g m a n s d i f f e r e n t
to p ic s u s e d in a sin g le u n i t o f a t e x t b o o k o r h a v ­
i n g e a c h u n i t w ith a sin g le to p ic . It also d e m o n ­
stra te s h o w s u s t a i n e d c o n t e n t c a n b e u s e d to
t e a c h a c a d e m i c w ritin g.
T o m l i n s o n , B.. e d . 1998. M a te r ia ls D e w d o p m e n l in
L a n g u a g e le a c h in g . C a m b r i d g e : C a m b r i d g e
U n iv e r s ity Press.
T h i s c o l l e c t i o n i n c l u d e s c h a p t e r s o n (1) d a t a
c o l l e c t i o n a n d m a t e r i a l s d e v e l o p m e n t , (2) t h e
p r o c e s s o f m a t e r i a l s w r it in g . (3) t h e p r o c e s s of
m a t e r i a l s e v a l u a t i o n , a n d (4) id e a s f o r m a t e r i a l '
d e v e l o p m e n t . In a c h a p t e r ti t l e d " W h a t D o
T e a c h e r s R e a ll v M a m f r o m C o u r s c b o o k s . - "
H. M a s u h a r a d iscu sses th e im p o r t a n c e fo r
m a t e r i a l s d e v e l o p m e n t o f n e e d s an aly sis th a t
p r o v i d e s i n f o r m a t i o n n o t ju s t a b o u t t h e neecU
o f l e a r n e r s b u t a ls o a b o u t t h e n e e d s a n d p r e f e r ­
e n c e s o f te a c h e r s .
U r. P. 199b. A C ourse in L a n g u a g e le a c h in g : P ractice a m
Theory. C a m b r i d g e : C a m b r i d g e U n iv e rs ity P r e s '
T h i s m e t h o d s b o o k i n c l u d e s a t e x t b o o k e v a lu a ­
ti o n c h e c k l is t (see p a g e 186) a l o n g w ith h e lp f u l
i n s t r u c t i o n s f o r v a t s to analv/.e t h e c r i t e r i a t l n r
will b e u s e d in a p a r t i c u l a r e v a l u a t i o n p ro c e s s
T h e s e c t i o n o n "U s in g a C o u r s e b o o k " e x e m p l i ­
fies a c o m m o n p r o b l e m in m e t h o d s b o o k s . T h e
e n t i r e fo c u s o f this s e c t io n is o n p r o b a b l e limit-
a n d fa ilin g s o f a t e x t b o o k a n d wavs to o v e r c o m e
t h e m w ith s u p p l e m e n t a r y m a t e r i a ls . T h a t is, n>
d i s t i n c t i o n o r t r a n s i t i o n is m a d e f r o m evaluatin'.,
f o r s e l e c ti o n to analvsis f o r i m p l e m e n t a t i o n .
Bvrcl. P. 200 0. Is su es in t e x t b o o k s e l e c t i o n a n d use
R e s o u r c e s f r o m a v a rie ty of d is c i p l i n a r y areas.
D e v e l o p e d as p a r t o f t h e p r o c e s s o f w r i t i n g th >
c h a p t e r , th is list i n c l u d e s r e s o u r c e s t h a t shew
t h e c o m m o n c o n c e r n s a b o u t t e x t b o o k s a c ro s s
v a rie ty o f d i s c ip l in e s . T h e list will b e u p d a t e d or.
a r e g u l a r basis. S u g g e s t i o n s f o r a d d i t i o n s to th e
list c a n b e e - m a i l e d to t h e a u t h o r s t h r o u g h a
li n k p r o v i d e d o n t h e site.
http: www.gsu.edu/~eslhpb m aterial/
textbooks.htm
 Sample Checklist for Textbook Evaluation
Source: D a o u c l . A .-M .. a n d C e l c e - M u r c i a , M . 1 9 / 9 . S e l e c t i n g a n d e v a l u a t i n g a t e x t b o o k . I n M . C e l c e - M u r c i a a n d
I.. M c I n t o s h , e d s . T e a c h in g E n g lish as a S e co n d or Foreign L a n g u a g e ( p p . 3 0 2 - 3 0 7 ) . N e w Y o r k : N c w b u r v H o u s e .

Totally lacking
Adequate
Excellent
T h e C h e cklist

W eak
Good
The Textbook
a. S u b je c t m a t t e r

i
1. D o e s th e su b je c t m a t t e r c o v e r a v a r ie t y o f to p ic s a p p ro p ria te t o th e in te re s ts 4 3 2 1 0
o f th e le a rn e rs f o r w h o m th e t e x t b o o k is in te n d e d (u rb a n o r ru ra l e n v iro n m e n t;
ch ild o r a d u lt le a rn e rs ; m a le a n d / o r fe m a le s tu d e n ts )?
2. Is th e o r d e r in g o f m a te ria ls d o n e by to p ic s o r th e m e s th a t a re a rra n g e d in a logical
fa sh io n ?
3. Is th e c o n t e n t g ra d e d a c c o rd in g t o th e n e e d s o f th e s tu d e n ts o r th e re q u ire m e n ts
o f th e e x is tin g sylla b u s (if t h e r e is o n e )?
4. Is th e m a te ria l a c c u r a t e an d up -to -d ate?

b. V o c a b u la r y and s t ru c tu re s
1. D o e s th e v o c a b u la r y lo a d (i.e., th e n u m b e r o f n e w w o r d s in t ro d u c e d e v e r y le s so n )
s e e m t o b e re a s o n a b le f o r th e s tu d e n ts o f t h a t level?
2. A r e th e v o c a b u la r y ite m s c o n tr o lle d to e n s u re s y s te m a tic g ra d a tio n fro m sim p le
t o c o m p le x ite m s?
3. Is th e n e w v o c a b u la r y re p e a te d in s u b s e q u e n t le s so n s f o r r e in fo rc e m e n t?
4. D o e s th e s e n t e n c e len g th s e e m re a s o n a b le f o r th e s tu d e n ts o f th a t level?
5. Is th e n u m b e r o f g ra m m a tic a l p o in ts as w e ll as th e ir s e q u e n c e a p p ro p ria te ?
6. D o t h e s t r u c tu r e s g ra d u a lly in c re a s e in c o m p le x it y t o su it th e g r o w in g rea d in g
a b ility o f th e s tu d e n ts ?
7. D o e s th e w r i t e r u se c u r r e n t e v e r y d a y language, and s e n t e n c e s t r u c tu r e s th a t f o llo w
n o rm a l w o r d o r d e r ?
8. D o th e s e n te n c e s and p a ra g ra p h s f o llo w o n e a n o t h e r in a logical s e q u e n c e ?
9. A r e lin gu istic ite m s in t ro d u c e d in m ean in g fu l situ a tio n s to fa c ilita te u n d e rs ta n d in g
and e n s u re a s sim ila tio n and c o n s o lid a tio n ?

c. E x e rc is e s
1. D o th e e x e rc is e s d e v e lo p c o m p r e h e n s io n and te s t k n o w le d g e o f m ain id eas, d etails,
and s e q u e n c e o f id eas?
2. D o th e e x e rc is e s in v o lv e v o c a b u la r y and s t r u c tu r e s w h ic h build up th e le a rn e r's
r e p e r t o ir e ?
3. D o th e e x e rc is e s p ro v id e p ra c t ic e in d iffe re n t ty p e s o f w r it t e n w o r k (s e n te n c e
c o m p le tio n , sp ellin g and d ic ta tio n , g u id e d c o m p o s it io n )?
4. D o e s th e b o o k p ro v id e a p a tte rn o f re v ie w w ith in lessons and cu m u latively te s t n e w
m aterial?
5. D o th e e x e rc is e s p r o m o t e m e an in g fu l c o m m u n ic a tio n by re fe rrin g to re a listic
a c tiv itie s an d s itu a tio n s ?

d. Illu s tra tio n s

1. D o illu s tra tio n s c r e a t e a fa v o ra b le a t m o s p h e r e f o r p ra c t ic e in re a d in g and sp ellin g
by d e p ic tin g re a lism and a c tio n ?
2. A r e th e illu s tra tio n s clear, sim p le , and fre e o f u n n e c e s s a r y d e ta ils th a t m ay c o n fu s e
th e le a rn e r?
3. A r e th e illu s tra tio n s p rin te d c lo s e e n o u g h t o th e t e x t an d d ir e c tly re la te d t o th e
c o n t e n t t o h e lp th e le a r n e r u n d e rs ta n d th e p rin te d te x t?
 e. P h y s ic a l m ake-up
1. Is th e c o v e r o f th e b o o k d u ra b le e n o u g h t o w ith s ta n d w e a r ?
2. Is th e t e x t a t t r a c t iv e (i.e., c o v e r, page a p p e a ra n c e , b in d in g )?
3. D o e s th e size o f th e b o o k s e e m c o n v e n ie n t f o r t h e s tu d e n ts t o h a n d le ?
4. Is th e t y p e size a p p r o p r ia te f o r th e in te n d e d le a rn e rs ?

The Teacher’s Manual

a. G e n e r a l fe a tu re s
1. D o e s t h e m an u al h e lp th e t e a c h e r u n d e rs ta n d th e ra tio n a le o f th e T e x t b o o k
(o b je c tiv e s , m e th o d o lo g y )?
2. D o e s th e m an u al g u id e th e t e a c h e r to an y s e t syllab u s f o r th a t level?
3. D o e s th e in d e x o f th e m an u al g u id e th e t e a c h e r t o th e v o c a b u la ry , s tru c tu re s ,
and to p ic s fo u n d in th e T e x tb o o k ?
4. A r e c o r r e c t o r su g g ested a n s w e r s p ro v id e d f o r all o f th e e x e rc is e s in th e t e x t b o o k ?
5. Is th e ra tio n a le f o r th e g iven s e q u e n c e o f g r a m m a r p o in ts c le a r ly s ta te d ?

b. T y p e and a m o u n t o f s u p p le m e n ta r y e x e rc is e s f o r ea ch language skill

1. D o e s th e M a n u a l p ro v id e m a te ria l f o r tra in in g th e s tu d e n ts in listen in g and
u n d e rs ta n d in g th e sp o k e n language?
2. D o e s th e M a n u a l p ro v id e m a te ria l f o r tra in in g th e s tu d e n ts in o ra l e x p re s s io n ?
3. D o e s th e M a n u a l suggests a d e q u a te and v a rie d o ra l e x e rc is e s f o r re in fo rc in g p o in ts
o f g r a m m a r p re s e n te d in th e te x t b o o k ?
4. D o e s th e M a n u a l p r o v id e d rills and e x e rc is e s th a t e n a b le th e t e a c h e r to h elp th e
s tu d e n ts build up t h e ir v o c a b u la r y ?
5. D o e s th e M a n u a l p r o v id e q u e s tio n s to h elp th e t e a c h e r te s t th e s t u d e n ts ’ rea d in g
c o m p r e h e n s io n ?
6. D o e s th e M a n u a l p r o v id e a d e q u a te g ra d e d m a te ria l fo r a d d itio n a l w r itin g p ra c tic e ?

c. M e th o d o lo g ic a l/ p e d a g o g ic a l g u id a n c e
1. D o e s th e M a n u a l h elp th e t e a c h e r w it h ea ch n e w ty p e o f lesso n in tro d u c e d ?
2. D o e s th e M a n u a l p ro v id e su g g e stio n s t o h e lp th e t e a c h e r r e v ie w o ld le sso n s
an d in t r o d u c e n e w le sso n s?
3. D o e s th e M a n u a l p ro v id e p ra c tic a l su g g e stio n s f o r te a c h in g p ro n u n c ia tio n and
in to n a tio n ?
4. D o e s th e m an u al p r o v id e su g g estio n s t o h elp th e t e a c h e r in t r o d u c e n e w rea d in g
passages?
5. D o e s th e M a n u a l p ro v id e g u id a n c e t o th e t e a c h e r f o r in tro d u c in g v a rio u s ty p e s o f
w r it t e n w o r k ?
6. D o e s th e M a n u a l p r o v id e g u id a n c e t o th e t e a c h e r f o r e v a lu a tin g w r it t e n w o r k and
id e n tify in g th e s t u d e n ts ’ m o s t s e r io u s m ista k e s?
7. D o e s th e M a n u a l a d v is e th e t e a c h e r o n th e u se o f a u d io visu a l aids?

d. L in g u istic b a c k g ro u n d in fo rm a tio n
1. D o e s th e M a n u a l p ro v id e c o n tr a s tiv e in fo rm a tio n f o r th e t e a c h e r o n likely
p ro n u n c ia tio n p ro b le m s ?
2. A r e En glish v o c a b u la r y ite m s an d English s t r u c tu r e s w e ll e x p la in e d ?
3. A r e lists o f c o g n a te w o r d s ( t r u e an d false c o g n a te s ) p ro v id e d f o r th e te a c h e r ?
4. D o e s t h e M a n u a l p r o v id e in fo rm a tio n o n g r a m m a r t o h elp th e t e a c h e r ex p la in
g ra m m a tic a l p a tte rn s p re s e n te d in th e le sso n s and a n tic ip a te lik ely p ro b le m s (i.e., d a ta
fr o m c o n t r a s t iv e an alysis an d e r r o r an a lysis)?
 Textbook Evaluation Checklist
Source: P a tr ic i a B m x I a n d M a r i a n n e C e lc e - M n r c i a

E v a lu a tio n o f t h e fit Yes Perh ap s Probably not Absolutely not

(a g o o d fit) (an a d e q u a te (a p o o r fit) (w r o n g f o r
fit) c u rric u lu m ,
stu d e n ts , a n d / o r
te a ch e rs)

Fit between the textbook and the curriculum

* fits c u rric u lu m / g o a ls

* has a p p r o p r ia te lin gu istic c o n t e n t

* has a p p r o p r ia te th e m a t ic c o n t e n t

* fits th e p e d a g o g ica l an d S L A p h ilo s o p h y

o f th e p ro g ra m / c o u rs e

Fit between the textbook and the students

* e x p la n a tio n s u n d e rs ta n d a b le an d u sa b le
f o r s tu d e n ts

* e x a m p le s u n d e rs ta n d a b le and u sa b le
f o r s tu d e n ts

* a c tiv itie s a p p r o p r ia te f o r s tu d e n ts

* th e m a t ic c o n t e n t u n d e rs ta n d a b le and
c u ltu r a lly a p p r o p r ia te f o r s tu d e n ts

Fit between the textbook and the teachers

* fits th e language skills o f o u r te a c h e r s

* fits th e k n o w le d g e - b a s e o f o u r t e a c h e r s

* p ro v id e s e x p la n a tio n s t h a t can b e u sed

b y o u r te a c h e r s

* p ro v id e s e x a m p le s th a t can b e u sed
and e x p a n d e d b y o u r te a c h e r s

* fits th e n e e d s an d p re fe re n c e s
o f o u r te a c h e r s

* p ro v id e s in - b o o k o r in s tr u c to r 's m an u al
s u p p o rt fo r te a ch e rs

Overall evaluation of the fit of the book for this course in this program

S h o u ld th e t e x t b e s e le c te d /
 When the Teacher Is
a Non-native Speaker
P ЁТЕ R M E D G Y E S
In "W h e n the Teacher Is a Non-native Speaker" Medgyes examines the differences in teaching
behavior between native and non-native teachers of English, and then specifies the causes o f those
differences. The aim of the discussion is to raise the awareness o f both groups of teachers to their
respective strengths and weaknesses, and thus help them becom e better teachers,
IN T R O D U C T IO N
It is com m onplace to state today that English is
the unrivaled lingua franca of the world, and
th at it is rolling ah ead like a juggernaut. In ou r
age of globalization, Fishm an's rem ark th at "the
sun never sets on the English language" (1982.
p. 18) rings tru e r than ever, an d although there
is no g u a ra n te e o f e te rn a l hegem onv, the
chances are that English will reign suprem e for
several m ore decades. T he fact that the n u m b er
o f second a n d foreign language speakers of
English far exceeds the n u m b er of first language
speakers o f English (G raddol 1997 ) im plies that
the English language is no longer the privilege
o f native speakers; the suggestion that S tandard
British English and A m erican English should be
su p e rse d e d bv E nglish as an In te rn a tio n a l
Language can be heard with increasing frequence.
Nevertheless, people who speak English as their
native language continue to have a distinct advan­
tage o \e r those for w hom it is a foreign tongue.
Put differently, non-native speakers of English
find it hard to com pete with native speakers on
equal term s, and this linguistic handicap applies
to non-native teachers of English as well.
Native speakers an d non-native speakers
used to be considered two different an d clearly
distinguishable categories. In rec e n t years, how­
ever, this view has com e u n d e r heavy attack, as a
grow ing n u m b e r o f researchers have discovered
the am biguities with which this dichotom v is
loaded. New term s, alleged to b e tte r reflect the
com plex n a tu re o f linguistic heritage and profi­
ciency, have been recom m ended to project new
concepts and identities. .Although there are per­
suasive argum ents against the native/non-native
dichotom v, m ost o f them legitim ate on any
g round— linguistic, educational, ideological, or
pragm atic— none of the alternative phrases have
come into com m on use.
T he controversv over native versus n o n ­
native distinction has also b een b ro u g h t to bear
on language pedagogy a n d ELT m ethodology.
T h e "native English-speaking tea c h e r” (NEST)
a n d its opposite, the “non-native English-speak­
ing teacher" (non-N EST), have b een d e e m e d
politicallv incorrect phrases, a n d those who still
use them can expect to be accused o f em ploying
d isc rim in a to rv lan g u ag e. N ev erth eless, th e
su p e ro rd in a te term s "native speaker” an d “n o n ­
native speaker” seem to persist in the language
use of researchers a n d teachers alike. T h e rea­
son for the perseverance of these term s may be
that m ost teachers, as well as th eir students, do
com e from e ith e r E nglish-speaking o r non-
English-speaking countries; m ost o f th em are
e ith e r native o r non-native speakers o f English.
But even a bilingual o r polyglot whose identity
may be equivocal seem s to display d o m in a n t fea­
tures of belonging. T h erefo re, it is suggested
that the dichotom y, for all its shortcom ings,
should not be rejected, overlooked, o r blu rred ,
but ra th e r subjected to close scrutiny.
This chapter attem pts to do ju st that: it strives
to exam ine differences in teaching behavior
between NESTs and non-NESTs, and then specify
the causes of those differences. By draw ing on
b oth em pirical evidence and on experience, it
argues that m ost of the archetypal deviations
betw een the two groups of teachers are ultimately
attributable to their divergent language back­
grounds. This is not the same as suggesting that a
high d eg ree o f E nglish-language proficiency
alone is a g u arantee for successful teaching.
In d ee d , despite th e ir linguistic im p ed im en t,
non-NESTs have an equal chance o f becom ing
successful teachers, and it is the advantages that
they have over NESTs with which this c h ap ter is
chiefly concerned. A lthough pride o f place is
g ran te d to the te a c h e r’s language proficiency
th ro u g h o u t the discussion, th ere is no denving
the im portance o f o th e r attributes, most notablv
teaching qualifications, professional skills, and
experience. (The role these attributes plav in the
te a c h in g /le a rn in g process is exam ined in detail
in o th e r chapters o f this volume.)
W H O IS T H E N A TIV E SPEAKER?
The Linguistic Perspective
W ho is a native speaker? A native speaker of
English is traditionally defined as som eone who
speaks English as his or h e r native language, also
called m o th e r tongue, first language, o r L.l. T he
n e x t question th a t springs to m ind is: W hat qual­
ifies som eone as a native speaker? A m ong the
criteria for “native sp eak erh o o d ,” the m ost oft-
cited and, at first glance, m ost straightforw ard
o n e is birth (Davies 1991). T hat is to sav, a native
speaker of English is an individual who was b o rn
in an English-speaking countrv. T h e trouble with
this is th at b irth does n ot always d eterm in e lan­
guage identity. W hat ab o u t C hristine, for exam ­
ple, who was b o rn in the U nited States, b u t
m oved to A ustria at the age o f one, after she h ad
b een a d o p te d bv A ustrian parents? Since she
never learn ed to speak English, it w ould be odd
to define h e r as a native speaker o f English. O r
take Kevin, b o rn in the U nited States, who w ent
to live in Togo with his family w hen he was four,
an d subsequently a tte n d e d a F rench school. Is
he a native speaker o f English or F re n c h — or
b o th, o r neither? If not b irth, is it c h ild h o o d th a t
u n d e rp in s native speakerhood? But what is the
range o f childhood? W here does it begin and
w here does it end?
T he situation becom es fu rth e r com plicated
if we consider offspring from m ixed m arriages.
T h e re is eight-vear-old Pablo, fo r exam ple,
whose fath e r is C olom bian a n d whose m o th e r is
Finnish. Provided b o th parents speak to him in
th eir respective native language, Pablo becom es
bilingual. However, if the familv lives perm a-
nentlv in Australia, the bov becom es a trilingual
speaker. Does this include the possibility that
Pablo is a native speaker o f English?
A nother problem has to do with the fuzzi­
ness of geographical entities. W hich countries
qualifv as English-speaking countries? T he U nited
States, the U nited Kingdom, Australia, and a few
m ore. But how about such countries as India.
Nigeria, o r Singapore, w here English, though
widelv spoken, is not the native language for the
majority of the population and its use is lim ited to
particular spheres of life? O n the o th e r hand,
these countries also differ from countries like
Poland. Peru, or Japan, where very few children
en co u n ter English at anv great lengths before
thev have form al school instruction.
Recognizing the difficulty of setting up a
division line betw een English- and non-English-
speaking countries, Kachrtt (1985) arranged
countries into three concentric circles. T he Innc
Circle includes nations where English is the pri­
mary language. T he countries in the Outer Circle
have been historically affected bv the spread ot
English, often as colonies; in these m ultilingual
settings English is the second language, generalb
the m ajor intranational m eans of com m unication.
T he Expanding Circle involves nations which haw
accepted English as the most im portant in tern a­
tional language of com m unication and teach it as
a foreign language. However, in K achru’s visual
representation the differences are not watertight
and countries in each circle exhibit a great deal ot
variation and internal mobility.
The Educational Perspective
T he native speaker m odel is not only the con­
cern o f linguists and sociolinguists, but is an
issue which has fueled debate am o n g language
educators as well. T he controversy becam e partic­
ularly acrim onious in the 1980s and early 1990s.
T here were a n u m b er o f researchers who claim ed
that there is no such creature as the native or
non-native speaker, an opinion well ren d e re d bv
the title of a seminal book, The Native Speaker Is
Dead! (Paikedav 1985). Ferguson form ulated this
radical approach as follows: “T he whole mystique
o f the native speaker and the m o th er tongue
should probably be quietly d ro p p ed from the lin­
guist’s set o f professional myths about language"
(1982, p.vii).
C onsidered to be useless, the n a tiv e /n o n -
native dichotom y was to be rep laced bv new
concepts an d new term s, in clu d in g more or less
accomplished an d proficient users o f English, expert
versus novice speakers, and bilingual speakers to
include both natives fluent in a n o th e r language
and non-natives fluent in English. In similar
fashion, Kachru (1992) spoke o f Tnglish-using
speech fellowships to stress “we-ness” instead of the
rigid “us and them " division.
In spite of the cogent argum ents against the
native/non-native separation, the polem ic seems
to have abated these dais, and the w eathered
term s “native speakers" and “non-native speakers"
are as widely used in the professional jargon todav
as ever. But why is this distinction so im pervious to
change? T here are at least two possible answers.
T he m ore down-to-earth answer is that the m ajor­
ity of people are not borderline: thev clearly
belong to eith er the group of native speakers or
to that of the non-native speakers of English. T he
m ore paradoxical answer is that the native
non-native ep ith et is useful, to quote Hallidav,
“precisely because it isn't too closelv defined"
(cited in Paikedav 1985. p. 64). In a similar vein,
Davies rem arked that "the native speaker is a fine
myth: we need it as a m odel, a goal, alm ost an
inspiration. But it is useless as a m easure; it will
not help us define o u r goals" (1996, p. 157).
Speaking o f goals, what are the goals of lan­
guage learning? For m ost learners, the ultim ate
aim is an effective use of the target language.
People seldom aspire to m ore th an w hat they
find professionally an d personally necessary. It is
a case of quid pro quo. R em em ber that the
a tta in m e n t o f native proficiency in English not
only dem ands strenuous efforts, b u t it may also
lead to a loss of native identity in o n e ’s T 1— a
price m any w ould find far too g reat to pay.
N evertheless, can any le a rn e r h o p e to
achieve full m astery o f a second language, with
all its linguistic subtleties and cultural allusions?
Most researchers agree that this is an im possible
task for the overw helm ing m ajority after puberty,
but exceptions do exist. This induces fu rth e r
questions: W hat are the criteria for native profi­
ciency? W hat is the cut-off p o in t betw een native
proficiency and various levels o f non-native p ro ­
ficiency? R esearchers are ra th e r skeptical ab o u t
the feasibility o f designing adequate m easuring
instrum ents to separate the two groups. This
being the case, Davies (1991) points out, m em ­
bership to one o r the o th e r category is n o t so
m uch a priv ilege o f birth, education, o r language
proficiency as a m atter o f self-ascription, hr o th er
words, anyone who claims to be a native speaker
is o n e — with the proviso, Kramsch observes, that
thev are in fact accepted “bv the group that
created the distinction betw een native a n d n o n ­
native speakers" (1997, p. 363). However, ju st as
non-native outsiders tvpicallv do not w ant to tu rn
into natives, native insiders are n o t always eager
to adm it non-natives. In short, mobility betw een
the two groups is possible but rare.
The Ownership o f English
G ranted that the m ajority of non-native speakers
do not m etam orphose into natives, can thev still
claim ow nership o f English? O r does English
rem ain the property7 of natives by virtue of their
better language proficiency and stronger cultural
affiliation?
In this regard, W iddowson forcefully sums
up the view o f m any o th er ELT professionals. H e
argues that English is an international language,
which implies that “it is n o t a possession which
[native speakers] lease out to others, while still
retaining the freehold. O th e r people actually own
it" (1994. p. 385). In a similar way, N orton con­
tends that English “belongs to all the people who
speak it, w hether native and non-native, w hether
ESL o r EFL, w hether standard o r n o n sta n d a rd ”
(1997, р. 427). T he validity of these statem ents
can be proven m ost spectacularly bv the exam ple
o f such em in en t tw entieth-century novelists as
C onrad, Nabokov, o r Sovinka, all o f them being
non-native speakers of English, writing in English.
Far m ore generally, however, it is claim ed that any
non-native speaker who engages in genuine com ­
m unication can use the second language cre­
ative!}', m olding it until it becom es an adequate
tool o f self-expression. In short, the ideal o f the
m ultilingual, m ulticultural speaker to replace
th at o f the m onolingual, m onocultural speaker is
gaining g ro u n d in the professional literature
(Kramsch 1997).
This brings us to the subject o f English as
an In tern atio n al Language (EIL). W hile E li. as a
linguistic c o n stru c t is a c c e p te d bv m ost
researchers, it is m ore controversial w h eth er EIL
is a special kind of S tandard English with norm s
distinct from those of o th e r stan d ard Englishes,
o r any kind o f S tandard English used in in te rn a ­
tional settings. It has also been observed that,
short of a p ro p e r description of its gram m ar. EIL
is no m ore th an an idealization, an am algam of
beliefs a n d assum ptions about rules and norm s
to which people a d h e re with varying degrees of
success (Medgyes 1999a). Paradoxically, it is
teachers a n d learners from m onolingual EFL
settings who typically are doubtful th at deviation
from stan d ard norm s is acceptable (Jenkins
1998), while the staunchest advocates of EIL as a
self-contained entity are m ost com m only fo u n d
am o n g applied linguists and teachers who speak
English as th eir native language.
Hiring Policies
Let us now turn to the teaching profession within
the fram ew ork o f the native/non-native dichot­
omy. W hile non-native speakers of English are
generally co n tented with their non-native status,
non-native teachers o f English often feel disad­
vantaged a n d discrim inated against. T h e ir com ­
p la in t is m ainlv leveled at u n e q u a l job
o p portunities: teaching applications from even
highly qualified and experien ced non-XESTs
often get tu rn e d down in favor o f XESTs with no
such credentials. For exam ple, here is a letter o f
rejection sent to a non-XEST applicant by the
principal o f a language school in London: “I am
afraid we have to insist that all ou r teachers are
native speakers o f English. O u r students do not
travel halfwav ro u n d the world only to be taught
by a non-native speaker (however good that per­
so n ’s English mav b e )” (Illes 1991, p. 87).
Language schools which advertise th em ­
selves as em ploying onlv native English speaker*
often do so with the excuse that XESTs are better
for public relations a n d im prove business.
A n o th er explanation is th eir clients’ alleged
needs. With reference to newlv arrived im m i­
grants in the U nited States, an Am erican teacher
argued that "a teacher's lack o f native instinct*
ab o u t A m erican English usage an d cultural
expectations could be detrim ental to [the im m i­
grants'] chances in job interviews" (Safadi 1992
In spite of these argum ents, hiring prac­
tices in the two ELT strongholds, the U nitec
States and the Udiked K ingdom , are in a state re
transition. W hile in the past, m ajor organiza­
tions involved in ELT often shut th eir eyes to di*-
crim in atio n against non-XESTs, albeit never
officially end o rsin g it, todav the sam e institu­
tions are in the habit of m aking clear a n d pr< -
gressive police statem ents. Incidentally, the mo*'
im p o rtan t resolution was the one passed by tin
Executive B oard of TESOL in 1991, which no:
onlv expressed its disapproval of d iscrim in ato r
hiring policies, but also d ecided to take steps t
abolish all form s o f restriction based on tin.
applicant's native language.
It m ust be adm itted, though, that discrim i­
nation in hiring policies is not a priority issue i:.
m ost parts of the world, m ainlv because the p er­
centage of non-XESTs in search o f a teaching j o ’
in E nglish-speaking c o u n tries is negligible
Perhaps to a lesser extent todav than in the pas:
non-XESTs tvpicallv work in EFL and XESTs ir.
ESL environm ents. W hile brain drain does n o
seriously affect the language teaching profession
o th e r form s o f discrim ination are far m ore acute
The Center and the Periphery
T he C e n te r/P e rip h e ry dichotom y was im porter,
into ELT bv Phillipson (1992). To the Center
b e lo n g pow erful W estern c o u n tries w here
English is the native language, w hereas the
P e rip h e ry is c o n stitu te d o f u n d e rd e v e lo p e d
countries w here English is a second or foreign
language. ELT today is a huge enterprise and. as
Phillipson argues, organizations as well as indi­
viduals from the C enter have high stakes in m ain­
tain in g its o p e ra tio n . R esearch projects, aid
program s, an d tra in in g courses are ru n bv
a n d /o r in the Center, quite often u n d e r the aus­
pices o f pow erful governm ent agencies such as
the U nited States Inform ation Service a n d the
British Council. S tandard ELT m ethodologies
are often based on the needs and background
o f the NEST who teaches in an ESL rath e r
th an an EFL e n v iro n m en t (H ollidav 1994).
R ecom m endations subm itted bv native speaker
experts are often taken at face value and acted
u p o n by local authorities.
In ordinary classrooms in the Periphery.
Phillipson states, XESTs are invariable granted
jobs with a salary far exceeding that paid to local
teachers. In certain co untries an d historical
circum stances, even backpackers with no teach­
ing qualifications o r teaching experience are
ex ten d ed a warm welcome. T he ELT business is
backed by a book trade which s e n e s the interests
o f the C enter and dissem inates its prevailing ide­
ologies an d m ethodologies. C om m unicative lan­
guage teaching often is im posed on Periphery
classrooms while tried and tested m ethods are
c o n d e m n e d , despite th eir popularity am ong
teachers and learners (Liu 1999). Most textbooks
im p o rted from the C e n te r not only destroy
national ELT publishing, but also are ill-suited
for local needs, projecting a “to-whom-it-may-
concern" aura. As a consequence, P eriphery
experts b ecom e m ore and m ore d e p e n d e n t
on th e C enter-based ELT estab lish m en t
(Canagarajah 1999), and the attainm ent o f sus­
tainability rem ains but wishful thinking as a rule.
T he needs an d attributes o f local teachers
had b een all but ig n o re d until th e 1990s, w hen
an interest in the non-XEST gained m om entum .
This recognition was long overdue considering
that, there are far m ore non-NESTs in the "world
than XESTs, and that their num bers are rapidlv
growing. In addition to num erous articles and a
collection o f essays written on the subject (Braine
1999), a full-length book is wholly devoted to
an analysis of the distinguishing features of non-
XF.STs (Meclgves 1994). Most o f the ideas p re­
sented below har e b een borrow ed from this book.
N E STS A N D N O N -N E S T S :
PRO SAND CONS
As m e n tio n e d above, native sp e ak e rh o o d is
an intricate concept, which includes birth, e d u ­
cation, the en v iro n m en t in which the individual
is exposed to English, the sequence in which
languages are learned, levels of proficiency, self-
confidence, cultural affiliation, self-identification,
and political allegiance. T here are two wavs out of
this m a/e. O ne is to shortcut it bv ab andoning the
neatlv d efin ed categories o f native versus
non-native, offering instead the im age of a line,
along which non-natives move towards the native
end. T he o th er route leads through the retention
of the native/non-native construct for all its
a p p a re n t weaknesses. From a theoretical stance,
the first o ption appears m ore prom ising. From a
practical point of view, however, the second one is
m ore straightforw ard, if onlv because the larger
part of the world's teaching pool falls into two
fairlv clear-cut categories: XESTs an d non-NESTs.
H ence the decision to choose the second route
for the purposes of this chapter.
Most commonly, a non-NEST may be defined
as a teacher:
■ for w hom English is a second or foreign
language;
* who works in an EFL environm ent;
■ whose students are m onolingual groups
of learners;
* who speaks the same native language as his
or h e r students.
This definition only partially applies to a
m uch sm aller group, th at o f non-native teachers
who work in ESL environm ents, often with stu­
d en ts from h e te ro g e n e o u s linguistic back­
grounds. Bv extension, the NEST may be defined
as the opposite of the non-NEST, m ost character­
istically as a teacher who speaks English as a
native language.
 T he basic assum ption, th en , is that NESTs
an d non-NESTs are two different species, and
teachers b elo n g to eith e r this or that category.
Given this, fo u r assum ptions follow (Medgyes
1994):
1. NESTs an d non-XESTs differ in term s of
th eir language proficiency
2. They differ in term s of their teaching behavior
3. T h e discrepance- in language proficiencv
accounts for m ost o f the differences fo u n d
in th eir teaching behavior
4. Thev can be equallv good teachers on th eir
own term s
In o rd e r to validate his assu m p tio n s.
Medgyes carried out a snrvev which included
325 teachers from 11 countries; 86 p e rc e n t of
the participants were non-natives an d 14 p e r­
cen t natives. A lthough the sam ple was fairly
large, the a u th o r suggested caution in in te rp re t­
ing the results, largely because the project teas
b ased on q u e stio n n a ire -e lic ite d self-reports,
which reflect a teacher's stated behavior rath e r
th an his o r h e r actual behavior; th ere mav be a
wide gap betw een the two. In any case, the
results re p o rte d h e re have been obtain ed from
this snrvev; for detailed statistical analvses, see
Reves a n d Medgyes 1994.
The Linguistic Handicap
N ot surprisingly, the prim ary advantage attrib ­
u ted to NESTs lies in th eir su p erio r English-lan­
guage com petence. T h eir superiority was fo u n d
particularlv spectacular in th eir ability to use the
language spontaneouslv an d in the m ost diverse
com m unicative situations. Non-NESTs, on the
whole, are well at rare o f th eir linguistic deficien­
cies an d of the all-pervasive n a tu re o f their
handicap. In no area o f English-language profi­
ciencv can thev em ulate NESTs: snrvev partici­
pants viewed them selves as p o o re r listeners,
speakers, readers, and writers. True enough,
long stays in English-speaking countries, hard
work, an d dedication m ight help narrow the
gap, b u t verv few non-NESTs are ever able to
catch up with their native colleagues. A lien asked
to identify' the m ajor source of difficulty, m ost
non-NEST participants m en tio n ed vocabulary,
to g eth er with idiom atic a n d appropriate use of
English. This was followed bv problem s in speak­
ing an d fluenev. pronunciation, and listening.
G ram m ar featured to a far lesser extent and so
did writing skills, whereas reading skills and cul­
tural knowledge were not even m entioned.
Manv non-NESTs participating in the sur-
vev c o m m en ted ab o u t th eir inferioritv com plex
caused bv the defects in th eir English-language
proficiencv and about som e kind of cognitive
dissonance due to the double role thev played a>
b o th teachers and learners of the sam e subject.
All these problem s to g eth e r constitute the dark
side of being a non-NEST. In view o f these
results, the first assum ption, nam elv that NEST-
an d non-NESTs differ in term s of th eir language
proficiencv. mav be reg ard ed as confirm ed.
Differences in Teaching Behavior
W hen asked w h eth er thev perceived any differ­
ences in teaching behavior betw een NESTs anc
non-NESTs. 82 p e rc e n t o f the participants gar г
a positive answer. F u rth erm o re, thev stressec
that the discrepance in language p ro fic ie n t-
acco u n ted for m ost of the differences found ir.
th eir teaching behavior. Thus b o th the second
and th ird assum ptions above seem to have beer,
b o rn e out bv the survev findings. T he collator:
results are supplied u n d e r com prehensive h e a d ­
ings in Table 1.
In explaining the differences, m anv partic­
ipants p o in te d out that non-XESTs are usualk
p reo ccu p ied with accuracv, the form al featu re'
o f English, the nuts and bolts o f gram m ar, the
p rin te d word, and form al registers. Many lac-
fluenev. h are a lim ited insight into the intrica­
cies o f m eaning, are often in d o u b t ab o u t a p p ro ­
priate language use, have p o o r listening anc
speaking skills, a n d are n o t fam iliar with collo­
quial English. It is only logical to assum e that
non-NESTs place an em phasis on those aspect'
of the language that thev have a b e tte r grasp ot
If thev have a restricted know ledge o f context
thev ten d to teach unfam iliar language elem en t'
 Table I. Perceived Differences in Teaching Behavior Between N ESTs and N on-N ESTs

N ESTs N on-N ESTs

own use o f English
speak better English speak poorer English
use real language use “ bookish” language
use English more confidently use English less confidently

general attitude
adopt a more flexible approach adopt a more guided approach
are more innovative are more cautious
are less empathetic are more empathetic
attend to perceived needs attend to real needs
have far-fetched expectations have realistic expectations
are more casual are stricter
are less committed are more committed

attitude to teaching the language

are less insightful are more insightful
focus on: focus on:
fluency accuracy
meaning form
language in use grammar rules
oral skills printed word
colloquial registers formal registers
teach items in context teach items in isolation
prefer free activities prefer controlled activities
favor group work/pair work favor frontal work
use a variety of materials use a single textbook
tolerate errors correct/punish for errors
set fewer tests set more tests
use no/less LI use more LI
resort to no/less translation resort to more translation
assign less homework assign more homework

attitude to teaching culture

supply more cultural information supply less cultural information

in a context-poor environm ent o r in isolation.
Preoccupied with their own language difficulties,
they are reluctant to loosen their grip over the
class. As group work and pair work often create
unpredictable situations full of linguistic traps,
non-NESTs favor m ore secure form s of classwork,
such as lock-step activities. Similar reasons were
claimed to account for the non-NESTs preference
for standard coursebooks, which by their very
nature provide security. For the same reason, non-
NESTs are inclined to adopt a m ore controlled and
cautious pedagogic approach. Incidentally, these
results tie in nicely with m ore recent data reported
by Samimv and Brutt-Griffler (1999). (Further
divergences displayed in Table 1 are dealt with in
the following sections.)
 Before providing argum ents to prove the
fo u rth assum ption, let us turn to a discussion of
certain advantages a ttrib u ted to non-XESTs over
NESTs.
The Bright Side o f Being
a N on-NEST
O n e item in th e q u estio n n aire in q u ired w h eth er
th e participants th o u g h t the NEST o r the non-
NEST was a b e tte r teacher. W hile an ap p ro x i­
m ately equal n u m b e r o f votes w ent for e ith e r
o p tio n (27 p e rc e n t for NESTs an d 29 p e rc e n t for
non-NESTs), 44 p e rc e n t in serted "both." an
alternative which h ad n o t even b een supplied in
the q uestionnaire. T he p ro p o rtio n of partici­
pants who chose non-NESTs as th eir favorites is
high, especially given th eir linguistic inferioritv.
It follows from this th at non-NESTs should be in
possession o f certain u n iq u e features that NESTs
lack. B ut w hat are they? W hat gives non-NESTs
th eir com petitive edge? W hat assets enable them
to m ake up for th eir linguistic handicap?
Partly inspired by the teachers participating
in th e survey, Medgves advanced a second set
o f assum ptions. Namely, c o m p ared to NESTs,
non-NESTs can:
1 . provide a b e tte r le a rn e r m odel:
2. teach lan g u a g e -le a rn in g strateg ies m ore
effectively;
3. supply m ore in form ation a b o u t the English
language;
4. b e tte r an ticipate a n d prev en t language
difficulties;
5. be m ore sensitive to th eir students;
6 . b enefit from th eir abilitv to use the stu d e n ts’
m o th e r tongue.
Below, we elaborate on these six assumptions.
I. Non-NESTs Provide a Better
Learner Model
Any language teacher can set two kinds of models
before the students: a language m odel and a
lea rn er m odel. M edgyes’s basic claim is that,
while NESTs m ake b e tte r language m odels, non-
NESTs can provide b e tte r learner m odels. In term s
of a language m odel, non-NESTs are relativelv
h in d ere d , since thev are learners o f English just
like th eir students, albeit at a h ig h er level.
A lthough a m ore proficient non-XEST is likelv
to provide a b e tte r language m odel th an a less
proficient one, non-NESTs c a n n o t rival NESTs.
In com pensation, as it were, onlv non-NESTs can
be set as p ro p e r le a rn e r m odels, since thev
learned English after thev acq u ired th eir native
language, unlike NESTs who acquired English as
th eir native language — two com pletelv different
processes (K rashen 1981).
A n o th er area o f investigation concerns a
com parison of learning success an d teaching
efficacv. In this regard, two questions may be
asked. T h e first one is, Do von have to be a suc­
cessful lea rn er in o rd e r to becom e a successful
teacher? M edgves’s answer is a tentative yes.
arguing that a successful teach er by definition i-
a successful lea rn er o f English: p o o r language
learners clo n ot m ake good language teachers.
This is not to deny that th ere are unsuccessful
learners equipped with outstanding teaching qual­
ities which help them offset their language defi­
ciencies. However, such teachers are few and far
between, and hence onlv those non-NESTs should
be set as m odels who are successful learners them ­
selves— anvthing less is a comprom ise.
T he second question is, Does every success­
ful lea rn er becom e a successful teacher? The
answer to this question is a definite no. If a per­
fect com m and were a sufficient prerequisite for
successful teaching, Medgves contends, NESTs
w ould bv definition be b e tte r teach ers— which
thev are not! W ith respect to non-NESTs, too. h
is com m on experience th at successful learner-
tu rn out to be lousv teachers. This may be
explained bv several factors, m ost evidently hi
in ad e q u a te professional training. It ap p eal-
th en . that success in learning English is a n e c e -
sarv but not a sufficient condition for success ir.
teaching it.
2. Non-NESTs Teach Language-learning
Strategies More Effectively
It is a truism th a t som e people pick up language-
m ore quickly an d effectively than others. Succe--
d ep en d s on several things, such as background.
m otivation, age, intelligence, ap titude, level of 3. Non-NESTs Supply More
education, and quality o f instruction, as well as Information About the English Language
know ledge o f o th e r foreign languages. An addi­
tional factor with a bearing on success is the use Any language teacher's expertise consists o f three
com ponents: (a) language proficiencv, (b) lan­
of language learning strategies. W hat are thev?
guage awareness, and (c) pedagogic skills. W hile
L an g u ag e le a rn in g strategies, a c c o rd in g to
language proficiency implies skills in the target
W enden a n d Rubin (1987), are specific actions
language, language awareness involves explicit
em ployed to facilitate the lea rn in g an d recall of
knowledge about the language, which does n o t
o n e o r several c o m p o n e n ts o f proficiencv.
necessarily assume near-native language profi­
Facilitation implies not only m aking the process
ciencv. In his o r h e r role as an instructor, the
easier, but also m aking it “faster, m ore enjovablc.
teacher obviously exhibits varying degrees o f p ed ­
m ore self-directed, m ore effective, and m ore trans-
agogic skills as well.
ferrable to new situations" (Oxford 1990. p. 8).
R etu rn in g to a com parison o f teach in g
All le a rn e rs em ploy lan g u ag e le a rn in g
behavior betw een NESTs a n d non-NESTs shown
strategies. Success with learning largely depends
in Table 1, non-NESTs were fo u n d to be m ore
u p o n the ability to select the m ost app ro p riate
insightful th an NESTs. This follows from the dif­
strategy for dealing with a specific learning task.
ferences in the process o f m astering th e English
G ood learners are capable of gleaning a rep e r­
language. T h e ir acquisition being largely u n c o n ­
toire o f strategies which suits their personalitv as
scious, NESTs were perceived as largely unaw are
well as th eir particular learning environm ent.
o f the internal m echanism s d irecting language
However, the m ajority of language learn ers
use and, th erefo re, less able to give th eir stu­
grope in the dark unless thev are fortunate
d en ts relevant inform ation ab o u t the target lan­
en o u g h to receive tailor-m ade su p p o rt from
guage. O n the o th e r h an d , non-NESTs have
know ledgeable teachers. .Although researchers
am assed a w ealth o f know ledge a b o u t th e
have long been intrigued bv the question of the
English language d u rin g th eir own learning
teachability of strategies, hardlv anv tangible
process. T h eir a n te n n a e can in te rc e p t as a possi­
results have been p ro d u ce d thus far. .After having
ble source of problem s even the m in u test item
interview ed seven extrem ely successful language
which NESTs mav take no notice of. P ut differ-
learners, Stevick concludes that there is no com ­
entlv, w hereas NESTs have b e tte r in tu itio n s
m on p a tte rn em erging: everyone seems to learn ab o u t what is right an d w rong in language use,
in his o r h e r own wav. W hat works for som e learn­
non-NESTs have d e e p e r insights into w hat is easy
ers utterly fails for others: “H ardlv a clear m odel
an d difficult in the learn in g process.
for an aspiring language student who wants to Naturally, NESTs are also capable o f refin­
profit from th eir exam ple!” (1989, p. 138). ing th eir language awareness. They can im prove,
As successful learn ers o f English, non- provided that they avail them selves o f the o p p o r­
NESTs are supposed to be conscious strategy tunities offered by te a c h e r education, foreign
users, able to tell which strategies have w orked language learning, and, above all, experience.
for them an d which have not. T hus they stand a Those NESTs who have spent an ex ten d ed period
better chance o f sensitizing th eir students to the o f time in a host country and have taken pains to
em ploym ent o f strategies th an th e ir native­ learn the students’ m o th er tongue should be
speaking colleagues do. T h e ir ability consists in
incom parably m ore know ledgeable than those
im parting th eir own learn in g experiences as well
who have not.
as providing assistance for students to discover
o th er strategies that should work specifically for 4. Non-NESTs Better Anticipate
them . To be fair, NESTs have also p u rsu e d strate­
and Prevent Language Difficulties
gies in their contact with foreign languages.
However short-lived o r distant th eir learn in g Having ju m p ed off the sam e sp rin g b o ard as
experience m ar have been, they may harness it th eir students, non-NESTs are intrinsically m ore
:n th eir job as teachers of English. p e rc e p tiv e a b o u t lan g u a g e difficulties th a n
NESTs. F or th em to discover tro u b le spots
requires little tim e an d energy; messages can be
exchanged m erely bv w inking an eve. Most non-
NESTs have developed a "sixth sense." and those
who have b e e n on the job long eno u g h are able
to predict, with a fair degree of accuracy, w hat is
likelv to go w rong before the stu d en t opens his
or h e r m outh. In possession o f this anticipatory
device, non-XESTs stand a good chance of p re ­
venting linguistic problem s which m aterialize in
the form o f deviant usage or, for want oi a better
word, errors.
,\s Table l shows, NESTs and non-XESTs
behave differently with regard to erro r correction.
Since native speakers generally view language as a
m eans of achieving some com m unicative goal,
they tend not to make a fuss about errors unless
they h in d er com m unication. In contrast. non-
XESTs are notorious for penalizing errors, gram ­
matical errors in particular, probably because
thev regard English prim arily as a school subject
to be m astered and onlv secondarily as a m edium
o f genuine com m unication. A nother reason for
their heavy-handed attitude mat lie in their defi­
cient knowledge of English. In anv case, teacher
education should perhaps place m ore em phasis
on strategies for e rro r /invention than on tech­
niques of erro r norm lion.
As far as NESTs are concerned, those expa­
triates who stav put in one country m anage to
gath er far m ore experience about their students'
specific language problem s than those who drift
from place to place, sear after sear. Since lan­
guage is a m ajor carrier of. and in fact is insepa­
rable from , a people's culture, familiarity svith
the local language can bring NESTs closer to
their students' cultural toots and shed light on
the students' inability to c o m p re h en d a specific
language elem ent.
Speaking of culture, fable 1 indicates that
NESTs an d non-XESTs also differ in term s of
th eir attitude toward teaching culture, bv viitue
o f com ing from an English-speaking country,
NESTs are able to proside m ote inform ation
about th eir native culture. Howeser. the m ore
the English language spreads an d diversifies in
the world, the less it rem ains the privilege of
NESTs, which harks back to the issue <>f English
as an In te rn atio n a l L anguage a d d r e s s e d earlier.
To be sure, the non-XEST teaching in a mot: •
lingual class has far m ore background inform . ■
tion about his o r h er students than even u t­
m ost well-inform ed NEST can. Indirectly, tit
know ledge is instrum ental in e n h a n cin g
te a c h e r’s capacity to anticipate and prevt
cross-cultural difficulties.
5. N on-N ESTsA re More Sensitive
to Their Students
As ['able 1 dem onstrates. non-XESTs are pov.
tiallv m o te sensitive on several counts. First, c.
can be m ore responsive to the students' :u
needs. In contrast. NESTs. w orking e ith e r v.v
linguisticallv h e te ro g e n e o u s g ro u p s in
English-speaking country o r with m onoline
groups overseas, probably have but a vague ::
lure of th eir stu d e n ts’ needs and aspiratio:
including th eir linguistic, cultural, and person
backgrounds.
Second, thanks to th o ro u g h familiarity v.u
the teaching learn in g context. non-XESTs .
in a position to set realistic aims for students. F
exam ple, thev are m ore cognizant of the c
straints of the national curriculum , the teach: .
m aterials available, and the exam inations to
taken. Thev are also better able to gauge u
level of m otivation that students studying ir.
particular tvpe of school at e supposed to ha\ -
Thircl. due to their d e e p e r understand:: _
of the prevalent circum stances, non-NESTs .
usually stricter than th eir native-speaking c
leagues. If thev are aware o f an im m in en t I.
guage exam ination, for instance, them will ad.
their teaching m ethods to the stringent ex.
requirem ents; this mat involve having to a s e .
m ore tests and m ore hom ew ork, l.iving in a k::
oi'symbiosis with the students. non-NESTs cam.
a.(ford to be as casual as NESTs.
It must be added, however, that a hi.,
degree of sensitivity is m erely a potential; jits; .
ih e ie are non-NESTs who exhibit precious liu.
em pathy, som e NESTs are am azingly u ik F.
standing. It m ust be rep e a te d here that, in ac
lion to teach er education, the best sensitive
n a m in g for NESTs is to learn the language
the host country.
6. Non-NESTs Benefit from Their
Ability to Use the Students’
Mother Tongue
As native speakers o f the local language, non-
NESTs can obviously take advantage of this
shared co m petence, provided they are allowed
to harness it.
To use or n o t to use the m o th e r tongue?
This was one o f the thorniest problem s in lan­
guage teaching m ethodology th ro u g h o u t the
tw entieth century as the p en d u lu m swung from
one extrem e to the other. U ntil recently, the
m o n o lin g u al prin cip le p red o m in a te d , mostly
advocated by NESTs, if onlv because thev th em ­
selves felt disabled by th eir lack of com petence in
the stu d en ts’ first language (L I). As a conse­
quence, non-NESTs were m ade to feel either
defensive or guilty at th eir inability or unwilling­
ness to co n d u ct a class entirely in English. In the
1990s, however, the judicious use o f the learners'
native language was once again legitim ized.
A m ong the reasons for its com eback is the recog­
nition o f the LI as the m ost gen u in e vehicle of
com m unication betw een non-NESTs a n d their
students in the m onolingual classroom . A nother
m ajor reason is that the native language proves
to be a pow erful te a c h in g /le a rn in g tool in count­
less situations. Suffice it to sav, todav non-NESTs
may switch into the L.l at their discretion, and so
may NESTs— to the extent thev can.
W H O IS MORE V A LU A B LE,
T H E N E S T O R T H E N O N -N E S T ?
O ne item in the survey q u estio n n aire in q u ired
about the ideal p ro p o rtio n of NESTs o r non-
NESTs to be em ployed in schools. W hereas 52
p e rc e n t of the participants said th a t they would
prefer an equal n u m b e r o f NESTs a n d non-
NESTs, 17 p e rc e n t favored m ore NESTs a n d 31
percen t m ore non-NESTs. A fu rth e r breakdow n
of th e d a ta reveals th a t b o th native a n d
non-native p articipants w ould ra th e r have a
majority of th eir own language g ro u p in the
staff; as th ere were m ore non-NEST than NEST
participants in the sam ple, the balance o f choice
tilted towards non-NESTs.
Be th at as it may, the idea of a m ixed staff is
wishful th inking for m ost schools in m ost parts
of the world. S hort o f NESTs, schools use the few
a ro u n d as efficiently as possible. O n g ro u n d s of
th eir native proficiency in English, in m any
places NESTs are assigned advanced level groups
a n d conversation classes. Elsew here, in o rd e r to
m ake th e ir co n trib u tio n accessible to everybody,
thev are to m into as m any small bits as th ere are
grotips in the school. Needless to say, NESTs are
n o t always pleased with this task allo catio n — a
re c u rre n t com plaint is th at they are reg a rd e d as
rare anim als in a zoo (Arva a n d Medgyes 2000).
T hese results correlate strongly with the
results o f a n o th e r item in the q u estio n n aire
■which asked: W ho is the b e tte r teacher, the
NEST or the non-NEST? As m en tio n e d previ­
ously, a sim ilar percen tag e favored e ith e r NESTs
or non-NESTs, w hereas nearly h alf the resp o n ­
dents said th at the two groups h ad an equal
chance o f success. W hen asked to justify th eir
choice, participants typically re fe rre d to the dif­
ferences sum m arized in Table 1. T h e sam e
attrib u te was often judged as a positive feature
bv som e an d a negative feature by others.
A part from a few extrem ists, survey partici­
pants expressed m o d erate views. They ag reed
that since each g ro u p had its own strengths a n d
weaknesses, thev would com p lem en t each o th e r
well in am school. A p ro p o rtio n a te n u m b e r o f
natives and non-natives w ould give the fu rth e r
advantage o f offering a variety o f ideas and
teaching m ethods. Som e resp o n d en ts refe rre d
to the desirability- o f nativ e/n o n -n ativ e in terac­
tion an d cooperation; “T h ere is a lot we can
learn from each o th e r!” one perso n rem arked.
O rganized collaboration a n d its m ost in te n ­
sive form , team teaching, have b ecom e fairly
well researched areas in recen t years (N unan
1992). Team teaching is a system w hereby a
g ro u p o f teachers jo in tly u n d e rta k e a p rogram
of work with a g roup o f students. In the co n tex t
of N E ST /non-N E ST collaboration, the largest
a n d best d o c u m e n ted team teach in g initiative
has b een developed in Ja p an , called the Ja p a n
E xchange a n d T eaching Program , also know n as
the JE T p rogram (Tajino an d Tajino 2000). T he
pro g ram 's prim ary aim is to rec ru it young native
speakers from E nglish-speaking co u n tries to
teach u n d e r the guidance of, an d to g eth e r with,
qualified Jap an ese teachers o f English.
Let us reiterate: XESTs and non-XESTs
teach differently in several respects. Xon-XESTs
are (m ore o r less) h a n d ic a p p e d in term s of their
co m m an d o f English. Paradoxically, this short­
com ing is th eir m ost valuable asset, as it helps
them develop capacities that XESTs m ust strug­
gle to acquire. XESTs an d non-XESTs are p o ten ­
tially equally effective teachers, because in the
final analysis th e ir respective strengths an d
weaknesses balance each o th er out. Different does
not imply better or worse! Thus the question. W ho's
worth metre, the native o r the non-native? is
pointless, conducive to draw ing wrong conclu­
sions from the differences discovered in teaching
behavior, ft is suggested, therefore, that language
teachers should be h ired solelv on the basis of
their professional virtues, regardless of their lan­
guage background. T he data and the argum ents
supplied thus far seem to be powerful enough to
validate the fourth assum ption put forward on
page 434, nam elv that XESTs and non-XESTs can
be equally good teachers on their own terms.
C O N C L U S IO N :
T H E ID E A L T E A C H E R
In rec e n t literature, the co ncept of the ideal
tea c h e r has gained som e notoriety, especially in
relation to the native/non-native dichotom y. It
appears that the glorv once attached to the
XEST has faded, a n d an increasing n u m b e r of
ELT experts assert th at the "ideal te a c h e r” is no
lo n g er a category reserved for XESTs. It is
becom ing a generally accepted view th at o u t­
standing teachers c an n o t be squeezed into any
pigeonhole: all ou tstan d in g teachers are ideal in
th eir own wavs, and as such are different from
each other. T he co n cep t o f the ideal teacher
resists clear-cut definitions, because th ere are
too m any variables to consider.
In o rd e r to get a b e tte r grasp o f the ideal
teacher, however, let us suppose that all the vari­
ables are kept constant m om entarily, except for
the language proficiency co m p o n en t. In rela­
tion to non-XESTs, the question arises: Does
som ebody with a b e tte r com m and o f English
stand a b e tte r chance o f becom ing an idea)
teacher? In o th er words: Is a m ore proficient
speaker a m ore efficient teacher as well? Ah
o th e r things being equal, the answer is yes: tin
ideal non-XES'f is som eone who has achieved
near-native proficiency in English. T he im por­
tance of this attribute is seldom questioned in
the literature. Britten (198o) claims that ait
excellent com m and o f English is a m ajor selec­
tion criterion and a good pred icto r o f a noit-
XEST's professional success. Lange (1990) rate-
language proficiency as the most essential char­
acteristic o f a good lan g u ag e teacher, and
M urdoch (1994) calls it the bedrock of the noir-
XEST's professional confidence. Liu’s (1999
stuclv conducted am ong non-native TESOL stu­
dents at a university in the U nited States confirm '
that English-language proficiency is generally rec­
ognized as a make-or-break req u irem en t in ESL
environm ents as well. T herefore, it m ust be .
valid claim that the most im portant profession,;,
dutv that non-XESTs have to perform is to make
linguistic im provem ents in their English.
In contrast, the success o f XESTs hinges or.
the extent to which thev can acquire the distin­
guishing features of non-XESTs. In view of thi-
the ideal X E ST is som eone who has achieved a fair
degree of proficiency in the students' native lan­
guage. Cook (1999) must be right in saving that
the m ulticom petent, m ultilingual teacher is qual­
itatively different and incom parably m ore capa­
ble than the m onolingual teacher.
T he trouble is that "all o th e r things” arc
never equal in the classroom , so the phrase “the
m ore proficient, the m ore efficient" is only p ar­
tially valid. In this regard, Samimv (1997) m en ­
tions certain factors which are as im p o rta n t a'
language proficiency, particularly relevant teach­
ing qualifications and extent of one's teaching-
ex p e rien c e . S eid lh o fer reiterates this point:
"There has often b een the d an g er of an auto­
matic extrapolation from competent speaker to com­
petent teacher based on linguistic grounds alone,
w ithout taking into consideration the criteria ot
cu ltu ral, social a n d p edagogic a p p ro p ria te "
(1996, p. 69). Indeed, an issue waiting to be
addressed is the com plex relationship between
the d iffe re n t aspects o f teach ers' classroom
practice. T he study o f the non-NEST rem ains
overall a largely u n e x p lo re d area in language
education.
In conclusion, within the fram ew ork of the
native/non-native division, the ideal NEST and
the ideal non-NEST arrive from different direc­
tions but eventually stand quite close to each
other. Both groups of teachers serve equally use­
ful purposes in their own wavs. In an ideal school,
therefore, there should be a good balance of
NESTs and non-XESTs. who com plem ent each
o th er in their strengths and weaknesses. Given a
favorable mix, various forms of collaboration are
possible, and learners can onlv gain from such
cross-fertilization.
D IS C U S S IO N Q U E S T IO N S
1. W hat is your native language? Are there any
“com plicating factors" concerning vour lin­
guistic and cultural identity?
2. Do you agree or disagree with the native
s p e a k e r'n o n -n a tiv e sp e a k e r distin ctio n ?
W hat are vour argum ents for or against?
3. a. If vou are a native speaker o f English, do
you think that the English language is vour
property, or are vou willing to share the
“copyright" with non-native speakers?
b. If vou are a non-native speaker, do vou
believe vou have the right to "tinker" with
the norm s an d rules o f English to the
sam e ex ten t as native speakers have?
4. Take a close look at Table 1 in this chapter.
W hich are the points vour own experience
supports and which are the ones it challenges?
5. In addition to the six advantages assigned to
non-XESTs, can vou th ink of anv m ore? In
addition to th eir linguistic superiority, can
vou list anv fu rth e r assets for NESTs?
S U G G E S T E D A C T IV IT IE S
1. In a replication study. Davies (1996) m easured
differences between native and non-native
speakers of English in term s of grammaticalitv
judgm ents. Elis sample consisted of applied
linguists with experience as English teachers.
All the non-native participants (18 persons)
were highly proficient speakers of English;
the native speakers (16 persons) were mostly
speakers of British English. Davies included
12 sentences in his survey, an d the partici­
pants were required to rate the sentences on
a 4-point scale as follows:
1 T h e s e n te n c e so u n d s p e rfe c t. You
w ould use it w ithout hesitation.
2 T he sentence is less th an p e rfe c t—
so m eth in g in it just d o e sn ’t feel com ­
fortable. Maybe lots of peo p le could say
it, b u t you never feel quite com fortable
with it.
3 W orse th an (2), b ut n o t com pletely
im possible. Maybe som ebody m ight use
the sentence, b u t certainly n o t vou. T he
sentence is alm ost bevond h ope.
4 T he sentence is absolutely out. Impossible
to un d erstan d , nobodv would say it.
L’n-English.
H ere are the 12 sentences to be rated on
the scale:
1 U n d e r no circum stances w ould I accept
that offer.
2 X obodv who 1 get along with is h ere
who I want to talk to.
3 We d o n ’t believe the claim th at Jim son
ever had anv monev.
4 T he fact he wasn’t in the store sh o u ld n ’t
be forgotten.
5 W hat will the g ran d fa th e r clock stand
betw een the bed and.
6 I u rg e th a t an y th in g h e to u c h be
b u rn ed .
7 All the fu rth e r we got was to Sudbury
8 T h a t is a fre q u e n tly talk ed a b o u t
proposal.
9 Xobodv is h ere who I get along with
who I w ant to talk to.
10 T he d o c to r is sure th a t th ere will be no
problem s.
11 T he idea h e w asn’t in the store is
preposterous.
12 Such form ulas should be writable down.
G rade these sentences on th e 4-point scale.
R em em ber to give 1 p o in t fo r a p erfect sen­
tence an d 4 points for a totally u n acceptable
sentence.
H ere are the results o f Davies's stuclv: 4. In groups, collect as m anv features o f the
successful language te a c h e r as vou car.
Sentence Mean
Suppose that the "ideal teacher" is som eone
Natives (N= 16) Non-natives (N=18) who has a m axim um score o f 25 p o in t'
Individuallv. allocate as m anv points as to .
1.1 wish for each feature w ithin the m axim um
2 2.7 3.0 25 points. T h en , in groups again, com pare
3 1.6 1.8 vour scores a n d argue for to u r allocation.
4 1.7 1.6 5. Interview ten non-native speakers of Englix.
5 2.7 3.5 to find out what traits thev value most in lan­
6 1.7 2.5 guage teachers. Do thev specify any feature -
7 3.3 3.0 which are metre characteristic of non-NEST-
8 1.2 2.2 than NESTs?
9 2.3 2.5
10 1.0 1.0
11 1.7 1.5
12 3.0 3.3

FU R T H ER R EA D IN G
N ote that the aggregate m ean for all 12 sen­
B r a i n e . G . . ee l. 1 9 9 9 . X o u - n a tiv e E d u c a to r s in Engl
tences for natives an d non-natives is 1.99 and Language le a c h in g . M ahw ah. X J: L a w re r.:
2.23, respectively. This suggests that natives E rlb a u m .
are m ore to le ran t o f uncertain tv with regard A c o lle c tio n o f essavs t h a t a r tic u la te s t h e o r ■
to gram m aticalitv. C om pute vour own score fern s, stru g g les, and triu m p h s of n o n -n an -
and com pare it with the m ean of natives and t e a c h e r s , m o s t l v t h o s e li v in g a n d w o r k i n g in
non-natives in Davies's sam ple. Are vou l n i n e : S tates.

m ore or less to leran t than e ith e r group? D a v i e s . A . 1 9 9 1 . T he X a t iv e Speaker in A p p lie d L i n g u i r

2. Give an h o n est answ er to this question: E d i n b u r g h : E d i n b u r g h U n iv e rs itv P ress.

A t h o r o u g h d is c u ssio n o f th e n a t i v c / n o n - n a t r -
Suppose vou were the principal o f a com m er­
d ich o to m v from an ap p lie d lin g u istic pci' -
cial language school in to u r country. W ho
ti v e . g o i n g b e v o n c l t h e i m m e d i a t e c o n c e r n '
would vou prefer to emplov?
th e la n g u a g e teach er.
a. I w ould em plov onlv native speakers G r a d d o l . D . 1 9 9 7 . T he F u tu re o f E n g lis h ? L o n d o n : T : -
even if thev were not qualified teachers. B ritish C o u n c il.
b. I would prefer to emplov NESTs, but if A th o u g h t-p ro v o k in g book about th e cu rrc.
needed I would choose a qualified non-NEST p o s itio n a n d th e f u tu r e o f E n g lis h as th e lin e ,
rather than a native without ELT qualifications. f r a n c a o f t h e w o rld . It e x a m i n e s t h e p o s s T -
c. T he native m on-native issue would n o t be e ffect o f g lo b a liz a tio n o n th e sta tu s a n d sp re.
a selection criterion (provided the non-NEST o f E n g lish .

was a highlv proficient speaker o f English). M e d g v e s . P. 1 9 9 9 . The X o n - n a tive Teacher. R e v i s e d s e e n : .

e d it io n . I s m a n i n g . G e r m a n v : H u e b e r Y erlag .
Ask th ree or four colleagues about their A p ro v o c a tiv e book an a lv /.in g th e d iffe re n t-:
choices. If there are discrepancies betw een in te a c h i n g a ttitu d e s b e t w e e n X E S T s a n d n :
vour views, justifv to u r preference. Has any­ N E S T s. w ith la n g u a g e im p ro v em en t ех егсг-
one h edged their bets bv saying “It d ep en d s”? fo r th e n o n -n a tiv e te a c h e r.
Ask them to explain their am biguous stance. P h illip so n . R. 1992. L in g u is t ic Im p e ria lis m . O xfo:
O x f o r d U n iv e rs itv Press.
3. If vou were asked the above question in A p a ssio n a te and m u c h -c ite d an alv sis of tr­
the context o f an ordinary state school, would e atises a n d im p a c t o f th e d o m i n a n c e o f E n g l:-
vour choice be different? How about to u r w o rld w id e . The book c riticizes several rub: _
colleagues' choices.- d o g m a s in ELT.
 Building Awareness and
Practical Skills to Facilitate
Cross-Cultural Communication
ELI H I N KEL
Hinkel's chapter points out the im portance of developing cultural com petence when teaching and
learning a second language, noting that cultural assumptions affect practically all aspects o f language
use, even though they may not be obvious to native speakers o r L2 learners. It offers examples of
cultural impact on language use and provides guidelines for teaching culture.
IN T R O D U C T IO N
In language teaching and research on language,
the term culture includes m any different defini­
tions and considerations that deal with form s of
speech acts, rhetorical structure o f texts, socio­
cultural behaviors, a n d wavs in which know ledge
is transm itted an d obtained. C ulture may find its
m anifestations in bodv language, gestures, con­
cepts of tim e, hospitalitv custom s, an d even
expressions o f friendliness. W hile all these cer­
tainly reflect the cultural norm s accepted in a
particular society, the influence of culture on
language use and on the concepts o f how lan­
guage can be taught and learn ed is both broader
and deeper. To a great extent, the culture into
which one is socialized defines how an individual
sees his o r h er place in societv.
A lthough attaining linguistic proficiency is
essential for learners to be considered com m u­
nicatively co m p eten t, particularly in the case of
ESL learners, this is not sufficient. O n the
whole, to becom e proficient an d effective com ­
m unicators, learners n eed to attain second lan­
guage (L2) sociocultural com petence. Knowing
how to say thank you, for exam ple, does n o t au to ­
matically confer the know ledge o f w hen to say
th an k vou, how often to say th an k you, a n d
w h eth er any additional action is called for.
Q uite reasonably, learners first apply the stan­
dards th at exist in the first language ( L I ) com ­
m unities w here they were socialized. People who
in teract with ESL students have com m ented
th at some learners seem to express gratitude
excessively for small considerations, even to the
point of em barrassing the person thev are speak­
ing to. O th e r learners may seem dow nright ru d e
because thev do not say thank you when expected
to. If a receptionist at an office spends a lot of time
trying to help som eone but fails to provide con­
crete help, it ntav not be obvious to an ESL stu­
d e n t th at a thank you is w arranted. A fter all, the
receptionist did n o t provide any real assistance,
a n d isn't it his or h e r jo b to help? How e\rer, if
no thanks is given, the receptionist may n o t be
likelv to even attem p t to help in th e future. N ot
u n d e rsta n d in g sociocultural expectations could
im pact non-native speakers' (NNSs’) ability to
function in a L2 com m unity.
Expressing thanks is ju st a small exam ple.
Teachers of L2 w riting often e n c o u n te r stu d e n t
essavs th at contain large excerpts o f text copied
verbatim from books, In te rn e t sites, or o th e r
published sources. However, in the eyes o f lea rn ­
ers from som e cultures, copying from a p u b ­
lished source does n o t necessarily re p re se n t an
u n ethical act ( “published” means for the public to
use, right?). In fact, learners from som e cultures
mav \iew copying from a source as a m eans o f
expressing respect fo r the a u th o r’s ideas a n d dis­
playing th e ir fam iliarity with th e m aterial.
Horvever, the negative outcom e o f copying the
text in th eir papers could be severe in an
English-language college o r university w here
such copying constitutes plagiarism , which mav
be p u n ish e d bv the stu d en t's dismissal from the
institution.
H em es (1996) em phasizes that the learning
o f culture is an integral part of language learn ­
ing a n d ed u cation because it crucially influences
the yalues of the com m unity, evervdav in terac­
tion, the norm s of speaking an d behaying. and
the sociocultural expectations of an indiyidual's
roles. He fu rth e r notes that those who do not
follow the norm s of ap p ropriateness accepted in
a com m unity are often placed in a position that
exacerbates social disparities and inequality.
Today, w hen the num bers of ESL EFL stu­
dents h are grown dram atically worldwide, it is
becom ing increasingly clear that the learn in g of
a second culture does not take care of itself.
Thus, T2 learners cannot always m ake the best of
th eir educational, professional, and yocational
o p p o rtu n ities until titer becom e fam iliar with
fu n d a m e n ta l E2 cultural concepts and co n ­
structs. Most im portantly, an ability to recognize
a n d em ploy culturally ap p ro p riate war s of com ­
m u n icatin g in speech o r w riting allows learners
to m ake choices with regard to linguistic, prag­
m atic, a n d o th e r behaviors.
A lthough traditionally courses a n d texts for
language teachers co n cen trate on teaching T2
linguistic skills, it mar be difficult to separate the
teaching and learning of English from the culture
o f its speakers. Eor exam ple, what represents
polite war s of speaking and the appropriate war s
o f writing an essay mar d e p e n d on culturally
d e p e n d en t concepts that are closely b o u n d up
with the linguistic skills n eed ed to speak o r write
well in the L2.
T H E V ISIB LE A N D
T H E IN V ISIB LE C U LT U R E
In T2 teaching, the term culture has b e e n
em ployed to refer to distinctly different dom ains
o f people's lir es. It can be used to refer to the lit­
erature, the arts, the architecture, and the history
o f a particular people. W hen asked about their
native culture, m any T2 learners and ESL/EFT
teachers alike would undertake to describe the
history or geography of their country because
these represent a p opular u n d e rsta n d in g o f the
term culture. In addition, som e definitions o f cul­
ture can include sti le of dress, cuisine, custom s,
festivals. and o th e r traditions. These aspects can
be considered the visible culture, as they are
readily ap p a re n t to anyone and can be discussed
and explained relatively easily.
Vet a n o th e r far m ore com plex m eaning of
culture refers to sociocultural norm s, world-
yiews. beliefs, assum ptions, an d yalue systems
that find th eir way into practically all facets of
language tise. including the classroom , an d lan­
guage teaching and learning. T he term invisible
culture ap p lies to so cio cu ltu ral beliefs a n d
assum ptions that m ost people are not eyen
aw are of and thus cannot exam ine intellectually.
Scollon and Scollon ( 199.V state that the cu ltu r­
ally d e te rm in e d concepts of what is acceptable,
a p p ro p riate, and expected in one's behayior is
acquired d u rin g the process of socialization and,
hence, becom es inseparable from an indiyidual’s
identity. For exam ple, in the classroom, the roles
of the student and the teacher are defined bv the
sociocultural yalues of the larger com m unity
and the society. If students belieye that the
teacher is responsible for explaining the m aterial
and that speaking up in class is considered rude,
presum ptuous, and selfish, the fact that the
teacher simply instructs students to participate in
discussion mav do little to change learners'
notions of what is appropriate and how they mav
be view ed bv others if they actually speak in class.
Most teachers, even those with m inim al class­
room ex perience o r exposure, know how diffi­
cult it can be to convince som e students to speak
in front of th eir classmates, w hereas o th e r stu­
dents mav ap p e ar to have trouble allowing class­
m ates an o p p o rtu n ity to have th eir turn.
W hy S e c o n d C u ltu re L e a rn in g
D o e s N o t T ake C are o f Its e lf
T he complexity of teaching culture lies in the fact
that, unlike speaking or writing, culture does not
represent a separate dom ain of L2 instruction;
instead, the learning of the T2 culture makes
learn ers b e tte r com m unicators. In lan g u ag e
learning a n d teaching, the crucial sociocultural
principles that d e te rm in e th e norm s of a p p ro ­
priate a n d polite behavior an d language use
within the fram ew orks of the society represent
the invisible culture. As Stewart (1972, p. 16)
com m ents, “ [T ]he typical person has a strong
sense of w hat the w orld is really like, so that it is
with surprise th at he discovers th a t ‘realitv' is
built up out o f certain assum ptions com m onlv
shared am o n g m em bers o f the sam e culture.
C ultural assum ptions mav be defin ed as abstract,
organized, an d general concepts w hich pervade
a person 's outlook an d behavior." To m em bers
of a particular com m unity and culture, these
assum ptions a p p e a r to be self-evident an d
axiomatic. O n the o th er hand, thev are not alwavs
shared bv m em bers of o th e r cultures whose
values are similarly based on unquestioned and
unquestionable fundam ental assum ptions and
concepts. It is also im portant to note that wavs of
using language (e.g., speaking, listening, reading,
and writing) and sociocultural frameworks in dif­
fe re n t co m m u n ities mav conflict to varving
extents (H inkel 1999).
L earners’ awareness of sociocultural fram e­
works an d the concepts thev acquire as a p art of
their socialization into beliefs, assum ptions, and
behaviors rem ain p red o m in an tlv first-culture
bound, even for advanced and proficient learners
i Hinkel 1999). .As Bvram and M organ (1994.
p. 43) point out, "(1] earners cannot simple shake
off their own culture and step into an o th e r . . .
their culture is a part of themselves and created
them as social beings . . . ."
S E C O N D O R FO R E IG N
L A N G U A G E : ID E N T IF Y IN G
LEA R N ER S’ N EED S A N D G O A LS
T here is little d o u b t that learners who live
a n d /o r study in English-speaking com m unities
have a m uch greater n eed for developing th eir
cultural com petencies th an do those who study
EFL as a p a rt o f th eir foreign language req u ire ­
m ents. T he learn ers' actual goals in attaining
English proficiency mav serve as guides for
d eterm in in g th eir needs in learn in g culture. For
exam ple, if learners in te n d to e n te r English-
m edium colleges or universities, th eir n e e d for
L2 cultural com petencies mav be d ifferent from
learners simply e n ro lled in w eekend conversa­
tio n classes. In m any settings, however, instru c­
tion highlighting the influence o f culture on
second language use can be m ade effective and
productive w hen w orking on p articular T2 tasks
or activities.
Those learners who live, studv, o r work in
English-speaking com m unities have a particularly
acute need to becom e aware of how the use of
English thev are exposed to reflects the sociocul­
tural norm s of the L2 community. For these indi­
viduals. a lack of language skill that prevents them
from speaking an d writing according to the
norm s accepted in the com m unity can be partic­
ularly costly and even dam aging in term s o f lost
opportunities for better grades, jobs, professional
and econom ic advancem ent, or even social rela­
tionships. In the case o f teenagers, university
students, and educated adults, the pragm atic and
sociocultural norm s of L2 use in speaking an d
writing can and should be taught, an d these
learners are m ost likely to benefit from both
explicit an d im plicit in struction in th e L2 cul­
ture. In general term s, the purpose o f teaching
culture together with other language skills is to
increase learners' interactional as well as linguistic
com petencies.
T E A C H IN G C R O S S -C U L T U R A L
A W A R EN ESS IN T H E
L A N G U A G E CLA SSRO O M
Because the culture of any com m unity has m any
facets an d m anifestations, it w ould be practically
im possible to deal with all o f th em in the class­
room a n d p rep a re students for the m any situa­
tions th at thev may e n c o u n te r in the course of
th eir fu n ctio n in g in E SL /EFL environm ents.
However, m any im p o rta n t aspects o f teaching
the second culture can be b ro u g h t forth an d
addressed via classroom instruction, a n d som e
o f these are discussed below. T he m ost im p o r­
tant long-term benefits of teach in g culture may
be to provide learners with the awareness and
the tools th at will allow them to achieve their
academ ic, professional, social, a n d p ersonal
goals an d becom e successful in th eir dailv func­
tionin g in L2 (or EFL) environm ents.
R ecent studies, as well as teachers' experi­
ences, have shown th at XXS students in colleges
a n d universities in the U nited States, C anada,
an d o th e r English-speaking countries do not
always follow the norm s of politeness an d a p p ro ­
priateness com m only accepted in th eir L2 com ­
m unities despite having lived in those countries
for several years (Elinkel 1996, Elvmes 1996).
Similarly, in th eir academ ic studies. L2 learners
may experience difficulties because thee do not
always u n d e rsta n d what is expected o f them and
do n o t have access to the necessarv sociocultural
concepts th at are ubiquitouslv m anifested in the
academ v (Johns 1997). For exam ple, w hen thev
are assigned to read m aterial at hom e, m am p ro ­
fessors expect that universitv students will actu­
ally “m aster" the c o n te n t a n d be p re p a re d to
discuss an d applv it. XXS students are often seen
as com ing to class u n p re p a re d because thev nun
n o t alwavs u n d e rsta n d that a relativelv high
degree o f fam iliaritv with the m aterial is im plicit
w hen academ ic read in g is assigned. To com ­
p o u n d the problem , the learners mav have diffi­
culty u n d e rsta n d in g the text o r thev mav be
unw illing to participate in class discussions. In
anv o f these situations, the in stru cto r (and even
th e native speaker [XS] classmates) mav form
som ew hat negative im pressions o f the XXSs'
academ ic skills an d prep aratio n .
C a u se s a n d O u tc o m e s
o f S o c io c u ltu ra l V alues
Because the sociocultural norm s for politeness,
appropriateness, and propriety are acquired d u r­
ing socialization, learners, in their daily interac­
tions with XSs, are exposed only to the outcomes of
linguistic and o th er o p es o f behaviors and not
their causes. For exam ple, when their classmates
are reluctant to share lecture o r textbook notes,
m any learners simpiv conclude th at their XS
classmates mat not like them and are unwilling
to help them . However, the reluctance to share
notes m at stem from several sociocultural
co n stru c ts th at are fu n d a m e n ta l in m any
E nglish-speaking com m unities: th e value of
intellectual propertv. self-reliance, and the right
of an individual to refuse a request with which
he or she is n o t com fortable. In addition, in
m anv L ,S. colleges and universities, students
believe that thev are expected to do their own
work and are given credit based on their individ­
ual effort and achievem ent. However, in the situ­
ation above w here the lea rn er wants to borrow
class notes, n eith er the ESE learn er n o r the XS
classmate who has the notes mav even question
whv the request was m ade and refused. In general
terms, the "behacioral prescriptions," the term
coined bv Stewart (1972). are assum ed to be
known to most (if not all) sociallv com petent
adults and. hence, are rarelv overtlv discussed: a
need for such a discussion would imply one's lack
of basic and essential social com petence.
T h e Im p o rta n c e o f N o ticin g
In learning about the im pact of sociocultural
norm s on language use. the first step is noticing
that these norm s exist in all languages, including
learners' Lis. To becom e p rep a re d for a practi-
callv infinite n u m b er of T2 interactions, learners
n eed to becom e astute and consistent people-
watchers. B uilding on their observations of their
LI sociocultural norm s and behaviors, the next
task in culture learning is to separate individual
behaviors from those that are culturally deter­
m ined. For exam ple, repeated politeness routines,
behaviors, and bodv language (e.g.. eve contact)
probable signal that these speech acts a n d behav­
iors are so cioculturallv a c ce p tab le ( a n d / o r
expected) in a particu lar com m unity. O nce
learners note a p articular ro u tin e or behavior
on several occasions from several different indi­
viduals. thev can investigate its sociocultural
purposes a n d causes. An ability to identify the
sociocultural purposes o f L2 linguistic behaviors
in a com m unity allows learn ers to identify cul­
tural p attern s in situations, to u n d e rsta n d how
thev are realized in o th e r situations, an d to
anticipate th eir m anifestations in the future.
 T he fu n d am en tal factors to consider in all
interactions include: the g e n d e r o f the speaker
o r the hearer, th eir respective ages, sim ilarities
or disparities in their social statuses (e.g., even if a
professor wears blue jeans to class, he o r she still
has a higher status than a student d o es), the social
distance betw een the speaker and the hearer (e.g..
class friends, acquaintances, or strangers), the
purposes of the speech events, the time available
for the interaction, and its phvsical setting loca­
tion. In their investigations, learners should pav
careful attention to politeness routines, expres­
sions, and phrases that are em ploved bv speakers
or hearers, and then identiiv the reasons for the
use of these language devices. For exam ple, thev
could observe how a student asks the teacher to
take a look at his or h er paper (Could you look at
my paper and see if I'm on the right track?). Were the
participants in the interaction of the same age.
gender, and social status? W hat politeness expres-
rions did the speaker use? Flow did the hearer
respond? Whv did the hearer give this particular
response? W hat politeness devices were used in
the response and whv?
P ra c tic e , P ra c tic e , P ra c tic e
The tasks associated with train in g learn ers to be
careful an d sharp people-w atchers a n d observers
of culturallv a p p ro p riate an d com m on in terac­
tional routines and expressions can serve as a
basis for verv productive an d effective activities
that are interesting and enjoyable fo r learners.
For in term ed iate ESL learners, a tea c h e r could
make a basic checklist o f linguistic a n d social fea­
tures o f speech events a n d in te ra c tio n s to
encourage students to carry o u t th eir "field
research" in cafeterias, restaurants, stores, an d
libraries. In EFL settings, a sim ilar field stuclv
could take place in the stu d e n ts’ L I, since the
prim arv goal of this activitv a n d people-w atching
is to m ake learners aware of the linguistic and
social factors th at plav a crucial role in in terac­
tions in am language o r culture. In teaciting
EFL, the next step w ould be to com pare the
ooliteness an d conversational routines in the
learn ers’ LI to those fo u n d in English-language
m aterials (e.g., movie clips, reco rd ed audio and
video interviews, tap ed dialogues that accom pany
m any student texts, o r perhaps even m aterials for
standardized test p re p a ra tio n ).
W hen w orking with h igh-interm ediate or
advanced ESL learners, teachers can m ake simi­
lar checklists for e x p a n d ed an d m ore sophisti­
cated linguistic, social, a n d behavioral features
o f interactions, such as the location w here the
interaction takes place (an office, a hallwav, a
street), the availabilitv o f tim e (a scheduled
a p p o in tm e n t, a lunch hour, a break betw een
classes), a n d /o r th e com plexity o f th e task
entailed in the speech act. In ad d ition, students
can be assigned to investigate various tvpes of
speech acts such as m aking ap p o in tm en ts, seek­
ing clarifications, o r resp o n d in g to requests, an d
even lo n g er conversational exchanges such as
m aking small talk o r neg o tiatin g the tim e an d
the place of m eetings. O n the o th e r hand,
advanced EFL students can participate in role
plat's, sh o rt skits, or mini-plavs, for which thev
write scripts to c e n te r on linguistic features of
p articular speech acts o r tvpes o f conversational
exchanges in th eir L2.
In addition to learning to note the linguistic
an d situational variables in in teractio n , it is
im portant that learners focus on the sociocultural
features of speaking and behaving. In general,
however, it would not be very com fortable or
appropriate for interactants to becom e involved
in discussing the reasons th at a p articu lar lin­
guistic structure is used or a specific interactional
behavior is displayed. To retu rn to an earlier
exam ple, if the request for notes is refused, this
mav n o t be a good o p p o rtu n ity to ask why.
However, at a later tim e, a n o th e r individual,
such as a different classmate, a room m ate, or
b e tte r vet, a teacher, can be asked to explain the
sociocultural causes for a particu lar behavior.
A lthough m anv native speakers of English may
not be aware o f the reasons for th eir own behav­
iors, thev are usuallv aware of "behavioral p re ­
scriptions" in abstract term s. T h a t is, m ost native
speakers w ould be able to tell the difference
betw een rudeness a n d what is considered to be
polite or even acceptable in a p articu lar situa­
tion and, if asked, som e may even be able to say
whv som e expression, phrase, o r behavior would
be perceived as m ore polite than another.
T E A C H IN G C U L T U R E
A N D T H E W AYS O F S P E A K IN G
M uch research carried out in pragm atics a n d
sociolinguistics over the past th ree decades has
focused on the sociocultural norm s of politeness
a n d a p p ro p ria te n e s s in p e rfo rm in g various
types o f speech acts, such as requests, apologies,
com plim ents, an d com plaints. T he linguistic
an d social features of such specific speech acts
can be tau g h t in the classroom with a focus on
re p e a te d a n d frequently routinized uses of lan­
guage, along with the differences according to
th e social status of the speaker a n d the hearer,
a n d o th e r situational factors. Similarly, a p p ro ­
priate body language a n d gestures can also
b ecom e a p a rt of the explicit instruction in
speaking a n d listening classes. However, m ost
im portantly, the key to productive culture teach­
ing is to provide learners with the tools to enable
them to becom e aware o f the sociolinguistic
norm s reflected in the wavs o f speaking in the
c o m m u n in ’. T hom as (1983) explains th at viola­
tions of cultural norm s of ap p ropriateness in
in teractions betw een XSs an d XXSs often lead
to sociopragm atic failure, uncom fortable break­
downs in com m unication, and the stereotyping
o f XXSs. She points o u t that w hen m anv XXSs
display in ap p ro p ria te language behaviors, thev
are often n o t even aware that thev do. T he
teach in g o f ways of speaking in the T2 has to
include developing learn ers' h e ig h te n ed aware­
ness o f the sociocultural features o f in teractio n
so as to provide them a p p ro p riate choices.
T h e P ra g m a tic F u n c tio n
a n d a L in g u istic F o rm
In the teaching of L2 speaking and pragm atics,
two overarching goals lie at the focus of instruc­
tion. T he pragmatic function (i.e., the sociocultural
p u rp o se/g o al) of speech acts, such as requests,
apologies, com plim ents, and com plaints, can be
found in practically even’ curriculum for teach­
ing speaking. T he linguistic form of speech acts
an d conversational routines is one of the m ost
easily accessible and ubiquitous areas o f teaching
L2 speaking, e.g., Give me а рент vs. Could
уou/would, you give me a penny. T he pragm atic
fu n c tio n o f these ex p ressio n s is th e sam e
(request), but the speaker's choice o f form ma\
cause different responses from the hearer. For
exam ple, in o rd e r to increase le a rn e rs’ linguistic
rep e rto ire , the m ajority o f ESL/EFL textbooks
for speaking devote a great deal o f a tten tio n to
the form s of polite an d casual expressions,
idiom s, a n d short dialogues, an d even their
a p p ro p riate p ro n u n cia tio n an d in to n atio n . O ne
reason for this is that transfer of in to n atio n front
LI to L2 can h are verv subtle negative conse­
quences for interaction.
S o c io c u ltu ra l V ariables
in In te ra c tio n
W hat m akes a p articular expression or speech
act situationallv a p p ro p riate is not so m uch tit-
linguistic form or the range o f the sp eak er’s lin­
guistic rep erto ire, but the sociocultural variedil
which are rarely addressed in explicit instru:-
tion. Partly for this reason, it is not u n c o m n r :
to h ear ESL. learners sav How is it going, Whcr
up. or Later to peers, professors, and even u:t -
versitv deans.
Such socioculturally inappropriate greeting-
and conversational closures, as well as otltr
speech acts, are likelv to raise an eyebrow or tv
b ut as has been m entioned, their im propriety It.
little chance o f being overtlv discussed, and tint -
the learning value o f the experience may be Ь -
T he sociocultural variables that can m ake a p-
fectlv acceptable expression unacceptable in d e ­
ferent interactions or settings reflect the invisi” .-
aspects of LI or L2 culture that do not easily le t
themselves to textbook exercises or listing-
expressions. X onetheless, it is the sociocultu:
features, such as gender, age, and the social st.tt
o f the participants in the interaction that can e
ate pragm atic failure (Thom as 1983).
For exam ple, a lesson on conversar.
o p eners is verv com m on and can be found
m am ’ E SL /EFL textbooks. Usually, m ost les-v :
(or textbook chapters) start with a few m ode
Good morning/afternoon. How are you (today ~
evening)?, How is it/ everything going?. What's •
How are you doing?, How do you like
weather/Isn't this weather wonderful/terrible?, How
do you like this city?. Few o f these resources, how­
ever. distinguish betw een those u tterances that
are a p p ro p riate in peer-level interactions and
those that should be used in conversational
exchanges with h earers who have a different
sociocultural status. In such exam ples, fu rth e r­
m ore, the situational variables are rarely taken
into account: while it is very ap p ro p riate to o p en
a conversation with a brief m ention of the weather
with an acquaintance in the cafeteria, it may not be
a good o p en er when asking a bank teller to cash a
check or a bus driver for route details. Similarlv,
What’s up? and How’s it going? are used almost
exclusively in short and casual encounters with
friends, but are not the best options w hen talking
in a business or professional context to a waiter, a
store clerk, an office receptionist, o r a doctor.
V ariability o f P o lite n e ss
O ne activity for developing learn ers' awareness
of the variability of politeness a n d a p p ro p ria te ­
ness in interactions with different tvpes o f hearers
and situations in which various conversational
openers are used is to conduct field obsenations
and experim ents. In an experim ent to determ ine
the sociocultural and situational ap p ropriateness
of a speech act, ESI. learners can ask th eir XS
friends o r room m ates to evaluate the degree of
politeness en tailed in each of the conversational
openers an d explain the factors that m ake one
expression "softer” o r m ore ap p ro p riate than
another. For exam ple, which expression seems
m ore polite: I want to make an appointment for 3
o’clock, I would like to make an appointment for
3 o ’clock, o r May/Could / make an appointment for 3
о ’clock ? W hat are the specific words a n d /o r c o n ­
structions that m ake one expression m ore polite
than the other? Whv is the question form used in
one o f these? Are there situations in which the
least polite expression can be used? W ho are the
people (the speaker and the hearer) in these situ­
ations, and do thev have an equal social position?
T he results of such experim ents can be dis­
cussed in pairs or small groups so th at with the
tea c h e r’s guidance students are able to identify'
the linguistic, pragm atic, and situational features
o f language that com e into plat1 in conversational
exchanges. In follow-up activities an d role plavs,
students can p u t to use w hat they1 have lea rn ed as
an outcom e of th eir observations and experi­
m ents. They can be assigned to visit local shops,
libraries, university offices, o r o th e r places in the
com m unity w here they can practice th eir speak­
ing skills in real-life situations.
A P ra g m a tic F o rc e
a n d th e L in g u istic F o rm
A n o th e r im p o rta n t characteristic o f real-life
interactions is d e te rm in in g the pragmatic force
(i.e., in te rac tio n a l/c o n v e rsa tio n a l pu rp o se) of
expressions used in dailv interactions. For exam ­
ple, How are you (today/this morning)? o r How is it
going? are not in te n d e d to be real questions or
conversation openers. Rather, th eir pragm atic
force is to be a greetin g to signal to h earers th at
thev are recognized and acknow ledged. As an
outcom e, these form ulaic expressions do n o t
req u ire a response, bevond the form ulaic (Fine,
Great, Good, OK). O n the o th e r h an d , these
expressions contrast with How have you been? or
How is everything/this term/your class going?.
Because the linguistic form of How have you been
(lately)? and form ulaic expressions, such as How
are you ? is similar, m any learn ers in te rp re t th eir
pragm atic force to be equivalent. T he field
research o r experim ents carried o u t by pairs or
small groups of students to investigate the vary­
ing pragm atic force of such expressions can be
verv beneficial in m aking them aware o f the
divergences betw een the form an d the conversa­
tional in te n t o f pragm atic routines in English.
O th e r such investigations can include a great
n u m b e r of form ulaic conversational expressions
a n d exchanges, in which th e pragm atic force
m at be difficult for learners to d e te rm in e since
it is not always a p p a re n t from the linguistic form
a n d content. Exam ples include Call me some time
vs. Call me on Tuesday; L et’s get together/have lunch
sometime vs. Let’s get together/have lunch on Friday;
Call me if you have any questions vs. Call me any
time; Do you have any questions? (it is noyv tim e to
ask questions, if you have them ) vs. Fll be happy to
answer all your questions during my office hours
(please do not ask m e anv questions now b u t
com e to my office at the designated tim e); Your
paper needs a little work (this expression does not
m ean necessarily that the pap er needs only a little
bit of work to be im proved) vs. Maybe sou need to
spend more time on your homework (this does not
m ean that spending m ore tim e without greater
effort will result in better grades).
Many conversational routines are closely
tied to the sociocultural variables that affect the
interactional effect o f an expression or routine,
and these variables can be taught to learners at
practically all levels of proficiencv, from begin­
ning to highlv advanced. For exam ple, when and
to w hom to say thank you can be taught at the
beginning level. In EFL settings, to raise learners'
awareness of the im portant sociocultural dim en­
sions of conversations, students can be asked to
gather similar inform ation in their native lan­
guage. In pairs or small group discussions, learn­
ers can determ ine what characteristics of language
(e.g., the linguistic form , stress, o r tone) make one
expression m ore polite than another. T hen learn­
ers can be taught to iclentifv parallel (but not nec­
essarily similar) L2 features that can m ake a
difference in the appropriateness of L2 conversa­
tional expressions and routines.
C U L T U R E IN T H E T E A C H IN G
O F W R IT IN G
In English, what is a p p ro p riate and in ap p ro p ri­
ate in academ ic w ritten discourse is highly c o n ­
ventionalized (Swales 1990). In practically all
U.S. an d C anadian ESL program s in colleges
a n d universities, a great deal o f atten tio n , tim e,
a n d resources are devoted to the teaching o f aca­
dem ic writing. L2 w riting instruction focuses on
such fu n d am en tal features o f w ritten academ ic
discourse as the organization (e.g, in tro d u ctio n ,
body, conclusion, a n d o th e r discourse m oves),
the presence an d the p lacem en t of the thesis
statem ent, the stru ctu re of the p arag rap h (e.g.,
the topic sen ten ce), the rhetorical su p p o rt for
the thesis in clu d ed in everv p a rag rap h , a n d an
avoidance of needless digressions, repetition,
a n d redundance, am ong m any o th e r factors.
T h e reason that these features of academ ic writ­
ing n e e d to be explicitlv a n d persistentlv taught
to ESL /E FL students is th at thev re p re se n t
conventionalized (and prescribed) characteristic -
of academ ic genres that are not necessarilv fo u r :
in written discourse in rhetorical traditions othe:
than the Anglo-American one. For exam ple, edu­
cated L2 learners who were socialized in othe:
rhetorical traditions are rarelv aware that a clew
thesis statem ent should be placed close to tie
beginning of one's essav. Similarlv, as m en tio n t:
previouslv in term s of plagiarism versus copviru
various sociocultural concepts and prescript!',
behaviors plav an im portant role in determ ining
what can or cannot be included in academ ic rin-
course. T here are even sociocultural difference -
regarding what can or cannot be discussed in a:,
academ ic essav
T h e S o c io c u ltu ra l C o n s tru c tio n
o f W riting a n d L iteracy
In w riting instruction, learners are typically p re­
sented with m odels a n d exam ples of p a ra g ra p h -
an d essavs to d em o n strate the discourse p ara­
digm s com m onlv accepted in Anglo-Americar.
writing. However, as m am teachers know from
experience, learn in g to write in accordance win
the rhetorical form ats an d norm s expected in
English-language academ ic discourse can be
difficult a n d tedious process. T 1 socialization
reg ard in g w ritten discourse paradigm s usual/
has so m uch influence on learn in g to write in
the T 2 that often, even with explicit instruction
learners are not able to recognize the rhetoric;-)
features o f the L2 discourse, m uch less produce
these features (H inkel 1994). As in m ost L .
interactions a n d com m unications, in the course
o f writing instruction, learners are faced with the
outcom es, and not the causes, of the T2 sociocu,-
tural norm s and conventions, m aking it h ard er fo:
them to understand and apply what they arc
instructed to do. ( И 7/v should the thesis be placed /r
the beginning of an essay if I know that it should 1-.
in the conclusion ? Why does the teacher say that the -
example is not clear when I think that it is very clear?)
Stewart (1972, p. 3) explains that whet;
faced with cross-cultural c o n tra d ic tio n s and
uncertainties, "people ten d to im pose th eir own
perspectives in an effort to dispel the ambiguity"
created bv the norm s o f ap p ro p riaten ess found
in a second culture and to “assume unconsciouslv
that their own wavs are norm al, natural, and
right.” A nother outcom e o f the need to resolve
contradictions is that the wavs of the o th er culture
are therefore seen as "abnorm al, unnatural, and
wrong.” Stewart fu rth er notes that presum ptions
of the superiority of o n e ’s own culture and its wavs
of being and doing are characteristic o f “most
peoples of the world.” Because literacv represents
one of the most highly valued and prized dom ains
of socialization in m any societies, it stands to rea­
son that mans L2 learners of writing mav reject
discourse frameworks that are at odds with those
specific to their own LI socialization to literacv
and the value associated with the appropriateness
of writing in a particular wav.
W hen teaching paragraph and essav struc­
ture, most ESL/EFL teachers know that the topic
sentence a n d the thesis statem ent are usually
placed near the beginning of a piece of writing in
the .Anglo-American tradition. T he reason that
the m ain idea is stated at the outset is verv similar
to the organization of spoken inform ation in
various languages; the teacher can work with the
sociocultural factors that affect discourse organi­
zation in speech and writing at the same time.
F or exam ple, in English, speakers are
expected to p resent their points in a m an n er that
is m ore direct than is com m on am ong speakers of
m any o th e r languages (Scollon a n d Scollon
1995). In contrast, it is considered alm ost requi­
site in Japanese and Chinese cultures to engage in
social conversations to establish a relationship
before m aking one's purpose known. That is, in
these cultures the main point o f a conversation
comes closer to the end of the discourse. Similarlv,
in writing, in the Chinese and Japanese rhetorical
tradition, the m ain point of the piece of writing
does n o t com e until the end because the writer
needs to lead the reader gentlv to the conclusion,
which is expected to be clear and obvious by the
time it is stated at the end (or sometim es, n o t
even stated at all). If in speaking, vague and indi­
rect hints are considered to be m ore socially
acceptable, then in writing, stating o n e ’s point
directly an d earlv mav be viewed as presum ptuous
and excessively forward. Similarly, in the Anglo-
Am erican rhetorical tradition, it is im portant that
the m ain idea o r the purp o se for w riting is stated
at the outset, a n d writers u n d ertake to support
their thesis with additional inform ation, in tended
to validate their m ain points.
Writing within Sociocultural Contexts
o f Language Use
T eaching com bined, parallel sociocultural fea­
tures w hen w orking with various L2 skills n o t
only helps learners to u n d e rsta n d the influence
of sociocultural factors on how language is used,
b u t also establishes a context for explaining whv
m em bers o f a particu lar culture do things in a
particu lar wav. F u rth erm o re, learners can thus
see a larger picture o f the culture in w hich the
language is used.
In the teaching o f L2 writing, teachers may
draw on m any exam ples from speaking a n d
establish parallels to help learners develop cul­
tural awareness in language use. O n e o f the
th o rn iest problem s in the teach in g of w riting in
English is th at learners often do n o t provide a
sufficient am o u n t o f su p p o rt a n d detail in th eir
w riting to m ake th eir points m eaningful an d
convincing. In m anv cultures o th e r th an Anglo-
A m erican, the right to speak is considered to be
the prerogative o f those who have the authority
to speak. Similarly, in writing, learners often
believe th at detailed su p p o rt is excessive an d
unnecessary because readers are n o t really co n ­
c e rn e d with “trivial” descriptions. They may also
th ink that they have little o f value to sav an d th at
providing too m uch detail im plies a lack of
humility. To help learners take a d ifferent view
of the necessary detailed su p p o rt exp ected in L2
writing, teachers may n e e d to provide explicit
in struction on L2 re a d e r expectations, the value
of explicit explanations in the A nglo-A m erican
rhetorical tradition, a n d th eir uses in writing.
T H E T R IC K Y N A TU RE
O F S E C O N D OR FO R E IG N
L A N G U A G E R EA D IN G
By an d large, two m ain types o f m aterials are
em ployed in teaching reading; highly controlled
an d often sim plified readings from E SL /EFL
textbooks, on the one hand; and authentic m ate­
rials that vary in their level of difficulty, on the
other. Textbook m aterials are most often used to
develop learners' reading tactics and strategies
a n d to im prove their vocabulary base. In contrast,
authentic texts can include a great variety of
genres, such as introductory and advanced text­
books, scholarly articles, print m edia publications
on hobbies, health, politics, and sports, how-to
books, and literature for readers of all ages.
A lthough most books on teaching reading distin­
guish betw een reading for pleasure and reading
for inform ation, visual m edia (TV, videos, and the
In te rn et), realistically speaking, have reduced the
num bers of those who read for pleasure. As a
result, a majority of readers, especially when thev
are reading in their L2, read for inform ation.
Culture in Reading Textbooks
Because ESL/EFL textbooks present a lim ited
an d controlled range of ideas, vocabulary items,
an d culturallv-dependent concepts, thev mav not
be the best m eans of explaining how the second
culture affects language use. However, even within
the lim ited them atic a n d lexical scope of
textbook readings, learn ers m at e n c o u n te r
com prehension difficulties that have to do with
culture, since cultural inferences often need to be
m ade to und erstan d text (and context). For
example:
T reatm ents th at are unconventional,
or out o f the ordinary, have gained so
m uch prestige a n d a tte n tio n th at the
U.S. g o v e rn m e n t has c re a te d an
Office of A lternative M edicine . . . .
M ant- people have lost faith in m odern
m edicine because research ers have
been unable to find cures for a variety
of problem s, from cancer to the com ­
m on cold (Broukal 1994, pp. 58-59).
In this textbook excerpt, learners often do
n o t see the co n n ectio n betw een the im plied low
prestige o f unconventional treatm ents an d the
creation o f a governm ent office. In fact, som e o f
them believe that the sentence is constructed
backwards a n d that the a u th o r of the textbook
has obviously m ade a mistake — the first sentence
in this excerpt should have stated that because
th e U.S. g o v ern m en t c re a te d an Office of
Alternative M edicine, unconventional treatm ents
gained m uch prestige. In o th er words, the gov­
e rn m e n t approval surelv brings about the pres­
tige. R eading mav tu rn out to be problem atic
if learners are often expected to relv on their own
experience to provide textual inferences and con­
struct the context. In the second sentence in the
above exam ple, a reference to "m odern” m edi­
cine and the disappointing results o f m edian
research mav be so dram atically m isinterpreted
that some learners m isunderstand the text com ­
pletely. Specifically, alternative m edicine is modern,
because the interest in it has arisen onlv recentf
and whv should the people be disappointed when,
the governm ent is doing its best?
This dem onstrates the com plexity o f the
invisible culture that can con fo u n d learners even,
in an interm ediate level textbook, specificaln
designed for ESL/EFL reading instruction. As wr
can see, a considerable am o u n t of background,
teaching and explanation mav be necessary f< :
learners to in terp ret the text appropriately an.
to identify its m ain points. U n d erstan d in g thn
text can be an even m ore d a u n tin g task when
reading involves authentic m aterials.
The Cultural Load
of Authentic Texts
C ulture teaching in L2 reading goes far beyor.
instruction in vocabulary, idiom s, and colloa -
tions. all o f which are essential for u n d erstan d ir..
the m eaning of the text. Context- an d culture-
specific connotations and im plications o f worn
and phrase m eanings also n e e d to be addressee.
M ore urgently, however, sociocultural m eanine-
and values greatlv affect a learner's ability :
c o m p re h en d text an d the context in which it
em ployed. In a u th en tic texts, such as th o -т
excerpted from advanced p rin t m edia (i.e., nev, -
m agazines a n d literatu re), culture-specific refer­
ences. allusions, m etaphors, a n d symbolism pl.v
a p ro m in e n t role. However, instructing learner-
to relv on th eir background know ledge a r.;
experience is not always productive o r helpful.
 In teaching ESL, it is relatively easy to obtain
diverse tvpes of read in g m aterials an d to gradu ­
ally increase their cultural an d linguistic com ­
plexity. Most im portantly, however, the teaching
of culture an d its im pact on text com prehension
needs to be addressed at all levels of proficiency
in o rd er to build lea rn ers’ awareness o f cultural
im plications and references, w ithout which few
texts can be understood. For advanced learners,
m aterials on p o p u lar hobbies, science, and even
introductory college textbooks can p rot ide a rel­
atively sm ooth transition to m ore com plex read ­
ings such as au th en tic literature.
For E S F /E F F purposes, literature should
be chosen carefully to allow learners an o p p o r­
tunity to c o m p re h e n d the text an d enjov it.
However, the a m o u n t of work e x p e n d ed on pre-
reading a n d p rep a rin g learners for reading lit­
eratu re mav be sufficiently great for teachers to
weigh its benefits relative to the cost (C arrell
and E isterhold 1988). In EEL environm ents, in
add itio n to textbooks, m aterials from m am
In te rn e t sites, English-language new spapers, or
free b ro ch u res for tourism and travel can p ro ­
vide access to texts that contain fewer culture-
b o u n d a n d advanced m etaphors and allusions
because they are o rie n ted for readers in various
geographic locations and o f varied language
skills. Such m aterials allow the teach er to con­
centrate on the culture-specific references and
sociocultural values invariably p rese n t in most
texts, but they mav not be so n u m ero u s and
com plex that learners are unable to co m p re­
h e n d the reading m aterial. For exam ple:
Instead o f counting sheep, the next
time vou hat e trouble sleeping, try put­
ting socks on vour feet. A researcher
savs people with chronically cold feet
m ight drift off faster if they warm their
feet with socks or a hot water bottle . . . .
She and h er colleagues d id n ’t directly
test w hether socks or water bottles pro­
m ote sleep. But they did analyze data
from 18 healthv voting m en who partic­
ipated in studies . . . . T he report
appears in today's issue of the journal
Xature (Seal tie Times, Septem ber 2. 1999.
H ealth and Science Section, p. 3).
This passage provides a few cultural refer­
ences that the teacher can discuss and explain,
such as counting sheep, a hot water bottle, testing data
directly, and the fact that reports appear in journals
(instead of, for example, are printed). W hile count­
ing sheep and a hot water bottle may be easy to
explain, testing data directly refers to a cultural con­
cept associated with research and analysis that
m any ESL/EFL learners find culturally bound.
T hat is, events can be observed, but in academ ic
reports and presentations thev are analyzed and
tested to obtain pro o f and validation (Stewart
1972). This concept is also helpful in writing
instruction when working with the thesis state­
m ent an d topic sentences a n d the need for
detailed support and valid argum ents. The use
of the present tense in a researcher says deals with
the convention in English tense use whereby the
present tense can refer to past tim e events that
have present time relevance and are true regard­
less of when the actual event takes place.
In general terms, readings selected for cul­
ture and L2 teaching com bined can be exam ined
for discourse and text organization, cultural con­
cepts, vocabulary, gram m ar, an d the conventions
o f writing in English. The readings can be selected
relatively easily to be appropriate for various levels
of reading proficiency and the range of attendant
L2 skills. It is im portant, however, n o t to miss an
opportunity to engage learners in a discussion of
how culture impacts language use.
D E V E L O P IN G E F F E C T IV E N E S S
IN T H E CLA SSRO O M
Because most individuals are socialized into their
first culture, thev are usually unaware of the influ­
ence of culture on language. To becom e effective,
classroom teachers are often faced with the n eed
to develop their professional knowledge o f the
fundam ental sociocultural variables essential for
L2 teaching. A great deal of literature was pub­
lished in the 1980s and 1990s on the im pact of
cultural awareness and knowledge on learn ers’
overall language proficiency. In addition, it has
becom e ap p aren t th at cultural concepts affect
how learners learn a n d teachers teach. Teaching
adult learners to be o r speak “like a native”
(Saville-Troike 1989, p. 26) is not likely to result
in success because sociocultural norm s of lan­
guage use are acquired d u ring the LI socializa­
tion process. Thus, classroom teachers n eed to
advance their own knowledge of how learn ers’
first cultures work a n d how it im pacts their ability
to learn. For exam ple, why is it that some students
rarely speak in class, why do some learners m em ­
orize whole chapters instead o f trying to “u n d e r­
stan d ” the m aterial, o r why do some people never
ask questions even if thev need m ore explanation
from the teacher?
Teacher, Teach Yourself
To develop effectiveness and a sufficient knowl­
edge base about learners' cultures does not m ean
that a teacher needs to becom e an expert ethnog­
ra p h e r on the fifteen different cultures re p re ­
sented in his o r h e r classroom . For instance, the
tea c h e r does n ot n e e d to be co n c ern e d with
roles and responsibilities o f children and parents,
religious rituals, or wavs to celebrate holidays and
life events such as weddings and funerals. The
ESL/EFL teacher is primarily concerned with cul­
tural considerations that have a direct im pact on
his or h er students’ ability to learn and do their
best in a second language and in a second culture
environm ent. If students from a particular culture
(or several cultures) do not participate in a speak­
ing acthitv, it w ould be interesting to find out why
this is so. O n the o th er hand, if m em bers of
an o th er culture seem to dom inate m ost classroom
interactions, it mav be necessary to learn why they
behave in this wav, if the teacher is seeking to
make the classroom a productive learning place
for all students.
T hus, teachers' first priority is to identify
th eir own needs in culture learning, in addition
to those o f th eir students. A n o th er considera­
tion is to investigate how tea c h e rs’ own sociocul­
turally d e te rm in e d beliefs, assum ptions, and
expectations affect th eir views on stu d e n t lea rn ­
ing an d behaviors. For exam ple, if a stu d e n t
does n o t w ant to speak up, the tea c h e r may
resp ectfu lly allow th e s tu d e n t to m ain ta in
silence for the d u ratio n o f the class or take
a p p ro p riate steps to m ake it m ore com fortable
for all .students to vo lu n teer opinions in paired
or small-group activities o r o th er settings that a: -
less threatening than speaking in front of th-
entire class. If the student m aintains polite silent s
an d the teacher accom m odates the studen: •
choice of behaviors, the student is unlikely to im­
prove his or her speaking proficiency and fluent'
Making Choices
As with teaching m ost ESL/EFL skills, teacher-
often n e e d to develop th eir own ap proach :
teaching a second culture. O ne o f the centm .
objectives in developing effectiveness in cultu: -
in struction is to address the causal knowlecu
about culture (Buttjes a n d Bvram 1991) and t/т
sociocultural reasoning that underlies practical/
all culturally d e te rm in e d behavior. Examiniim
the causes th a t lead m em bers o f a particu lar cul­
ture to do som ething in a particu lar way help -
learners m ake choices in speaking, writing, an .
behaving. For exam ple, in m any English-speak­
ing co m m u n ities, stu d e n ts are e x p e cte d n
arrive to class on tim e. O n the o th e r h an d , sue/,
an expectation mav not be com m on in certain,
o th e r cultures. T he reason th at students need n
be p u n ctu al is th at in English-speaking culture-
the value of tim e is verv high, and it is consid­
ered to be a scarce and im p o rta n t com m odity
sim ilar to monev, In fact, tim e is often referred
to in wavs sim ilar to m onev (e.g., spend time, w a r­
time, to be short on time, time is money). T herefore
when students arrive late, thev disrupt the class,
tariff o th er people's time, and display a certain level
of disrespect for the teacher and o th er students.
Students m ake a choice w hether to com e on time
or to take the liberty of com ing late. To help learn­
ers make appropriate choices (or to m ake them,
aware that thev are indeed m aking choices wit/,
consequences), teachers need to develop cultural
knowledge and classroom effectiveness.
R ESEA R CH O N C U LT U R E
A N D S P E C IF IC C U LT U R E S
Two parallel types of research have been carried
out to identify the role o f culture in society’ an d its
influence on h u m an behavior. T he research on
culture as it applies to social norm s, beliefs.
assum ptions, and value systems that affect many
(if not most) hum an activities is carried out in the
dom ains of ethnography, anthropology, sociology
and intercultural com m unication. In these disci­
plines, culture is exam ined in term s that applv to
most h u m an societies and organizations, and
research on culture seeks to determ ine the simi­
larities and differences that exist in hum an con­
structions of reality. Applied linguistics (m ore
specifically, sociolinguistics) is concerned with the
inextricable connection betw een language and
sociocultural norm s an d fram ew orks a n d seeks
to identify pattern s that can lead to an u n d e r­
standing of how m em bers of p articular cultures
use th eir language to refer to, describe, or func­
tion w ithin social organizations. For exam ple,
politeness is considered to be a universal feature
of language use in social organizations, but its
pragm atic, linguistic, social, in te n tio n a l, a n d
conceptual realizations van substantiallv am ong
d iffe re n t lan g u ag es a n d / o r c u ltu re s (even
speakers of the sam e language or different
dialects may belong to different sub-cultures and
thus have different concepts o f what it m eans to
be polite a n d how politeness should be realized
in speech a n d behavior).
In a d d itio n , re se a rc h in e th n o g ra p h v .
a n th ro p o lo g y a n d a p p lie d linguistics also
includes studies o f specific cultures, such as
Am erican, Chinese, Japanese, or M exican. These
studies iclentifV and describe wavs o f doing, speak­
ing, and behaving in specific cultural com m uni­
ties, w ithout necessarilv attem pting to d eterm in e
com m onalities and differences am ong various cul­
tures. Both research into culture in general and
into specific cultures can be useful for L2 teachers
who wish to allow learners to becom e m ore aware
of the connection betw een the culture o f the com ­
m unin' and the language of its speakers.
C R E A T IN G M ATERIALS
TO B U ILD C R O S S -C U L T U R A L
A W A R EN ESS
Because m anifestations of the influence of cul­
ture on language use are verv com m on, m aterials
for teaching cultural concepts and implications
can be easy to create. T he following ideas for
teach in g L2 sociocultural concepts and their
outcom es are m erely suggestions. All these have
b een used for years with m am different groups
of ESL or EFT learners. Extensive culture-teaching
projects and activities presented below certainlv
do not need to be used as thev arc described, and
teachers can choose to use onlv portions of them ,
which include isolatable steps.
(1) In teaching ESE, one o f the m ost effec­
tive activities that can be used for investigating a
second culture are interviews of XSs or ex p eri­
en ced L 2 learners because thev provide testim o­
nials and evidence th at com es from real p eo p le
(instead o f a classroom o r textbooks). T he great­
est advantages of c o n d u ctin g interviews are that
it allows learners to practice a variety o f L2 skills,
and that several productive assignm ents can be
derived from this activity.
T he first step is for learners to develop ap pro­
priate and focused questions. These can provide a
fruitful avenue for working on various form s of
polite speech acts and the notions of appropriate­
ness (e.g.. what represents personal inform ation,
what topics can be discussed, and how to ap­
proach them ), as well as linguistic forms of ques­
tions an d requests. Because interviews allow'
learners access to the invisible aspects of L2 culture,
the questions should focus on the causal inform a­
tion that deals with L2 cultural concepts and socio­
cultural norm s and behaviors that cannot be
observed. Examples of questions can include:
■ Whv do peo p le ask vou How are you a n d
th en do n o t listen to the answer?
« Whv do teachers sac- that students have to
com e on tim e if. w hen students com e late,
the missed m aterial is th eir own loss?
* Whv do A m ericans smile so m uch?
■ Whv is it okay to call professors bv th eir first
names?
■ Whv do strangers sav hello to m e on the street?
■ Whv is it necessary to explain everything in
so m uch detail in waiting?
■ If mv essay explains everything (!), would
readers think that I view them as a little slow ?
It is stronglv rec o m m e n d e d that the in stru cto r
approve the questions before th e actual in te r­
viewing takes place.
 In addition, learners can work at eliciting
the polite a n d a p p ro p riate requests for ap p o in t­
m e n ts / m eetings, "softening" devices, a p p ro p ri­
ate tele p h o n e or e-mail skills, neg o tiatin g the
tim es an d places for m eeting, a n d seeking clari­
fication. T h e interviews can be co n d u c te d in
pairs, but it is preferable n ot to include m ore
th an two students in an interview ing team .
Following the interview, the inform ation can
be used for a presentation to o th er small groups
of students or to an entire class. In a writing class,
the outcom es can be tu rn e d into a short or long
paper, d ep en d in g on the learners' level o f L2 pro­
ficiency. In any case, the presentations or written
assignm ent should not turn into m ere descrip­
tions of responses or behaviors but should set out
to d eterm in e their causes, W hen working on the
presentation o r on writing assignm ents, the cul­
tural co n ten tio n s of L2 public speaking (e.g., eve
contact, organization of content, and dem eanor)
or L2 written discourse (e.g,, thesis statem ent,
topic sentences, and their detailed support) can
be addressed in conjunction with the work on the
assignm ent content. In general, such a project
can take a p p ro x im a te d two to th re e weeks,
d ep en d in g on circumstances.
(2) In EFL settings, learners can work on
short questionnaires that similarlv have the goals
of identifying the m anifestations o f culture in lan­
guage use and heightening learners' awareness of
politeness norm s, sociocultural variables, prag­
m atic functions, and linguistic forms of speech
acts (such as the types of "softening" devices an d
th eir variability'). T he questionnaires can be
adm inistered in the learners' LI to gather infor­
m ation that can be later used in L2 presentations
or written assignm ents. T he tasks can be simpli­
fied for interm ediate level learners or be m ade
m ore com plex for advanced L2 speakers.
(3) In either ESL or EFL, hom e videos,
movie clips, and videotaped excerpts from news­
casts and TV program s (sitcoms, juvenile shows
for younger learners, or interviews) can provide a
practically’ inexhaustible resource for exam ining
the influence o f culture on language (e.g., rou-
tinized expressions, "softening” device-, questions,
requests, etc.), interactional practices, body lan­
guage, turn-taking, and the length of a pause sig­
nalling the end of a turn. T he inform ation on
sociocultural and politeness norm s of the com ­
m unity obtained from such materials can be used
in subsequent role plavs. skits, or short play s that
learners can script and present, as well as formal
presentations and written assignments. In this
case, written assignments can include the aspects
o f L2 speech acts and behaviors that learners
found surprising, the descriptions of polite and
routinized expressions that they noted, and cul­
turally determ ined conventions displayed in the
video excerpts. These projects cam be worked on
from one to two weeks, d ep ending on the am ount
of the m aterial used in the video lesson.
C O N C L U S IO N
It is im p o rta n t for b o th teachers and students to
be aware o f the m anifestations an d outcom es of
L2 sociocultural values, concepts, an d norm s on
people's speech an d behavior. To this end, learn­
ers need to be taught to notice polite (and often
routinized) expressions and behaviors com m on
in the L2 com m unity because w ithout becom ing
astute people-w atchers, they may find it difficult,
if n o t im possible, to becom e interactionallv
c o m p e ten t in the L2. Being aware of the socio­
cultural fram ew orks does not m ean that learners
have to becom e "native-like." but an awareness
o f the L2 cultural norm s can allow learners to
m ake th eir own inform ed choices o f what to sav7
and how to say it. T he teacher's task is to provide
learners with the tools they n eed to recognize
that they are in d ee d m aking choices.
.Although ESL EFL teachers devote a great
deal of work. time, and attention to the teaching
of F.2 linguistic skills, being linguistically com pe­
tent is not enough for many learners to attain
their educational, professional, and social goals.
Because language use reflects the culture o f its
speakers, the teaching of L2 culture can be closely
intertw ined with the teaching of most L2 linguistic
skills. Teaching L2 culture together with speaking,
listening (and noticing), reading, and writing
m ore adequately rep resen ts the co n n ectio n s
betw een language and culture than teaching L2
linguistic skills— o r cu ltu re— in isolation.
Acknowledgments: Mv ap preciation to Bethany Plett an d
Mar\ Geary, b o th of Seattle t'niversirv. for th eir helpful
c o m m e n t- an d suggestions.
D IS C U S S IO N Q U E S T IO N S 2. Various tvpes of writing genres require the
uses of different conventions. G ather samples
1. T he article m entions th a t culture teaching o f different texts and include, for exam ple, a
does not rep resen t a separate dom ain o f L2
personal letter, a popular m agazine article, an
teaching. If this is so, w ould it be useful for
excerpt from an introductorv textbook, o r a
learners to develop lessons to deal with folk
formal essav/academ ic paper. Identify the fea­
dances, festivals, facts, an d foods (the 4-F
tures of these texts that m ake them different
ap p ro ach to teaching culture)?
in im portant wavs. What are the culturally
2. T he distinction betw een the visible and the
prescribed conventions com m on in personal,
invisible culture is described as one of the
expressive, or formal academ ic writing? W hat
m ost im p o rtan t aspects of teaching the influ­
do these genres share? V iiat do the shared
ence o f culture on L2 use. W hat are the kev
and d ifferent conventions sav ab o u t the
features of the invisible culture an d what
culture of each discourse comnninitv?
im pact do thev have on L2 learning and use?
3. O bserve a g roup of people who are sim ulta-
3. Whv does the teaching o f 1.2 culture seem to
neouslv engaged in an aetivitv (e.g., standing
be m ore directly relevant to ESL ra th e r titan
in line, waiting for the teach er to arrive in
EFT learners? Whv is contrasting culturallv
class, or m aking small purchases in a d ru g ­
d e te rm in e d wavs of speaking a n d writing
store). W hat verbal an d nonverbal behaviors
useful for teaching second culture to EFL
do these individuals have in com m on? How
learners?
do thev. for instance, m aintain eve contact or
4. In m am wavs, cultural references are closelv
hold th eir hands? W hat do m ost of them say
intertw ined with reading, discourse, and text.
and what do only som e individuals sav? How
W hat is the role of linguistic proficiencv and
can culturallv d e te rm in e d wavs of behaving
cultural proficiencv in ESL EFL reading
and speaking in a com nninitv be identified
a n d /o r writing? W hat im portance can El and isolated from those th at are based on
literaev have in learning to read and write in
individual choices?
ESL EFL?
4. To find out what represents a p o p u lar u n d e r­
5. Whv is it that m anv teacher-training pro­ standing of culture in the com m unity, find
gram s S l a v awav from p rep a rin g teachers to five or six individuals in a sim ilar age g roup
work with a second culture? If con were in and with sim ilar social status who are native
charge of an ESL EFL program , would y o u
speakers of the same language a n d ask them
choose to include teaching culture as a com ­ to tell von ab o u t th eir culture. For exam ple,
p o n e n t o f teacher-training? Why or whv not?
ask several A m erican o r Japanese students to
tell vou about th eir culture. W hat do th eir
responses include? How do these individuals
identifv the visible and the invisible aspects
S U G G E S T E D A C T IV IT IE S
of th eir culture?
1. C reate lists of com m on linguistic expressions
or behaviors, each associated with two or
th ree topes o f speech acts (agreeing, dis­
agreeing, inciting som eone to do som ething FU R T H ER R EA D IN G
or visit, and, o r accepting o r declining invi­
M cv. J. 191*3. Pragmatics: An Introduction. O xford:
tations) and arran g e them from the least
Blackw ell.
polite to the most polite expressions. W hat
P r e s e n t s p r a g m a t i c s as t h e stu d y o f l a n g u a g e u se
are the characteristics o f the least polite or in real-life i n t e r a c t i o n a n d d e s c r i b e s t h e effects o f
the m ost polite speech acts? W hat are the various la n g u a g e form s o n c o m m u n ic a tio n .
sociocultural variables that, would m ake each F o c u s e s o n e v e ry d a y c o n v e r s a t i o n a n d t h e s o c i o ­
of them acceptable o r unacceptable in real- c u l t u r a l v a ria b le s t h a t d e t e r m i n e c h o ic e s o f l a n ­
life interactions? g u a g e f e a t u r e s m a d e bv i n t e r a c t i n g p a r t ic i p a n ts .
S av ille-T ro ik e, M. 198V). The E thnography of
Communication. O x f o r d : B lackw ell.
D e s c r i b e s h o w a n d w h y l a n g u a g e is u s e d in p a r ­
t i c u l a r wavs t h a t v a n in d i f f e r e n t c u l t u r e s .
Illu s tra te s e s s e n tia l c o n c e p t s in so c io lin g u istic s
a n d cites e x a m p l e s f r o m m a n v l a n g u a g e s to o u t ­
lin e fram ew orks o f c o m m u n ic a tio n a n d cultural
com petence.
S c o ll o n , R., a n d S. \V. S c o ll o n . 1995. Intercultural
Communication. O x f o r d : B lackw ell.
A p r a c t ic a l g u i d e t o t h e m a i n c o n c e p t s a n d p r o b ­
le m s o f i n t e r c u l t u r a l c o m m u n i c a t i o n . C e n t e r s
o n p r i n c i p l e s o f i n t e r a c t iv e s o cio lin g u istics , t h e
d i s c o u r s e o f m e m b e r s o f d i v e r g e n t c u lt u r e s ,
p r a g m a t i c s , a n d e t h n o g r a p h y . U n d e r s c o r e s th e
i m p o r t a n c e o f l a n g u a g e u se in cro s s-c u ltu ra l
d iscourse a n d cu ltu ral n o rm s o f in teractio n .
S in g e r , M. 1998. Perception and Identity in Inlerculturai
Communication. R e v is e d e d i t i o n . Y a r m o u t h , ME:
I n t e r c u l t u r a l Press.
A nalyzes c u l t u r a l a n d g r o u p id e n t it ie s a n d th e
c o m m u n i c a t i o n p ro c e s s to d e t e r m i n e h o w p e r ­
c e p t i o n s o f self a n d o t h e r s affect l a n g u a g e a n d
b e h a v io r. D elves in t o t h e s ig n if i c a n c e o f c u ltu re -
b a se d p e r c e p tu a l id en tity a n d th e ro le o f id e n ­
tity in i n t e r c u l t u r a l c o m m u n i c a t i o n .
S te w a rt. E.. a n d M. B e n n e t t . 1991. American Cultured
Patterns: A Cross-cultural Perspective. R e v is e d e d i ­
ti o n . Y a r m o u t h . M E: I n t e r c u l t u r a l P ress.
D isc u s se s f u n d a m e n t a l c o n c e p t s o f A m e r i c a : :
c u l t u r e in t e r m s o f s i m i l a r o r d i f f e r e n t c h a r a c ­
teristics o f o t h e r c u l t u r e s . A lso fo c u s e s o n th e
im p a c t o f c u ltu re on c o m m u n ic a tio n a n d im pli­
c a t i o n s f o r c r o s s - c u l tu r a l i n t e r a c t i o n s .
 The Use of Media
in Language Teaching1
D O N N A M. B R I N T O N
In "The Use of Media in Language Teaching," Brinton presents a rationale for and an overview of media
materials and equipment traditionally used in the second/foreign language classroom.To better guide
teachers in their use of media, she provides a five-part framework for structuring media-based
language lessons, accompanied by a variety of sample lessons that illustrate this framework.
IN T R O D U C T IO N
As a tool for language learn in g /teach in g , m edia
have undoubtedly always facilitated the task of
language learning for both instructed and nonin-
structed learners. Just as children learning a first
or second language grasp the m eaning of words
from the objects that surround them , non-native
speakers (both inside and outside the classroom)
make use of the here and notv or objects in the
im m ediate environm ent (see H udelson 1984:
Pica, Young, and Doughtv 1987: VVesche and
Read}' 1985; Lvnch 1996) to process incom ing
speech.
In the second language classroom , the
extent to which m edia are used has varied widelv,
d ep ending on the m ethodology selected. In some
m ethods, m edia have figured prom inently as a
force th at drives th e cu rricu lu m . In the
St. Cloud (or audiovisual) m ethod, which teas
developed prim arily f or the teaching of French as
a foreign language (Bowen, M adsen, and Hilfertv
1985; Stevick 1976), all language items were intro­
duced to learners via contextualized, audiovisual
presentations (usually filmstrips or slide shows
with an accom panying soundtrack. T he u nderly­
ing a p p ro a c h assum ed th a t language is an
acoustic-visual whole that cannot be separated
from its c o n stitu en t elem ents. Similarly, in the
Silent Wav (G attegno 1972; L arsen-Freem an
1986; Stevick 1998), the sound-color charts and
rods form a central visual c o m p o n e n t o f the
m eth o d , allowing the tea c h e r to p resen t and
elicit language while at the same tim e providing
the students with tools for the creative construc­
tion o f language.
In o th e r m ethods, m edia are relegated
m ore to the design or p ro ce d u re level.2 In
C om m unicative L anguage tea c h in g (Larsen-
F re em a n 1986, L ittlew ood 1981; see also
Savignon's c h a p te r in this volum e), for exam ple,
m uch em phasis is placed on the n e e d for real-
life objects o r texts (e.g., m aps, railroad tim e­
tables, application form s) to lend authenticity to
th e com m u n icativ e situ a tio n , w hile in th e
N atural A pproach (K rashen an d Terrell 1983),
m agazine pictures are used as an elicitation
device in the listening co m p reh en sio n an d early
p ro d u ctio n stages, a n d charts, m aps, a n d props
are used to m otivate a n d e n h a n ce com m unica­
tive in terch an g e in later stages o f acquisition.
Finally, in experiential approaches to language
learn in g (see E yring’s c h a p te r in this volum e),
language teaching m edia are often taken o u t of
the hands of the tea c h e r a n d placed in the
h a n d s o f th e stu d e n ts, such th a t stu d e n ts
involved in project work m ight be exp ected to
p ro d u ce a scripted slide show or a voice-over
video d o cum entary as th eir final class product.
W hatever the approach, language teachers
seem to agree th a t m edia can a n d do e n h a n ce
language teaching, a n d thus in th e daily practice
of language teaching we find the en tire range o f
m e d ia — fro m n o n m e c h a n ic a l aids such as
h o u seh o ld objects, flashcards, a n d m agazine pic­
tures all the wav up to sophisticated m echanical
aids such as video cam eras and com puters (see
S okolik’s c h a p te r in this v o lu m e )— assisting
teachers in th eir jobs, b ringing the outside world
in to the classroom , and, in short, m aking the
task o f language learn in g a m ore m eaningful
a n d exciting one. K eeping this fact in m ind, let
us exam ine the types o f instructional m edia used
in the language classroom .
M EDIA: A D E F IN IT IO N
Just as we often differentiate the teaching of
“large C cu ltu re"— i.e., the great literature, art,
a n d o th e r contributions of a societv— from that
o f “small c c u ltu re ”— i.e., the custom s and habits
o f a p eo p le— (Chastain 1988), it is germ ane here
to differentiate betw een “large M m edia" and
“small m m edia.” Certainly, as with culture, m edia
m eans m any different things to different people.
T he m ost im m ediate con n o tatio n of the term
“m edia,” at least as related to language teaching,
is th at of the “large Л/ m edia"— o f technological
innovations in language teaching, o f m echanical
paraphernalia, and of glossv, polished audiovisual
aids— with all the m edia anxietv that these can
conjure up in teachers. However, there is little evi­
d ence th at such glossv audiovisual aids are anv
m ore effective than teacher-m ade, n o n m ec h a n ­
ical aids (e.g., p ap er plate h a n d puppets, bu tch er
p a p e r verb charts, and the like) or props from
daily life (e.g., cereal boxes, cam paign buttons,
travel pam phlets, b u m p er stickers) that have
b een ad ap ted for classroom teaching purposes. I
w ould therefore like to suggest that all these aids,
m echanical and nonm echanical, glossy a n d n o n ­
glossy, com m ercially available and teacher-m ade,
should be p art o f o u r definition o f language
teaching m edia.
A R A TIO N A LE F O R T H E USE
O F M EDIA IN LA N G U A G E
T E A C H IN G
I often assum e th at the reasons whv we should
use m edia w hen teaching second or foreign lan­
guages are self-evident to ex p erien ced classroom
teachers. All too frequentlv, however, I overh-
snatches of conversation in classroom hallwavs
at professional gatherings that disabuse m e of the
notion. These com m ents, m ade bv colleagues
regarding their inability or unwillingness to use
audiovisual aids in their classrooms, fall roughlv
into the following "categories":
Statement 1: I'm all thum bs. I c a n ’t use m edia.
Statement 2: Mv school district has no bu d g et fee
media.
Statement 3: I have no tim e to p re p a re meek,
m aterials of mv own.
Statement 4: T he syllabus I teach from is too tight/
structured to allow for m edia materials to f-.
b rought into the classroom.
Statement 5 : 1 teach advanced levels (alternatively .
given skill area such as com position or re a : -
ingj and therefore d o n 't need to use media.
Before p ro ce e d in g with a rationale i .
using m edia in the language classroom , let a-
first exam ine the underiving fallacies of fa-
above statem ents.
The first two statem ents, I believe, can
dealt with summarilv bv realizing that those wk
have m ade such statem ents are subscribing to tiw
aforem entioned "large ЗГ definition of med::
T hat is. these individuals are assuming that cla>'-
room m edia m aterials are bv definition i i
m echanical (and therefore unavailable, unwield’
a n d /o r anxietv-provoking) and (2) commercial
(and therefore costlv and inaccessible). In fact, a-
I hat e alreadv pointed out, classroom m edia need:
be none of the above— they can be nonm echar.-
ical, unth reaten in g to both teachers and student.'
teacher-produced rath er than com m ercial, easih
available (especially in the case of the realia o:
evervdav life), and reasonable priced (or often,
even free).
T he fallacies that underlie statem ents /
th rough 5 are som ew hat m ore difficult to refute.
O n the surface, statem ent 3 (the tim e factori.
presents a som ew hat viable a rg u m en t against
using m edia. Certainly, if one disregards the
m ans’ attractive com m ercially available m edia
m aterials th at teachers can select from (see
A ppendix В for a partial list of these) and
assumes th at statem ent 2 also holds true in a
given case, the p rep a ra tio n of teacher-m ade
m edia m aterials does d em an d an investm ent of
time and cnergv above an d bevond that o f n o r­
mal lesson planning. However, this statem ent
overlooks the reality that any lesson p reparation is
tim e-consum ing, a n d that m any m edia m aterials
(such as the preparation of vocabulary flashcards
or the selection of m agazine pictures to elicit and
practice a given language point) do not require
exhaustive am ounts of time. A dditionally and
perhaps m ore im portantly the statem ent ignores
the “payoff’ that can result from the hours spent
p reparing or assem bling simple classroom m edia
m aterials (e.g., a set of prespecified role assign­
m ents p rep ared on index cards to set up a role-
play situation, o r a collection of m enus from local
restaurants for a lesson on food item s). In fact,
this payoff, which is realized in term s of the
teacher's continuouslv reced in g these same m ate­
rials with different student audiences (and even
for different teaching purposes), is often far
greater than the am o u n t o f tim e invested in m ore
trad itio n al classroom lesson p la n n in g (see
Jensen's ch ap ter in this volum e).3
Statem ent 4, 1 believe, is based on a com ­
monly held m isunderstanding of m edia as "extra­
neous” to norm al lesson activities. In o th er words,
p ropon ents of this view fail to recognize that
m edia can form a viable point o f departu re for
achieving lesson objectives. In fact, rath e r than
taking up additional class hours, the use of m edia
designed with a particular student population
and teaching objective in m ind can often help to
economize the teaching task. This is achieved in the
sense that the m edia appeal to students' senses
and help them process inform ation (H artnett
1985), thus reinforcing the teaching p o in t and
saving the teacher unnecessarv explanation.
Finally those who hold the view expressed in
statem ent 5 are neglecting the fact, gro u n d ed in
the very definition o f language, that language
skills are not isolated entities, and that as language
teachers we need to build bridges betw een skills.
We can do so by creating a unified context in
which the teaching of various skills is effectively
integrated around m edia. For exam ple, we can
structure multiskill them atic units4 requiring stu­
dents to process inform ation from a varietv of
sources (e.g., a political cartoon, a \id e o docu­
mentary, and letters to the editor, all concerning
the same controversial topic) followed by an inter-
\iew assignm ent in which students poll native
speakers for th eir opinions on this topic and, as
a culm inating activity, write a p a p e r sum m ariz­
ing the opposing points o f Hew on the topic.
In short, m edia help us to m otivate students
bv bringing a slice o f real life into the classroom
an d bv presenting language in its m ore com plete
com m unicative context. M edia can also provide
a density of inform ation an d richness of cultural
in p u t not otherwise possible in the classroom ,
thev can help students process inform ation and
free the teacher from excessive explanation, an d
they can provide contextualization an d a solid
point o f d ep a rtu re for classroom activities. T he
following statem ents sum m arize the rationale for
using m edia in the language classroom:
* Given the role m edia play in the w orld o u t­
side the classroom , students expect to find
m edia inside the classroom as well. M edia
thus serve as an im p o rta n t m otivator in the
language teaching process.
■ Audiovisual m aterials provide students with
co n ten t, m eaning, a n d guidance. They thus
create a co n tex tu alized situation w ithin
which language item s are p re se n te d an d
practiced.
* M edia m aterials can len d authenticity to
the classroom situation, rein fo rcin g for stu­
dents the direct relation betw een the lan­
guage classroom and the outside world.
■ Since the learn in g stvles o f students differ
(O xford 1990; Reicl' 1987; Skehan 1989;
W enden a n d R ubin 1987; see also O x fo rd ’s
c h a p te r in this volum e), m edia provide us
with a way o f addressing the needs o f b o th
visual a n d auditory learners.
■ T he role th at in p u t plays in language learn­
ing is virtually uncontested (Krashen 1987).
Be bringing m edia into the classroom, teach­
ers can expose their students to m ultiple
input sources. Thus, while decreasing the
risk of the students’ becom ing d e p e n d e n t
on their tea c h e r’s dialect o r idiolect, they
can also enrich th eir language learning
experiences.
■ W ith referen ce to schem a theory (Schank Nontechnical Media
a n d A belson 1977), which proposes that we
a p p ro ach new inform ation bv scanning o u r This category presents obvious advantages in sc -
m em ory b ank s fo r re la te d know ledge, tings w here electricity is unreliable, technic,
resources are scarce, or funding is lim ited. O thc
m edia can help students call up existing
advantages of the forms of m edia included in th:-
schem ata an d th erefo re m axim ize th eir use
category are their low cost, their availability, the.:
o f p rio r back g ro u n d know ledge in the lan­
accessibility, and their user-friendliness. Iter..-
guage learn in g process.
that belong in this category tvpicallv include:
■ Finally, research suggests that m edia p ro ­
vide teachers with a m eans of p resenting blackboards cartoons,
m aterial in a tim e-efficient an d com pact w hiteboards line drawings
m anner, and o f stim ulating students' senses, m agnetboards objects/'realia
thereby helping them to process inform a­ flannelboards. p a m p h le ts /
tion m ore readily (Mollica 1979). pegboards b ro c h u re s /
flashcards index can flyers/m enus
wall charts, posters. eq u ip m en t
maps, scrolls operation m a n n a /
CLA SSR O O M MEDIA: board games puppets
m o u n te d pictures new spapers,/
A N O V ER V IEW photos m agazines
At the height of the audiolingual era, if we had
asked the average second or foreign language
teacher to designate those m edia that tliev felt Technical Media
were appropriate for the teaching of languages, A lthough these form s of m edia are costlier and
we would no doubt have rec e d e d a fairly large less user-friendiv than the n o n tech n ical m edia
range of responses, with the blackboard and thev e a rn with them a larger degree o f “psycho­
o th e r simple classroom aids along with the audio- logical reality" in that thev can brin g the outside
tape m edium (and the ubiquitous language labo­ w orld in all its com plexities into the classroom
ratory) d o m in a tin g the responses. Today, In fact, since students in today's language classe-
needless to say, that range of responses would be ten d to su rro u n d them selves with technolog}’ ir.
even larger, as the ever-expanding horizons of th eir daily lives, the/ mav grow to expect it in the
technolog}’ present us with exciting new advances language classroom as well. Item s that belong ir.
such as com puter-assisted instruction, satellite this category typically include:
transm ission, a n d interactive video.
reco rd plaver film strip /
Despite these expanding horizons, we find
au diotape plaver film p rojector
today that rather than abandoning the m ore tradi­
reco rd er opaque projector
tional, or small m, m edia and shifting allegiance to
CD plaver rec o rd e r slide p rojector
the newer, m ore technological innovations, lan­
radio co m p u ter
guage teachers are simple incorporating new tech­
television language lab
nolog}' into their repertoire of teaching aids, with
video plac’d ' co m p u ter lab
m any using sophisticated video and com puter tech­
rec o rd e r m ultim edia lab
nologies (see Sokolik’s chapter in this volume)
telep h o n e self-access cen ter
alongside the less sophisticated (but tried and true)
teletrain er
m agnetboard or overhead projector. In attem pting
overhead pro jecto r
to prtnide an overview of the range of m edia avail­
able to classroom teachers today, it is perhaps best In considering this group, it is im portant to
to use the traditional classification of ''nontech­ make a few fu rth er distinctions— namelv, w hether
nical” and “technical” media, as listed below.’1 the m edia constitute software (consum able m edia
items) or hardw are (eq u ip m en t), w h eth er the
m aterials tire com m ercially p ro d u ce d or teacher-
tiroduced, a n d w h eth er they are au th en tic or
not.b We m ust also consider w h ether they are
being used alone o r to g eth e r with o th e r m edia
tn a m ultim edia en vironm ent. Finally, we must
..Iso consider the purposes for which these m edia
are being used— i.e.. to aid in presentation, to
orovidc practice o r stim ulate com m unicative
interaction, or to provide feedback (as in the case
if aud io /v id eo tap in g student oral products for
'tibsequent discussion an d evaluation).
To include a description of the possible uses
if all the above form s of m edia is bevoncl the
mope o f this chapter. However, to take but one
sam ple, the blackboard, we can see how even
this simple m edium can function effectively at the
various stages of a lesson. In the presentation
mage, for exam ple, the blackboard can be used
:or verb paradigm s, tim e lines, or o th er graphic
or visual cues to elucidate a teaching point, while
matrices or grids written on the blackboard can
serve as elicitation tools. In the practice stage,
maps, stick figures, and o th er line drawings can
runction as contextualizers for a given activity.
Finally, in the com m unication stage, the black­
board can be used to storyboard student ideas in
л group-produced narrative or to cluster and m ap
student concepts as thev are being developed.
Suffice it to sav, then, that each form of
m edia presents unique advantages— be it the
availability and immediacy o f feedback that the
black/w hiteboard can supply the econom y of
time that pre-prepared overhead transparencies
or a Pow erpoint presentation can proride the
teacher, or the richness o f au th en tic in p u t that
film or the In te rn e t can offer. Ultimately, each
m edium leases its own im print on the tea c h in g /
learning process, and it is up to the teacher to
decide which one to select in o rd e r to teach a
given point.
G U ID E L IN E S FO R U SIN G
M EDIA IN T H E CLA SSR O O M
Given the range of classroom m edia (both h ard­
ware and software) discussed above, it is not sur­
prising that language teachers are overw helm ed
bv the choices available to them . As Penfield
(1987, p. 1 ) rightfully notes, “too often [m edia]
are neglected because teachers are n o t always
certain how to ad ap t these rich a n d com plex
learn in g m aterials to stu d e n ts’ needs a n d lan­
guage co m p eten cies.” Clearly, guidelines for use
are in order.
In fact, guidelines for the selection, adapta­
tion, dev elo p m en t, an d im p le m e n ta tio n o f
m edia-based m aterials do n o t differ radically
from the kinds o f guidelines we find m en tioned
m ore universally regarding lesson planning and
textbook evaluation (see, e.g., J e n se n ’s and Byrd’s
chapters in this volum e). Thus, such issues as the
appropriateness of the m aterials for the target
audience, their technical a n d pedagogical quality,
their teaching objective (s), and the pre-/post-
procedures to be used all play as im p o rtan t a role
in the selection and use of audiovisual m edia in
the classroom as thev do in those o f conventional
print media. Further, and this p o in t cannot be
stressed enough, m edia-based m aterials should
n ot be viewed simplv as extraneous to the lesson,
or as contingency plans. Rather, they should be
p lan n ed as carefully as the lesson itself and
should form a central (if n ot the central) com po­
n en t of the lesson — one that is interwoven with
the o th er lesson com ponents, such as the reading
text, the writing assignm ent, or the speaking task.
A FRA M EW O RK
FO R S T R U C T U R IN G
M EDIA LESSO N S
T he fram ework presented below7 is in ten d ed to
put the application o f m edia to language teaching
into a unified perspective and to assist teachers in
better structuring m edia lessons. In constructing
this framework, I ’ve divided up the typical “lesson”
into five stages: ( 1 ) the information and motivation
stage, w here the topic and relevant background
inform ation are presented; (2 ) the input stage,
w here the teacher ensures com prehension of the
item or items presented; (3) the focus stage, w here
the students practice the tasks an d are provided
with guided opportunities to m anipulate items
u ntil thev feel co m fo rtab le a n d c o n fid en t;
(4) the m ore com m unicatively oriented transfer
singe, in which students are given opp o rtu n ities
to offer personal com m ents or share experi­
ences relating to the given context: and (5) an
optional feedback stage in which audio or video
recordings of students are used to gttide the
assessm ent of the stu d en ts' p erfo rm an ce (e.g., a
stu d e n t speech, ;m interview, a class discussion,
a role plav, a g ro u p problem solving activity).8
Figure 1 presents the fram ew ork.
In applying this framework, teachers need
to be aware that the above points in the fram e­
work outline options available to teachers it:
designing and im plem enting m edia lessons anc
are n ot in tended to represent procedures that
m ust be followed lockstep. Note also that media
can plav a role at an у or all of the live stages of the
lesson, and that a variety of m edia m ight be nsec,
in the various stages to com plem ent each othe:
an d to achieve the designated teaching objective

I. Inform ation and m otivation stage

II. Input stage

1. Teacher presents/elicits vocabulary
2. Teacher presents/elicits structures
3. Teacher presents/elicits functions
4. Teacher presents/elicits concepts
5. Teacher presents/elicits content

III. Focus stage

1. Teacher models language items/procedures/tasks
2. Students practice items/tasks in context
a. Drill
b. Elicitation
3. Students manipulate language/content/tasks
a. Notetaking
b. Information transfer
c. Pair work/small-group work
IV. Transfer stage
1. Class discussion
2. Students interact, using context set by media materials
as a point of departure
a. Role play/sociodrama
b. Problem solving activity
c. Information gap activity
d. Game
3. Task-based assignment
4. Follow-up writing assignment
5. Sharing of personal experience
6 . Field trip
V. Feedback stage
1. Teacher tapes the activity.
2. Students listen to/view the tape.
3. Students perform a self-assessment of their performance.
4. Students provide peer feedback to others.
5. Teacher provides feedback to students.

F ig u re I. A F r a m e w o r k f o r Stru ctu rin g M e d ia Lessons

SAM PLE M EDIA LESSO N S decisions about m edia use for language teaching
p urposes.-1 N ote that num bers in brackets indicate
T he following sam ple lessons, selected to illustiate
the relevant parts of the fram ew ork th at have been
a range o f available m edia, dem onstrate how the
applied in designing each lesson.
fram ew ork in Figure 1 can be applied in m aking

Sam ple Lesson I: T h e “ Ugly L a m p ” (magazine picture)

A u d ie n ce : Beginning-level adult students enrolled in an intensive language/visa program;

intermediate level EFL students.

Teachin g
O b je ctiv e : To provide students with the language needed to express pleasure/
displeasure; request an exchange for an unwanted item.

M edia: Mounted magazine picture of woman holding an ugly lamp (see Figure 2).

Skills: Speaking, vocabulary, writing.

T im e : 2 class periods (I hour each) plus follow-up (15 minutes).

P ro c e d u re s:
1. Teacher introduces the concept of gift giving and receiving. If appropriate
(e.g., holiday time), students may want to share information about what they
are giving to friends or wish to receive [I].
2. Teacher introduces the magazine picture of the ugly lamp (see Figure 2), elic­
iting explicit vocabulary (e.g., lampshade, bow, frown) [II.I.] and structures
(present progressive, descriptive adjectives) [II.2.].
3. The students and teacher examine the picture more closely, and the teacher
asks questions which elicit more implicit vocabulary [II. I.] and structures
[Н.2.]. For example:“ W h o do you think gave the woman this gift?” (sister-in-
law, elderly relative); “W h ere do you think Aunt Harriet m ight have bought
the lamp?” (She might have bought it from a thrift shop/garage sale/etc.).
4. Teacher presents language functions relevant to giving and receiving gifts
[11.3] and provides students with guided practice [lll.2.a.]. In pairs (gift giver
and receiver), students practice the sequence of giving the gift, opening it, and
expressing thanks [ Ш . З . С . ] .
5. For homework, as follow-up writing practice, students write a letter to the
giver of the gift thanking him or her [IV.4.].
6 . On a subsequent day, the context is recycled, and the language necessary
for returning unwanted items to a store and requesting cash/an exchange is
presented [11.4.] and practiced [III.2.a.].
7. Students are videotaped [V.I.] role-playing the situation [IV.2.a.]. They
then watch the video footage [V.2.] and receive peer [V.4.] and teacher [V.5.]
feedback.
8 . As a culminating activity, students bring in unwanted items they have received
and share their reactions to receiving these gifts with their classmates [IV.5.].
 Sam ple Lesson 2: C o m p u te r H ardw are/Softw are A d s
(m ounted advertisem ents from m agazines and jo u rn a ls)10

A u d ie n c e : Advanced ESL/EFL students enrolled in EAP courses at the university; students

enrolled in university-bound programs (e.g., advanced students in intensive language
institutes).

Teachin g To introduce, practice, and reinforce the task of writing formal definitions for academic
O b je c tiv e : purposes; secondary objectives include reading practice involving skimming and scanning,
speaking in small groups, in-class writing, and follow-up writing error detection.

M edia: Mounted advertisements of computer hardware and software products with accompa­
nying text from magazines and journals.

S k ills: W riting, grammar (sentences of definition), reading, and speaking.

T im e : 90 minutes plus additional follow-up as desired.

P ro c e d u re s:
1. Students are led in a brief discussion of where we are apt to find academic definitions
of items— e.g., in textbooks, product manuals, journals, and magazines [I.].
2. Teacher reviews previously covered material— i.e., the structure of sentences of
definition [И.2.].
3. Teacher distributes photocopies of a computer hardware or software advertise­
ment. Together, the class members identify the item being advertised and locate any
information relevant to writing a concise sentence definition of the product
[lll.2.b.]. [Note: This advertisement and the subsequent advertisements should be
carefully selected so that there is no overt sentence definition of the product.The
ad should, however, contain the necessary information for students to draw from
in writing their definition.]
4. Together, students construct a complete sentence definition of the product.
The teacher writes this definition on the blackboard [III.I.], stressing the previously
studied formula for definitions, as in the following example:

A(n) [ X ] is a(n)
[Y] that [Z]

[X ] [Y] [Z]

SP E C IFIC TERM G E N E R A L C LASS C H A R A C T E R IS T IC S

Software Bridge is a software program that converts documents
from one word-process­
ing program to another
without losing format­
ting specifications.

5. Students are next divided into small groups of three or four students, with each
group receiving one advertisement for a computer software or hardware item.
Using the pattern provided, each group of students works for roughly four or five
minutes to construct a sentence definition of the product [Ш.З.С.]. A t the end of
this time period, the groups pass their ads to another group, with each group
receiving a new ad. This process continues until all groups have seen all ads and
students in each group have had a chance to write appropriate sentences with def­
initions for each product.
6. W ith the help of the teacher, students now pool their answers.They decide for them­
selves the most useful information to include [IV. I .]; the teacher then writes the
agreed-upon definition on the board under the headings indicated above. Errors
in spelling, sentence structure, etc., can be dealt with at this stage by eliciting peer
correction.
7. On a subsequent day, the teacher can recycle the material in a more game-like
atmosphere [IV.2.d.], either by giving students names of fictional products and
having them compete to write the “ best” definition of the product or by having
students play a “ sort and unscramble” game in which they are given mixed-up items
from categories X,Y, and Z on separate strips of paper and asked to put the items
together to form sentence definitions.
 S a m p le L e s s o n 3: O v e ^ t h e - c o u n t e r D r u g s 11

Audience: Beginning- or intermediate-level adult/community education students.

Teaching To develop an awareness of the availability, use, and potential misuse of

Objective: over-the-counter preparations; to increase reading for specific informa­
tion skills; to expand topic-related vocabulary.

Media: Packages/containers of over-the-counter drug preparations (e.g.,

headache remedies, cold medications); information grid (see Figure 3).

Skills: Reading, vocabulary, and speaking.

Tim e: 2 class periods (I hour each).

Procedures:
1. Teacher introduces concept of over-the-counter (O TC ) drugs; elicits
from students information on the types of O TC products they typi­
cally use [I].
2. Common complaints (e.g., headache, allergy, cold sores, constipation)
are reviewed [И.1.].
3. Teacher introduces information grid and demonstrates the procedure
students are to follow via the example (Sudafed) [III. I .].Terms in the
grid are explained [1.1.].
4. Students are divided into small groups of four or five and O TC prod­
ucts are distributed to each group.
5. Students work in groups to transfer information into the grid [lll.3.b.].
6 . Once all student groups have completed the task, they share their
results with the class at large.
7. Students discuss previous experiences they have had with O TC drugs
(side effects experienced, etc.) [IV.5.]
8 . As a follow-up, each student is assigned a symptom (e.g., warts, fever
blisters, heartburn) and told to go to the drug store and find three
products intended to remedy this condition. They are to compare
these products using the grid format and report back on their find­
ings to the class on the following day [IV.3.].
The Use of Media in Language Teaching

Pro d u ct S y m p to m s F o rm D osage F re q u e n c y Age T im e L im it R e s t r ic t io n s S id e Effects

N am e

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2.

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4.

5.

6.
469

F ig u re 3. O v e r - th e - c o u n t e r D r u g s C h a r t
 S a m p le L e s s o n 4: P o s tc a r d D e s c r ip t io n A c t iv it y
(p h o to g r a p h ic p o s tc a rd s f r o m v a r io u s c o u n t r ie s ) 12

Audience: Recently arrived international students living in the ESL context (any level).
Teaching To increase awareness of cultural stereotyping; to serve as a discussion stimulus for
Objective: impressions formed of the United States, its people, and its culture.
Media: Picture postcards depicting stereotypical images of countries (one for each pair of
students); a barrier (e.g., a notebook, manila folder) to separate students.

Skills: Speaking, cultural awareness, writing.

Tim e: I class period (I hour) plus follow-up (10-15 minutes).

Procedures:
1. Teacher introduces the activity by discussing postcards in general and the kinds
of postcards that people send to their friends when they are on vacation [l.].A
model postcard (e.g., one depicting a Dutch girl wearing wooden shoes with a
windmill and tulips in the background) may be shown to promote discussion.
2. Students are asked what kinds of postcards they have sent home since arriving
in the United States, who they have sent these to, and what kinds of messages
they have written on them [11.4].
3. Teacher explains/models the paired activity: Students are to form pairs, with
Student A receiving a postcard from a given country. They erect a barrier
between them so Student В cannot see Student A ’s postcard. It is Student A s
task to describe this postcard to Student B, without mentioning the name of the
country [III. I .]. Student В then attempts to discover the identity of the country
[IV.2.C.].
4. Once all students have completed the task, students share their postcards and
the cultural stereotype depicted with the rest of the class.
5. Follow-up discussion ensues on the general topic of cultural stereotyping, with
the teacher eliciting a definition of cultural stereotyping from the students
[IV. I].
6 . Teacher elicits cultural stereotypes of Americans and organizes these on the
blackboard under the headings “ Positive” and “ Negative” [Н.4.]. Students discuss
the possible harm of cultural stereotyping and share some stereotypes held
about their own cultures [IV.I.].
7. As a follow-up assignment, students are asked to bring in postcards from their
country (alternately: postcards from the United States) and share further infor­
mation [IV.5.]. Depending on class level and focus, they may be asked as well to
write a brief paragraph defining cultural stereotypes [IV.4].
8 . Teacher videotapes the student activity [ V I .] for subsequent playback. He or
she has students view the tape [V.2.]; in groups, they discuss the performances
and give each other feedback [V.4.].
 S a m p le L e s s o n 5: R a d io P s y c h ia t r is t
(p h o n e - in b r o a d c a s t ta p e d o ff- a ir)13

Audience: High-intermediate to advanced international students enrolled in an intensive lan­

guage institute or other visa program; advanced EFL students in the secondary or
postsecondary context.

Teaching To expose students to authentic English; to help them gain insights into issues
Objective: which concern Americans; to provide them with a forum for problem solving
activities.

Media: Advice column (Dear Abby,Ann Landers) on topic of audiotape (mounted on index
cards); pre-prepared audiotape of phone-in radio psychiatrist show (possibly slight­
ly edited).14

Skills: Reading, listening, speaking.

Tim e: 2-3 class periods (I hour each).
Procedures:
1. Teacher introduces the lesson by asking students how people who are experi­
encing personal problems can get advice [1.4]. W h at forums are available (e.g.,
advice columns, counselors, psychologists/psychiatrists)? Students are asked to
name specific situations in which people might seek the advice of a psychiatrist.
2. The first half of the advice column is distributed to students, and topical vocab­
ulary is discussed [II. I.].
3. In groups, students discuss the problem [Ш.З.С.] and write their “ answer” to the
person requesting advice [IV.4.].They then share this with the class and compare
it with the actual answer written by the advice columnist [IV.I.].
4. In the subsequent class period, the teacher introduces the topic of radio talk
shows and asks students what kinds of talk shows they are familiar with [1.4.].
5. After a brief introduction to the topic of the taped phone-in call, students listen
to the first half of the call— i.e., the caller’s explanation of the problem. As
necessary, difficult vocabulary is discussed [II. I .]. Depending on class level, the
students may listen to this segment of the tape more than once and may also
work on answering prepared questions in groups [Ш.З.с.].
6 . As in step 3 above, students are then asked to formulate their own answer to
the predicament and to predict the answer that the expert will give [IV.2.b.].
7. Students listen to the expert’s advice (again, more than once if necessary) and
subsequently discuss whether they feel this advice will be of assistance to the
caller.They compare their own advice with that of the expert [IV. I.].
8 . Optionally, on a third day, students can participate in a problem solving [IV.2.b.]
or role-play [IV.2. I .] activity, with situations prepared by the teacher. For each
role play, one student plays the role of the advice seeker, and one or more
students can play the role of the advice giver.
 S a m p le L e s s o n 6: “ P e o p le ’s C o u r t ”
(o ff- a ir v id e o t a p e ) 15

Audience: High-intermediate or advanced young adult or adult ESL students.

Teaching To increase listening comprehension in authentic situations and to introduce
Objective: specialized vocabulary items; to provide a format for problem solving; to familiarize
students with one aspect of the American judicial system.

Media: Videotape of “ People’s Court,” a broadcast of actual small claims court proceedings,
recorded off-air.

Skills: Listening, speaking, vocabulary, culture.

Tim e: 2 class periods (I hour each).
Procedures:
1. The lesson is introduced by the teacher, who gives a brief introduction to the
U.S. judicial system [I.] and explains the role of small claims court within this
system [II.5.].
2. The program “ People’s Court” is explained, and relevant vocabulary (e.g., judge,
plaintiff, defendant) is presented [II. I.]. Students are asked if they have ever
watched this program; those who have share their impressions of it [IV.5.].
3. Students view a selected case (broadcasts of “ People’s Court” typically consist
of two cases) up to the point where the judge retires to make a decision. Class
members consider the basic points of the case, judge the arguments of the
plaintiff and defendant, and predict what the judge will decide [IV.2.b.].
4. Students then view the remainder of the tape and compare their decisions with
that of the judge. They may wish at this point to suggest how the
litigants could have improved their arguments, or discuss the testimony of the
witnesses [IV. I .].
5. On a subsequent day, the teacher may present students with various situations
which might be heard in small claims court (e.g., a dry cleaner who damaged
someone’s expensive dress, or a florist who delivered the wrong flowers to a
wedding) and prepare the students for a role-play situation in which students
take various roles (witnesses, plaintiff, defendant, bailiff, judge). Students are
given time to practice the role play prior to performing it [IV.2.a.].
6 . Students perform the role play, which is videotaped by the teacher [V. I .] and
then placed in a viewing facility so that students can review their performances
[V.3.] outside of class.
7. A follow-up to the video role play can include an actual site visit [IV.6.] to a small
claims court. (These visits should be scheduled in advance by the teacher; the
courts are usually glad to accommodate.)
8 . Following the field visit, a debriefing session is held, and students share their
impressions [IV. I .].
C O N C L U S IO N
As outlined above, instructional m edia com e in
an alm ost infinite variety o f form s an d can plav
equally varied roles. T he following are factors that
should be considered when incorporating instruc­
tional m edia into ou r language teaching goals:
* Type o f sk ill/c o n c ep t to be p rese n ted
■ Student preference: the age, interests, expe­
riences, and learning styles of the students
concerned
■ T eacher p referen ce: facility with e q u ip ­
m ent, fam iliarity/adroitness with the given
m edium , teaching style
■ Availability o f software an d hardw are
■ Physical circum stances o f the classro o m /
lab
However, as W right (1976, p. 65) notes, we
should also keep in m ind that “language teaching
is a collective title for a variety of activities u n d e r­
taken by different people in very different circum ­
stances. T here is consequently no single m edium
ideal for language te a c h in g ’ as is so often
claim ed.’’ Ultimately, availability a n d teach er
creativity/adaptabilitv will play m ajor roles in
determ ining to what extent m edia will be used
and which m edia will be selected.
In closing, I encourage you to think cre­
atively about ways to incorporate m edia into t our
language teaching and I reiterate the following
useful guidelines: Use m edia m aterials w hen
variety is called for, w hen they help you to rein ­
force the points vou wish to m ake o r serve as
c o n te x tu aliza tio n , w hen they e x p e d ite your
teaching task and s e n e as a source of input,
a n d /o r w hen they help vou to individualize
instruction and appeal to the variety o f cognitive
styles in your classroom. But above all, use m edia
to involve students m ore integrally in the learning
process and to facilitate language learning by
m aking it a m ore authentic, m eaningful process.
D IS C U S S IO N Q U E S T IO N S
1. Elsew here in this volum e, a n u m b e r o f lan­
guage teach in g m ethods a n d approaches
(both traditional a n d innovative) have been
discussed. At hom e, review these sections of
the text and com e p re p a re d to discuss the
role that m edia play in these m ethods. In
w hich m e th o d s/a p p ro a c h e s do you feel th at
m edia play a central role (i.e., are p a rt o f the
underlying philosophy)? In which m eth o d s/
approaches do m edia plav a m ore peripheral
role?
2. E xam ine the rationale given in this c h a p te r
fo r the use of m edia in language teaching.
W hich reasons do vou feel are m ost con­
vincing? Can you th ink of any others?
3. Select th re e item s from the list o f technical
m edia a n d th re e item s from those listed
u n d e r non-technical m edia that you are likely
to use in the language classroom. Draw up a
list o f the advantages an d disadvantages o f
each. Can you think o f specific teaching
applications for these form s of m edia?
4. Is th ere a feasibility factor involved in the use
o f audiovisual m edia? In o th e r words, are
certain teachers or teaching situations lim ited
to the types of m edia they can select? Wlrv or
whv not?
S U G G E S T E D A C T IV IT IE S
1. Collect packaged food item s th at you have
a ro u n d vour h o u se h o ld a n d design a survival
level grid activity similar to the one described
in this article for over-the-counter m edication.
Keep in m ind that the purpose o f the grid is to
proride students with guidance in selecting
food items and to train them in reading pack­
age labels for specific inform ation.
2. Select a picture or series o f pictures from a
m agazine and apply the fram ew ork for design­
ing m edia lessons discussed in this chapter.
Bring this m aterial to class and share with oth­
ers your ideas on howy'ou would use it. Be pre­
pared as well to discuss your selection criteria.
3. O bserve an ESU class. W hat was the objective
of the lesson? W lrat aids did the tea c h e r use?
T h in k o f additional aids th at w ould have
im proved the lesson.
4. Drawing on the suggestions given in B yrd’s
c h a p te r in this volum e, develop a list o f cri­
teria for selecting a n d evaluating m ed ia
m aterials.
 3 I stro n g ly su g g est th a t te a c h e rs sh a re su c h m a te ri­
a ls, i n s t i t u t e a m a t e r i a l s li b r a r y , a n d e v e n c o l l a b o ­
FU R T H ER R EA D IN G rate in au d io v isu a l m ate ria ls p re p a ra tio n , sin ce
th is c a n fu rth e r ease th e m a te ria ls d e v e lo p m e n t
T h e fo llo w in g so u rc e s c o n ta in a w e a lth o f in f o r m a tio n b u r d e n a n d fu r th e r in c re a se th e a b o v e -m e n tio n e d
fo r c la s sro o m te a c h e rs on th e use o f in stru c tio n a l pavoff.
m e d ia fo r lan g u ag e te a c h in g purposes: 4 S ee E d e lh o f f (1 9 8 1 ) B rin to n . Snow, a n d W esche

Xew VErys
L a r i m e r , R. E ., a n d L. S c h l e i c h e r , e d s . 1 9 9 9 , (1 9 8 9 ). P allv (2 0 0 0 ). and M urphv and S to lle r

in Using Authentic Materials in the Classroom. (fo rth c o m in g ) fo r a d is c u s s io n o f s u c h m u ltisk ills

A l e x a n d r i a . YA: T E S O L . th e m a ti c u n its. F o r s a m p le s o f t h e m a ti c u n its th a t

M u r p h e v , T. 1 9 9 2 . Music anel Song. O xford: O x fo rd su c c e ssfu lly in t e g r a t e m e d i a in a t h e m a ti c c o n te x t ,

see B rin to n et a l. (1997a) and B rin to n et a l.
U n iv e rs ity P ress.
P en fie ld , J. 1987. The Media: Calahsts for (1997b).

Communicative Language Learning. R e a d i n g . MA: ■’ F a r f r o m e x h a u s t i v e , t h i s li st is s i m p l v i n t e n d e d t o

A d cliso n -W eslev . g iv e a n i d e a o f t h e r a n g e o f m e d i a t h a t a r e tv p ic a llv

Video in Action:
S t e m p l e s k i , S ., a n d B . T o m a l i n . 1 9 9 0 . e n c o u n t e r e d in th e s e c o n d l a n g u a g e c la s s r o o m .

Recipes for Using Video in Language 'leaching. X e w 11 1 u s e t h e t e r m authentic h e r e i n its b r o a d s e n s e , t o

Y ork: P r e n t i c e H a ll.
r e f e r to m a te r ia ls t h a t w e re not p ro d u c e d fo r la n ­
guage te a c h in g pu rp o ses per se. B o th ty p e s of
l. ’ r, P. 1984. Teaching Listening Comprehension.
C a m b r id g e : C a m b r i d g e U n iv e rs ity Press. m a te ria ls (i.e.. a u t h e n t i c and p e d a g o g ic a l) have
t h e i r l e g i t i m a t e tise in t h e l a n g u a g e c l a s s r o o m .
W rig h t, A. 1989. Pictures for Language Learning.
' T h i s f r a m e w o r k is l o o s e l v a d a p t e d f r o m a fram e­
C a m b r i d g e : C a m b r i d g e U n iv e rs ity P ress.
w o r k f o r u s i n g m a g a z i n e p i c t u r e s in t h e l a n g u a g e
c la s sro o m d e v e lo p e d bv M c A lp in (1 9 8 0 ).
4 T h e s e stag es a re a d a p te d fr o m E d e lh o f f (1 9 8 1 ).
EN DN O TES 4 I h a te chosen to h ig h lig h t te a c h e r-p ro d u c e d
! T h i s c h a p t e r is a r e v i s i o n o f t h e o n e t h a t I w r o t e m e d ia le s so n s ra th e r th a n co m m ercial m a te ria ls
f o r t h e 2 n d e d i t i o n o f th is te x t (C e lc e - M u r c ia . e d .. sin ce th e la tte r are u su alh a c c o m p a n ie d w ith
1 9 9 1 , p p . 4 5 4 - 4 7 2 ) . T h a t c h a p t e r r e p l a c e d tw o in te a c h e r g u id e lin e s.
t h e 1st e d i t i o n — " A n A u d i o v i s u a l M e t h o d f o r E S U ' 1,1 T h i s i d e a w a s p r o v i d e d b v D o u g B e c k w i t h a n d is
bv Jam es H e a to n a n d " L a n g u a g e T e a c h in g A id s ' u s e d w ith h is p e r m i s s i o n .
b v M a r i a n n e C e l c e - M u r c i a ( C e l c e - M u r c i a . M .. a n d 11 T h i s i d e a a n d t h e a c c o m p a n y i n g g r i d w e r e p r o v i d e d
T. M c I n to s h , e d .. 1979. p p . 9 8 - 4 8 : 3 0 7 - 3 1 5 ) . I a m bv J e a n T u r n e r a n d a re u s e d w ith h e r p e rm is s io n .
g ratefu l to b o th a u th o rs lo r th e ir id e a s, fro m T h is id e a w as p r o v id e d bv K a re n O 'N e a l and is
w h ic h I h a v e b o r r o w e d lib erally . I a m a ls o g r a t e f u l u s e d w ith h e r p e rm is s io n .
to M a r ia n n e C e lc e -M u rc ia fo r h e r su g g e s tio n s c o n ­ 1:’’ T h i s i d e a w a s p r o v i d e d b v W e n d v S a u l a n d A t s u k o
c e r n i n g re v is io n s to th is c h a p te r , a n d to C h r is ti n e K a t o a n d is u s e d w i t h t h e i r p e r m i s s i o n .
H o lte n , Janet G o o d w in . L in aw ati S ic la rto , A lik e 14 A c c o r d i n g t o t h e g u i d e l i n e s e s t a b l i s h e d f o r o f f - a i r
S ilv e rm a n , and Susan Rvan fo r th e ir a d d itio n a l r e c o r d in g bv n o n p r o f it e d u c a tio n a l in stitu tio n s, a
in p u t. broadcast p ro g ram m av be reco rd ed o il-a ir and
- I r e f e r h e r e to th e d is tin c tio n m a d e bv R ic h a rd s r e ta in e d bv th e e d u c a tio n a l in stitu tio n fo r a p e rio d
and R odgers (1 9 8 7 ) in th eir use o f th e te rm s o f u p to 45 c a l e n d a r davs a f te r th e d a te o f r e c o r d in g .

approach, design, and procedure, in w h ic h approach U p o n c o n c l u s i o n o f th is p e r i o d , t h e o ff-air r e c o r d ­

d e sig n a te s th e u n d e rly in g th e o rie s o f la n g u a g e in g m u s t b e e r a s e d o r d e s tro y e d (P e n fie ld 1987).

l e a r n i n g in a g iv e n m e t h o d o l o g y , design r e f e r s to b U s e d w ith th e p e r m is s io n o f P a u la M m G e ld e r.
t h e f o r m a n d f u n c t i o n o f th e m a te r ia ls a n d activ i­
tie s u s e d in t h e c la s s r o o m , a n d procedure r e f e r s to
th e sp ecific te c h n iq u e s e m p lo y e d .
 Computers in
Language Teaching
MAGGIE SOKOLIK
In "Com puters in Language Teaching," Sokolik examines the forms and functions of com puter
technology in second language learning.These forms and functions, she contends, are separate from
any particular state of technology. She concludes that good teaching methodology depends more on
sound pedagogy than on access to any particular form of com puter technology,
IN T R O D U C T IO N
The Shakers, a religious sect th at form ed in the
1700s, did n o t generallv believe in writing that
was "scriptural." Thev felt the act o f writing
m ade the m alleable less flexible, the fluid artifi­
cially static. In spite of this belief, the Shakers
wrote tom es ab o u t th eir theology.
This con trad ictio n is also true for writing
about educational technology in the earlv twenty-
first century. A nyone writing for the print m edium
about technology fully realizes that the technology’
will be outm oded bv the time that the book or
article is published. Yet we keep writing tomes. For
shat reason, this chapter will focus less on the
artifacts o f technology’— hardw are and software,
which will be different bv the time this book
:s p u b lish e d — a n d m o re on th e te a c h in g
approaches and techniques related to technology,
which should still exist regardless of whatever the
hardware and software of the day m ight be.
PRELIM INARY TO C L E A R V ISIO N
OF T H E FU TU R E:
H IS T O R IC A L O V ER V IEW
With the developm ent o f new technologies,
.here has b een an a tte n d a n t interest in applying
these technologies in the educational arena, and
m m aking predictions o f how they w ould affect
the educational fu tu re o f o u r classroom s and
undents. A lthough m ost p eo p le associate the
birth o f educational technology with the 1970s
and 1980s, the history of educational co m p u tin g
actually goes back to the 1940s. W riters such as
Bush foresaw a fu tu re in which com m unication
an d science w ould be e n h a n c e d with hyper-
linked sy stem s o f inform ation:
C onsider a future device for individual
use, which is a sort of m echanized
private file and library. It needs a nam e,
and to coin one at random , “m em ex”
will do. A m em ex is a device in which an
individual stores all his books, records,
and com m unications, a n d w hich is
m echanized so that it may be consulted
with exceeding speed and flexibility. It is
an enlarged intim ate supplem ent to his
m em ory (Bush 1945, p. 106).
O f course, in the 1940s, the physical tech­
nology tied these ideas to m icrofilm , p h o n o ­
g rap h ic rec o rd in g s, a n d p u n c h card-style
com puting m achines. In the 1950s a n d 1960s,
the most powerful com puters occupied entire
room s, not corners o f desktops or small brief­
cases. Howeyer, th e d e v e lo p m en t o f the
m icrochip and m iniaturization of com ponents
enabled educational technology to move fonvard
rapidlv in the 1970s and 1980s.
Many of the technological restrictions o f the
1940s have m elted awav, and financial barriers
instead h am p er o u r visions o f educational tech­
nology. Just as short a time ago as 1988, the vision
o f the technological future yvas the folloyving:
 W hat will h a p p e n is that in the univer­
sity o f the vear 2000, students will be
given a c o m p u te r on th eir first day.
O ver the л-ears that thev spend at the
university, a fixed cost will be assessed
each term . This cost will pav for the
com puter, tuition, access to a mvriad
o f database services, a n d online text­
books (Young et al. 1988. p. 259).
W hile the technology certainly exists to
realize this vision, the financial su p p o rt and
bu reau cratic structures do not. Som e institu­
tions have im p lem e n te d program s such as the
above, b u t they are rare.
In forecasting the technological future, it is
im p o rta n t to consider what the capabilities of
educational co m p u tin g are. and what can be
d o n e in the language classroom that will rem ain
cu rren t, even if the technology does not.
W H A T COM PUTERS C A N T DO
T he im age of the fullv autom ated, teacherless
classroom has d isappeared from the landscape,
if it in d ee d ever was there. .Although com puters
are useful adjuncts in second language learning,
th ere are still m anv things thev cannot accom ­
plish. We look below at five m ajor areas into
which com puters an d technology have not vet
m ade significant inroads.
1. Machine Translation
T he hope of pushing a b u tto n to translate from
one language to a n o th e r has, for the m ost part,
gone unrealized. .Although there are dozens, if
n o t hundreds, of new tools for m achine trans­
lation, m ost fail at creating a text that a native
speaker would consider idiom atic, or even gram ­
matical. -Although simple language with high-
frequencv vocabulary and little idiom atic usage
can be translated fairlv accurately, any deviations
from that form ula still cause serious breakdowns in
the com prehensibility of m achine-translated text.
An exam ple o f a m achine translation, com ­
p lete d July 21, 2000, is p rese n ted on the next
page. T he text is a small p o rtio n of the o p en in g
of the plav Cyra но de Bergerac, w ritten in French
by E d m o n d R ostand (1897). T he first colum n
is the original text, the second, a translation
d o n e bv a h u m an translator, a n d the third, an
exam ple o f m achine translation.
It is d e a r that the m achine translation fails in
several areas. First, it does not have a vocabulary
database that allows for an understanding of a
n in eteen th centurv idiom. But even m ore basic
issues are at stake: the m isinterpretation of the
preposition a as "with" ra th e r than "at" (“A
R epresentation with the H otel of Burgundy") and
an inability to appropriately detect plural forms
("Riders, middle-class man, lackev. pages”) or
imperative word o rd er ("Exert we with the foil”).
These mistranslations show that this software is
not sensitive enough to contexts that distinguish
im portant semantic, syntactic, or m orphological
features.
Students or instructors who seek translation
assistance from com puters trill receive a text that
mat- be som ew hat com prehensible: however,
knowledge of the basics of the language being
translated, the context in tririch words m ight be
used, and an understanding of idiomatic as well as
archaic usages are im portant for a fuller u n d e r­
standing. This last issue is particularly problem ­
atic. even ironic: for som eone needing translation
assistance, idiom atic use is the elem ent of lan­
guage least likelv to be known bv the learner.
2. Providing Appropriate Feedback
to Learners
Instructors in language education know that
feedback, in whatever form , is a critical p a rt of
learn in g an d com m unication. In face-to-face
interaction, the teacher's feedback adapts to anv
n u m b er of factors, including but n o t lim ited to
what the instructor feels the student can u n d e r­
stand. the instructor's knowledge of the stu d e n t’s
affective state, what is appropriate for the class or
subject m atter, and so on. M echanized systems
do not have the capability to custom ize feedback
with the same sensitivity that a h u m an instructor
does. In fact, the best feedback systems give a
sim ple explanation of the right or w rong answer,
and таил- m erely em it a noise, eith er pleasant or
ORIGINAL1
Acte 1.
Une Representation a I’Hotel
de Bourgogne.
Scene l.l.
Le public, qui arrive peu a peu.
Cavaliers, bourgeois, laquais,
pages, tire-laine, le portier, etc.,
puis les marquis, Cuigy, Brissaille,
la distributrice, les violons, etc.
(On entend derriere la porte un
tumulte de voix, puis un cavalier
entre brusquement.)
HUMAN TRANSLATION
INTO ENGLISH
Act 1.
A Representation at the Hotel
de Bourgogne.
Scene l.l.
The public, arriving by degrees.
Troopers, burghers, lackeys,
pages, a pickpocket, the
doorkeeper, etc., followed by
the marquises; Cuigy, Brissaille,
the buffet-girl, the violinists, etc.
(A confusion of loud voices is
heard outside the door. A trooper
enters hastily.)
MACHINE TRANSLATION
INTO ENGLISH
Act 1.
A Representation with the Hotel
of Burgundy.
Scene /./.
The public, which arrives little by
little. Riders, middle-class man,
lackey, pages, footpad, the gate
keeper, etc., then marquis, Cuigy,
Brissaille, the saddle jib crane,
violins, etc.
(One hears derriere the gate a
tumult of voice, then a rider
enters abruptly.)

LE PORTIER (le poursuivant): THE D O O R K EEPER (following The GATEKEEPER (the

him): prosecutor):
Hola! vos quinze sols! Hollo! You there! Your money! Hola! your fifteen grounds!

LE CAVALIER: THE T R O O PER THE RIDER:

J ’entre gratis! 1 enter gratis. 1 enter gratis!
LE PORTIER: THE D O O RKEEPER: THE GATEKEEPER:
Pourquoi? W hy? Why?

LE CAVALIER: TH E TRO O PER: TH E RIDER:

Je suis chevau-leger de la W hy? 1am of the King’s 1 am chevau-light house
maison du Roi! Household Cavalry, 'faith! of the King!

LE PORTIER (a un autre cavalier THE D O O R K EEPER (to another The GATEKEEPER (with another
qui vient d’entrer): trooper who enters): rider who has just entered):
Vous? And you? You?

D EU X IEM E CAVALIER: SE C O N D TRO O PER: SE C O N D RIDER:

Je ne paye pas! 1 pay nothing. 1 do not pay!
LE PORTIER: TH E D O O RKEEPER: THE GATEKEEPER:
Mais... How so? But.

D EU X IEM E CAVALIER: S E C O N D TRO O PER: S E C O N D RIDER:

Je suis mousquetaire.
PREMIER CAVALIER
(au deuxieme):
On ne commence qu’ a
deux heures. Le parterre
est vide. Exerqons-nous au
fleuret.
1 am a musketeer.
FIRST T R O O PER (to the
second):
The play will not begin till two.
The pit is empty. Come, a bout
with the foils to pass the time.
1 am a musketeer.
FIRST RIDER (with the
second):
One starts only at two hours.
The floor is empty. Exert we
with the foil.
unpleasant, indicating w hether the user has p ro ­
vided the correct answer. M ore com plete feed­
back mav be indirectly available in the form of
links to o th er areas of a text or website to read or
review.
Figure 1 shows a com m on feedback m echa­
nism — the use of an X (usually red) to show an
in co rrect answ er an d an arrow head o r sim ilar
icon to show a correct answer. In this exam ple,
th ere is no explanation o f e ith e r the rig h t or
w rong answer. Figure 2 shows som ew hat m ore
elaborate feedback. In this case, it restates the
p ro m p t in different words, an d em phasizes the
vocabulary item s th at are kev to u n d e rsta n d in g
th e correct answer.
I’m not familiar_________ California.
>■ with
of
X to
Figure I. Sample Minimal Computer Feedback
Adapted from an item from Dave Sperling’s ESL Cafe
(http://www.eslcafe.com) Quizzes.The X shows the user's
answer; the arrowhead shows the correct answer.
One of my best_________ already married with
4 kids!
О A. friend is
О В. friends are
О C. friends is “C” is correct—I have
О D. friend are many friends, and one of
them js married.)
Figure 2. Sample of More Complete Feedback
Adapted from Jim Duber’s Grammar W eb Quiz #1
(http://www.sirius.com/~dub/CALL/grammar I .html)
A lthough the second exam ple has m ore com ­
plete feedback, it is clear th a t it c a n n o t provide
a user with custom ized feedback addressing an
issue th a t the exercise designer m ight n o t have
anticipated. P erhaps the user u n d erstan d s the
stru ctu re “one of X" perfectly well, b u t does not
u n d e rsta n d the con cept o f “best frie n d .” For the
feedback to be rich, th e designer of the item
w ould have to anticipate all possible questions,
from the use of an idiom , to the history of a
w ord, to the cultural context o f the item .
3. Voice R e c o g n itio n
Voice recognition refers to the capability of a
c o m p u te r o r software program to accept a n d
in te rp re t spoken dictation, or to u n d e rsta n d and
e a rn out voice com m ands. Voice recognition is
used to dictate text into the co m p u ter or to give
com m ands to the co m p u ter (such as o p e n in g
program s an d m enus, saving files, and so on).
T he Bell Labs began a project for voice recogni­
tion in the 1960s (G ilbert a n d Mallows 1984).
A lthough m anv m o d ern hom e and office com ­
p u te r systems are eq u ip p ed with som e type of
voice recognition software, these program s are
still inefficient in accurately dividing up a n a tu ­
ral speech stream into discrete words. It should
be n o ted, however, th at speech production p ro ­
gram s. that is. program s th at read text aloud,
have b een successful for several years. These
program s have been especially beneficial for
sight-im paired co m p u ter users.
4. G ra m m a r C h e ck in g
M odern w ord-processing software usually com es
e q u ip p e d w ith g ram m ar-ch eck in g ro u tin e s.
U nfortunately, as m ost users will attest, this soft­
ware falls short of the gram m atical editing th at is
req u ired in a language classroom . T he software
is not sensitive to context or conventions o f use,
such as th e d iffe re n c e b etw een academ ic
English w ritten for the hum anities versus th at
w ritten for the sciences. C onsider the following
sentence, w ritten bv a second language lea rn er
in an English w riting class:
"In Ty pical .American, the Cliangs becom e
Americanized in order to succeed.”
Since the c u rre n t gram m ar-checking routines
are sensitive to passive constructions, M icrosoft
W ord 97 m akes the following suggestion: Passive
voice (consider revising)
Unfortunately, two issues potentially' confuse
the learner here. First, there has to be a full under­
standing of how to revise in ord er to elim inate
passive voice. This introduces the same sort of
irony that лее find in m achine translation: the stu­
d e n t m ust already understand English gram m ar
to m ake full use of the suggestions offered be the
gram m ar-checking software. But m ore troubling
in this case is the fact that this sentence is not
easily rew ritten in an active voice. Thus, the
suggestion to re\ise mav introduce additional diT
ficultv for an EST/EFT student who mav trust the
software m ore than she or he trusts h e r or his own
ju d g m e n t about English grammar.
5. E ssay M ark in g
A lthough there is software that allows instructors
to insert their com m ents neatlv in students' word-
processed text, there is no software that can “rea d ”
a text an d write relevant com m ents on it. The
Educational Testing Service (ETS) has developed
software for the m arking o f ( .MAT (G raduate
M an agem ent A dm ission Test) exam inations,
called the e-rater. This software marks essavs based
on the sam e six-point scale used bv h u m an
graders. A uthors from ETS and H u n ter College,
describing the software, explain the source of
“misses” or disagreem ents with hum an raters:
“[T ]he greatest source of e-rater misses mav be in
the topical analvsis com ponents” (Burstein et al.
1998, p. 11). T hat is, although the software can be
trained to look for structures that show certain
rhetorical moves, it does not assess w hether the
writer has in fact addressed the essav topic.
W H A T C O M P U T ER S CAN DO
A lthough the above are areas in which com puter
tools are not proficient, there are manv arenas in
which com puters equal, or surpass, hum an per­
form ance. As com puters can store a n d process
enorm ous am ounts of inform ation, they excel in
areas w here hum an m em orv mav be deficient, or
where hum an patience mav be easily exhausted.
We will look at five of these areas in this section.
1. D rills
M uch of language learn in g is facilitated by re p e ­
tition, w h eth er it is the rep etitio n o f individual
sounds, in to n a tio n p atterns, conversational gam ­
bits, o r o th e r types o f w ords a n d phrases.
C om puters are useful in delivering drills for prac­
tice, w hether in gram m ar, vocabulary, p ro n u n cia­
tion, or listening, as they are tireless in their
delivery1. U nlike h u m an interlocutors who may
grow wear)7 o f repeating a word for a learner, a
com puter will repeat a word a h u n d re d times if
the user wishes.
A ccording to M cCarthy (1994), the com ­
p u te r has som e specific advantages: organization
o f m aterials, in clu d in g volum e of m aterial a n d
ran d o m presen tatio n , scoring an d record-keep­
ing, graphics an d anim ation, in cluding allowing
stu d en t control, audio-cuing, and rec o rd in g a n d
storage o f stu d e n t responses. M cCarthy also sees
the co m p u ter's “literal a p p ro a c h ” to checking
answers an d its abilitv to focus le a rn e r atten tio n
mi a specific area of the screen as advantages in
gram m ar drilling in particular.
2. A d a p tiv e T estin g
If we accept the prem ise th at the m ost effective
language learn in g h ap p en s w hen the le a rn e r’s
target is just slightly above his o r h e r c u rre n t
level of u n d e rsta n d in g (som etim es called the I
+1 theorv- [see K rashen 1982]), th en it becom es
clear th at co m p u te r adaptive testing (CAT) can
be verv useful in the language classroom .
As test takers resp o n d to test item s in CAT,
the test adapts itself to each user bv choosing
su b sequent test item s based on the test taker's
p erfo rm a n c e on p reced in g item s. For exam ple,
if a lea rn er perform s well on a set o f beginning-
level items, the c o m p u te r p ro g ram will next
p resen t a set of questions at the in term ed iate
level. If the le a rn e r perform s poorly on the
interm ediate-level questions, the c o m p u te r p res­
ents lower-level item s (e.g., high b e g in n er) in
the next question set. T herefore, the CAT con-
tinuallv attem pts to ascertain the appropriate level
for the lea rn er’s perform ance and ceases testing
once perform ance at a particular level is dem on­
strated to be the best possible perform ance for
that individual. In o th e r words, it can establish
m ore quicklv than a stan d ard pencil-and-paper
test what the le a rn e r’s proficiency is.
3. C o rp o ra a n d C o n c o rd a n c in g A nother wav in which concordances can be
used is to create lists o f collocations, or words that
C om puters are expert at storing large am ounts are com m only found together. Figure 4 lists the
of inform ation and categorizing or sorting it by twenty m ost p opular words found to collocate
u se r-d e te rm in e d categories. C o n c o rd a n c in g
with the word chocolate. Again, the practical appli­
program s an d linguistic corpora are types of
cation can be seen for developing classroom
tools an d data that are increasingly being used in
activities. However, as tire collocations given by
the language classroom . A concordance is a type
the program do not indicate word order, teacher
of index that searches for occurrences o f a word
direction is n eeded in o rd er to convert these lists
o r com binations of words, parts of words, p u n c ­
into m eaningful activities or inform ation. For
tuation, affixes, phrases, or structures within a
exam ple, in the figure below, the symbol ♦ has
corpus, and can show the im m ediate context.
been placed to show w here the word chocolate
T he o u tp u t from a concordance search can be
would com e in the phrase. (In some instances, it
used in the p rep aratio n of such teaching m ateri­
can go before or alter the listed word.)
als, such as gram m ar and vocabulary activities.
Teachers can gath er exam ples of language and
l. ♦ milk ♦ 11. ♦ coffee
usage for creating exercises.
2. ♦ cake 12. plain ♦
3. hot ♦ 13. ♦ fudge
4. white ♦ 14. ♦ egg
5. ♦ cream 15. rich ♦
Coiitu % W o rd 6. ♦ bar 16. box (of) ♦
fj/ 0 . 4 6 1 1% all 7. dark ♦ 17. eat ♦
9Г IIU71% shakespeare 8. ♦ mousse 18. ♦ biscuits
fdi 'J.3280% years 9. ♦ bars 19. ♦ ice
(, ■ 0,2/119% o th e r 10. melted ♦ 20. ♦ cocoa
94 !1. 26 6 7% *hi tut
Ы 0 .2 4 2 4 % tim e Figure 4. From CobuildDirect Collocation, words
50 0 .2 3 / / % S tra tfo rd collocated with “ chocolate" (edited from top 100).
44 0 .2 3 2 9 % out
4/ 0 .2 2 3 4 % law
Finally, concordances can be used to look at
41 <1.2234% legal
the context in which a given word or phrase
46 0 .2 1 8 7 % their
occurs in a database. The exam ple in Figure 5
shows how the word "paradise'' appears in a vari­
Figure 3. Results from concordancing of “ Is Shakespeare
ety o f texts taken from the Collins-Birmingham
Dead?” by Mark Twain, using MonoConc software.
Numbers in the left column represent occurrences of Lfiiversitv International Language Database (also
words in the right column.“ Non-content” words (such as known as COBUILD). which contains thousands
the, is, of, th at, and so forth) were removed from the of exemplars. -As seen in the example, learners
search algorithm. can. following Stevens' observation, discern pat­
terns in the use of a word, such as the frequent
In an article about concordances, Stevens states,
occurrence of a hum an noun with a possessive
with concordance software and a corpus inflection preceding paradise.
of natural English, language learners C o n co rd an cin g techniques a n d corpus lin­
can short-cut the process of acquiring guistics are grow ing fields in second language
com petence in the target language, acquisition a n d teaching. Onlv because of larger
because tire com puter is able to help an d faster com puters have databases of the
students organize huge am ounts of lan­ c u rre n t size becom e practically available for
guage data so that patterns are m ore use bv second language learners, teachers, and
easily discerned (1993, p. 11). researchers.
 is also a sign of trouble in
p] Grand Cayman is another diver’s
Socialist Republics— the worker’s
s garden, on the other hand, was a
dormitory. It was a bachelor’s
venerable past. Squaw is a skier’s
South America, that he’d discovered
Garden of Eden, but that image of
of Martha’s Vineyard is known as a
fee required to enjoy our shopper’s
intends to erect his gambler’s
Paradise” is a cliche, but
come over. I’m like— it was like
afforded; yet had we been even in
into what they regard as the fool’s
The Apostles are a vacationer’s
boutiques — a shopper’s
war intruded even on this island
stroll about this little slice of
techniques, this is a vision of a
F ig u re 5. O u t p u t fr o m th e C o b u il d D ir e c t C o r p u s S a m p le r (e d ite d f o r le n g th ),
se a rc h in g f o r th e te r m “ p a ra d ise .”
4. C o m p u te r M e d ia te d
C o m m u n ic a tio n (CM C)
The most com m on use of netw orked com puters is
as a tool of com m unication between users. This
makes it a natural choice as a tool for language
learning. Many researchers have argued that CMC
presents an opportunity for authentic language
use, m aking it an excellent tool in the language
classroom. T here are several forms of CMC, which
are either asvnchronous or svnchronous in form.
E-M AIL
E-mail has becom e the com m unication tool of
choice for a lot of people. Much has been written
about its use in the language classroom: for asyn­
chro n o u s com m unication betw een students,
between students and teachers, and between stu­
dents and others outside of the classroom.
M any in stru cto rs a n d rese a rc h e rs have
designed e-mail tasks to focus its use on lan ­
guage learn in g (Kern 1998). In te rn atio n a l cul­
tu re exchanges such as “key-pal”3 program s help
students to com m unicate authentically. Table 1
(p. 484) provides a b rie f sum m ary of the types of
paradise. 9. Maintaining love isn’t
paradise, almost completely surrounded by
paradise as it was once called earlier in
paradise at this time of year. Flowering
paradise. Attractive, intelligent women
paradise because of the sheer variety and
paradise. Columbus also happened to think
paradise doesn’t quite hold up in the 85
paradise for artists and photographers,
paradise, home to world-famous Mrs. Knott’s
paradise. I am not now, and nor have I ever
paradise it is. [p] Bitter End has 81
paradise. It was just like, you know,
paradise itself with these governors, it
paradise of interdisciplinary work. If the
paradise of sunshine, clear water, and deep
paradise that may even distract you from
paradise. The Coast Guard patrolled many of
paradise, the animals seem to blend in with
paradise to preserve, made in the USA in
activities that h a te been designed for use with
e-mail, given the different possible arrangem ents
of interlocutors.
C hat
C hat is real-tim e, or synchronous, com m unica­
tion. It has the inform al feel o f conversation, yet
is m ed iated th ro u g h writing. C hat can be used to
facilitate class discussions, for im m ediate feed ­
back betw een students a n d teachers outside o f
class tim e, o r for co m m unication betw een stu­
dents outside o f class.
- - Chat logs, o r w ritten records o f a ch at ses­
sion, can be kept in m ost ch at program s a n d
used as data for research o r fu tu re classroom
work. C hat can be u sed in m any o f th e sam e ways
as e-mail, b u t has the ad d ed feature o f im m edi­
ate response ra th e r th an the tim e lag involved
with e-mail.
MUDS A N D MOOS
Multi-user dom ains, MUDs, or m ulti-user dom ains
object-oriented, MOOs, are both synchronous
an d asynchronous in form. Thev are typically
 T e a c h e r s Teacher T e ach ers >Student
Use e-mail discussion lists Submit assignments by e-mail
for peer support rather than on paper
E-mail mentoring with master Class announcements
and pre-service teachers
Receive resources such as Question and answer sessions
syllabi and class materials outside of class time
from other instructors
text-based virtual spaces that relv on the ability
of the user to (1 ) describe environm ents (asyn­
chronously or synchronously), and (2 ) interact
within those environm ents (svnchronouslv).
T he following are two b rief descriptions of
areas within a virtual space called "Storytelling
C entral” (part of Cafe M O O lano, the University
of California, Berkeley’s M OO) written bv stu­
dents in the Fall o f 1999. T he first is bv a native
Spanish speaker:
T h e G a ra g e
You have entered a large, plain, and cold room.
Three of the walls are made of solid cement,
as well as the floor. The fourth wall is a large
wooden door. A pole hangs above the wooden
door.The pole has a dusty red cloth hanging from
it that drops all the way to the floor. In the center
of the room there lies an old rug, weathered by
time. There is an old chest in the right corner,
sealed shut by a rusty lock. You also see an artifi­
cial Christmas tree in the left-hand corner with a
few ornaments on it.The room has makes you feel
like something happened here long, long, ago ...
You see mouse and Old Chest here.
Obvious exits: [south] to Home Sweet Home,
[north] to The Barn, [west] to Top of the Hill
S t u d e n t s S tu d e n t
Discuss current events among
groups of geographically
dispersed students
Peer collaboration on
assignments
Group work conducted
electronically
T h e follow ing was w ritten by a nativr
Spanish speaker who was also learn in g Arabic:
T h e S u lta n ’s R o o m
Ahlan wa Shahlan, you have entered The Sultan’s
Room. There is a rectangular Persian rug from
the 14th century on the floor.To your right there
is a big bookshelf with The One Thousand and
One Books collection. One of the books contains
a secret code that will enable you to open
the Nightingale’s Eye Bottle located on the very
top of the bookshelf. The bottle is seal with a
beautiful Syrian silk scarf, soft as the touch of a
rose’s petal.
MUD a n d M OO users create stories b
inventing rich environm ents filled with object-
that o th e r users can m anipulate an d investigate
Bv navigating th ro u g h space, students create
stories in an im p ro m p tu fashion. They hole
dialogues, open boxes, find secret messages anc
secret passages, an d move th ro u g h “space.”
This o p e o f interaction is m ore than m ere
game-plaving. Aside from provoking learners te
use language in b o th p lan n e d wavs (i.e., writing
an d u n p la n n e d ways (i.e., in teractin g in the vir­
tual space), it is also satisfies the neurobiological
correlate of “fo raging” for inform ation, critical
in the learn in g process (Schum ann 1994).
5. Multimedia Production
Currently, th ere are two widely used m edia (or
sets of m edia) for m ultim edia production:
■ Digital video in w hich digital m ultim edia
tools are used to construct, edit, and p ro ­
duce a linear storv
■ H ypertext,/W eb-based stories in w hich
digital m ultim edia tools are used to build
an d deliver stories (via the W eb o r local
storage m edia) th at allow user interaction
th ro u g h hvperlinks
Digital Video
Digital video requires that learners b ring a storv
to life with voice, images, a soundtrack o r sound
effects, an d a sense of m ovem ent, th ro u g h cuts
an d transitions. T he m ost com plex o f the CALL
options, learners often find it the m ost satisfv-
ing. This form at allows learners to relate a storv
of im p o rtan ce in the target language, with a tte n ­
tion not only to language, but also to im age and
sound an d th eir in terco n n ectio n .
M u ltim ed ia p ro d u c tio n s are b e c o m in g
increasingly com m on, an d are now p art o f the
standard hardw are a n d software that com es with
man\- h o m e com puters. Table 2 below sum m a­
rizes the hardw are and software n e e d e d for dig­
ital video p ro d u ctio n .
Hypertext/Web-Based Stories
H ypertext, or interactive stories, create a m edium
on the Web th rough which learners can explore
issues o f nonlinearitv. M ore accessible than digital
video, the Web is an e n v iro n m en t in which
learners can im agine an d p ro d u ce stories.
Table 2. Hardware and Software Needed for Digital Video Production
Software Hardware
Photo or image editing software Computer capable of running software named in first column
Digital video editing software Sound card
Audio editing software for voice Video capture and output card (Necessary only if capturing from
recording, capturing, and editing or outputting to traditional linear video)
T he m edia for a n d process of m aking web
pages is well d o c u m e n ted elsew here (see, for
exam ple, O ’H aver 1995). However, an im p o r­
tan t p a rt o f this process is the creation of story—
in particular, a discussion of the n o nlinearitv o f
w riting in this environm ent. S tu d e n ts’ pages can
be w ritten as storyboards in which they indicate
links, sketch o u t m edia use, and create a n d edit
text in a collaborative environm ent.
C R E A T IN G A N D E V A LU A TIN G
C O M P U T E R -B A S E D A C T IV IT IE S
W h e th e r an in stru cto r decides to create his or
h e r own m aterials, or use m aterials fo u n d on the
In te rn e t or on com m erciallv available software,
it is im p o rta n t that several features be evaluated
a n d addressed. T he follow ing list will help
an instru cto r in e ith e r evaluating o r in creating
com puter-delivered instructional m aterials.
Appearance
G ood instructional m aterial should be attractive,
b u t good design goes beyond being m erely “eye­
catch in g .” Several issues reg ard in g the a p p e ar­
ance of an application should be a tte n d e d to.
■ Colors should be chosen carefullv. R e d /
g reen colorblindness is com m on, so avoid
colors th at are likelv to cause problem s for
users with this. Low-glare hues are p refer­
able for reading; grays, soft whites, blues,
an d browns are b e tte r choices th an b rig h t
yellows, reds, a n d greens.
■ Fonts should be simple and without serifs
(This font has no serifs; this f o n t has serifs).
■ T he viewable screen should not ex ten d to
the rig h t o f the viewing space on an average
c o m p u te r m onitor.
■ G raphics should be kept small for faster
loading over slow In te rn e t connections.
■ Lim it the a m o u n t of text on one page.
Keep dow nw ard scrolling to a m inim um .
Navigation
■ Navigating th ro u g h an activitv should be
easy. Arrows or o th e r navigational links
should be clear to the user.
■ Avoid “click h e re ’' for linking. Use c o n te n t
words for text links.
■ Provide navigation that takes the user back­
ward as well as forw ard when practical.
■ Alwavs provide a wav to quit the activitv.
■ Navigation for im p o rta n t actions should
a p p e ar on the first screen o f a page. T hat is,
the navigation should not be outside the
norm ally visible area on an average com ­
p u ter m onitor.
■ Navigation should be "shallow." T hat is.
learners should n o t have to click th ro u g h
screen after screen in o rd e r to reach a p ar­
ticular piece of inform ation.
Interactivity and Feedback
If an activitv is in te n d e d as self-studv. feedback is
ex trem ely im p o rta n t. E v e n - le a rn e r action
should provide an o p p o rtu n itv for learning.
■ Feedback should anticipate the learner's
possible w rong responses an d give full
explanations.
■ C orrect answers should also be explained,
in the event that the user chose random ly.
■ T he answers m ust reflect the full range of
possible answers. Ambiguity should not be
in h ere n t in the activities unless there is
p lan n ed teacher interaction.
■ Links to re\iew m aterial should be provided
w hen available.
■ T he activitv should take advantage o f inter­
activity. Unless form atted for printing, pages
should be presented on the co m p u ter using
interactivitv. a n d n ot m erelv p re s e n te d
as potential p rin to u ts to be com pleted with
a pencil.
Value
■ T he com puter activitv should be som ething
that is done better with a com puter than
without. That is. does the activitv require
interactivitv, large databases, or o th er things
the com puter does well, or could it be done
as easilv (or m ore easilv) with paper and
pencil?
■ T he activitv' should address a specific n e e d
in the p lan n e d curriculum .
Other Considerations
■ Instructions should be minimal. G ood plan­
ning should obviate the need for elaborate
and com plex instructions.
* Require special hardw are or software onlv if
vouTe certain vour users will hav e easv access
to it.
* C heck c o m p u te r-d e liv e re d activities on
different tvpes of com puters, if possible.
G ood activities should be in d e p e n d e n t of
co m p u te r tvpc.
C O N C L U S IO N
T he hope that com puters would be a panacea
for those trving to learn second languages has
not been realized. However, it is clear that com ­
p uters are providing instructors and students
alike with a new b a tte n of tools with which lan­
guage can be lea rn ed m ore effectivelv.
T he adv ent o f the In te rn e t has ch an g ed the
wav we look at C o m p u ter Assisted Language
L earning (CALL). M achines are now used as
tools for com m unication ra th e r th an simple as
wav s o f deliv ering auto m ated drills o r exercises.
Vast am ounts o f read in g on am topic and in
m anv languages are now available on the Web,
a n d the chance to participate in discussions with
people from all walks of life is m otivating for
manv learners.
 In addition, the speed and size o f com puters
now allow large databases to be m anipulated,
offering insights into language that we did not
have access to previously. Corpus linguistics and
concordancing can help provide the data and
tools that students and instructors n eed to make
sense o ut of usage.
T h ere is n o th in g certain ab o u t the future
o f technolog}-, except th at it will no d o u b t
becom e m ore ubiquitous an pow erful. It is no
lo n g er possible in language education to ignore
this force, which is changing global cultures.
Fortunately, the same principles th at instructors
an d policvm akers use to evaluate p rin t m aterials
can be b ro u g h t to bear on technological m ateri­
als as well. In e ith e r case, it obliges us to ask and
answ er this question: How can this tool be used
to au g m en t the language learn in g process?
D IS C U S S IO N Q U E S T IO N S
1. In vour opinion, what is the m ost useful
application o f c o m p u te r technology to lan­
guage learning? W hat is the least useful?
2. Som e instructors worry that too m uch class
tim e is spent "teaching technology" at the
expense of teach in g language. Do vou agree
with this observation? Why or whv not?
3. Policy m akers an d others are co n cern ed
ab o u t the "digital divide"— the econom ic
differences th at give greater access to tech ­
nology to those institutions an d people with
m ore m onev. Do vou th in k th ere is a digital
divide? If so, how does it affect the p o p u la ­
tion (s) of learners that co n cern you?
4. Review the section of the reading subtitled
“W hat Com puters C an't D o.” Do you agree
with its analysis? Could com puters do some
of these things, given different o r better
technolog}?
5. How have you used com puters in vour own
education? How could vou teach ESL/EFL
students to use com puters to their advantage?
S U G G E S T E D A C T IV IT IE S
1. C hoose a website o r a software package that
focuses on English language learning. Based
o n your u n d e rsta n d in g o f good educational
practices, list at least five things th at you
w ould im prove the website or package.
2. C reate a syllabus for a b eg in n in g English
gram m ar course for E SL /EFL learners in
which you integrate at least th re e d ifferent
tvpes o f co m p u te r use (for exam ple, drills,
e-mail, an d so fo rth ). Discuss how vour use
o f technolog}- will en h an ce the gram m ar
learn in g experience.
3. Look at Table 1 (p. 484). W hat activities could
you add to this table? Try to think o f one new
activity lo r each colum n.
4. Locate a website in te n d e d for E SL /E FL
teachers. P ro tid e a sum m ary an d review of
what this site offers, a n d how it is useful to
E SL /EFL instructors.
FU R T H ER R EA D IN G
B o s w o o d . T . e d . 1997. X e i v Ияул o f U s i n g C o m p u t e r s i n
L a n g u a g e T e a c h i n g . A l e x a n d r i a , VA: T E S O L .
P a r t o f T E S O L 's “N e w Wavs" se rie s, th is v o l u m e
fo c u s e s o n p e d a g o g y r a t h e r t h a n t e c h n o l o g y . It
p r e s e n t s a n a r r a v o f activities i n c l u d i n g w o r d
p r o c e s s i n g a n d d e s k t o p p u b l i s h i n g , e -m a il a n d
M O O s. th e W eb. m u ltim e d ia , c o n c o rd a n c in g ,
a n d o th e r a p p licatio n s.
E g b e r t . J.. a n d E. H a n s o n - S m i t h , e d s . 19 99 . C A L L
e n v i r o n m e n t s : R e se a r c h , P r a c tic e , a n d C r itic a l
I s s u e s . A l e x a n d r i a , YA: T E S O L .
T h i s c o l l e c t i o n o f a rt ic l e s f o c u s e s o n r e s e a r c h
issu es t h a t o f f e r a t h e o r e t i c a l f r a m e w o r k b a s e d
o n ESL a n d s e c o n d la n g u a g e research , a n d
d escrib es th e o ry -b a se d p ra c tic e fo r d if fe re n t
te c h n o lo g ic a l e n v ir o n m e n ts a n d le a rn e rs.
S p e r l i n g . I). 1998. D a v e S p e r l i n g ' s I n t e r n e t G u i d e .
E n g l e w o o d Cliffs, NJ: P r e n t i c e H a ll R e g e n ts .
A practical g u id e fo r te a c h e rs u sin g th e In te r n e t
w ith F . S L /E F L s t u d e n t s . A g o o d c o m p a n i o n f o r
t h e Dav e's ESI, C a f e w e b s ite
( h u p : ■''vvvwv.eslcafe.com).
Swaffar, J . , S. R o m a n o , R M ark lev , a n d K. A r e n s , e d s.
1 9 9 8 . Language Learning Online: Theory and
Prartice in the ESL and L2 Computer Classroom.
A u s ti n , T X : L a b y r i n t h P u b l i c a t i o n s .
T h is re s e a rc h -b a s e d b o o k looks at h o w s tu d e n ts
u s e t e c h n o l o g y , p a r t i c u l a r l y in w r it in g .
W a r s c h a u e r , M . 1 9 9 5 . E-Mail for English Teaching.
A l e x a n d r i a , YA: T E S O L .
T h i s t e x t f o c u s e s so lely o n e-m a il c o m m u n i c a ­
t i o n , a n d e x p l a i n s v ery c o m p l e t e l y b o t h t h e t e c h ­
n o lo g y a n d w h a t c a n b e d o n e w ith it. G o o d f o r
t e a c h e r s w h o a r e just s t a r t i n g to u s e te c h n o lo g y -
in t h e i r c la s s r o o m s .
ENDNO TES
1 T h e o rig in a l e x c e r p t c o m e s f r o m P r o j e c t G u t e n b e r g ' s
(h t t p : / / p r o m o . n e t p g ) a r c h i y e s . T h e h u m a n
t r a n s l a t i o n also c o m e s f r o m P r o j e c t G u t e n b e r g . T h e
m a c h i n e t r a n s l a t i o n teas d o n e w ith B ab el Fish soft­
w a re , ay ailab le at altayista.com .
2 A c c o r d i n g to K r a s h e n ' s h y p o t h e s i s , t h e l e a r n e r
a c q u ir e s a s e c o n d l a n g u a g e w h e n h e o r s h e receiyes
s e c o n d l a n g u a g e i n p u t ("i” ) t h a t is o n e s t e p b e y o n d
his o r h e r c u r r e n t stag e o f lin g u is tic c o m p e t e n c e (+1).
3 T h i s is t h e m o d e r n i z a t i o n o f " p e n p a l" n o w t h a t
u s e r s w o r k o n c o m p u t e r k e y b o a r d s a n d s e n d m a il
e le c tr o n i c a ll y .
 Action Research, Teacher Research,
and Classroom Research
in Language Teaching
K A T H L E E N M,
Bailey's chapter compares and contrasts three terms that are often confused: action research, teacher
research, and classroom research. W h ile action research is an actual research method, teacher research
is defined by w ho conducts it, and classroom research is defined by the setting in which the data
are collected.
IN T R O D U C T IO N
T he purpose of this chapter is to introduce
language teachers to the research being done
in language classrooms. 1 have structured the
ch ap ter aro u n d a series of questions. It begins
with a com parison o f classroom research, teacher
research, and action research. It includes a sum-
m a n of some recent studies directly related to the
work o f language teachers, and ends with some
activities readers can do to enhance their u n d e r­
stan d in g o f the concepts p re se n te d h ere.
A lthough space constraints do not perm it a com ­
prehensive review o f the available literature. I
hope the studies cited here will encourage teach­
ers to learn m ore about classroom research.
D E F IN IT IO N S O F K EY TERM S
In recent years there has been a m arked increase
in the frequency with which studies of c l a s s r o o m
r e s e a r c h , t e a c h e r r e s e a r c h , an d a c t i o n r e s e a r c h have
been published in the held of language teaching.
These them es occur regularly in the program
abstracts at language teachers' conferences. But
what do the three term s mean? Thev are som e­
times used interchangeable, but are they in fact
synonymous? We will begin bv com paring and
contrasting these th ree term s in o rd er to get a
better u n d erstan d in g of what sorts of research
projects are being done in language classrooms.
B A IL E Y
W H A T IS LA N G U A G E
CLA SSR O O M R ESEA R CH ?
O f these th re e concepts, the o n e with the
longest tradition in language teaching is c l a s s ­
r o o m r e s e a r c h (or c l a s s r o o m - c e n t e r e d r e s e a r c h , as it
used to be called). As early as 1980, Long
defined classroom research as “research on sec­
o n d language learn in g a n d teaching, a l l o r p a r t
o f w h o s e d a ta a re d e r iv e d fr o m th e o b s e r v a tio n o r m e a s ­
u r e m e n t o f th e c la s s r o o m p e r f o r m a n c e o f te a c h e r s a n d
(Long 1980, p. 3). In o th e r words, a
s tu d e n ts "
study about language learn in g in form al instruc­
tional settings for which students had filled out
a q u estio n n aire about th eir p articipation in lan­
guage lessons, while interesting a n d potentially
useful, would not fit this definition of classroom
research. If. however, the researchers ad d ed a
classroom observation co m p o n e n t to the study,
visiting classroom s to see if those learners actu­
ally ex h ib ited the same behaviors thev h ad
re p o rte d in th eir q u estio n n aire responses, we
w ould th en have an exam ple o f classroom
research, according to L ong's definition.
C lassroom rese a rc h , however, isn ’t ju st
research w here th e data are collected within the
coniines of a physical classroom . Consider, for
exam ple. A llw righfs statem ent:
C lassroom -centered research is just
that — research c e n t e r e d on the class­
room . as distinct from , for exam ple,
 rese a rc h th at c o n c e n tra te s on the
i n p u t s t o the classroom (the scllabus.
the teach in g m aterials) or on the o u t ­
p u ts fro m th e classroom (le a rn e r
a c h ie v e m e n t scores). It does n o t
ignore in am wav or trv to devalue the
im p o rtan ce o f such inputs and out­
puts. It simple tries to investigate what
h a p p en s inside the classroom when
learners and teachers com e together.
At its m ost narrow, classroom -centered
research is in fact research that treats
the language classroom n ot just as the
s e t t i n g f o r investigation bu t. m o re
im portantly, as the o b j e c t o f investiga­
tion. Classroom processes becom e the
central focus (1983, p. 191 ).
Classroom research, th en , can be con d u cted bv
anyone using any ap proach to data collection
an d analysis, so long as it m eets the definitions
above. It is not the province o f one school of
th o u g h t, o n e g ro u p o f research ers, or one
m ethodological tradition.
W H A T IS T E A C H E R R ESEA R CH ?
T e a c h e r r e s e a r c h , in contrast, is research conducted
bv classroom teachers. A lthough the idea of
teachers doing research was not com m on when
the experim ental approach teas dom inant, it has
gained m o m en tu m in the past two decades, par-
ticularlv in first language ed u cation (see. e.g..
K incheloe 1991). T eacher research is often con­
n ected with the co ncept o f teach er developm ent
and em pow erm ent (Brindlev 1991)— the idea
being that bv investigating teaching and learn ­
ing processes in classrooms, we ourselves learn
m ore about the craft and the science o f teaching
so th a t we mav im prove o u r work as teachers.
T he T e a c h e r s D e v e l o p T e a c h e r s R e s e a r c h series (e.g..
Edge and Richards 1993) reports on language
teaching projects that take this stance.
T eacher research usuallv does take place in
classroom s, an d it typicallv focuses on som e ele­
m en t (s) o f classroom in teraction, Inn it d o e sn ’t
necessarily h are to. For exam ple, a teacher
could studv the w ritten negotiation for m eaning
betw een him or h e r and his or h e r interm ed iate
F.8L. students th ro u g h the students' dialogue
journals a n d his or h e r responses to them . W hile
ntch a studv would not be considered classroom
research, it would be tea c h e r research, because
it was designed and carried o u t bv a teacher. I:.
this case, th e n , th e a g e n t c o n d u c tin g tit-
research is the defining feature. In o u r field vot
can find discussions of teach er research wrim
by B urns (1993). F reem an (1998), Jo h n so n
(1998, 1999). and X unan ( 1997b), am ong others
W H A T IS A C T IO N R ESEA R CH ?
Finallv. the term a c t i o n r e s e a r c h does in d ee d imp)
a particular m ethodological approach. T he con­
cept is som etim es co n fu sed with teach e.
research and classroom research because in or:
field, at lion research is often c o n d u c te d 1"
teachers in language classrooms. In addition, n
focuses on p articular features o f classroom in te r­
action. But action research is m ore than simp:
research co n d u c te d bv teachers in classrooms.
T he term a c t i o n r e s e a r c h is an approach t
collecting and in terpreting data that involves .
clear, re p e a te d cvcle of p ro ce d u re s. Tim
rese a rc h e r begins bv p lan n in g an action t
address a problem , issue, or question in his or he:
own context. This action (which is also called a
''small-scale intervention") is then carried out
( This is the source of the label a c t i o n r e s e a r c h .) The
next step is the svstematic observation of the out­
comes of the action. T he observation is done
through a variet\ o f procedures for collecting
data. These include audio or video recordings,
teachers' diarv entries, observers' notes, etc.
(Christison and Bassano L1993J provide clear
exam ples o f several data collection procedures
teachers can use in action research to gather
inform ation from students.) .After observing the
ap parent results of the action, the researcher
reflects on the outcom e and plans a subsequent
action, after w hich the cvcle begins again
(Ixemmis and McTaggart 1982; X unan 1993; van
Tier 1994).
I he broad goals o f action research are to
seek local u n d erstan d in g an d to bring about
im provem ent in the context u n d e r studv (Bailee
1998a). Ixemmis a n d M cTaggart describe action
research as "a form of ‘self-reflective enquire'
und ertak en bv participants in social situations in
o rd e r to im prove the rationality a n d justice of
th eir own social o r educational practices, as well
as th eir u n d e rsta n d in g of these practices and the
situations in which these practices tire carried
out" (1989. p. 2 ).
A ction research was begun in the U nited
States bv Lewin (1946) in the 1940s as a m eans
of addressing social problem s. A lthough this
a p p ro a c h was overshadow ed in th e U n ited
States for nvanv years bv psychom etric research
in the exp erim en tal tradition, it has been widely
used for som e tim e in E ngland, Australia, and
H ong Kong. A n u m b e r of action research
anthologies and a great deal o f the m ethodologi­
cal guidance available has been published in gen­
eral education (see. e.g.. C arr and Kemmis 1986:
Kcmmis and McTaggart 1982; M cLean 1995: and
Oja and Smulvan 1989). In recent years, however,
m ore and m ore books and articles have been
published about the use of action research in
second or foreign language education contexts.
(See, for instance. Burns 1998: X unan 1990: and
Wallace 1998 for m ethodological guidance about
how to conduct action research).
H O W DO T H E S E C O N C E P T S
F IT T O G E T H E R ?
To sum m arize, then, the term classroom research
refers to the location and the locus of the study.
Teacher research refers to the agents who conduct
the study. Action research denotes a particular
approach, a codified but flexible set of reiterated
procedures, for participants to conduct research
in their own settings. Action research m ight or
m ight not be conducted in classrooms, and it
m ight or m ight not be done bv teachers. Figure 1
depicts the overlapping relationship o f classroom
research, teacher research, and action research.
M cPherson (1997) provides a good exam ple
of an action research project by a language
teacher in h er own classroom. She teaches adult
ESI, classes for recent im m igrants to Australia.
O ne \e a r h e r students had a very wide range of
abilities because m any had had to wait a long time
for a place in the course after the initial assess-
1 = Classroom research conducted by teachers using
approaches other than action research
2 = Research conducted by teachers outside of classrooms
using approaches other than action research
3 = Action research conducted by teachers outside of
classrooms
4 = Classroom research conducted by teachers using the
action research approach
(.1a ssго о m Re se a r c h
T eacher
R esearch
1. 2.
P ———■
1
1 4. ?».
■
i
J Action Research
1 C onducted
j in Classroom s
__________ i_____________________
L ._______________________________ .___________________
F ig u re I. C la s s r o o m R e s e a rc h , A c t io n R e s e a rc h , and
T e a c h e r R e s e a rc h
m ent of their English skills. M cPherson an d 25
o th er ESI. teachers in 4 states of Australia u n d e r­
took action research projects, all in their own
contexts but each focusing on som e aspect of
teaching diverse learners. M cP herson’s article
describes the three cycles of h er action research
study. It is an exam ple of teacher research, using
the action research m odel, situated in the wider
approach o f language classroom research.
In the first cycle, M cPherson reviewed the
lite ra tu re on te a c h in g m ixed-ability classes,
talked to o th e r teachers, an d tried various ways
of g ro u p in g h e r students based on th eir profi­
ciency levels. She fo u n d th a t th e stu d e n ts
a p p e are d to have goals different from h e r own
and som etim es resisted the g roup and pair work
she had organized.
In the second cycle. M cPherson elicited the
students' input about the activities. They were
surprised that she saw m ixed levels as a problem
and said they were happy to work in mixed-
abilitv classes. As a result of these discussions,
M cPherson gave the students m ore responsibility
to select th eir own m aterials and activities. She
was th en able to observe them m aking th eir own
learning choices, which she carefnllv docum ented.
She found that the students had reasons quite
different from h er own for their choices. For
in sta n c e, m anv stu d e n ts e x p e rie n c e d in tra ­
g roup tensions (e.g., in choosing p artn ers for
g roup work) related to th eir own ethnicity as
well as to the political problem s o f their hom e
countries. T he students had developed strate­
gies for m aintaining civil relations in class, but
the te a c h e r’s g ro u p in g efforts h ad inadvertentlv
u n d e rm in e d the delicate balance. O f th eir reti­
cence, M cPherson writes. “Tliev had tried in
subtle ways to m ake m e aware o f the sensitive
and precarious nature of the classroom dvnamics
bv declining to e a rn out the activities which tliev
believed could upset the equilibrium " (1997.
p. 58). Allowing the students m ore choice was
the first step tow ard resolving this issue.
T he third cvcle o f the action research project
occurred near the end of the course. A lthough
the rest of the class had begun to work well
to g ether, th e re w ere still two students who
seem ed to be m arginalized bv the ethnic group
th at was d o m in a n t in the class. M cPherson
im p lem e n te d a strategv of d e lib e ra te d calling
on these two students and validating th eir con­
trib u tio n s to class discussions. As the term
en d ed , even these two students had begun to get
m ore involved.
W H A T D EV E LO P M E N TS HAVE
O C C U R R E D IN LA N G U A G E
CLA SSR O O M R ESEA R CH ?
In Bailee (1985), I published a review of the class­
room research literature that identified four
m ajor research them es up to that point. These
were (1 ) students' patterns of participation in lan­
guage classrooms, (2 ) investigations o f language
teachers’ classroom behavior, (3) teachers’ treat­
m ent of learners' (oral ) errors, an d (4) individual
studen t (or teacher) variables.
An extensive literatu re review by C h au d ro n
in 1988 also id en tified fo u r m ain areas of
research: ( 1 ) teach er talk in second language
classroom s, (2 ) le a rn e r behavior in second lan­
guage classroom s. (3) teacher and student in te r­
actions in second language classroom s, and (4)
le a rn in g outcom es. C h a u d ro n ‘s boo k -len g th
tre a tm e n t covered a m uch g rea ter range of the
available classroom research literatu re th an did
the c h a p te r bv Bailev (1985).
These topics have continued to be im por­
tant areas of classroom research. For exam ple,
Kasper (1985) and Tomasello and H erron (1989)
have investigated erro r treatm ent in language
classes— one of the earliest foci of classroom
research. But in some instances the focus o f a
topic has changed to keep up with developm ents
in language teaching. For exam ple, while m anv of
the earlv studies looked at patterns of student par­
ticipation in teacher fronted classes, m ore recent
investigations — influenced bv the em ergence
o f com m unicative language teaching as the p re­
ferred approach — have com pared small group or
clvadic interactions with large group interactions
(see. e.g.. T ong an d P orter 1985; Pica an d
Doughtv 1985: Rulon and McCrearv 1986).
A n o th er area w here an earlv topical focus
has b ro a d e n e d considerable is that of individual
lea rn er variables and second language learn ers'
behaviors. O ne wav these topics have been inves­
tig ated is th ro u g h language le a rn e rs' diary
entries about th eir learn in g experiences. In the
earlv clavs of language classroom research, m ost
o f the language learning diaries were kept bv lin­
guists who studied a language but concurrently
studied the process of learn in g that language.
This p ro ced u re has b een criticized (e.g., by
Seliger 1983) because it is unlikelv that train ed
linguists rep re sen t the m ajoritv of language
learners — the processes thev u n d erg o in learn ­
ing a language m at not be the same as those of
the m itre tvpical students in language class­
room s. M ore recentlv. however, diaries have
been kept bv actual learners but analvzecl bv
researchers. These studies include Ellis’s (1989)
studv of two adult learners o f G erm an: H illeson’s
(1996) investigation of reticence and anxiety
am ong secondary school students in Singapore;
Brown's (1985a) research co m p arin g o ld er and
v o u n g e r a d u lt le a rn e rs o f S panish; a n d
M atsum oto’s (1989) analysis o f a voung ja p a n e se
w om an's cliarv o f h e r EST learning.
 Some classroom studies have used m ultiple
data collection procedures to investigate learner
variables. For exam ple, Schm idt and Frota (1986)
analvzed a diary kept by Schm idt as he learned
Portuguese in Brazil. F rota— a native speaker of
P o rtu g u ese — also c o n d u c te d p erio d ic e rro r
analyses o f Schm idt's speech. In Spain, Block
(1996) com pared students’ tape-recorded oral
jo u rn a l entries with his observations and the
teacher's journal entries to com pare the various
viewpoints expressed on the classroom events.
Shaw (1996) used language le a rn e rs' diarv
entries, his fieldnotes, and interviews with teach­
ers to investigate content-based language instruc­
tion at the graduate level in the U nited States.
Katz (1996) used classroom observations, tape
recordings and teacher interviews to docum ent
four different teaching stvles used bv four teach­
ers who were working at the same level in the
same program and using the same curriculum .
It is in terestin g to m e, b o th as a language
teach er an d as a research er and re a d e r of o th ­
e rs ’ re se a rc h , how m u ch d e v e lo p m e n t has
o ccu rred in language classroom research since
the early 1980s. T h e re have b een new m eth o d ­
ological developm ents, to be sure, b u t m ore
impressive has b een the wide range o f topics
investigated in language classroom research.
T he traditional foci of classroom research listed
above continue to be investigated, but other kev
topics have also appeared. Some of these issties.
such as research on students' learning strategies
(see, e.g., Chesterfield and Chesterfield 1985)
have been influenced bv second language acquisi­
tion research conducted outside of classrooms.
Some are related to sociolinguistic research on
contextualized forms of com petence. For example,
Rounds (1987) investigated the com m unication
skills of non-native-speaking teaching assistants
working in English in American universities. O th er
topics, such as those in the language awareness
m ovem ent (see, e.g., van Tier 1995), are m ore
closely related to developm ents in linguistics.
T hree specific developm ents n eed to be
m entioned: (1 ) investigations of teacher cogni­
tion, (2) the globalization of language classroom
research, and (3) em pirical studies o f washback.
We will briefly exam ine these areas, each of which
has significance for language teachers worldwide.
CLA SSR O O M R ESEA R CH
O N T E A C H E R C O G N IT IO N
T each er cognition research investigates how
teachers th in k a b o u t th eir work, w hat skilled
decision m aking goes into effective teaching,
a n d how novice tea c h e rs’ th in k in g a n d teaching
expertise develop over tim e. (See W ood 1996,
for a review.)
Much of this research involves having teachers
review data collected in their own classrooms
bv researchers. T h en the teachers tell those
researchers what they were thinking and what m oti­
vated their decision-m aking at the time. T he p ro ­
cedure called stimulated recall (Gass and Mackey
2000) is often used in this research context. In
stim ulated recall, a researcher uses som e record
of an event to p ro m p t the recollections o f that
event bv som eone who participated in it. T he
records, or data, can include audio or video
recordings of the class, observers’ fieldnotes, or
transcripts of classroom interaction. T he partici­
p ants verbalize th e ir recollections a n d the
researchers record those recollections while the
participants review the data. For exam ple, N unan
(1996) and Jo h n so n (1992a, 1992b) used the
stim ulated recall procedure in o rd er to p ro m p t
in-service and preservice teachers to explain their
m ental processes d u ring th eir lessons.
T he topics o f teach er cognition an d devel­
o p m en t also have b een accessed in classroom
research th ro u g h the use o f tea c h e rs’ jo u rn als.
Som etim es the journals have b e e n analyzed by
p eo p le o th e r th an the teachers them selves. For
exam ple, X um rich (1996) analyzed the teaching
journals kept bv teachers-in-training who were
en ro lled in h e r practicum class. P e n n in g to n and
R ichards (1997) analvzed the teach in g jo u rn a ls
o f five novice EFL teachers in H o n g Kong. In
o th e r instances, the journals have b een analyzed
bv the teachers who kept them — an d thus p ro ­
vide us with exam ples o f teach er research. These
include A ppel’s (1995) booklen g th study based
on a journal he k ep t for several years as he
tau g h t EFL in Germany. Brock, Yu, an d W ong
(1992) kept teaching jo u rn a ls o f th eir university
classes in H ong Kong a n d th en read a n d dis­
cussed them together. T h eir re p o rt docum ents
b o th th e ir jo u rn a l fin d in g s a n d w hat they
le a rn e d by sharing th eir journals. T eacher deci­
sion m aking is a vast a n d im p o rta n t topic, a n d
we are just b eg in n in g to u n d e rsta n d its richness
an d complexity.
T H E G L O B A L IZ A T IO N
O F L A N G U A G E CLA SSR O O M
R ESEA R CH
As in d ic a te d above, lan g u a g e classroom
research has b een co n d u c te d in a wide variety of
contexts in rec e n t years. In the earlv 1980s,
m uch o f the p u blished research teas do n e in
C anada, Australia, the U nited Kingdom or the
U n ited States. This is no lo n g er the case. For
instance, teach ers' concerns about w orking with
large classes have e m erg ed as an im p o rta n t topic
with serious practical consequences in ntanv
regions. This issue has b een investigated in
N ig eria (C olem an 1989), J a p a n (L oC astro
1989), In d o n esia (S ab an d er 1989), Pakistan
(Sham im 1996), an d South .Africa (Stein and
Janks 1996).
T he language used bv students an d teach­
ers d u rin g lessons, one of the early foci of lan­
guage classroom re se a rc h , has also h e e n
investigated (th o u g h n o t necessarily with action
research o r tea c h e r research). These studies
include research on code-switching in South
A frican classroom s (A dendorff 1996): students'
E nglish use in Sri L an k an classroom s
(C anagarajah 1993); the language choice in
various situations in a French-English bilingual
p rogram in Q uebec (C leghorn an d G enesee
1984); a n d th e tasks p e rfo rm e d in d u a l­
language program s in H ungary (D uff 1995.
1996). T h e topic o f washback illustrates this
global tre n d quite well.
W A S H B A C K S T U D IE S
IN L A N G U A G E CLA SSR O O M S
W ashback— loosely defined as the effects of test­
ing on teaching an d le a rn in g — has been stud­
ied in m any parts o f the world. M uch o f this
classroom research was co n d u c te d by external
observers ra th e r th an the teachers themselves.
In Sri Lanka. Wall and A lderson (1993) col­
lected baseline data at the b eg in n in g of a three-
year observational studv. Baseline data refers to
“info rm atio n that docum ents the norm al state
o f affairs [and] provides the basis against which
we m ake com parative claims ab o u t how differ­
e n t or unusual the p h e n o m e n a we have seen
may b e ” (Allwright a n d Bailev 1991, p. 74). In
the case of the washback studies, baseline data
are usually collected before the im p lem en tatio n
o f a new test, so that the effects of that test on
teaching an d learn in g can be studied subse­
quently bv collecting parallel data after the test
has been used for som e specific p erio d of tim e.
Wall and A lderson's studv involved class­
room observers visiting English classes in five
parts of Sri Tanka, over six rou n d s o f observa­
tions. before and after a new national English
test was im p lem en ted . Thev fo u n d that the new
exam seriously in flu e n c e d th e c o n te n t o f
English lessons, an d also had som e im pact on
how the Sri Lankan teachers designed th eir own
in-class exams. However, it had verv little influ­
ence on how thev taught o r how thev graded
th eir students' p e rfo rm an ce on tests.
T he effects of Japanese university entrance
exam inations were studied bv W atanabe (1996),
who found some results s e n similar to those of
Wall and Alderson. He observed two teachers,
each of whom was teaching two test preparation
courses. However, he found that the gram m ar-
translation questions on the university entrance
exams did not influence the two teachers in the
same wav. He felt that three factors prom oted or
inhibited washback in these cases: ( 1 ) the teachers’
educational background and or experience, (2)
the teachers' different beliefs about what consti­
tuted effective teaching, and (3) the tim ing of the
researcher's observations relative to the date o f the
upcom ing exam.
In Israel. Shohamv, D onitsa-Schm idt, and
Ferm an (1996) co n d u c te d classroom research
on the washback created bv a new test o f Arabic
as a second language (AST), as well as a new test
of English as a foreign language (EFL). W hen
th e new ASL test was im p le m e n te d , they
observed that the teachers stopped covering
new m aterial a n d began to review intensively;
w orksheets based on the previous year’s ASL test
rep laced the textbooks; class activities becam e
testlike a n d the atm o sp h ere becam e tense. O nce
the test h ad b een adm inistered, these m anifesta­
tions of vvashback stopped. In the case of the
EFL test, which in cluded an oral co m p o n en t,
Shoham y e t al. observed th a t th e teach ers
increased the a m o u n t o f class tim e sp en t on lis­
ten in g a n d speaking, using activities a n d tasks
based on the EFL test. This studv confirm ed that
washback at the very least influences what teachers
emphasize in language classes.
Alderson and Hamp-Lyons (1996) observed
the same two teachers as thev taught regular ESL
classes and Test of English as a Foreign Language
(TOEFL) p re p a ra tio n classes in th e U n ited
States. A m ong o th er things, their studv found
that the test p rep aratio n classes involved m uch
m ore test taking, spent less tim e on pair work,
entailed m ore teacher talk and less student talk,
generated m ore m etalanguage (talk about lan­
guage), and elicited less laughter than the non-
TOEFL classes.
In H o n g Kong, C heng (1997) observed the
same secondary school English teachers w orking
with two groups of students p rep a rin g for their
school-leaving e x am in atio n s— those slated to
take the old exam an d those who w ould take the
new exam . T he old exam in cluded passages for
the students to read aloud, while the nets’ test
in c lu d e d ro le plavs a n d g ro u p discussions
instead. In the new exam p rep a ra tio n classes,
C heng fo u n d th at the teachers did n o t have stu­
dents practice read in g aloud, an d th at m ore
tim e was sp en t on oral presentations an d group
discussions. She p o in te d o u t th at the exam h ad
changed the c o n te n t of the courses, b u t h ad had
a m inim al im pact on the teaching m ethods.
T h e existing classroom research studies on
washback raise a n u m b er o f in teresting ques­
tions a b o u t how external tests influence teach ­
ing a n d learning. From w hat we have seen so far,
tests seem to have considerable im pact on w hat
gets taught, b u t less influence on how th at con­
te n t is taught. F uture research in this area is
n eed ed . To the best o f my know ledge, n o n e of
the published classroom research on washback
involves teach er research o r the use o f action
research to investigate this im p o rta n t issue.
W H A T T O P IC S H AVE BEEN
IN V E S T IG A T E D B Y T E A C H E R S
D O IN G A C T IO N R ESEA R CH
IN L A N G U A G E CLA SSRO O M S?
As n o ted above, action research has seen a d ra­
m atic rise in popularity since 1980. T he advent
of action research as a legitim ate a p p ro ach to
investigating p h e n o m e n a in lan g u a g e class­
room s has o p e n e d a wide range of new topics as
well as p ro m o tin g research by teachers who use
this m odel.
Recently, a num ber of action research studies
have been published in which language teachers
(sometimes working alone, sometimes collaboiat-
ing with others) have used the action research
ap p ro ach to investigate issues in th eir own class­
room s. For exam ple, K ebir (1994) studied adult
language le a rn e rs’ com m unication strategies. A
special ed ition o f Orbis Linguarum ed ited by
M ichonska-Stadnik an d Szulc-Kuparska (1997)
docum ents a wide-scale action research investi­
gation o f lea rn er in d ep e n d e n c e in Poland. C han
(1996) looked at action research as a vehicle for
professional developm ent in H ong Kong. Also in
H ong Kong, Tsui (1996) rep o rted on a study in
which several secondarv school teachers in H ong
Kong used action research to investigate th eir
stu d e n ts’ reticence to use English in th e class­
room . A study o f Vygotskyan principles to p ro ­
m ote in teractio n in a low-level ESL. class was
co n d u c te d by van Lier (1992). His work with the
ESL learners resulted in discussion m aterials for
use in his language tea c h e r ed u cation courses,
which fed back into the ESL class, an d so on.
W H A T IS T H E T E A C H E R ’S
RO LE IN LA N G U A G E
CLA SSR O O M R ESEA R CH ?
T h e te a c h e r’s role in classroom research has
grown trem endouslv (Allwright 1997; N u n an
1997). In the days w hen m ost research was
experim ental, investigations were typically c o n ­
d u c te d bv outsiders to ensure objectivity in data
collection and interpretation. Teachers were seen
either as subjects in a particular study or as the
im plem enters o f the treatm ent in the experim ent.
Now, however, there is a m uch m ore inclu­
sive view of teachers as partners in the research
e n te rp rise , w orking in co llab o ratio n with
researchers (see, e.g., Freem an's 1992 study of a
secondary school French class). It is also n ot
unco m m o n these davs for teachers in our field to
be producers, instead o f consum ers, o f language
classroom research (C rookes 1998; Freem an
1996). Pica (1997) has described the evolving
relationship o f language teaching and research
as m oving from coexistence to collaboration
an d com plem entarity. (See also H udelson and
Lindfors 1993.)
W H E R E ARE W E N O W ?
O n e clear developm ent in the last few vears is
th a t th e re are now m anv m e th o d o lo g ic a l
resources available to teachers and others who
wish to co n d u c t language classroom research. In
addition to the action research references cited
above, th ere are m anv texts and articles avail­
able ab o u t classroom research in general. For
exam ple, Allwright an d Bailev (1991) wrote an
in tro d u c tio n to b o th the topics and the m ethods
of classroom research for language teachers.
Brow n (1985b) c o m p a re d th e cliarv studv
a p p ro ach with participant observation in lan­
guage classroom research. Brum fit an d M itchell
(1990) and Bailey (1998a) reviewed a n u m b e r of
classroom research projects. Gass a n d Mackey
(2000) provided step-bv-step guidance an d clear
exam ples fo r researchers, in clu d in g te a c h e r
researchers, who wish to use the stim u-Iated
recall p ro ced u re. Santwav (1994) provided sug­
gestions for teachers ab o u t how to reco rd data
w hile thev are actually tea c h in g . F re em a n
(1998), Jo h n so n (1998, 1999), N unan (1991b),
Tsui (1995), and van Lier (1988,1990) have all dis­
cussed how to investigate language classroom
interaction.
O n e sign of professional m aturity is the will­
ingness o f a field to critique its own work. In
re c e n t years a n u m b er o f articles and books have
b een w ritten which question the procedures
used in classroom research or which identify
problem atic issues (see, e.g., Bailev 1991 and
Seliger 1983). Schachter an d Gass (1996) have
ed ited an interesting collection o f articles which
candidly discuss the sorts of problem s that arise
in doing classroom research. Manv o f these
resources w ould be helpful to language teachers
who wish to get started on th eir own classroom
research.
W H Y SH O U LD TEACH ERS
G E T IN V O LVED IN LA N G U A G E
C LA SSR O O M R ESEA R CH ?
Whv should teachers b o th e r to get involved in
a ctio n rese a rc h , o r anv form o f classroom
research for that m atter? D oesn't it take tim e to
co n d u ct such studies? D oesn't research require
discipline an d specialized train in g to carry out?
T he answer is ves. certainly. In addition, in m anv
situations, teachers are not given financial or
strategic support, release tim e, or even recogni­
tion for con d u ctin g research. Allwright (1997)
has addressed som e of these concerns. Also,
Allwright an d T enzuen (1997) have described
an a p p ro a c h called "ex p lo rato ry te a c h in g ,”
which is related to action research b u t keeps the
teaching central while allowing teachers to raise
a n d answer im p o rta n t questions ab o u t th eir
work in language classrooms.
T h ere are still good reasons for teachers to
co nduct language classroom research, however.
T he processes involved in data collection an d
analysis can help them discover pattern s (both
positive an d negative) in th eir interactions with
students. Thev can discover in terestin g new
puzzles a n d answers, b o th o f which can energize
th eir teaching. Bv reading o r h earin g accounts
o f o th e r peo p le's research, thev can get new
ideas for teaching a n d for th eir investigations, as
well as becom ing b e tte r c o n n ected with the p ro ­
fession at large. A nd by sharing the results of
th eir own research (at conferences, in publica­
tions. in s ta ffro o m lu n ch talks, a n d so o n ), thev
can get feedback from o th e r teachers a n d learn
from th eir experiences.
 In closing, I w ant to qu o te th re e sentences
from M cPherson's action research rep o rt, which
was su m m arized on pages 4 91-492 o f this
chapter. T h e first two sentences I wish to high­
light follow:
This action research pro ject played a
m ajor role in help in g me to u n d e r­
stand the learn in g issues involved in
ms class a n d in developing systematic
ways to investigate a n d address them .
As a research m eth o d , action research
was flexible e n o u g h to allow me to
change the focus of ms investigation
from d ev e lo p in g a n d tria lin g la n ­
guage learn in g m aterials a n d activities
to addressing issues o f difference and
diversity (1997, p. 61).
I have a d d ed mv own em phasis in these two
sentences to stress the situated, localized natu re
o f M cP herson’s research as well as w hat she h e r­
self gained from w orking on the project. T he
th ird sentence, below, provides an apt closing to
this chapter, b u t also perhaps a great beg in n in g
reg ard in g how to th ink ab o u t action research,
teach er research, an d classroom research in
general. .After she finished h e r studv, M cPherson
concluded,
T he events th at o ccu rred forced m e to
rem e m b e r th at in the classroom th ere
is m ore to learn in g a language than
learn in g language (p. 60).
D IS C U S S IO N Q U E S T IO N S
1. In your u n d erstan d in g , how do language
classroom research, teach er research, an d
action research differ from o n e another?
How do they differ from o th e r form s of
research with which y o u may be fam iliar (for
instance, library research o r the scientific
m eth o d )?
2. W hat are the advantages and disadvantages of
language teachers conducting research in
their own classrooms? W hat are the advan­
tages an d disadvantages of outsiders conduct­
ing research in language classrooms?
3. W hat are th ree topics o f in terest to you as
a tea c h e r w hich have been investigated in
language classroom research to date? Whv
are they of particu lar interest?
4. Washback has b een defined as the effects of
testing on language teaching and learning.
Have you ever experienced washback, eith er
as a teacher o r as a language learner? W hat
were the circumstances? W hat was the test
and how did it influence your teaching or
learning?
5. If you h a d b e e n able to do classroom
rese a rc h on the w ashback situ atio n dis­
cussed in Q uestion 4, w hat data w ould you
h are collected? W hat do you th in k the data
w ould have shown vou?
S U G G E S T E D A C T IV IT IE S
1. Tape rec o rd two or th re e consecutive lessons
in the same language class. T hese tapes can
provide baseline data. Listen to the tapes
and write down th ree to five questions th at
arise ab o u t the in teractio n in the class.
2. T h in k of som e wavs th at you could go a b o u t
answ ering these questions by collecting addi­
tional data. How w ould your data collection
procedures differ if you (a) were teaching
the class, o r (b) were observing som eone
else teaching the class?
3. If vou are currently teaching, plan the initial
steps o f an action research project that you
could conduct in your own class. Keep in
m ind that your goals may change as you work
through the ac tion research cycle o f planning,
acting, observing, reflecting, and replanning
for the next iteration. Discuss your initial
plans with a colleague or fellow student.
4. Keep a diary o f your own language teaching
(or language learning) for a set p e rio d of
tim e for several days ru n n in g — fo r instance,
for a p e rio d o f two weeks. D o n ’t rere a d
vour diary en tries until the p re d e te rm in e d
p erio d is over. W hat pattern s em erge in the
behaviors a n d attitudes d o c u m e n te d in your
diary? How could these issues be investigated
further?
5. If you are currently teaching or doing your
practice teaching, ask a trusted colleague
or fellow student to observe von teaching a
lesson and take notes on the interaction.
What issues em erge from the observation that
vou were unaw are of as the teacher? How
/
could you an d an observer investigate these
issues further?
FU R T H ER R EA D IN G
If vou would like to learn more about action research,
these books bv Burns and Wallace are clear sources of
information:
Burns, A. 1998. Collaborative Action Research for English
Teachers. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Wallace, M. J. 1998. Action Research for Language Teachers.
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Allwright and Bailev provides a user-friendlv general
introduction to language classroom research for
teachers and preservice teachers.
Allwright, D., and К. M. Bailev. 1991. Focus on the
Classroom: An Introduction to Classroom Research
for Language Teachers. Cambridge: Cambridge
Universitv Press.
Nunan's book has manv excellent ideas and clear
examples for teachers who wish to begin classroom
investigations of their own.
Xunan. D. 1989. Understanding Language Classrooms:
A Guide for Teacher-initiated Action. New York:
Prentice Hall.
Freeman's and Johnson's books are ideal starting
places. Thev include examples of teacher research as
well as teachers' comments on doing research.
Freeman. D. 1998. Doing Teacher Research: From Inquiry
to Understanding. Boston, MA: Heinle & Heinle
Publishers.
Johnson. К. E. 1999. Understanding Language Teaching:
Reasoning in Action. Boston. MA: Heinle &
Heinle Publishers.
 Reflective Teaching in ELT
O H N M. M U R P H Y
M urphy’s chapter introduces several intriguing pathways for long-term professional growth. It features
tools to learn more about w ho w e are as teachers (including students' perceptions) through such
procedures as five-minute papers, teacher-assessment surveys, student focus groups, retrospective field
notes, and non-supervisory peer feedback.The chapter also highlights purposes o f reflective teaching
and topics explored by reflective teachers.
IN T R O D U C T IO N
G aining teach in g experience, p articipating in
teacher-developm ent courses, th in k in g about
and discussing published scholarship, atten d in g
conferences, consulting colleagues, an d getting
to know students b e tte r are b u t som e of the
m any wavs that English language teachers can
grow as professionals. This c h a p te r adds to these
resources by in tro d u c in g wavs for teachers to
look inward, both w ithin them selves an d within
the courses they offer, to access inform ation an d
inspiration about th eir efforts in language class­
room s. T he c h a p te r’s purpose is to serve as an
in tro d u c tio n to reflective teaching. For those
in terested in learn in g m ore ab o u t this vibrant
trad itio n in the field o f English language teach­
ing (ETT), the section titled "F u rth er R eading”
provides an a n n o ta ted listing o f sources that
served as the c h a p te r’s conceptual g rounding.
O n e of the m ore in trig u in g characteristics
th at distinguishes adults from ch ild ren is that
adults have an increased capacity for self-reflec­
tive th o u g h t (K ohlberg 1981, Mezirow 1981).
This is n o t to say th at ch ild ren are incapable o f
self-reflection or o f learn in g th ro u g h in tro sp ec­
tive m eans. Parents know that children, especially
adolescents, can be highly self-reflective. Yet in
com parison with younger people, adults possess
greater capacities in this area. T he challenge is to
p u t such capacities to m ore productive use.
As a language teacher, have you ever finished
all of vour teaching for the day only to find your
m ind racing with thoughts about a lesson recently
com pleted? This is a recurring experience for me,
especiallv when returning hom e from work on
public transportation. W hile others seated around
m e seem to be reading newspapers, staring into
space, or calmlv chatting with friends, my m ind
often races with classroom images, including
insights, puzzles, second guesses, resolutions, and
plans for the future. D uring such m om ents 1 find
mvself responding with a full range o f em otion
that includes not only excitem ent, joy, inspiration,
an d reassurance b u t also m ore tro u b lin g
m om ents of boredom , annoyance, and even dis­
appointm ent in myself. T here are occasions when
som ething particularly intriguing m ight find its
wav into subsequent plans for teaching but unless
I take the step o f wa iting them down, such insights
tend to dissipate as the evening continues. This
chapter explores ways to help ensure that such
m om ents serve productive purposes.
PU RPO SES O F R E F L E C T IV E
T E A C H IN G
T h e purposes of reflective teach in g are th re e ­
fold: ( 1 ) to ex pand o n e ’s u n d e rsta n d in g of th e
teaching-learning process; (2 ) to e x p a n d o n e ’s
rep e rto ire o f strategic options as a language
teacher; and (3) to enhance the quality of learning
opportunities one is able to provide in language
classrooms. To these ends, those interested in
reflective teaching take steps to deepen awareness
of teaching and learning behaviors bv working to
improve their abilities to:
■ G ath er info rm atio n on w hatever is taking
place w ithin a language course
■ Exam ine such inform ation closelv in an
effort to better und erstan d what thev collect
■ Identify anything puzzling about the teaching­
learning process
■ Build awareness and d eepen understanding
of cu rren t teaching and learning behaviors
■ Locate and collaborate with others interested
in processes of reflective teaching
■ Pose and refine questions tied to one's teach­
ing that are worth furth er exploration
■ Locate resources th at mav help to clarify
w hatever questions are being posed
■ M ake in fo rm ed changes in teaching, even
if only m odest changes
■ D o c u m e n t changes in teaching-learning
behaviors a n d responses
■ C o n tinue such efforts over tim e a n d share
em erging insights with others
D E F IN IT IO N O FTER M S
Richards and Lockhart (1994) define reflective
teaching as an approach to second language (L2)
classroom in stru ctio n in w hich c u rre n t an d
prospective teachers “collect data about teaching,
exam ine their attitudes, beliefs, assumptions, and
teach in g practices, a n d use the inform ation
obtained as a basis for critical reflection” about
their efforts in language courses (p. 1). They posit
five basic assumptions:
■ An in fo rm e d te a c h e r has an extensive
know ledge base ab o u t teaching
■ M uch can be learned about teaching through
self-inquiry
■ Much o f what happens in teaching is un­
known to the teacher
■ T eaching ex perience alone is insufficient as
a basis for co n tin u in g developm ent
■ Critical reflection can trigger a deeper under­
standing o f teaching
Why would we spend the time and energy it
takes to develop understandings through reflec­
tive teaching? We т а л - find the answer by consid­
ering both our continuing needs as teachers and.
even m ore importantly, the needs of the language
learners we sen e. W hat the five assum ptions cited
above share is that reflective teachers are capable
of learning from , and furth er developing, their
personal understandings and explanations o f life
within language classrooms. A central reason to be
interested in reflective teaching “is to gain aware­
ness of our teaching beliefs and practices” and to
learn "to see teaching differently” (G ebhard and
O prandv 1999, p. 4). A rationale to support reflec­
tive teaching certainly includes such insights, but
it also extends bevoncl them . In addition to the
reasons cited thus far, an integral part of reflective-
teaching is to learn to take action, when possible,
on whatever we m ight be learning about ourselves
as teachers and about students' responses, for the
purpose of enhancing the quality' of learning
opportunities we are able to provide in our class­
rooms. For us as language teachers, taking action
m ight involve exploring instructional innovation'
trving out alternatives, and m odifying— or ever,
breaking— routines in teaching based upon what
we learn.
T O P IC S E X P LO R E D
BY R E F L E C T IV E T E A C H E R S
To exam ine some of the topics ty pically explorer,
bv reflective teachers, we first need to acknowl­
edge that each language course is unique. English
language teaching and language learning are
processes em bedded within com plex arrays o:
dvnamic and socially interactive events. Earls
stages of reflective teaching begin with a class­
room teacher's desire to better u n derstand the
dynamics of a single language course as it is being
experienced bv a group of learners and their
teacher. This is not to sat that reflective teaching
cannot extend beyond the scope of a single
course: at later stages it often does. But as a place
to begin, most teachers find an individual course
to be the m ost useful place to initiate what even­
tually becomes systematic efforts at reflective teach­
ing. Some general topic areas reflective te a c h e r'
often explore are: ( 1 ) com m unication patterns
in the classroom : (2 ) teach er decision m aking:
(3) ways in which learners apply knowledge; (4)
the affective clim ate of the classroom , (o) the
instructional environm ent; an d (6) a teacher's
self-assessment of grow th a n d developm ent as a
professional.
R e fle c tio n B r e a k #1
In a d d itio n to th e s e six g en era l areas, w h a t a re so m e
o t h e r areas yo u th in k re fle c tive te a c h e rs w h o w o r k in
E L T settings m ight p ro fita b ly e x p lo re ? A lte rn a tiv e ly , w h a t
m ight be s o m e specific e x am p les o f th e six areas listed
ab o ve?
Com m unication Patterns in the Classroom
Teachers who are in terested in pattern s of com ­
m u n ic a tio n in lan g u ag e classroom s often
explore classroom m an ag em en t issues such as.
W ho is d o in g w hat d u rin g lessons? As the
teacher, am I the sole source o f pow er and con­
trol? Do learners som etim es have an im pact on
what takes place? Classroom com m unication
patterns is one of the m ore com m on topics
explored bv reflective teachers. Most of us are
in terested in b e tte r u n d e rsta n d in g how com m u­
nications betw een evervone p resent in the class­
room mav in flu en ce tea c h in g a n d lea rn in g
processes. For exam ple, a teacher m ight exam ine
recurring features within the instructional rou­
tine to better understand students' learning pref­
erences. A teacher interested in com m unication
patterns m ight ask if lessons usuallv begin and
end in the sam e wav. With video support, it is
possible to divide a language lesson in to a series
of m anageable segm ents for analysis. M ultiple
viewing reveals how lessons begin (openings
which ten d to be broadlv focused), introductions
to specific activities (setting things up, giving
directions, clarifving, providing support for what
is to follow), core lesson segm ents (individual
activities th at ten d to reflect p re p la n n e d teach­
ing d ecisio n s), wavs in which the tea c h e r and the
class move from one activitv to a n o th e r (transi­
tions between lesson segm ents), how lesson seg­
ments are sequenced (pre-, core-, and post-activitv
phases), how students respond to teacher feed­
back, and the teacher's wav of draw ing a lesson to
a close (calling for atten tio n , assigning h o m e ­
work, preview ing upco m in g events). Most lan­
guage lessons fe a tu re id en tifiab le segm ents
strad d led by transitions from one segm ent to
another. An in terestin g way to increase u n d e r­
standing of c u rre n t wavs of teach in g is to g ath er
inform ation on how to n structure, pace, and
sequence lesson segm ents. By gen eratin g an
audio o r video recording of their teaching, for
exam ple, and then m oving betw een m acro- and
microlevel exam inations o f whole lessons, reflec­
tive teachers can begin to b e tte r u n d erstan d such
features. Close review of their ways o f teaching
leads m anv teachers to th en consider ways of
m anipulating lesson segments, an d some o f the
features e m b e d d e d with them , to increased
effect.
Lesson Participant Interactions A n o th e r h e lp ­
ful topic to explore is to exam ine m ore specific
p attern s o f learner-to-learner a n d teacher-to-
learn er(s) interactions in the classroom . W ho
speaks to whom , how often, in what sequence,
and for how long? How are speaking turns dis­
tributed? Is the teach er the only o n e who con­
trols th eir distribution? How are topics an d shifts
in topic developm ent introduced? W hat are
som e o f the ways in which learners take the floor
as speakers in the m idst of classroom co m m u n i­
cations? Are th ere learners who are relativelv
m ore or less participator} during particular lesson
phases? Do patterns of com m unication in the
classroom p ro \id e opportunities for learners to
take the initiative?
Teacher Decision Making This area for explo­
ration includes a vast, and as vet poorlv u n d e r­
stood. dim ension of language teaching. Acts of
language teaching spring from sources w ithin us
th a t in c lu d e o u r cognitive a n d e m o tio n a l
responses to external classroom events. Because
all o f us d e p e n d u p o n know ledge, values, and
beliefs about teach in g an d learn in g in o rd e r to
function as teachers in the classroom, ou r in ter­
nal understandings and expectations contribute
to o u r teach in g decisions a n d behaviors.
Specialists sketch an in trig u in g territo ry o f
teacher decision m aking which Richards and
Lockhart (1994) divide into pre-, during-, and
post-lesson decisions. In the case o f during-lesson
decisions, teachers have v en little tim e to follow
th ro u g h on what tliev decide to do since the
process unfolds in collaboration with — and in
front of— a group of learners. At such m om ents,
a teacher's decisions mac seem nearly instanta­
n eo u s alth o u g h thee are in fo rm ed bv the
teacher's background and precious experiences.
C om m unication pattern s in classrooms, les­
son particip an t interactions, and teach er deci­
sion m aking are just a few of the topics often
explored by reflective teachers. A more.- com plete
listing would include learning to identih and
explore:
я T he teacher's wavs ol giving insttactions,
resp o n d in g to students' errors, providing
feedback, using language, in tro d u cin g new
teaching strategies, enco u rag in g language
ttse bevond the classroom , identifying and
a tten d in g to learners' needs, w orking with
relu ctan t learners, resp o n d in g to students'
errors
■ L earn ers' wavs of requesting clarifications,
resp o n d in g to feedback, applying knowl­
edge, using language, in teractin g with their
peers, resp o n d in g to changes in teaching,
using learn in g strategies
■ Even m ore general topics such as the affec­
tive clim ate of the classroom , debilitative
and facilitative anxietv. cultural considera­
tions, the instructional environm ent, the
physical setup of the classroom , textbooks
a n d o th e r resources, stu d e n t-g e n e ra te d
m aterials, resources bevond the classroom
T he above list illustrates the kinds of topics that
all language teachers are interested in learn in g
m ore about but that reflective teachers take
d eliberate action to explore.
R e fle c t io n B r e a k # 2
G e n e r a t e a list o f to p ic s re la te d to y o u r o w n te a ch in g
th a t y o u th in k w o u ld be w o r t h le a rn in g m o re ab o u t.
S e e if y o u can c o m e up w ith a t least fo u r e x a m p le s n o t
m e n tio n e d in th e p re c e d in g se c tio n . O n c e y o u r list is
c o m p le te , c o m p a re it to th a t o f o n e o r m o r e o t h e r lan­
guage te a c h e r (s ). H o w m igh t y o u s e t a b o u t in crea sin g
y o u r u n d e rs ta n d in g o f a t least s o m e o f th e to p ic s o f
in te re s t t o yo u ?
T O O L S FO R R E F L E C T IV E
T E A C H IN G /G A T H E R IN G
IN FO RM A TIO N
Just as th ere are m anv topics to be ex p lo red bv
reflective teachers, there are also m anv different
wavs to g a th e r inform ation. I refer to wavs o f
g athering inform ation included in this section
as tools in a positive sense since these are the
"tools of the trade" that growing nu m b ers of
reflective teachers d e p e n d upon to explore the
teaching-learning process. Teachers use differ­
ent tools to access different sorts o f inform ation.
Bv com bining two or m ore tools over the span of
an entire1 course, a teacher gains access to alter­
native vantage points. T hough space lim itations
perm it onlv a lew tools to be featu red in this
chapter, fable 1 depicts a m ore com prehensive
listing of some of the m ajor tools reflective
tea c h e rs use. U nless otherw ise in d ic a te d ,
resources for learning m ore about them are
featu red in the "F u rth er R eading" section.
Expanding on Table 1. I discuss five tools that
should be especially useful to teachers interested
in becom ing m ore involved in processes and pro ­
cedures of reflective teaching. These tools are:
five-minute papers, formative teacher assessment
survevm student locus groups, retrospective field
notes, and formative feedback from peers.
FIV E -M IN U T E PAPERS
R egular use o f five-minute papers is a direct wav
o f finding out how learners are perceiving and
resp o n d in g to ou r efforts as teachers. A few
m inutes before the en d o f the lesson, the
teacher asks everyone to take out a sheet of
p ap er and to w rite responses to one or two open-
e n d e d prom pts such as: (1) W hat is the one
thing u iu are likelv to rem e m b e r from today's
class? : if i W hat was the m ost confusing concept
we covered? if) Is there anything vou would like
to know m ore about? (4) Is theta1 anything vou
think I should be doing differently? L earner
responses to such questions are especially useful
if the teach er em phasizes that th eir purpose is to
provide form ative feedback on how the course is
going. In m ain EEL courses teachers are able to
Table I. Some Tools of Reflective Teaching: Ways of Gathering Information

■ Formative feedback from learners

Five-minute papers
Teacher assessment surveys
Questionnaires
Dialogue journals
W ritten assessments
Student focus groups

■ Formative feedback from other teachers

Peer collaborations (Murphy 1992)
“Case” interviews
Field notes and classroom ethnographies
Dialogue with a supervisor (Master 1983)
Observation schedules
Score charts
Classroom observation (W ajnryb 1992)

■ Self-generated sources of information

Retrospective field notes
Teaching journals and teaching logs
Classroom diagrams and maps
Lesson plans and lesson reporting
Audio recordings
Video recordings
Transcript analysis
Protocol analysis
Stimulus recall

■ Course descriptions (Graves 2000; Murphy and Byrd in press)

■ Summative feedback from learners at the end of the course

■ Action research (See Bailey's chapter in this volume)

ask students to com pose five-minute papers in
English. In settings where it is possible, students
m ight he given the option of writing live-minute
papers in their first language(s). T hough five-
m inute papers take time awav from the regular
part of a lesson, using them at the end of class can
better inform a teacher's post-lesson decisions.
W ie n introducing them for the first time, 1
explain to students that:
■ T h eir nam es should not ap p e ar on their
papers (th eir writings will be kept in confi­
den ce).
■ W hen read in g the papers I will not be look­
ing at things like gram m ar, spelling, or
vocabularv choice but onlv for the ideas thev
convev.
As their teach er I will be reading for the
purpose o f im proving mv teaching in the
course and not to evaluate th eir progress.
Invariable. 1 find som ething of value in w hat stu­
dents have to say. I will occasionallv ask a col­
league to read the papers first, a n d th en discuss
with me th e gist o f s tu d e n ts ’ co m m en ts.
Involving som eone else is a small step toward
gaining access to an outside perspective on my
work. As well as providing an o p p o rtu n itv to talk
about im teaching with a n o th e r teacher, it helps
to ensure Г will be responsive to what students
have to sav. E xperience with five-minute papers
over the past fete w a rs lias taught m e th at a
te a c h e r’s sense of tim ing is essential since using
them can be overdone. If students are asked to
com pose them too often, thev lose interest an d
mav even begin to resent being asked to do so.
In courses that m eet two or th ree times a week,
I line! that once even' two or th ree weeks is often
en o u g h . U sing them wiselv a m serve as vivid
rem inders to students that th eir responses to the
course are valued a n d giv en serious attention.
FO RM ATIVE T E A C H E R
A SSESSM EN T SU RVEYS:
A c o m p le m e n t to five-m inute p a p e rs is to
schedule several survevs of students' perceptions
of how well the course is going. These m ight Lie
in clud ed in the course svllabus on the first clav
o f class so students will know from the start that
th e ir im pressions will be valued, when their
im pressions will lie solicited, a n d what the sur-
vcv will include. Som e advantages o f form ative
assessm ent survevs are that thev can be clearly
stru ctu red in advance, it is easv to keep students'
com m ents anonvm ous. a lot o f inform ation can
be g a th e red at one tim e, and the p ro ce d u re mav
be carried out at regular intervals. O ne option is
to im p lem en t such survevs th ree tim es durin g
th e span o f an entire course. For exam ple. I
work in an ESI. setting w here the len g th of
courses I teach is 13 weeks. I g a th e r form ative
assessm ent inform ation th ro u g h stu d e n t survevs
after the third, eighth, an d th irte e n th weeks of
class. A survev earlv in the course serves as a win­
dow into students' initial responses to the course.
Bv the eighth week their im pressions are even
b e tte r inform ed since learners are bevond the
m id p o in t an d have h ad am ple o p p o rtu n ities to
develop u n d e rsta n d in g s a n d im pressions o f
both the course an d mv role as th eir teacher.
These first two survevs are the ones that directlv
im pact on mv teaching decisions in the section
of the course students are taking. T h o u g h I also
find a stu d en t survev in the th irte e n th week to
be useful, at this p o in t the course is com ing to a
close and students' com m ents will have m ore of
an im pact on fu tu re iterations of the course.
W hen using form ative tea c h e r assessm ent
survevs. a practical strategy is to place at the verv
en d of the course sv llabus a copv of the first sur­
vev sheet to be collected. Bv positioning it at the
end. students onlv have to detach the first survev
sheet on the a p p ro p riate dav to com plete it an d
h a n d it in. I arrange the second survev sheet
(eighth week) as the second-to-last page in the svl­
labus. with the third one (th irteenth week) imme-
diatelv before the second. T he following is an
illustration of a formative teacher assessment
survev I recenth included in the svllabus for a
high-interm ediate level ESL Oral Com m unication
course I offer.

F o r m a t iv e F e e d b a c k (1 s t o f 3) t o th e In s t r u c t o r

P le a s e c o m p le te an d p la c e in a s ta c k o n t h e f r o n t d e s k a t th e e n d o f o u r 8 th day o f class,
W e d n e s d a y , S e p t e m b e r X X X . (A lte r n a t iv e ly , y o u a r e w e lc o m e to p la ce it in m y m a ilb o x in
th e m ain o ffic e .)

Directions: P le a s e d o n o t sign y o u r n a m e . W e a r e t h r e e weeks in to th e c o u rs e . T h is is a

tim e f o r s o m e fo r m a tiv e fe e d b a c k fr o m y o u as a c o u r s e p a rtic ip a n t. Yo u a r e w e lc o m e to
u se b o th sid es o f th is page.
Thanks.

I W h a t a r e s o m e fe a tu re s o f th e c o u r s e th a t y o u th in k a r e w o r k in g o u t p r e t t y w e ll
(fe a tu re s y o u w o u ld like t o s e e c o n tin u e d f o r th e r e m a in d e r o f th e c o u r s e )?

2. W h a t a r e s o m e p o s s ib le ch a n g e s y o u w o u ld like t o s e e in c o r p o r a t e d in to th e c o u r s e
fr o m th is p o in t f o r w a r d ?
A n o th er option is to follow sim ilar p ro ced u res
b u t to use a form at that involves less w riting by
providing a list o f items to w hich students can
resp o n d on an easilv accessible scale, such as:
Yes, I agree. I agree somewhat. No, I do not agree.
Illustrations of sam ple items to include are:
In general, the textbooks, m aterials, and assign­
m ents in this course: 1
■ are interesting an d useful
■ are at the right level
■ help m e to practice and im prove mv lan­
guage skills
■ require the right am ount of hom ew ork
In general, the teach er of this course:
■ presents w ell-organized lessons
■ speaks in a war that is clear a n d ease to
u n d erstan d
■ is knowledgeable about the subjects we cover
* answers mv questions well
* grades assignm ents and tests fairlv
■ m akes good use of class tim e
■ retu rn s work (that I h a n d in) on tim e
■ gives m e individual help w hen I n eed it (or
when I ask for it)
■ encourages me to do mv best
■ relates well to students
■ provides a p p ro p riate o p p o rtu n ities for m e
to participate in class
A final survev item m ight ask: I f you were in a con­
versation with a friend, would you recommend taking
a course from this teacher? II7tv or why not?
R e fle c t io n B r e a k # 3
H a v e y o u e v e r had an o p p o r t u n it y t o r e c e iv e le a r n e r
fe e d b a c k o n y o u r te a ch in g ? If so, w h a t did y o u le a rn
fr o m th e e x p e r ie n c e ? If n o t, d o y o u th in k su ch s o u r c e s
o f in fo rm a tio n m ig h t be u sefu l? W o u l d y o u e x p e c t th e
q u a lity o f le a r n e r fe e d b a c k t o v a r y d e p e n d in g u p o n
le a r n e r s ’ c u ltu r a l b a c k g ro u n d s ? If so, w h a t c o u ld yo u
d o t o c o m p e n s a te f o r c u ltu ra l d iffe re n ce s ?
S T U D E N T F O C U S G R O U PS
T he use o f stu d e n t focus groups is a simple т е л .
vet one und eru tilized in o u r field. It is m ore
inv olv ed than five-minute papers or stu d en t sur-
vev s and takes careful planning. Bevond the field
o f language teaching, focus groups are becom ing
increasinglv fam iliar in rnanv walks o f life, includ­
ing advertising and politics. In language teaching,
student focus groups engage eith er all m em bers
of a class or a subset o fle a rn e rs in a discussion of
how a course is going. T h ough eith er the class­
room teacher or a colleague-consultant may serve
as focus group discussion leader, I prefer asking a
colleague to perform this role. Som e options are
as follows. Make arrangem ents for a colleague
vou trust, and with whom vou have a constructive
working relationship, to serve as the focus group
facilitator. I deliberately avoid working with a
supervisor or program adm inistrator at such
times since student focus groups work best when
thev are not being used for form al evaluative p u r­
poses. I trv to tim e mv use o f the pro ced u re for a
p eriod in the course w hen things seem to be
going relativelv well (or at least norm ally). Invite
vour colleague to visit the class for a lesson during
which vou will n ot be present b ut for which stu­
dents have been p rep ared in advance. As agreed
u p o n with the class, your colleague’s role is
to lead the whole class in a discussion o f broad
topics such as:
■ How is the course going?
■ W hat do vou like ab o u t the course (or the
teacher)?
■ W hat are vour least favorite things?
■ D oes the course te x tb o o k — o r o th e r
instructional m aterial— seem helpful?
■ W hat are som e characteristics o f the
teacher’s instructional style that work well?
■ W hat are som e characteristics you find to
be less helpful?
■ Do assessm ent pro ced u res seem fair?
■ W hat are som e of the wavs in which the
course m ight be im proved?
T he facilitator could distribute a h a n d o u t listing
the above questions or he or she m ight use a copv
of the teacher assessment survev from the preced­
ing section. Students can then pick and choose
their preferred topics for discussion. Prior to the
dav of the locus group and at the start of the actual
discussion, students need to be assured that their
com m ents will be kept in confidence. The facilita­
to r’s role is to listen carefully and empatheticallv,
keep the discussion on track, and take notes
(when possible) on what students have to say.
W hen the class is finished, the facilitator
com poses a written rep o rt ( not to be used for for­
m al evaluation purposes) that provides a synopsis
for the teacher o f the students' suggestions for
the course. No nam es should appear in the
report; it needs to be phrased to protect students’
identities. O nce it is com pleted, the visiting col­
league gives the classroom teacher a copv and
m akes arrangem ents to discuss what took place.
A ven- effective situation for those interested
in student focus groups is to build toward a recip­
rocal p eer arran g em en t in which two teachers
may serve as the discussion facilitator for each
o th e r’s classes. Ideally, a m utually supportive col­
laboration evolves betw een teachers that could
develop over tim e. O n e m odification to the
focus groups is to avoid involving the whole
class, b u t to discuss the focus g roup process with
th em an d ask for onlv a few m em bers o f the class
(e.g., 20-25 percen t) to vo lu n teer to participate.
In this o p tion, students choose w h eth er to par­
ticipate. Manx language teachers find the kind
of inform ation revealed as a result of stu d en t
focus groups to be trem endously helpful for
fine-tuning th eir p lan n in g decisions an d increas­
ing awareness o f th eir strengths as well as areas
thex could im prove.
R E T R O S P E C T IV E FIELD N O TES
A less intrusive wav to gather inform ation on
teaching is to d o cu m en t vour understandings and
explanations o f w hat you are doing in the course
th ro u g h retrospective field notes. T he word retro­
spective signals that such field notes are n o t gener­
ated d u ring lessons b u t only after a lesson has
finished. Since acts of teaching are com plex and
keep teachers incredibly busy, a te a c h e r’s field
notes ideally should be g enerated im m ediately
following the lesson. T he idea is to find a private
place to write after the lesson is oxer. It takes
discipline to com pose retrospectixe field notes
on a regular basis a n d it is im p o rta n t to start xvrit-
ing soon after the en d of a class (for exam ple,
within 30-60 m inutes). If too m uch time elapses,
o u r m em ories of classroom exents quickly fade.
T he activity is sim ilar to keeping a personal jo u r­
nal or diarx, xvith the difference that retrospective
field notes focus on course-related events. To pro ­
duce them , the teacher writes about whatexer is
fresh in his o r h er inemoiv. G eneral guidelines are
to try to keep track of classroom issues that seem
relex’ant to the lesson recentlx- com pleted and to
treat field notes as an eth n o g rap h er treats raw
data. Rellectixe teachers using this procedure sax’e
their notes oxer time, rexiexv them on a regular
basis, and look for what their notes may reveal
about recurring patterns. After you have rexx’orked
xotir notes bx deleting or m odifying anything th at
m ight be personally uncom fortable, a colleague
m ight be inxited to read them an d discuss what­
ever concerns хеш about a course. R etrospecti\7e
field notes can becom e a xaluable source of
inform ation ab o u t o ne's un d erstan d in g s a n d a
richlv tex tu red reco rd o f o ne's explanations o f
teach in g oxer tim e. Som e general waxs to fram e
fieldnotes are to respond to questions about your­
self as a teacher, the teaching process, students in
the class, the learning process, or anything tied to
the dynamics of the lesson itself. A wav to get
started xvith retrospective field notes, a n d a use­
ful task to return to whenexer xou haxe too little
to write about, is to spend time generating a list of
questions xou m ight be able to use as xvriting
prom pts in the future.
| R e fle c tio n B r e a k # 4
C o lla b o r a t e w it h s o m e o n e e ls e (a pre- o r in - s e rvic e
te a c h e r ) t o p r o d u c e a list o f five to e ig h t q u e s tio n s
y o u c o u ld u se as p ro m p ts f o r c o m p o s in g r e t r o s p e c ­
tiv e field n o te s . Plan th e m so ea ch w r itin g p r o m p t
ta rg e ts d iffe re n t d im e n s io n s o f c la s s r o o m te a c h in g
and learning.
FO RM ATIVE FE E D B A C K
FROM PEERS
T h e re are m any ways in w hich a tea c h e r max’ col­
laborate with o thers to gain a d e e p er u n d e r­
standing a n d awareness o f the teaching-learning
process. I have previously m entioned that col­
leagues ntav be consulted w hen exam ining m ate­
rials such as five-minute papers, retrospective field
notes, or survey responses. A classic wav of gaining
access to formative feedback is to invite a p e e r—
that is, an o th er language teacher whose opinion
you respect— to visit one or m ore of vour classes.
For purposes of reflective teaching, such visits
should be planned to be different from the kinds
of observations carried out bv supervisors (see
M urphy 1992).
In setting up a p eer's non-supervisorv visit
to the classroom , it is im p o rta n t to discuss and
clarifv the visitor's purpose in advance. Am
potential visitor will have p reconceptions, atti­
tudes, an d beliefs about what constitutes legiti­
m ate purposes for visiting a n o th e r teacher's
class. Som e of these attitudes and belief s mav be
com patible with vour own. and others mav not
be. .Along with m am o th e r educators. Fanselow
(1988) points out that the prim ary purpose for
observing a n o th e r person teach is to gath er
descriptive inform ation on what takes place d u r­
ing the lesson. This purpose is crucially im p o r­
tant. A fterward, anv inform ation g ath ered may­
be e x a m in ed , analyzed, discussed, or even
ignored, but if som e sort o f record of what took
place is never p ro d u ced , m eaningful discussions
of teaching are less likelv. A starting p o in t to p re­
pare for a classroom visit from a p e e r is for both
parties to be aware o f the im p o rtan ce o f slaving
attentive, in terested in the lesson, a n d open-
m inded. T h o u g h som e visitors may be able to
g ath er useful inform ation bv m erely observing
what takes place, visitor's recollections are m ore
reliable an d ten d to be m ore helpful as starting
points for discussion once the lesson is over if
the visitor has written things down. W hen clari­
fying the purpose for a p e e r visit, 1 em phasize
mv interest in engaging in discussions of teach ­
ing that are tied to descriptive in form ation the
visitor is able to g ath er d u rin g the lesson.
Currently I am involved in a project that
includes interv iewing six pairs o f classroom teach­
ers who are in the process of developing relation­
ships as peer-visitors to each other's classrooms.
Mv purpose is to identify’ procedures that seem to
be working for these teachers. .All o f them have
been involved in reciprocal peer-observation of
teaching activities on m ultiple occasions. T he fol­
lowing is a synthesis of some of the recurring
them es the teachers have m entioned. T he ideas
and suggestions presented are n o t intended as
prescriptions for o th er teachers to follow. For one
thing, the n um ber o f teachers 1 am working with
is small and w hat we are learning about peer visits
to classrooms cannot necessarily be generalized to
o th er settings. However, mv work with these and
o th er teachers convinces me that it is possible to
develop reciprocally en ric h in g relationships
between teacher-colleagues for such purposes. A
wav to begin mav be to review the advice offered
below and to use it as a prom pt for discussing and
clarifying whatever vour own preferences m ight
be as either a ''visiting" or "visited” teacher. I begin
with com m ents from the perspective of a teacher
who is being visited by one o f his or h er peers.
This section is followed bv com m ents from the
perspective of a "visiting" teacher.
The “ Visited” Teacher
* T he [peer] teacher com ing to visit my class
and I alwavs set time aside to discuss the p u r­
pose for the classroom visit ahead of time.
■ A couple of classes p rio r to the clav of the
actual visit, 1 explain to students that som e­
one will be com ing to observe the class. If I
trv to explain it to the class once the visitor is
in the room , it’s too late. W henever I spring
things like this on students w ithout p rep ar­
ing them , thev act differently and the visitor
ends up not reallv seeing a norm al class.
■ W hen I ask a friend to visit mv class, I already
hav e a couple of things in m ind I would like
some feedback on. To m ake m ore efficient
use of our time. I prepare a list in advance of
w hat’s been puzzling me and then we discuss
each of the items together. D uring the initial
conversation, I often find that the visitor's
com m ents and questions help clarify what
some of mv concerns about the course m ight
be. Together we rearrange the list o f items in
what we eventually settle upon as their ord er
of priority to me.
■ D uring this initial conversation, we also
arrange a tim e to m eet in o rd er to discuss
the lesson afterw ard. I prefer to schedule
 ou r post-visit conversation for a couple of
days after live actual class. Even though the
visitor is a colleague whose opinions and
insights I respect, we both find that we n eed
tim e to be able to figure out what we want to
discuss. Experiences as b oth a “visiting” and
“visited” teacher have taught me that visitors
have m ore useful things to say if thev have a
couple of days to think over what took place
d u rin g the lesson. T h o u g h a few b rie f
exchanges sometim es are inevitable prior to
the time we have arranged in advance, I find
scheduled conversations to be m ore helpful.
W hen we get together, it is a time when both
o f us are better p rep ared to focus on what
we have learned from the experience.
■ I usually assum e, o r som etim es we will even
agree in advance, that mv colleague's co n ­
versation o p e n e r will be som ething verv
general that is in te n d e d to get m e talking
a b o u t w hat I rem e m b e r from the class. A
useful wav for o u r discussion to begin is if
my colleague savs som ething like, "Well,
w hat do you rem e m b e r from the lesson?"
O r “How do vou think it went?" In antici­
pation, I ttse the tim e betw een the lesson
visited a n d the dav of o u r follow-up conver­
sation to focus on w hat I rem em ber. I also
review the list of topics for discussion we
settled u p o n in advance a n d give careful
consideration to what I think the lesson
m ight have revealed about them .
■ T h o u g h I trv to be fo rthcom ing in response
to mv colleague's attem pts to get m e talk­
ing about the lesson, 1 am m ore in terested
in looking for o p p o rtu n ities to learn about
w hat the visitor noticed. I try to be p atien t
an d listen carefullv w henever mv collabora­
tor has som ething to say.
The “ Visiting” Teacher
■ W hen we talk in anticipation of the class­
room visit, I trv to figure o u t just w hat it is
my colleague would like m e to look for. It is
easier to sort things out if he o r she giv es m e
som e ideas for things to look for. Otherw ise,
I m ight end up resp o n d in g to som ething of
little practical value to the teacher.
■ I ask things such as w here in the room I
should trv to sit, w h ether or not the teacher
will be com fortable if 1 take notes, how long
I should stav, what I should do if small-
g ro u p activ ities are used, an d how I should
resp o n d if learners ask m e direct questions.
■ I p refe r it if students are aware of why I am
th ere b u t it's b e tte r if the teach er has m ade
mv purp o se clear to students p rio r to the
day of mv being in the classroom .
■ If mv colleague introduces me at the begin­
ning o f the class it's OK, though I am m ore
com fortable in mv role as the visitor if the
time spent introducing me is short and kept
low-kev. T he m ore attention called to me, the
less I am able to watch and observe what
would normallv be taking place during the
lesson. Icleallv, the teacher will have prepared
students ah ead of tim e so that a time-
consum ing explanation for whv I am there is
unnecessarv.
■ I am verv careful to arrive a few m inutes
before the class begins. Icleallv, I like to
arrive well before verv nranv o f the stu­
dents. If possible I find a seat at the back of
the room , off to one side, an d wait for
evervone else to arrive.
■ T hough o th er visitors mav find them useful.
I never bring electronic recording devices or
observation schedules with me. Since I am
going to be present in the classroom, I m ake
an effort to limit the m aterials I bring to the
kinds of things learners norm allv work with
during language lessons (such as a pen and
paper). I stav alert, observe carefullv, an d try
to take written notes as unobtrusively as
I can.
■ Since one o f mv purposes is to call as little
a tte n tio n to mvself as possible, I find wavs
to a p p e ar to be busv as students are e n te r­
ing the room . Mv p refe rre d strategy is to
have a book I reallv am in terested in read­
ing op en in front of m e. As students arrive
to class, what thev see if thev glance in mv
direction is som eone read in g a book. I
keep the book open and co n tin u e reading
(som etim es I am just p re te n d in g to read)
up until the start o f the class. Soon after the
lesson begins, I quietly close the book and
 p u t it aside. At this p o in t I find it easier to
watch, listen, an d g a th e r inform ation m ore
directly.
■ I find it essential to take notes on what I see
h a p p e n in g d u rin g the lesson. My notes mav
seem messv b u t I am trying to write down
dispassionate, non-judgm ental descriptions
of classroom events. If I notice that I am
writing down an opinion or suggestion, I
place brackets a ro u n d it to rem ind m e that
such com m ents are different from mv pri­
m ary purpose. Eventually, mv opinions and
suggestions mav end up being helpful as part
of o u r subsequent discussions but I need a
way to keep these separate and clearlv identi­
fied for purposes of later review.
■ T h o u g h taking notes is im p o rtan t, com pli­
cations som etim es arise. If I notice that
som e students are paving an in o rd in ate
d eg ree of a tten tio n to what I am doing. I
suspend taking notes an d sim ple watch and
listen. I can alwavs resum e it later in the les­
son. If for som e reason notetak in g is im pos­
sible, once the class is over I find a quiet
place to begin writing down mv m em ories
of the lesson as well as I can.
■ Som etim es students address m e directiv.
W hen thev do, I resp o n d to what thev sav
while trying to be as b rie f as possible.
■ Occasionally, the teacher will ask me to
participate in some sort of an activity with
students. I follow the teacher's cue and
becom e p art o f the activity while keeping
mv eve on the process o f what is happening.
■ A few hours after the lesson is oxer, o r the
next clax; I spend ab o u t an h o u r reviewing
mv notes, elaborating xvlrat they include,
an d relating what seem to be im p o rtan t
pieces of inform ation to the them es the
'visited" tea c h e r an d I agreed u p o n as
possible topics for discussion. I also create a
list of som e additional ideas a n d points I
w ould like to discuss with the teacher.
■ W hen we h a te a chance to discuss the
lesson, I locus on what took place, what the
teacher and students were doing, things I
m ight have learned, and any personal beliefs
a b o u t th e teach in g -learn in g process I
noticed being reinforced, fu rth er extended,
o r challenged. I prioritize th e item s for dis­
cussion we agreed u p o n in adxance. 1 also
look for o p p o rtu n ities to relate the class I
visited to my own experiences in teaching.
In this p art of the discussion I often find
myself saxing things stich as, “W hen you
were doing X, Y, o r Z as p a rt of the lesson,
it rem in d ed m e o f things th a t I do, to o .”
C om m ents th at rexeal connections to my
own teaching are im p o rta n t since they help
tis build collaboratixe discussions relex’an t
to b o th of o u r experiences.
R e fle c tio n B r e a k # 5
D e sig n a list o f su g g e stio n s and g u id e lin e s y o u w o u ld
like t o f o llo w in o r d e r to c o lla b o r a t e w it h a n o th e r
language t e a c h e r in w a y s sim ila r to th o s e d isc u sse d in
th is s e c tio n . In c lu d e g u id e lin e s f o r b o th a “ v is ite d ” and
a "v is itin g ” te a c h e r. A r e t h e r e an y to p ic s m e n tio n e d
a b o v e th a t w o u ld not be o f p a r tic u la r c o n c e r n t o y o u ?
A r e t h e r e an y to p ic s le ft u n m e n tio n e d th a t y o u w o u ld
like t o se e given m o r e a tte n tio n ?
T W O U N D E R LY IN G C O N C E R N S
Now that we haxe exam ined some topics and
tools, it is im portant to acknowledge two funda­
m ental challenges facing those in terested in
processes o f reflective teaching: the search for
m ultiple perspectixes. and the question of learn er
inxolvement.
The Search for Multiple Perspectives
To becom e m ore inxolved in processes of reflec­
tive teaching, a language teacher needs to ask,
How can I begin to see an d exam ine mv class­
room efforts so that others m ight be able to see
and exam ine them ? Access to m ultiple perspec­
tixes m akes it m ore like lx that we will attain
d e e p e r u n d e rsta n d in g o f o u r work. T he search
for m ultiple perspectives relates to two essential
stages o f reflective teaching: g a th e rin g inform a­
tion (the data collection stage) a n d m aking
sense of w hat we find (the in te rp re ta tio n stage).
In the first stage, reflectixe teachers find
waxs of g a th erin g inform ation on teaching and
lea rn in g that include outsider perspectixes. As a
result of o u r im m ersion w ithin the process of
language teaching, we are often too close to rec­
ognize o u r strengths a n d weaknesses. Bv way of
illustration, most o f us are som ew hat surprised
the first tim e we view a video reco rd in g o f o u r
teaching. In response to a video recording, we
m ight notice ourselves th inking such things as:
“O h, mv voice sounds terrible! T h a t’s n o t what I
sou n d like." "Is th at w hat I really look like?”
“Why am I walking aro u n d so m uch (or so little)?”
“No w onder students are having trouble following
my directions; I really wasn’t very clear.” A video
recording of teaching-in-action brings to the fore
evidence of how others ntav view us. Recordings
som etim es surprise us because thev are serving as
an estrangement device. An estrangem ent device is
anv tool we m ight use to gain an o u tsider’s per­
spective on what we mav be doing in the class­
room . A nthropologists refer to such a vantage
p o in t as an etic perspective (an o u tsider’s view).
To com plem ent the inclusion o f etic p er­
spectives within the reflective teaching process, it
is useful to gather inform ation from course par­
ticipants as well. Because learners are participants
in the process, their vantage points represent emic
perspectives. Just as an anthropologist m ight
search for wavs to learn about the perceptions
and understandings of the m em bers of an o th er
culture, reflective teachers d e p e n d u p o n learn­
ers’ perceptions and understandings. Freem an
(1998) explains the im portance of the search for
m ultiple perspectives succinctly: etic perspectives
provide us with inform ation on "what outsiders
see” while emic perspectives provide inform ation
------------------------------------------------------
etic
outsider’s view
participant understandings
what outsiders see
teacher-peers’ and colleagues’ perceptions
F ig u re I. C o n t in u u m o f V a n ta g e P o in ts f o r E it h e r th e C o lle c t io n o r In t e r p r e t a tio n o f In fo rm a tio n o n T e a ch in g - L e a rn in g
Pro cesses
on “what insiders know" (p. 70). Figure 1 sum m a­
rizes etic versus emic distinctions that we can
apply to either the collection or exam ination of
classroom inform ation.
T he need for m ultiple perspectives chal­
lenges reflective teachers to find wavs of gathering
inform ation on teaching-learning processes not
only through their own perceptions and under­
standings, but also through those of learners who
are participating in the course, and through col­
leagues’ perceptions.
The Question of Learner Involvement
In co n n ectio n with emic perspectives, a second
set of questions for reflective teachers to ask is.
Do I want to involve learners in mv efforts as a
reflective teacher, and if so, to what degree?
T h ere are m any wavs to collect inform ation
about what goes on within courses we teach. A
distinction we can m ake is betw een wavs th at are
"less intrusive” as o pposed to those th at are rela­
tively "m ore intrusive" with respect to their
potential im pacts on learners' classroom experi­
ences. Less intrusive m eans of gath erin g infor­
m ation d e p e n d upon little o r no involvem ent
from learners. Teachers in terested in less in tru ­
sive m eans do th eir best to avoid direct im pact
on inside-the-classroom events. For instance, a
teach er m ight gath er inform ation ab o u t teach­
ing on a clailv basis b ut onlv after the com pletion
o f individual lessons. To do so, som e teacher-
keep private teaching journals o f which learner-
rem ain unaw are. O th e r noil-intrusive options
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------- ►
emic
insider’s view
consultant understandings
what insiders know
classroom teacher’s and learners’ perceptions
are, after a lesson has en d ed , to com pose field
notes of what h a p p e n e d inside the classroom
only, o r to look back on co m p leted lessons
th ro u g h o th e r retrospective p ro ced u res such as
“lesson reporting." (A lesson re p o rt is sim ilar to
a lesson plan but with the following twist: lesson
reports are g e n e ra te d following, n o t preceding,
a lesson. By com posing, saving, an d reviewing
them over tim e, a teacher is able to pro d u ce a
substantive record o f teaching that can be shared
and discussed with others. ) T hrough adoption of
such nonintrusive procedures it is possible for
teachers to gain considerable inform ation about
the teaching process without involving learners.
Even with less intrusive procedures, reflec­
tive teachers are able to incorporate m ultiple
perspectives into their efforts bv inciting col­
leagues whose opinions thev respect to review
an d discuss whatever inform ation the teacher is
able to gath er from the classroom . Two o r m ore
teachers m ight collaborate to review a video or
audio reco rd in g of teaching, transcripts o f lesson
segm ents, jo u rn al entries, samples of student
work, or students' responses to a survev ques­
tionnaire on how the course is going. Some of
these options feature learn er participation to
som e degree. A teacher m ight, for exam ple,
arrange for a lesson to be videotaped for later
review. If a video cam era is in the room , the
teacher has already taken a step in the direction
of invoicing learners. T he presence o f am record­
ing decice in a classroom inevitable has some
im pact on lesson events. O f course, as a classroom
teacher, vou can lessen such impacts by taking
steps ahead o f time to familiarize students with
w hatever m ight be the pro ced u re you w ould like
to follow. You can: (1) discuss what you are plan­
ning to do, (2) ask for learners' perm issions, (3)
take time at an earlier point in the course to in tro ­
duce whatever the pro ced u re or recording device
m ight be, a n d /o r (4) include it as a part of nor­
mal classroom routine. In the exam ple of video
cam eras, som e suggestions are to work with as
small a cam era as possible, position it in the back
o f the ro o m — o r at least out of students' direct
lines of vision— a n d involve one o r m ore m em ­
bers o f the class in its operation. T h ere are m any
approaches to second language instruction that
already feature recording devices as a standard
p art o f the teaching routine. In such classrooms,
learners may perceive a tea c h e r’s use o f recording
equ ip m en t as perfectly norm al a n d p a rt o f what
they have already com e to anticipate from the
course. T he p oint is to be aware o f the potential
im pacts o f such p ro c e d u re s a n d to m ake
inform ed decisions on what you, your colleagues,
a n d your stu d en ts m ig h t co n sid er to be
(tin)acceptable levels of learn er involvem ent in
reflective teaching procedures.
Table 2 provides a synopsis of several issues
discussed in this section bv featuring a m atrix of
two intersecting continua for gathering inform a­
tion on teaching.
T h ough far from a com prehensive list of
options and possibilities explored by reflective
teachers, Table 2 is in ten d ed to provide a svnopsis
of this chapter: procedures in quadrant A com ­
bine outsiders' perspectives with relatively m ore
intrusive m eans o f gathering inform ation on
teaching. Quadrant D is ju st the opposite, since
these pro ced u res tap into insiders’ perspectives
th ro u g h som ew hat less intrusive m eans.
Quadrant В is w eighted tow ard outsider perspec­
tives th ro u g h less intrusive m eans. W ith the p ro ­
cedures in quadrant C, the te a c h e r involves
course participants in sharing w hat they think
about the course in ways th at may im pact stu­
d en ts' learn in g experiences to varying degrees.
Anvone in terested in learn in g m ore ab o u t the
processes a n d pro ced u res o f reflective teaching
mav refer to Table 2 as a re m in d e r o f its possi­
bilities. Teachers m ight set as a professional
developm ent goal exploring o n e or m ore o f the
options listed in each of its fo u r quadrants. As we
co n tin u e to learn m ore ab o u t these a n d o th e r
pathwavs to reflective teaching, as well as the
particu lar topics we w ould like to explore w ithin
the language courses we teach, this c h a p te r can
rem in d us o f the rew ards o f self-discoverv, the
im p o rtan ce of m ultiple perspectives, a n d the
potentiallv facilitating im pacts o f le a rn e rs’ an d
colleagues' co n tributions to o u r efforts.2
Table 2. Two-way Matrix for Gathering Information
More Intrusive
(A)
* videotaping (video + audio)
* video- (or audio-) taping for the first time
E * large, bulky video camera at the front of
the room
j * learners participate in analyzing video recordings
of lessons during class time
I * trained observer inside the classroom
* in-class observer is someone unknown to learners
* in-class observer takes notes or completes
an observation schedule live in the classroom
* a supervisor gathers information on teaching
for formal assessment-of-teaching purposes
(C)
* students compose journals in which they discuss
their experiences as learners in the course
and how they perceive the course
* teacher conducts student focus groups
* frequent student interviews
E * whole class, inside-the-classroom discussions
of learners’ perceptions and preferences while
M the course is in process
* student focus group with whole class participating
| * teacher serves as focus group facilitator
* students complete several instructor assessment
q forms at different points in the course (formative)
* five-minute papers, frequent and on a regular basis
* stimulated recall while the course is in process
* teacher and learners collaborate to gather
information on the teaching-learning
process together
D IS C U S S IO N Q U E S T IO N S
1. Im agine y o u h a te reached the m id p o in t
o f a course in which t on have been consci­
entious in Irving to be an effective teacher.
N evertheless, von notice th at m anv of the
students seem disinterested in the course.
How could y o u find o u t w hat som e o f the
problem s m ight be?
L e ss In tru s iv e
(B)
* a u d io ta p in g (o n ly )
* v id e o - ( o r au d io - ) ta p in g f o r th e fifth tim e
* c a m e r a is sm all o r o u t o f sigh t
* le a rn e rs p a r tic ip a t e in a n a lyzin g v id e o re c o rd in g s
o f le sso n s o n ly a f te r a c o u r s e has e n d e d
* tra in e d o b s e r v e r w a tc h e s v id e o re c o rd in g o f lesson
* in-class o b s e r v e r is s o m e o n e le a r n e r s k n o w
an d a re c o m f o r t a b le w ith
* in-class o b s e r v e r w a t c h e s an d listen s, tr ie s
t o b le n d in to th e b a c k g ro u n d , c o m p o s e s
field n o te s o n ly a f t e r th e le s so n has e n d e d
* t e a c h e r g a th e rs in fo rm a tio n o n te a c h in g th ro u g h
self-initiated c o lla b o ra tio n s w it h p eers/co lle a g u e s
(D)
* t e a c h e r k e e p s a d ia r y o r p e rs o n a l jo u rn a l
* t e a c h e r en gag es in le s so n re p o r tin g
* a th ird p a r ty c o n d u c ts s tu d e n t fo c u s g ro u p s
in w h ic h le a r n e r s ’ c o m m e n ts a re k e p t a n o n y m o u s
* in fre q u e n t s t u d e n t in t e r v ie w s
* ou tsid e-o f-class d isc u ssio n s w it h in d ivid u al le a rn e rs
o f t h e ir p e r c e p t io n s an d p re f e re n c e s w h ile
t h e c o u r s e is in p ro c e s s
* s t u d e n t fo c u s g ro u p w it h o n ly s o m e class
m e m b e rs p a rtic ip a tin g
* te a c h e r- c o lle a g u e s e r v e s as fo c u s g ro u p fa c ilita to r
* s tu d e n ts c o m p le t e a single e n d - o f- te rm in s t r u c t o r
a s s e s s m e n t fo r m (s u m m a tiv e )
* tr a n s c r ip ts g e n e ra te d f o r d is c o u rs e an alysis
o f le s so n e v e n ts
* s tim u la te d re ca ll o n ly a f te r th e c o u r s e is o v e r
* te a c h e r g a th e rs in fo rm a tio n o n te a ch in g w h ile
w o rk in g a lo n e [m a y c o lla b o ra te w it h c o lle a g u e (s )]
2. You are te a c h in g an in term ed iate-lev el
course focused on e n h a n cin g oral com m u­
nication abilities in an E nglish-dom inant
part o f the world. T he twen tv-five student-
in th e course com e from A fghanistan.
China. Colom bia, Ivors Coast, Ja p an , Korea.
M exico, Russia, and Turkey. C om pared to
o th e r m em bers o f the class, s ou notice that a
m ajoritv o f the Asian students seem s e n
 reluctant to participate in class. W hat could
vou do to explore whv this is so? How could
y o u get them to be m ore involved?
3. You are teaching several sections of an ESI.
course housed within a continuing education
program located in a m ajor cite in an English-
dom inant part of the world. T he entrv-level
course vou offer is designed for recent im m i­
grants. Over the past several Years vou have
com e to realize that students mainlv use their
first languages outside the classroom. A com ­
plication is that the cite encom passes manv
eth n ic n e ig h b o rh o o d s th at provide ease
access to a significant n u m b er o f com m unitv
services and businesses in the languages rep­
resented by the m em bers of the class. Since
students have dem onstrated their reluctance,
what can y o u do to encourage students to
applv what thev tire stitching in the course to
their life experiences outside the classroom?
4. You have been h ired bv a huge a n d well-
organized language program which places
significant em phasis on the role and im p o r­
tance o f form al evaluations o f teaching.
W hile interview ing for th e position, the
search com m ittee m ade clear that the p li­
m a n - p u rp o se fo r supervisory classroom
observation is qualitv control with respect to
teaching. All teachers in the program are
observed two to th ree times p e r term bv a
train ed supervisor who is one of several
“m aster teachers" on the facultv. You fortu-
natelv feel confident as a classroom teacher
an d vour b ack ground is verv com patible with
the p rogram 's instructional focus. However,
in addition to the kind of feedback super­
visors mav be able to provide, you are in te r­
ested in learn in g m ore ab o u t vour teaching
th ro u g h self-initiated m eans. Discuss with a
p a rtn e r som e o th e r things you m ight do to
learn m ore about vour teaching from both
"otic” an d "cmic" perspectives.
5. You are teaching EFI. in a secondare school
setting in a non-English-dom inant p art of the
world (vou mav substitute some o th er ELT
setting d e p e n d in g u p o n w hatever learner
population and settings are most fam iliar to
vou). You are verv excited about a series of
new teaching procedures vou are testing out
in the classroom. How can vou do cu m en t that
constructive changes are taking place in the
course as vou are offering it? W ho could vou
involve and what specificallv w ould you want
them to do?
S U G G E S T E D A C T IV IT IE S
1. Make arrangem ents to consult two o r m ore
practicing language teachers. Ask if thev have
ever h eard o f traditions such as reflective or
exploratorv teaching. (Be aware that some
teachers use different term s and phrases for
similar concepts.) Try to discover if thev- have
ever been involved in such efforts. If thev
have, gather as m uch inform ation as you can
on how their efforts have m ade a difference
in their teaching. If thev have not, try to find
out what m ight be some o f the o th er things
thev do to grow and develop as language
teachers.
2. Make arrangem ents to m eet with a classroom
teacher im m ediately following (or soon after)
a lesson he or she has just taught. Try to
arrange a time when the two o f you may work
u n in te rru p ted for at least 30 m inutes. O nce
together, interview the teacher on what the
lesson was like. Begin by asking open-ended
prom pts such as, W hat were you p lan n in g to
teach? How did things tu rn out? Was th ere
anvthing unexpected that happened? W ere
there anv complications? an d so forth. As
long as the teacher vou observed consents in
adv ance, consider tape-recording the interac­
tion for later review. If vou are serving as a
classroom teacher, follow similar procedures
while collaborating with som eone else who is
willing to interview vou.
3. Im agine vou are interested in producing a
video recording o f som eone else’s class in a
language program with which vou are familiar.
How would vou secure the teacher's perm is­
sion? How would vou approach him or her?
W hat w ould you say? How w ould vou p u t the
tea c h e r at ease? For this task you do n o t have
to follow th ro u g h with actually p ro d u cin g
such a recording. Your charge is to g en erate
guidelines for doing so if you ever have an
 o p p o rtu n ity in the future. W hat are likely to
be som e of the classroom te a c h e r’s a n d
le a rn e rs’ concerns? How w ould vou address
them ? How w ould you suggest th at learners
be prep ared ? W hat are som e of the steps you
w ould follow on the day of the recording?
W hat w ould you do with the reco rd in g once
it was com pleted?
4. For this actiyity you n eed to place yourself in
the position of a language learner. If you had
a language teacher who was interested in
reflectiye teaching, how would vou want the
teacher to inyolye you in such efforts?. After
referring back to Table 2, m ake a list of the
kinds o f things you would be willing to do.
Also, think of a specific language class you
eith er are teaching now or some o th er course
in which you were once a language learner.
From the perspective o f a learn er in that
course, what would be some of the topics vou
think would be worthy ones for the teacher to
explore? As a learn er in the class, what contri­
butions would vou be willing to make?
FU R T H ER R EA D IN G
The following are arranged in a recommended order
for reading. The first two focus specifically on the tra­
dition of reflective teaching. Each of the remaining
three texts provides invaluable support for reflective
teaching but also extends bevond this tradition by
encouraging classroom language teachers to become
explorers and researchers in their own classrooms.
Richards, J. C., and C. Lockhart. 1994. Reflective
Teaching in Second Language Classrooms. New
York: Cambridge University Press.
Certainly the most accessible, and probably the
best, introduction to reflective teaching in the
field of ELT.
Gebhard, }., and R. Oprandy. 1999. Language Teaching
Awareness: .4 Guide to Exploring Beliefs and
Practices. New York: Cambridge University Press.
An excellent resource for those interested in
learning more about reflective teaching. The
co-authors locus on building awareness of
teaching through sell-initiated means and help
teachers to become more aware of their own
teaching beliefs, attitudes, and practices.
Nunan, E). 1989b. L'nderstanding Language Classrooms:
A Guide for Teacher-initialed Action. Englewood
Cliffs, \ | : Prentice Hall.
One of the earliest introductions to exploratory
teaching, action research, and what we now call
reflective teaching in the field of EIT. Provides
an impressive survey of topics and tools that
continues to be of interest to reflective teachers.
Also serves as an accessible introduction to lan­
guage classroom research for those who do not
have specialist training in research methods.
Allwright. D.. and K. Bailee 1991. Focus on the Language
Classroom: An Introduction to Classroom Research
for Language Teachers. New York: Cambridge
University Press.
The authors define the aims and principles
of classroom research and are especially inform­
ative in their reviews of data collection and
analysis procedures, how to gel started, what to
investigate, quantitative versus qualitative issues,
and research findings. The two chapters devoted
to affective considerations (titled "receptivity’')
are especially valuable.
Freeman. D. 1998. Doing Teacher Research: From Inquin
to L'nderstanding. New York: Heinle & Heinle.
Similar to the purpose and scope of Nunan
(1989b) and Allwright and Bailev (1991), this
more recent book encompasses but also pushes
bevond contemporary developments in reflec­
tive teaching bv focusing on the intersection of
teaching and research in our field.
ENDNO TES
1 The items presented here are adapted from an
unpublished "Student Formative Assessment ot
Instructor" form developed in Georgia State
University's Intensive English program bv Sharon
Cavusgil and Alan Forsvth in 1999.
- I would like to acknowledge the invaluable contri­
butions of Patricia Byrd and Barbara Hegyesi as
this chapter's preliminary readers. Anv remaining
shortcomings are mv own.
 Second Language Assessment1
ANDREW D. C O H E N
In '“Second i_anguage Assessment." Cohen considers key issues in the construction of assessment
instruments. Beginning with a theoretical framework for types of instruments and types of items, he
gives guidelines for reviewing or constructing tests, as well as giving insights into the types of items
possible. Approaches to testing reading comprehension are provided, with sample approaches to
other skills included in an appendix.
IN T R O D U C T IO N
Assessment is perhaps one of the least understood
areas of language teaching and learning. Students
and teachers alike cringe when they hear the word
“testing.” Students see tests as a threat to their
com petence, because thev are afraid that thee will
not perform well. Teachers often do not like to
construct tests, and are not altogether satisfied
with the results when thev do. Thev are also suspi­
cious of the standardized, professionally designed
tests because thev are not always sure what these
tests are actually timing to m easure.
In a survey o f EFL teachers a n d students in
Israeli public schools, Shoham v (198b) fo u n d a
variety o f misuses of tests, of which the following
are just a sam pling:
■ tests were used as p unishm ent— e.g., because
no one did the homework.
■ tests were adm in istered instead o f tea c h e rs’
giving instruction.
■ the tests were the onlv m easure for grading.
■ tests did not reflect w hat was taught.
■ the tests were retu rn ed with a lack of correc­
tions or explanations.
■ the tests reflected only one testing m ethod.
■ there was a lack of teacher confidence in
their own tests.
■ students were n ot adequately train ed to
take the tests.
■ th ere was a substantial clelav in retu rn in g
the tests.
.Although the survey was co nducted some
years ago and in an EFL, ra th e r than an ESL con­
text, m am o f the points ring true for cu rren t L2
classrooms all over the world. Given the above list,
it is no w onder that both students and teachers
are suspicious o f tests. Fortunately, in recent years
there has been a grotring interest in im proving
the situation. For exam ple, two recently published
volumes are geared toward dem onstrating how
language assessment can be aligned m ore closely
with authentic, real-world tasks; one is devoted to
new ways of classroom assessment with testim oni­
als from scores of practicing teachers (Brown
1998) and another focuses exclusively on language
perform ance assessments (Norris e ta l. 1998).
A m ore constructive view o f language test­
ing exists w hen (a) testing is seen as an o p p o r­
tunity for in te ra c tio n b etw een te a c h e r and
student, (b) students are judged on the basis of
the know ledge they have, (c) th e tests are
in te n d e d to help students im prove th eir skills,
(cl) the criteria for success on the test are clear
to students, (e) students receive a grade for th eir
p erfo rm an ce on a set o f tests rep re sen tin g dif­
fere n t testing m ethods (not ju st o n e ), (f) the
test takers are train ed in how to take tests—
especially those involving unfam iliar form ats,
(g) the tests are re tu rn e d prom ptly, an d (h) the
results are discussed (Shoham v 1985). In a
recen t volum e on the pow er o f tests, Shoham v
(2000) proposes critical agendas for dem ocratiz­
ing an d lim iting the pow er of tests and protecting
the rights of test takers.
 This c h a p te r will consider som e kev issues
in the c o n stru c tio n o f language assessm ent
instrum ents. It is in te n d e d to b e tte r equip the
E S I./ EFL teach er b o th to u n d e rsta n d an d scru­
tinize tests p re p a re d by others an d to design
th eir own m eans o f assessm ent such th at they
a n d th eir students will be satisfied. B eginning
with a theoretical fram ew ork for types o f lan­
guage assessm ent in stru m e n ts a n d types o f
item s, this c h a p te r should help teachers d e te r­
m ine ju st what kind o f test they are constructing
o r reyiewing, as well as give them insights into
the types of item s th at are inyolyed. W hat follows
n ex t is a discussion of approaches to testing
read in g co m p reh en sio n , as illustratiye o f the fac­
tors to be considered in assessing ant o f the lan­
guage skills. A discussion o f ap p ro ach es to
testing the o th e r skills — listening, speaking, and
w riting— is given in the ap p en d ix to this chap­
ter. T h e c h a p te r concludes with a discussion of
test construction issues an d test-taking strategies.
T H E O R E T IC A L FO U N D A T IO N S
Types o f Language Assessment
Instruments
In ord er to properly construct an assessment
instrum ent, it is helpful to h a te some explicit
notion o f what is being m easured and how it
m ight be labeled. An elaborate way to describe
language assessment instrum ents is according to
their prim ary function— that is, for adm inistra­
tive, instructional, or research purposes (Jacobs et
al. 1981). In fact, the same test could conceivably
be used for twelve different purposes: five adm in­
istrative purposes (assessment, placem ent, exem p­
tion, certification, prom otion), lour instructional
purposes (diagnosis, evidence of progress, feed­
back to the respondent, evaluation of teaching or
curriculum ), and three research purposes (evalu­
ation, experim entation, knowledge about lan­
guage learning and language use). T he average
test is not in tended to be used for m ore than sev­
eral purposes, and the m ajor split is often between
proficiency tests in tended for administrative pu r­
poses and achievement tests for assessm ent of
instructional outcom es.
A distinction in testing is m ade betw een
norm-referenced an d criterion-referenced assessment as
well. A test can be used, for exam ple, to com pare
a resp o n d e n t with o th e r respondents, w h ether
locally (e.g., in a class), regionally, o r nationally.
Classroom , regional, or national n o rm s2 m at' be
established to in te rp re t just how one stu d en t
com pares with another. A test can also be used to
see w h e th e r a re s p o n d e n t has m et certain
instructional objectives o r criteria, h en ce the
term “criterion-referenced" assessment.
T he sem inal efforts bv Canale a n d Swain
(1980), an d Canale (1983b) to operationalize
H em es' (1972) communicative competence has p ro ­
vided a n o th e r set o f criteria for describing tests.
Tests are seen as tap p in g one o r m ore o f the four
co m p o n en ts m aking up the construct o f com ­
m unicative co m p eten ce — namelv, gram m atical,
discourse, sociolinguistic, and strategic com pe­
ten c e . Grammatical competence encom passes
"knowledge o f lexical items a n d of rules o f m o r­
phology, syntax, sentence-gram m ar sem antics,
an d phonology" (Canale an d Swain 1980, p. 29).
Discourse competence is the ability to c o n n e ct sen­
tences in stretches of discourse an d to form a
m eaningful whole out of a series of utterances.
Sociolinguistic competence involves know ledge of
the sociocultural rules of lan g u ag e.3 Strategii
competence refers to "the verbal an d nonverbal
com m unication strategies that mav be called
into action to com pensate for breakdow ns in
com m unication due to p erfo rm an ce variables or
chie to insufficient co m p e ten c e ” (ibid., p. 30).
W hile C anale an d Swain’s strategic compe­
tence p u t the em phasis on "com pensatory” strate­
gies, that is, strategies used to com pensate or
rem ed iate for a lack in som e language area, the
term has com e to take on a b ro a d e r m eaning
B achm an (1990) has b roken down strategic com­
petence into th re e com ponents: an assessment
co m p o n e n t w herebv the resp o n d en ts set com ­
m unicative goals, a planning co m ponent whereb'.
the respondents retrieve the relevant items front
language ability- an d plan their use, and an exe­
cution c o m p o n e n t whereby the re s p o n d e n t'
im plem ent the plan.
Classifying an Item
Tests usually consist o f a series of item s. An item
is a specific task to perfo rm , a n d can assess one
o r m ore points o r objectives. For exam ple, an
item may test one point, such as the m eaning of
a given vocabulary word, or several points, such
as an item which tests the ability to obtain facts
from a passage an d th en m ake inferences based
on those facts. Likewise, a given objective mav be
tested by a series of items. For exam ple, there
could be five item s all testing one gram m atical
point, say, tag questions. Item s o f a sim ilar kind
mav also be g ro u p ed to g eth e r to form subtests
w ithin a given test.
The Skill Tested
T he language skills that we test include listening
an d reading, the m ore receptive skills, and speak­
ing an d writing, the m ore productive skills.
Nonverbal skills can be both receptive (e.g., inter­
preting som eone else's gestures) and productive
(m aking one's own gestures).
The Nature of the Item
Item s can be m ore discrete o r m ore integrative
in n a tu re , just as thev can be m ore objective or
subjective. A com pletely discrete-p o in t item
w ould test simpiv one point o r objective, while
an integrative item w ould test m ore th an one
p o in t o r objective at a tim e. Som etim es an in te ­
grative item is reallv m ore a p ro ce d u re th an an
item , as in the case o f a free com position which
could test a n u m b er of objectives.
The objectivity of an item refers to the wav it
is scored. A multiple-choice item, for example, is
objective in that there is usually only one right
answer. A free composition mav be m ore subjective
in nature if the scorer is not looking for any one
right answer, but rather for evidence of a series of
features, including, sav, creativity, style, cohesion
and coherence, grammar, and mechanics.
The Intellectual Operation Required
Items mav call for different levels of intellectual
effort (Valette 1969, after Bloom, ed. 1956). Thev
can test for the following intellectual levels:
(a) knowledge retrieval (bringing to m ind the
a p p ro p ria te m aterial); (b) c o m p re h e n sio n
(u n d ersta n d in g the basic m ean in g o f the m ate­
rial); (c) application (applying the know ledge of
the elem ents o f language an d c o m p reh en sio n to
how they interrelate in the prod u ctio n o f a cor­
rect oral or written m essage); (d) analysis (break­
ing down a message into its constituent parts in
o rd er to m ake explicit the relationships between
ideas, including tasks such as recognizing the con-
notative m eanings o f words and correctly pro­
cessing a dictation, and m aking inferences); (e)
synthesis (arranging parts so as to produce a pat­
tern n o t clearly there before, such as effectively
organizing ideas in a written com position); and
(f) evaluation (m aking quantitative and qualita­
tive judgm ents about m aterial). It is th o u g h t
th at these levels d e m a n d increasingly greater
cognitive control as one moves from know ledge
to evaluation. It mav be th at effective p e rfo rm ­
ance at m ore advanced levels, such as synthesis
and evaluation, w ould call for m ore advanced
control o f the second language.
The Tested Response Behavior
Item s can test d ifferen t resp o n se behavior.
R espondents mav be tested for accuracy in pro­
nunciation or gram m ar. Likewise, thev could be
assessed for fluency, for exam ple, w ithout con­
cern for gram m atical correctness. Aside from
accuracy and fluency, they could also be assessed
for how quicklv thev can produce a response.
As noted above, there has been an increased
concern for developing m easures of p e rfo rm ­
ance. that is, m easures of the ability to perform
real-world tasks, with criteria for successful per­
form ance based on a needs analysis for the given
task (Brown 1998; Norris et al. 1998). Such tasks
m ight include "com paring credit card offers and
arguing for the best choice” o r “m aking the m ost
o f a dating service.” At the same tim e that there is
a call for tasks that better reflect the real world,
th ere is a co m m en su rate c o n cern for m ore
authentic language assessment. At least one study,
however, notes th a t the differences betw een
a u th en tic an d pedagogic w ritten and spoken
texts mav n ot be readily a p p a re n t, even to an
au d ien ce specifically looking fo r differences
(Lewkowicz 1997). In addition, test takers may
not necessarily concern themselves with task
authenticity' in a test situation. Test familiarity may
be the overriding factor.
Characteristics of Respondents
Item s can be designed to cater to populations
w ith c e rta in ch aracteristics. B ach m an a n d
P alm er (1996) g roup these into fo u r categories:
personal characteristics (age, sex, a n d native
language), topical know ledge that test takers
b rin g to the situation, th eir affective schem ata,
an d th eir language ability (pp. 64-78). With
regard to the age variable, for exam ple, a recent
review suggests that educators n eed to revisit this
issue a n d perhaps conceive o f new wavs to assess
age-related differen ces in lan g u ag e ability
(M arinova-Todd et al. 2000). W ith regard to lan­
guage ability, both B achm an and Palm er (1996)
an d Alderson (2000) detail the manv tvpes of
know ledge that respondents mav n e e d to draw
on to perfo rm well on a given item or task: world
know ledge and culturally specific knowledge,
knowledge of anv necessary gram m ar, knowledge
o f different oral and written text tvpes. knowledge
o f the subject m atter or topic, and knowledge of
how to perform well on the given task.
Item-Elicitation Format
T h e form at for elicitation o f the item has to be
d eterm in ed . An item can have a spoken, w ritten,
o r visual stim ulus, as well as anv com bination of
the three. Thus, while an item or task may osten­
sibly assess one skill, it may' also be testing som e
o th e r as well. So, for exam ple, a ''listening'’ sub­
test in which resp o n d en ts answer oral questions
bv m eans o f w ritten m ultiple-choice responses is
testing reading as well as listening.4
Item-Response Format
T he item -response form at can be fixed, struc­
tu red , or o pen-ended. Those with a fixed form at
include tru e /fa lse , m ultiple-choice, an d m atch­
ing items. Those w hich call for a stru ctu red
form at include o rd erin g (where, for exam ple,
resp o n d en ts are requested to arrange words to
m ake a sentence, and several orders are possible),
d u p lication— both written (e.g., dictation) and
oral (e.g., recitation, repetition, m im icry), identi­
fication (e.g.. explaining the part of speech of
a form ), and com pletion. Those calling for an
open-ended form at include com posing— both
written (e.g., creative fiction, expository essays)
a n d oral (e.g.. a sp e ec h )— as well as o th er activi­
ties, such as free oral response in role-playing
situations.
Elements o f Language to be Assessed
Finally, as n o ted above with reference to com m u­
nicative com petence, items can test for gram m at­
ical. discourse, and sociolinguistic com petence,
as well as for whatever strategic com petence
respondents draw on when they lack the required
c o m p eten ce. Grammatical competence, h ere
includes phonology, m orphology, syntax, knowl­
edge of lexical items and semantics (Canale
and Swain 1980, p. 29), as well as m atters of
m echanics (spelling, punctuation, capitalization,
and handw riting).
Advances in assessm ent have b ro u g h t rela­
tively u n ta p p e d elem ents o f language into assess­
m en t m easures. Thus, for exam ple, language
assessm ent mav now include m ore finely tu n ed
assessm ent o f specific p u rp o se tasks (see
Douglas 2000) and o f vocabulary (see Read
2000). m o re so p h istic a te d c o m p u te r-b a se d
assessm ent (D unkel 1999), .w well as assessm ent
of cross-cultural pragm atics (see H udson et al.
1995: Broyvn in press). With regard to p ragm at­
ics. expertise is accum ulating in the assessm ent
of speech acts such as com plaining, apologizing,
requesting, an d so forth. Additionally, the assess­
m en t field is becom ing m ore sensitive to the use
o f the target language in specific, often tech n i­
cal contexts; the field is taking assessm ent o f sec­
o n d language vocabulary know ledge beyond
simplistic m easures to b e tte r assess the d ep th
a n d b rea d th of lexical control; and testers are
pursu in g research an d developm ent projects to
provide us with n o t only com puter-assisted
assessm ent m easu res b u t co m p u ter-ad ap tiv e
ones as yvell (see Chalhoub-D eville 2000).
A S SE SS IN G L A N G U A G E SK ILLS
O ne way of contrasting different approaches to
language assessm ent has been to distinguish
betw een the testing of discrete language items
and a m ore integrative or global assessment of
language. .Another m ore recen t dichotom y exists
betw een traditional or standard m eans of assess­
m ent and alternative means, such as the use of
portfolios, journals, logs, conferences, and utiliz­
ing both self-assessment and peer assessment, as
well as teacher assessment (see Brown 1998).
T he following discussion of read in g assess­
m en t is in te n d e d to reflect m ore c u rre n t th in k ­
ing a b o u t testing. T h e a p p e n d ix co n tain s
exam ples of approaches to testing o th e r skills.
Methods o f Testing Reading
Comprehension
R eading c o m p reh en sio n items or pro ced u res
req u ire th at learners use a certain tvpe or tvpes
o f reading, c o m p re h en d at a certain level or
com bination o f levels o f m eaning, enlist a cer­
tain c o m p reh en sio n skill(s). an d do all o f this
w ithin th e fram ew ork o f a c e rta in testin g
m eth o d (s). In this section, we will look at som e
o f the choices available to the test co n stru cto r
a n d at considerations o f c o n cern to the test user.
Types o f Reading
Items and procedures can be written so that thev
implicitly or explicitly call for a given type o f read­
ing. For exam ple, a respondent can be given a
lengthy passage to read in a lim ited time fram e
such that the onlv way to handle it successfully is
to skim5 or to scan,'1 dep en d in g on the task. A fur­
th er distinction has been m ade between scanning
and “search reading,” the latter being w hen the
respondent is scanning without being sure about
the form that the inform ation will take (i.e.,
w hether it will be a word, phrase, sentence, pas­
sage, and so on) (Pugh 1978, p. 53). A respondent
could also be given a passage to read receptively."
Yet an o th er approach is to have respondents read
responsively, such th at the w ritten m aterial
prom pts them to reflect on some point or other.
and th en possibly respond in writing. Testing for­
mats in which questions are interspersed within
ru n n in g text may cater to such an approach if the
questions stim ulate an active dialogue between
the text a n d the reader.
T h e type o f read in g task is raised here
because it w ould a p p e a r to be n eglected at tim es
in the process o f test construction. In o th e r
words, read in g item s an d tasks are som etim es
constructed w ithout careful co nsideration as to
how the resp o n d e n t is to read them . It mav even
be of benefit for the test co n stru cto r to indicate
explicitly to the resp o n d e n t the type o f read in g
expected. For exam ple, a certain item could be
in tro d u c ed by the following:
Read the following text th ro u g h rap­
idly (i.e., skim it) in o rd e r to get the
m ain points. T h ere will n o t be tim e to
read the text intensively. W hen you
have co m pleted this reading, answer
th e q u e stio n s p ro v id e d — w ith o u t
looking back at the text. You will have
ten m inutes for the exercise.
Level o f Meaning
A test item o r p ro ce d u re can tap co m p reh en sio n
at one o f fo u r levels of m ean in g o r at several
levels sim ultaneously: gram m atical m ean in g ,
p ropositional m eaning, discoursal m eaning, and
w riter’s in te n t (ad ap ted from N uttall 1982).
Note, however, that these categories are presented
as a heuristic, rather than as a hierarchy of discrete
levels. Grammatical meaning deals with the m ean ­
ings that words a n d m o rp h em es have on th eir
own. Propositional meaning refers to the m ean in g
that a clause o r sentence can have on its own —
i.e., the info rm atio n th at the clause or senten ce
transm its. This m ean in g is also refe rre d to as its
“inform ational value.” Discoursal meaning relates
to the m ean in g a sentence can have only w hen
in context. This m ean in g is also refe rre d to as its
“functional value.” Writer’s intent concerns the
m ean in g that a sentence has only as part of the
interaction betw een writer and reader. This is the
m eaning that reflects the w riter’s feelings and atti­
tudes and the in te n d e d effect o f the writing u p o n
the reader.
 T he level o f m eaning that has perhaps got­
ten the m ost attention in the literature in recent
years is the discoursal one, especially the re a d e r’s
perception of rhetorical functions conveyed by
text. For exam ple, an item mav overtlv or covertly
require a resp o n d en t to identify w here and how
som ething is being defined, classified, exem pli­
fied, or contrasted with som ething else. O ften
such “discourse functions” are signaled by con­
nectors or “discourse m arkers.” N onetheless,
u n inform ed o r un-alert readers mav miss these
signals— words or phrases such as “unless," “how­
ever,” “thus,” “w hereas,” and the like. Research
has shown that such m arkers need not be subtle
to cause reading problem s. Simple m arkers of
sequential points (“first,” “also,” and “finally") as
well as m ore subtle m arkers mav be missed bv a
reader (see C ohen et al. 1979).
Actually, a level that is w orthy o f m ore
a tte n tio n bv teachers an d o th e r test constructors
is that o f w riter's in te n t , especially author's tone.
It w ould a p p e ar that non-native resp o n d en ts are
slow to perceive hum or, for exam ple. Som e
years ago, an ESL P lacem ent Test at a large u n i­
versity in clu d ed a h u m o ro u s passage about a
m an who turns to the ladv sitting next to him at
a fancy b a n q u e t an d inform s h e r th at he thinks
the c u rre n t speaker has n o th in g to sav and
sh o u ld sit down. She asks if he knows who she is.
W hen he savs “n o ,” she inform s him that she
is the sp eak er’s wife. T h e n he asks h e r if she
knows who he is. W hen she savs "n o .” he says,
“G ood!” an d gets up a n d leaves. T he passage
h ad a m ultiple-choice item in q u irin g w h eth er
the text was (a) serious, (b) sad, (c) h um orous,
o r (d) cvnical. Most o f the 700 resp o n d en ts
resp o n d e d that it was serious. This exam ple
w ould suggest that resp o n d en ts may n o t be
o p e ra tin g at the a p p ro p riate c u ltu ra l/p ra g m a tic
level w hen thev p e rfo rm certain tasks on tests.
Comprehension Skill
A test co n stru cto r a n d user m ust be aware not
only o f levels o f co m p reh en sio n b u t also o f indi­
vidual skills tested bv read in g co m p reh en sio n
questions at one or m ore such levels of m ean­
ing. A lderson (1987) offered a taxonom y which
included: ( 1 ) the ability to recognize words and
phrases o f sim ilar an d opposing m eaning; (2 )
identifying o r locating inform ation: (3) discrim ­
in atin g elem ents or features within context; the
analysis o f elem ents within a structure and of the
relationship am ong them — e.g.. causal, sequen­
tial, chronological, hierarchical: (4) in terpreting
of com plex ideas, actions, events, relationships;
(5) inferen cin g — deriving conclusions and pre­
dicting the continuation: (6) synthesis; and (7)
evaluation. We note that this taxonom y om its the
re a d e r-w rite r relationship — e.g., the a u th o r’s
distance from the text and the level of participa­
tion in the text that the au th o r requires o f the
reader. With this taxonomy, as rvith others, the
boundaries between skills are assum ed to be dis­
crete when, in rcalitv. thev mav not be.
Testing Method
Besides considering the tvpe of reading to be
perfo rm ed , the desired levels o f m eaning, and
the com prehension skills to be tapped, the test
constructor o r user needs to give careful thought
to the testing m ethod. T he challenge is to m axi­
mize the m easurem ent of the tra it— i.e., the
resp o n d en t's ability— while m inim izing the reac­
tive effects o f the m ethod. In o rd er to do this, it
is useful to be inform ed about the options for
testing with each m eth o d and what these options
yield. We will look at some o f the innovative
m ethods for testing reading: the cloze and the
C-test. com puterized adaptive testing, a n d com ­
m unicative tests of rea d in g c o m p reh en sio n .
(Testing o f sum m arization skills is discussed in
the appendix.)
The Cloze and the C-Test
T he origins of the cloze test date back farther
than m anv w ould th in k — to 1897. in fact. At that
tim e. E bbinghatis proposed a series of tests that
h ad one- or two-word deletions, rational dele­
tion. an d partial deletion from the beg in n in g or
e n d o f words (E bbinghaus 1897). T h ere has
been a controversy c o n c ern in g the cloze test as
to w h ether filling in cloze item s is not just a m at­
ter of perceiving local red u n d an cy but, rather,
invok es an awareness of the flow of discourse
across sentences a n d p aragraphs (O iler 1979;
O iler and Jonz 1994). Chavez-Ollcr et al. (1983)
1’o uncl research evidence, for instance, that clo/e
was sensitive to constraints he\ond 3 to 1 1 words
on e ith e r side o f a blank. N onetheless, the
results from various research studies would sug­
gest that traditional fixed-word deletion is m ore
of a m icrolevel com pletion test (a m easure of
word- a n d sentence-level read in g abilitv) than
a m acrolevel m easure o f skill at u n d e rsta n d in g
c o n n e c te d disco u rse (see. for exam ple,
A lderson 1983; Klein-Brale\ 1981).
As an alternative to the fixed-word dele­
tion, researchers tu rn e d to the gap-filling proce­
dure (A lderson 2000). originallv referred to as
the rational-deletion eloze. In the gap-filling p ro ce ­
d u re. words are deleted according to p re d e te r­
m in e d , prim arilv linguistic criteria, o ften
stressing the area considered to be u n d e rre p re ­
se n te d , nam elv. m acrolevel disco u rse links
(fevenston et al. 1984). Research bv Bachm an
(1983) with EFI. universitv students found that the
rational-deletion clo/e or gap-filling procedure
sam pled m am m ore inter-sentence boundaries
an d som ew hat m ore inter-clausal boundaries
within the same sentence than did the fixed-ratio
cloze. Bachm an concluded that the gap-filling
procedure was a better m easure of the reading of
connected discourse, but that the question still
rem ained as to w hether such tests "in fact m easure
the com ponents of language proficiencv hvpothe-
sizecl bv the deletio n criteria" [ibid.. 1983.
p. 330)— that is, the flow of discourse across
sentences and paragraphs within a text.
A suggested alternative to the clo/e test—
namelv, the C-test— was p ro p o se d bv Klein-
Bralev an d Raatz (Klein-Bralev and Raatz 1984;
Raatz 1985). In this p ro ced u re, the second half
o f everv o th e r w ord is deleted, leaving the first
an d the last sentence o f the passage intact. A
given C-test consists o f a n u m b e r of short pas­
sages (m axim um 100 words) on a variety of topics.
This alternative elim inates certain problem s asso­
ciated with clo/e. such as choice of deletion rate
and starling point, representational sam pling of
d ifferent language elem ents in the passage, and
the in ad v erten t assessm ent of w ritten p ro d u c ­
tion as well as reading. W ith the C-test, being
given a clue (h alf the word) serves as a stim ulus
for resp o n d en ts to find the o th e r half. T he
following is one passage within a C-test (Raatz
1985, p. 1 7 1:
Pollution is one of the big problem s in
the world today. Towns a_____ cities
a_____ grow ing, in d u _____ is
g ro _____ an d t_____ p o p u la tio n
0 ____ th e wo_____ is g ro _____ .
Almost everv-_____ causes poll______in
so____ wav о______ another. T_____
air i_____ filled wi______fum es fr______
factories a_____ vehicles, a______there
1_____ noise fr_____ airplanes a______
m achines. Riv _____ . lakes, a_____
seas a_____ po llu ted b_____ factories
an d bv sewage from o u r hom es.
At p resent it w ould ap p e ar that the C-test
may well be a m ore reliable an d valid m eans o f
assessing what the cloze test assesses, b u t as sug­
gested above, it is still not clear to what e x te n t it
tests m ore than m icrolevel processing. Because
h alf the word is given, students who do not
u n d e rsta n d the m acro-context m at still be able
to m obilize th eir vocabularv skills adequately to
fill in the a p p ro p riate word w ithout engaging in
higher-level processing.
Computerized Adaptive Testing (CA T)
C om puterized adaptive testing (CAT) o f read ­
ing co m p reh en sio n im plies an a p p ro ach to test­
ing wherebv the selection a n d sequence o f items
d ep en d s on the pattern o f success an d failure
experienced bv the respondent. Most commonlv,
if the respondent succeeds on a given item, one
of greater diffieultv is presen ted , but if the
resp o n d e n t experiences failure, th en an easier
item is presented. The testing continues until suf­
ficient inform ation has been gathered to assess
the particular respondent's ability. Al present,
such tests are mostlv lim ited to objective formats,
such as multiple-choice.
A m ong the advantages of CAT are the fol­
lowing: individual testing time may be reduced;
frustration and fatigue are m inim ized; boredom is
induced; test scores and diagnostic feedback mav
be provided immediately; test securin' mav be
enhanced (since it is unlikelv that two respondents
w ould receive the sam e item s in the sam e
seq u en ce); record-keeping functio n s are im ­
proved; and inform ation is readily available for
research purposes (Larson an d M adsen 1985;
M adsen 1986).
T he m ain disadvantage is that CAT p re­
sumes that one m ajor language factor or underly­
ing trait is being m easured at a time. Such an
assum ption runs co u n ter to the existing theories
of reading com prehension, which encom pass
m ultiple dim ensions, such as world knowledge,
language and cultural background, type of text,
and reading styles (Canale 1986b). T he line of
developm ent that Canale proposed for CAT was
that it should move from simply m echanizing
existing product-orientecl reading co m p reh en ­
sion item types to the inclusion of m ore process-
oriented, interactive tasks that can be integrated
into broad and them atically co h eren t language
u se /le a rn in g activities, such as "intelligent tu to r­
ing systems.”8 D unkel (1999) points out some of
the challenges this innovative approach to assess­
m en t presents, including the special psychometric
an d technical issues peculiar to CAT as opposed to
traditional or paper-and-pencil tests. T here are
still m ajor issues in the design of evaluative criteria
for assessing the reliability, validity and utility of
L2 CATs (see Chalhoub-Deville 2000), as well as
com plexities involved in interpreting CAT scores.
Communicative Tests
of Reading Comprehension
For years atten tio n has been paid to so-called
co m m unicative tests — usually im plying tests
dealing with speaking. M ore recently, efforts
have been m ade to design truly com m unicative
tests o f o th er language skills as well, such as read­
ing com prehension. Canale (1984) points out
th at a good test is not ju st one which is valid, reli­
able, an d practical in term s of test adm inistration
a n d scoring, but ra th e r one that is acceptable—
th a t is, accepted as fair, im portant, an d interest­
ing by test takers and test users.9 Also, a good test
has feedback potential, rew arding both test tak­
ers a n d test users with clear, rich, relevant, and
generalizable inform ation. Canale suggests that
acceptability and feedback potential hare often
been accorded low priority thus explaining the
curious p h e n o m e n o n of m ultiple-choice tests
claim ing to assess oral interaction skills.
Som e ap p ro ach es to com m unicative testing
were in p a rt an outgrow th of Canale an d Swain’s
theoretical fram ew ork p rese n ted above (Canale
a n d Swain 1980). T he particu lar variety of com ­
m unicative test that thev dealt with has been
refe rre d to as a "storyline” test, a test with a th e ­
m atic line o f developm ent. In such a test, a com ­
m on th em e runs th ro u g h o u t in o rd er to assess
the effects o f context. T he basis for such an
ap p ro ach is that the resp o n d en ts learn as thev
read on. that thev double back a n d check previ­
ous co n ten t, a n d th at the ability to use language
in conversation or writing d e p en d s in large
m easure on the skill o f picking up inform ation
from past discussion and using it in form ulating
new strategies (Low 1986).
Swain (1984). for exam ple, developed a
storyline test o f F rench as a foreign language for
high school French im m ersion students. T he
test consisted of six tasks aro u n d a com m on
them e, "finding sum m er em ploym ent.” T here
were four writing tasks (a letter, a note, a com po­
sition. and a technical exercise) and two speaking
tasks (a group discussion and a job interview).
T he test was designed so that the topic would be
m otivating to the students a n d so th at there
would be enough new inform ation provided in
o rd er to give the tasks credibility. Swain provided
the respondents with sufficient time, suggestions
as to how to do the test, and clear knowledge
about what was being tested. T here was access to
dictionaries and o th er reference m aterial, and
opportunity for students to review and revise their
work. Swain's m ain concern was to "bias for best”
in the construction of the test— to m ake every
effort to support the respondents in doing their
best on the test.10
Brill (1986), for exam ple, had 32 ninth-
grade H ebrew speakers com plete a com m unica­
tive storvline test which in clu d e d five tasks
dealing with m em bership in a youth group. T he
tasks in clu d ed writing a letter as a response to a
frien d in terested in th e youth m ovem ent the
resp o n d e n t b elo n g ed to, p rese n tin g questions
to the g roup lead er to get m ore in form ation on
the m ovem ent, p rep a rin g an a n n o u n c e m e n t
ab o u t the m ovem ent to post on bulletin boards,
w riting o u t a tele p h o n e req u est for inform ation
on how a local fo u n d atio n could aid the m ove­
m ent, a n d w riting o u t a tele p h o n e response to
an invitation bv a political g ro u p to jo in a
d em o n stratio n o f theirs. .After com pleting the
tasks, the students were th en asked to com pare
th eir ex perience on this test an d on the tradi­
tional m ultiple-choice one thev had taken previ-
ouslv. Thev alm ost unanim ouslv en d o rsed the
com m unicative test as preferable because it was
m ore creative, allowed them to express their
opinions, was m ore interesting, taught them how
to m ake contact with others, and investigated
com m unication skills in addition to reading com ­
prehension. For these reasons, thev felt that it
provided a tru e r m easure of their com petence
than did the traditional test.
Canale (1985) viewed com m unicative tests
such as those described above as "proftciencv-
orientecl achievem ent tests" a n d offered five rea­
sons su p p o rtin g this view.
1. Such tests put to use what is learned. T here is
a transfer from controlled training to real
perform ance.
2. T h e re is a focus on the message and the
function, n o t just on the form .
3. T h ere is g roup collaboration as well as indi­
vidual work, not ju st the latter.
4. T he resp o n d en ts are called u p o n to use
th eir resourcefulness in resolving au thentic
problem s in language use, as opposed to
d em o n stratin g accuracv in resolving con­
trived problem s at the linguistic level.
5. T he testing itself is m ore like learning, and the
learners are m ore involved in the assessment.
(For sam ple item s testing listening, speaking,
an d writing, see the A ppendix.)
T E S T C O N S T R U C T IO N
A N D A D M IN IST R A TIO N
Inventory o f Objectives
Test constructors first m ake an inventor)' o f the
objectives that thev want to test. This involves dis­
tinguishing broad objectives from m ore specific
ones and im p o rtan t objectives from trivial ones.
Test items and procedures are th en developed to
assess these objectives eith er separately or along
with o th er objectives. Varying the type of items or
procedures testing a particular objective, as well
as the difficulty helps distinguish one stu d e n t’s
grasp o f the area covered by the objectives from
that o f an o th er student. As said at the outset,
there is currently a prem ium p u t on the use of
m ultiple testing techniques in o rd er to obtain a
m ore representative sam pling o f a le a rn e r’s
language behavior.
T h e n u m b e r o f test item s o r pro ced u res
used to m easure any given objective d e p e n d s on
several things. First, is the test in te n d e d to assess
mastery o f the objectives or simply som e degree
o f attainm ent? If masterv is bein g assessed, th ere
should be a large e n o u g h sam ple of item s to
allow its m easurem ent. For exam ple, including
onlv one item on tag questions is unlikely to
indicate to the testers that the re sp o n d e n t has a
firm grasp o f tag questions. But if the testers do
not have the testing time to allow for, say, three
items on tag questions, then they should at least
be aware that thev are not really testing for mas-
terv. A respondent's correct answer on one item
could be a result of guessing. Testers usually do
not have the time to cover all the objectives they
would like to. so instead they m ust satisfy them ­
selves with a sampling.
If the test is designed for use in a course,
th en the objectives covered m ight be those m ost
em phasized in the course an d those o f greatest
value for the students as well. As previously m en ­
tioned, testers mav n e e d to resist th e tem p tatio n
to include difficult item s o f m arginal im p o r­
tance simplv because thev differentiate betw een
the b e tte r an d p o o re r achievers.
Constructing an Item Bank
It is suggested th at potential test item s an d p ro ­
cedures be selected an d stored in an item bank.
Before th e advent o f co m p u ter applications an d
sophisticated statistical procedures fo r process­
ing items, test constructors w ould keep file cards
of items. T he use o f com puters allows for m ore
rapid and m ore efficient h an d lin g o f those kinds
o f item s that len d them selves to c o m p u te r
applications. W hether com puterized or not, an
item bank w ould benefit from descriptive infor­
m ation on each item or procedure, such as the
following:
1. the skill o r com bination of skills tested;
2. the language elem en t (s) invoked;
3. the item-elicitation and item-response formats;
4. instructions on how to p resen t the item;
5. the section o f the book or p a rt of the course
th a t the item relates to (if applicable);
6 . the tim e it took to write the item (which gives
an estim ate of the tim e n eed ed to prepare a
series o f such items for a test).
It is presum ed that ant- item en tered in the bank
has been piloted on sam ple groups and reviewed.
An item mav seem east' or well written when it is
generated b u t mav exhibit glaring inadequacies
u p o n later inspection.
Test Format
O ne basic issue of test form at is w hether the test
progresses to increasinglv m ore difficult items or
w hether easv and difficult items and procedures
are interspersed. T here are argum ents on both
sides. If items grow increasinglv m ore difficult,
the respondents mat' give up after a while and not
attem pt items after thev en co u n ter the first one
th at stum ps them . Yet if respondents experience
failure too frequently at the outset of a test
because o f difficult items, thev mav be discour­
aged from attem pting the rem ainder of the items
in a section. Thus, there mat' be a psychological
advantage to pacing the items so that they becom e
progressivelv m ore difficult. A com prom ise is to
start the test with relativelv east- items and then
start interspersing easv and difficult items.
A n o th e r issue o f form at relates to m ultiple-
choice items. Such item s len d them selves to
guessing. Increasing the n u m b e r o f alternatives
(from , say, th ree to four) decreases the likeli­
h o o d o f g etting the item rig h t by chance alone.
T h e re is a 33 p e rc e n t chance o f getting a three-
choice item right bv guessing, an d a 25 p e rc e n t
chance o f guessing correctly on a four-choice
item . This o f course assum es th a t all choices are
equally attractive to the resp o n d e n t who does
n o t know the answ er to the item.
Instructions
T he instructions should be b rie f a n d vet explicit
an d unam biguous. Exam ples mav help, but on
the o th e r h a n d m at h in d e r if thev do n o t give
the whole picture and becom e a substitute for
reading the instructions. R espondents may need
training in how to take a particular kind o f test.
For exam ple, a research sttidv dem onstrated that
supplying respondents with suggested strategies
in the test instructions for sum m arizing foreign-
language texts mav have a beneficial effect on the
respondents' knowing how to read the text and
how to prep are a sum m arv o f it (C ohen 1993). In
o th er words, m ore elaborated instructions may
s e n e to ensure that the respondents do the task
as in te n d e d bv the test constructor. (Sample
instructions for how to sum m arize can be found
in the appendix, u n d e r “Assessing the Interaction
of R eading an d W riting.”)
In addition, the resp o n d en ts should be
in fo rm ed as to w h eth er guessing incorrectlv
counts against them . Thev should also know the
value of each item an d section of the test.
Finallv. the tim e allowed for each subtest a n d /o r
for the total test should be a n n o u n c ed . If speed
is a factor for a subtest, the resp o n d en ts should
be m ade aware o f this. M am vcars ago, H arris
(1969) adm o n ish ed teachers not to use tim ed
tests that left m ore th an 10 to 15 p e rc e n t o f the
g roup b eh in d . Perhaps in todav's educational
clim ate (see Shoham v 2000), wc w ould not want
to leave am students b ehind.
Scoring
If an objective is tested by m ore than one item —
sav, five item s— then it is possible to speak o f mas-
te n - of the objective, at least according to that
m eans of m easuring it. (Again, the im portance of
using m ultiple m easures of the same objectives is
stressed.) If Ju an gets four of the five items right,
he has displayed 80 percent mastery of that objec­
tive, according to the test. T he test mav have a
series of such items. If Ju a n 's test p erform ance is
stated onlv in term s o f his masterv o f objectives,
th e n the test is being used for criterion-
referenced evaluation. W hat constitutes mastery
of an objective is a difficult question to answer.
Is it having fo u r o u t o f five items correct on that
objective? W hat ab o u t th ree out o f five? Further,
w hat constitutes notable achievem ent? It could
be th at m asterv of a certain objective reflects far
m ore learn in g than masterv of another. For this
reason, items covering one objective mav be
weighted m ore than items covering o th er objec­
tives. For exam ple, three questions asked after
presentation of a lecture on a tape mav count
m ore than ten short-answer m ultiple-choice read­
ing or gram m ar items. W eighting also involves
consideration of the ease o f the task and the tim e
sp en t on it.
T he test co n stru cto r has to consider how
long it will take to score particu lar types of items,
as well as the easiest p ro ce d u re for scoring (e.g.,
au to m ated scoring bv an optical scanner or
c o m p u te r scoring vs. h a n d scoring). T he m ore
objective the scoring is for a p articular item , the
h ig h e r the scorer reliabilitv is likelv to be (i.e..
the likelihood that two different scorers would
com e up with the sam e score for a p articular
re sp o n d e n t's test). For exam ple, the scoring of a
m ultiple-choice test w ould be considered m ore
objective th an that o f an essav test, w here the
sc o re r’s subjectivitv plans m ore o f a role.
R eliab ility
T h e reliabilitv of a test concerns its precision as
a m easuring in strum ent. Reliabilitv asks w hether
a test given to the same resp o n d en ts a second
tim e w ould yield the same results. At least three
crucial factors relating to test reliability have
b een identified.
T est Factors. Test factors include the extent of
the sam pling o f the objective, the degree of am bi­
guity o f the items an d restrictions on freedom of
response (e.g., being given m ore specific and thus
constraining topics for com positions), the clarity
an d explicitness o f the instructions, the quality of
the layout, the familiarity that the respondents
have with the form at, and the length of the total
test, with lo n g e r tests b e in g m ore reliable
(H ughes 1989).
These test factors contribute to the likeli­
h o o d that perform ance on one item on a test will
be consistent with p erform ance on a n o th e r item ,
p roducing a test with greater internal consistency.
O ne m easure of internal consistency is th at of
split-halves reliability, which calls for correlating
the odd-num bered items on the test with the
even-num bered ones. O th e r m easures o f internal
consistency such as K uder-R ichardson Form ulas
20 an d 2 1 , call for m ore com plex calculations
(see B achm an 1990, pp. 172-178). For the p u r­
pose o f classroom testing, a reliability coefficient
o f .70 a n d up is good. H ig h er reliability coeffi­
cients w ould be expected of standardized tests
used for large-scale adm inistration (.80 o r b e tte r).
A perfect coefficient is 1.0.
T he reliability o f ratings is also an im p o rtan t
test factor. Considerations include the natu re of
the scoring key in term s o f detail an d clarity, the
training of scorers, and the n u m b er of scorers
(B achm an 1990, pp. 178-183; Reed a n d C ohen
2000). In recent vears, sophisticated statistical
procedures using generalizability theory and m ul­
tifaceted Rasch analvsis have b een em ployed to
take into account the nature of the task being
rated and the person doing the rating in deter­
m ining the reliability o f ratings (M cN am ara
1996). Verbal protocol studies have also been con­
ducted to determ ine the extent to w'hich raters of
compositions, for instance, adh ere to the rating
schedule being used (e.g., Hamp-Lyons 1989).
Situational Facto rs T he m a n n e r in which the
ex am in er presents the instructions, th e charac­
teristics o f th e ro o m (co m fo rt, lig h tin g ,
acoustics), outside noises, a n d o th e r factors can
have a bearin g on how well the resp o n d en ts p e r­
form on the test.
Individual Factors These include (a) transient
factors, such as the physical and psychological
state of m ind of the resp o n d en t (m otivation, rap­
p ort with exam iner), and (b) stable factors, such
as m echanical skill, IQ, ability to use English, and
experience with such tests.
V alidity
Validity refers to w hether the test actually m eas­
ures what it purports to m easure. Thus, the test
m ust be reliable before it can be valid. Assuming
that the test is p roducing a reliable m easure of
som ething, the questions are then: W hat is that
som ething?, and, Is it w hat the test is supposed to
be m easuring?
Face Validity This aspect of xaliditx refers to
w hether the test looks as if it is m easuring what it
is sttpposed to. For this reason. Low (1985)
referred to it as “perceived validitv." For exam ple,
a test diat m easures a respondent's own English
pronunciation bv assessing his or her rating of
a n o th e r’s pronunciation of English tnav not be
readilv accepted as a valid m easure, nor mav filling
in blanks on a cloze test seem a valid wax to assess
reading skills. To ntanv test takers, such m easures
appear to be too indirect. T he fa d that these
m easures are indirect max confuse and distract
the respondent. A nother exam ple is that a test's
title max1 be misleading. Л test entitled “Pragmatic
Syntax Measure," for instance, max actuallx deal
m ore xvith morphologx than xvith sxntax and max
use stilted gram m ar-book English rather than the
language o f exerxclax' situational interactions, as
one would expect of a u ulx pragm atic m easure.
C o n ten t Validity. This txpe of xaliditx refers to
the adequacy of sam pling of co n ten t or objec­
tives in a test. Som etim es even com m ercial tests
constructed bv experts fail to state xvhat objec-
tix’es are b ein g coxerecl in the test and xvhich
item s specificallv are testing each of these objec-
tixes. \ alette (1977, p. 46) notes. "For the lan­
guage teacher, the degree of test validitv is not
derixecl from a statistical analx’sis of test p e r­
form ance, but from a m eticulous analx sis o f the
c o n te n t o f each item and o f the test as a xvhole."
Criterion-R elated Validity. A test can be validated
bv seeing how closelv respondents' perform ance
on specific sets of objectives on a total test paral­
lels their perform ance at the same time or in the
future on a n o th e r test which is tho u g h t to m eas­
ure the same o r similar actix ities.
1. Concurrent Yalidily: Validation is concurrent if
test results are com pared with results from
an o th er test gixen at about the same time. For
exam ple, a teacher mav wish to see hoxv stu­
dents' perform ance on a test that he or she
constructed com pares with students' perform ­
ance on some criterion m easure of reading
obtained from a com m ercial test of reading.
2. Predictive Yalidip: Validity is predictive if test
results are c o m p a re d xvith results from
a n o th e r test o r a n o th e r txpe of m easure
obtained at a later date. For exam ple, a lan­
guage aptitude test max be validated bv a test
of a student's achievem ent in the language
class in which the student was placed on the
basis o f the ap titu d e test.
Construct Validity. This form of xaliclitv refers to
the degree to xvhich scores on a m easure perm it
inferences about underlxing traits. In o th er xvords,
it exam ines xvhether the test is a true reflection of
the theorv of the trait being m easured, in this case,
language. L anguage assessm ent experts like
Shohantv advise teachers to keep asking tlrem-
selxes w henexer thex construct a test "xvhether
the tasks and items on the test are actually a
reflection of xvhat it m eans to know a language
and to ax'oid those items xvhich test som ething
d iffe re n t th an actual lan g u ag e knoxvledge"
(Shohamx- 1985. p. 74).
C o n vergen t Validity1. Validitv in testing a given
construct, such as listening co m p reh en sio n , mav
be attain ed bx testing the same p h e n o m e n o n in
a varietx' of d iffe re n t xvaxs. T h e classroom
teach er can practice this kittcl of xaliclation. T he
discussion of item tvpes p resen ted earlier in this
c h a p te r (and in the appendix) proxides a n u m ­
ber of techniques for testing the sam e objectives
differentlx. Varving the item -elicitation a n d item-
response form ats, as well as the discreteness and
integratixeness of the items, can p ro d u ce items
testing the sam e objectixes in different xvaxs.
Ite m A nalysis
Piloting the Test. If tim e and resources perm it,
then sound testing practice includes piloting the
test on a p opulation sim ilar to that for which it is
designed. T he pilot adm inistration provides the
test co n stru cto r with feedback on the item s and
procedures. On tim ed subtests, pilot resp o n ­
dents can be instructed to m ark how far they got
xvlien the tim e ran out and th en to go ah ead and
com plete the test so that th ere is feedback on all
the items in the test.
Item Difficulty. Item difficultx refers to the pro­
portion of correct responses to a test item. A test
xvhich aims to differentiate am ong respondents
should haxe items xvhich, sax, 60 to 80 p ercen t of
the respondents answer correctlv. (If 15 out o f 20
respondents answer an item conectlx; the item
difficulty is 75 percent.) If the purpose of the test
is to determ ine w hether nearly all students have
achieved the objectives o f a course, on the other
hand, then the p ro p o rtio n of correct responses
should be 90 p e rc e n t or better.
Item D iscrim ination T he item discrim ination
index tells how -well an item perform s in sepa­
rating the b e tte r students from the p o o re r ones.
For a p ro ce d u re to calculate the index, see
C ohen (1994). T he index is in te n d e d to distin­
guish resp o n d en ts who know the m ost or have
the skills or abilities being tested from those who
do not. Knowledge o f the m aterial is d e te rm in e d
bv the re sp o n d e n t's perfo rm an ce on the total
test (i.e., all subtests com bined).
T est R ev isio n
If an item has a difficulty coefficient of lower
th an 60 p e rc e n t o r h ig h er than about 80 p e r­
cent, and if the discrim ination coefficient is
below .30, th en the item should probably be
revised o r elim inated. It is difficult to select or
reject b o rd erlin e items. Especially if the item
analysis is p e rfo rm e d on a small sam ple, just one
o r two responses a d d ed o r d eleted will change
the index considerably. T h e re mav be justifica­
tion for leaving an overly east item in the test if.
for exam ple, it is a lead-off item used to give stu­
dents e n co u rag em en t to continue. .\lso. where an
item appears in a test mav affect p erfo rm a n c e on
it. For exam ple, students mav do best on the
item s in the middle of an exam , after they hat e
tvarm ed up to the test a n d before fatigue sets in.
M ultiple-choice item s can be im proved by exam ­
ining the p ercen t of resp o n d en ts who selected
each choice. If some distractors draw no responses
or too ntanv, then thev should he om itted or
altered. This task requires both rigor and intuition.
For instance, it mav be necessary to change the syn­
tax or vocabulary of a distractor, or perhaps its
semantic thrust. In piloting an item, it is possible to
ask the respondents what their rationale was for
choosing a particular distractor instead of the cor­
rect answer to arrive at the best set of choices.
Ideally, the results of item analysis would be
ad d ed to the inform ation available on each item
in the test constructor's item bank. If a particular
test item comes u n d e r challenge by respondents
or o th e r exam iners, it is useful to be able to
check its item analysis inform ation. P erhaps it
will tu rn o u t to be a b o rd erlin e item th at should
n o t have b e e n in clu d e d in the test.
T est A d m in is tra tio n C h e ck list
T he following checklist applies prim arily to the
adm inistering of classroom tests an d is in te n d e d
as suggestive, n o t prescriptive. T he “sh o u ld ”s of
test adm inistration will vary according to the
testing situation.
1. T he room should have ad eq u ate ventilation
or heat, light, an d acoustics.
2. If a tape re c o rd e r is to be used, it should be
set up and tested in advance to m ake sure
that it works well.
3. T he test ad m in istrato r should assum e an
affable but stern posture. A few smiles help
to put the resp o n d en ts at ease b ut the stern ­
ness is necessary to m ake it clear that cheat­
ing is not allowed— unless cooperative effort
am ong resp o n d en ts is an integral p art o f the
p articular test o r a p o rtio n of it.
4. T he tim e that the exam begins a n d the total
tim e rem ain in g for the test a n d /o r subtests
should be w ritten on the blackboard.
5. If the instructions are to be read aloud, they
should be read slowly with no d e p a rtu re
from the established w ording. If questions
arise, the tester can use p arap h rasin g but
should n o t add anything substantive to the
instructions (H arris 1969).
T est-T aking S tra te g ie s
T he strategies that resp o n d en ts use in taking
tests have im plications b o th for the issue of test
validity and ‘'bias for best.” Tests th at are relied
u p o n to indicate the read ers’ com prehension
level mat produce m isleading results because of
num erous techniques that readers have devel­
oped for obtaining correct answers on such tests
without fully or even partially u n d erstan d in g the
text. .As Fransson (1984) so aptly puts it, respon­
dents mav not proceed via the text b u t rath e r
aro u n d it. In effect, there are presum ptions held
by test constructors an d adm inistrators as to what
is being tested, and there are the actual processes
that test takers go through to produce answers to
questions and tasks. T he two mav not necessarily
be one and the same. T he strategies the respon­
dents are using mav be detrim ental to their over­
all perform ance, o r at least not as helpful as other
strategies.
M entalistic m easures using verbal rep o rt
have helped determ ine how respondents actually
take reading com prehension tests as opposed to
how thev m ight be expected to take them (Cohen
1984; 1994, pp. 190-196). Studies calling on
respondents to provide im m ediate or delaved ret­
rospection as to their test-taking strategies regard­
ing reading passages with m ultiple-choice items
have, for exam ple, yielded the following results:
1. A lthough the instructions ask students to
read the passage before answ ering the ques­
tions, students have re p o rte d e ith e r reading
the questions first o r read in g just p art o f the
article an d then looking for the co rresp o n ­
d ing questions.
2. A lthough advised to read all alternatives
before choosing one. students stop reading
the alternatives as soon as thev hate found
one that thev decide is correct.
3. Students use a strategy o f m atching m aterial
from the passage with m aterial in the item
stem and in the alternatives, and prefer this
surface-structure reading o f the test items to
супе that calls for m ore in-depth reading and
inferencing.
4. Students relv on th eir p rio r know ledge of
the topic an d on th eir general vocabulary.
From these findings and others, a descrip­
tion is em erging o f how respondents actually
answer test questions. Unless trained to do other­
wise, thev mav use the most expedient m eans of
responding, such as reiving m ore on their previ­
ous experience with seemingly similar formats
than on a close reading of the task at hand. Thus,
when given a passage to read and summarize, they
may1 perform the task the same wav’ thev did their
last summ ary task, rather than paving attention to
what is called for in the current one. O ften this
strategy works, but on occasion the particular task
mav require subtle or m ajor shifts in response
behavior in ord er for the test taker to perform well.
T here appears to be a fu rth er insight to be
gained from the test strategy literature, namely,
that indirect testing form ats— that is, those which
do n o t reflect real-world tasks (e.g., multiple-
choice, cloze)— mav p rom pt the use of strategies
solely for the pu rp o se of coping with the test for­
m at. M ore direct form ats such as sum m arizing a
text may be fre e r of such ad d ed testing effects.
However, as long as the task is p art o f a test, stu­
dents are b o u n d to use strategies they- w ould not
use u n d e r non-test conditions. It is largely the
responsibility of test constructors and o f those
who adm inister such tests to be aware o f what
th eir tests are actually m easuring. Verbal report
techniques can assist the test developer an d user
in ob tain in g such in fo rm a tio n .1 1
Insights about the wav in which resp o n ­
dents go about p e rfo rm in g different testing
tasks can be used to m ake in fo rm ed decisions as
to ( 1 ) the choice o f testing form at, (2 ) the
choice an d w ording o f instructions, a n d (9) the
value an d feasibility o f coaching the respondents
in how to take language tests. W ork bv O'Malley
(1986) an d others has already m ade use of such
research findings in designing training m odules
for learn in g test-taking skills.
D IS C U S S IO N Q U E S T IO N S
1. Can vou think of times when, as a student of a
second or foreign language, one or m ore of
the abuses of languages tests were “inflicted"
upon vou? W hich ones? W hat was your reac­
tion at the time? As a teacher o f language,
have vou ever ''p e rp e tra te d ’' any o f those
abuses yourself? W hat w ould be the a p p ro ­
priate rem edies.'
2. Identify a n d describe at least one test that
vou o r a colleague used for an adm inistra­
tive, instructional, or research purpose. Was
an in stru m en t ever used for assessm ent in
m ore than one o f the th re e c ategories? If so.
explain.
3. W hat does it m ean to sav that an item mav
test for points th at are n o t consistent with
the test c o n stru c to r’s objective (s) for that
item? How would this be discovered a n d how
m ight it be rem edied?
S U G G E S T E D A C T IV IT IE S
1. Take an ESL /EFL test— e ith e r your own or
som eone else’s— a n d review it, using the
review checklist of questions provided below:
a. In stru ctio n s
(1) Are the instructions for each section
clear: Do all the items in a section lit the
instructions for that section?
(2) Is the vocabularv in the instructions and
in the items at the desired level o f difficultv
(or too h a rd — particularlv in the instruc­
tions sectio n ):
(3) Are th ere good exam ples of how to com ­
plete each section (where ap p licable):
(4) In stru ctu red or open -en d ed sections,
do the instructions indicate the approxim ate
length o f the response th at is to be m ad e:
(5) If the test is tim ed, or tim ed in certain
sections, is the tim ing realistic:
(6) Are the resp o n d en ts inform ed in the
instructions as to w h eth er the section is
tim ed an d how long thev will have?
(7) Do the instructions indicate the value of
the particu lar section with respect to the
overall test score: Is the overall value of the
test clear to the in te n d e d resp o n d en ts: Do
thev know what the purpose o f the test is:
(8) Is the m eth o d o f a d m in iste rin g the
te st/q u iz carefullv established (i.e.. so that
so m eo n e else w ould a d m in iste r the test
exactlv as vou would, if vou were not able to
give it o r in te n d e d o thers to adm inister it):
b. C o n te n t
(1) (with reference to achievem ent tests) Is
the test aclequatelv covering the instructional
objectives for the course: Is it testing material
M o/taught/learned in the course: (R em em ber
that a good test should reveal gaps in the
instructor's teaching as well as in the students'
learning.)
(2) Is the test testing the desired recep-
tiv e/p ro d u ctiv e language skills: Has the test
adequately isolated the desired skill (if this is
w hat it p u rp o rts to do)?
(3) Does the c o n te n t o f the test cover the
in te n d e d aspects o f com m unicative com pe­
tence (gram m atical, discourse, an d sociolin-
guistic com petence)? Is the test in te n d in g to
get at masterу o f a set (or sam pled subset) o f
objectives or sim ple som e level of attainm ent
o f these objectives? Is the actual test consis­
ten t with the expressed design?
(4) Is only one register (formal, casual, inti­
m ate) or dialect (standard or nonstandard)
considered correct in one or all sections of the
test? Are the respondents aware o f this (refer
to the “Instructions” section above)? If the
intent is to keep the language “conversational”
in, sav, short-answer listening com prehension
items, do the items reflect this intent?
(5) Might som e or m anv item s be testing
m ore points than vou th o u g h t originallv (if
vou constructed the test)? If so, w ould it help
to simplify these item s or p ro ced u res to give
g rea ter p ro m in e n ce to exactlv the points
in te n d e d to be m easured?
(6 ) Did vou write anv of vour sentences as
■'linguistic curiosities” in an effort to test cer­
tain lexical a n d /o r structural points (e.g., “My
b ro th e r has som ething beautiful an d I have
n othing uglv") from Rivers 1981, p. 376)?
(7) Does the test have the right title, or m ight
it mislead both the respondents and potential
test adm inistrators and interpreters o f the
results?
c. Item F o rm at and Test Layo u t
(1) Is the test as a whole too long o r too
short? (If too short, it mav not be reliable.)
(2) Is one objective or an o th er being tested
too m uch or too little? (Over-testing mav start
giving awav the answers and under-testing mav
not give enough diagnostic inform ation.)
(3) Are the items which test the same objec­
tive w orded and spaced in a wav that one item
does not provide a giveawav for the others?
(4) Are anv items or sections clearly loo dil-
ficult or too easy to answer? (O f course, item
analysis helps answ er this question. T he dil-
ficultv o f an item is often h ard to d eterm in e
on an a priori basis.)
(n ) I hive the correct tru e/false and m ultiple-
choice responses been adequatelv ran d o m ­
ized so as not to set up a response pattern
(e.g.. all T T items should n o t be "true” and
till M-C items should n ot have eith er “b ” or “c”
as the correct answ er):
 (6) Are the item s paced so th at even the FU R T H ER R EA D IN G
poo rest stu d e n t will ex perience at least a
A lc le rso n , J. С .. C. C la p h a m , and D. W all. 1995.
m odicum o f sticcess at the outset?
Language T e st C o n s t r u c t i o n a n d E v a lu a tio n . X ew
(7) Are the item response form ats the m ost
Y ork: C a m b r i d g e U n iv e rs ity P re ss.
ap p ro p riate ones for what y o u want to test
T h is b o o k fo cu ses on th e d esig n o f te s ts fo r
(e.g., w ould m atch in g be a m ore efficient a d m in istra tio n p rim a rily lo larg er g ro u p s of
m eans o f testing vocabulary, sav, th an com ­ r e s p o n d e n t s . It o f f e r s tip s o n i t e m w r i t i n g , lis t­
pletio n o r m ultiple-choice, or w ould you in g th e p itfa lls o f fo rm a ts such as m u ltip le -
wish to use several form ats)? c h o i c e . It c o v e r s a l l p h a s e s o f t e s t c o n s t r u c t i o n ,
(8) Is the item stim ulus form at ap p ro p riate f r o m p ilo tin g to r e p o r t i n g o f sco res.
(e.g., should the stim ulus be audiotaped, B a ile v , К. M. 1998b. L e a rn in g About Language

ra th e r th an w ritten, o r should b o th m odali­ A ssessm en t: D ilem m a s, D ecisio n s, and D irections.

ties be used)? B o s t o n . M A : H e i n l e 8c H e i n l e P u b l i s h e r s .

(9) How good is the layout? T h is v o lu m e d isc u sse s th e v a lu e o f d iffe re n t

a p p r o a c h e s to a s s e ssm e n t, in c lu d in g te s tim o n i­
(a) Is th e technical a rra n g e m e n t of the
als f r o m t e a c h e r s w h o h a v e h a d s u c c e s s w i t h o n e
item s on the p rin te d page easy to follow
or a n o th e r ap p ro ach . T est ty p es d isc u sse d
(e.g., are the m ultiple-choice alternatives
in c lu d e d ic ta tio n , clo z e , C -te sts. d ic to c o m p s
h orizontal or vertical, in the sentence itself, and strip sto ries, ro le p la ts a n d p erfo rm an ce
o r to one side)? tests, a n d w r it in g s a m p l e s a n d p o r t f o li o s .
(b) Is the spacing betw een an d w ithin items B row n. J. D .. ed. 1998. X ew W ays of C lassroom
adequate? A ssessm en t. A le x a n d r ia , YA: T E S O L .
(c) If the test has b een p h o to co p ied , is the T h e b o o k o ffe rs E S L te a c h e r s id e a s f o r e v e ry d a y
p rin t legible? c la s s r o o m a s s e s s m e n t ac tiv itie s w h ic h p r o v i d e a
(10) Have the item s b een adequately w av o f o b se rv in g o r sc o rin g s tu d e n ts ' p e r f o r m ­

reviewed bv o th er native speakers (and non­ a n c e s a n d g iv in g f e e d b a c k o n th e e ffe c tiv e n e ss

o f th e le a r n in g a n d te a c h in g in v o lv ed . In c lu d e d
natives, if possible) to elim inate poor distrac-
a r e e x a m p l e s o f a lte r n a tiv e w avs o f a s s e s s in g th e
tors and deceptive o r confusing items?
f o u r sk ills s u c h as t h r o u g h p o r t f o l i o s , j o u r n a l s ,
d. Sco rin g lo g s, tu rd stu c le n t-te a c h e r c o n fe re n c e s. It also
(1) Have the m eth ods for scoring the test or p ro v id e s e x a m p le s o f self-assessm en t a n d p e e r
grading a p ro ce d u re or section been ad e­ assessm ent such as th ro u g h o ral and w ritte n

quately determ ined? book re p o rts, and ex am p les of a lte rn a tiv e

g r o u p in g s fo r a sse ssm e n t.
(2) Are the item s a n d /o r sections w eighted
H a m p - L v o n s . I ... a n d W . C o n d o n . 2 0 0 0 . A s s e s s i n g t h e
appropriately in scoring— th at is, do the
P ortfolio: P rin cip les fo r P ractice, 'L h e o ry , and
w eightings coincide with votir notions ab o u t
R esearch. C r e s s k ill. X J: H a m p t o n P r e s s .
the m ost im p o rta n t objectives, th e ones
T h e v o lu m e p ro v id e s a n o v erv iew o f a n d f r a m e ­
given th e m ost em phasis in the class, the w o rk fo r p o r tf o lio - b a s e d a s s e s s m e n t o f w ritin g ,
m ost useful elem ents? d i s c u s s e s its a p p l i c a t i o n i n c o l l e g e w r i t i n g p r o ­
gram s (fo r n a tiv e s a n d n o n -n a tiv e s), a n d p ro ­
2. Drawing on the suggestions in this ch ap ter
ti d e s a re s e a r c h a g e n d a . T h e a u t h o r s first fo c u s
c o n c ern in g testing read in g co m prehension,
o n t h e l e a r n e r v a r ia b le s t h a t c a n b e i n c l u d e d in
design a test of read in g c o m p reh en sio n and
a p o r t f o li o (e .g ., to w h a t e x te r n d o e s th e le a r n e r
write several sam ple items for it. T h en review
reveal in fo rm a tio n about h im /h e rse lf versus
this test using the checklist in Activity I. w h a t is t a u g h t i n s c h o o l ? ) , t h e n o n t h e t e a c h e r ,
3. Devise a wav to test for strategic com petence n e x t o n th e assesso r, a n d fin a lly o n t h e p r o g r a m .
in test taking. T hen try it o u t on a small M cX am ara. T. 2000. Language 'R e s t i n g . O xfo rd :
g ro u p of resp o n d en ts a n d discuss the results O x f o r d U n iv e rs ity P ress.
with others. T h is b r i e f v o l u m e d e f i n e s w h a t a l a n g u a g e test
is a n d r e l a t e s t h e d i f f e r e n t t y p e s f r o m t h e m o s t
 d is c r e te - p o in t to th e m o s t in te g ra tiv e , p ra g m a tic , A P P E N D IX
a n d c o m m u n ic a tiv e , in te r m s o f th e ir c o m m u ­
n i c a t i v e v a l u e . I t is t i m e l v a n d r e f r e s h i n g l y o p e n E x a m p le T est Ite m s f o r M e a su rin g
i n its h a n d l i n g o f i s s u e s .
L iste n in g , V ocabulary, S p eak in g ,
a n d W riting Skills
ENDNO TES As p o in ted out in C ohen (1994, Ch. 6) , it is pos­
I T h i s is a n u p d a t e d v e r s i o n o f a c h a p t e r w i t h a s i m i ­
sible to co m b in e d iffe re n t item -elicitatio n
l a r title, a p p e a r i n g in M . C c l c e - M u r c i a . e d . ( 1 9 9 1 ) . form als (i.e., oral, w ritten, nonverbal, o r a com ­
le a ch in g hng/i.sh as a Second o r J-'orcign Language. b ination) and item -response form ats (likewise
Scw Y ork: X ew b u rv H ouse H a rp c iC o llin s (p p . oral, w ritten, o r nonverbal) in o rd e r to g en erate
4 8 6 -500. items. For this reason, lists o f sam ple item s in
- S o m e tim e s te a c h e rs speak of u sin g a " c u rv e ." testin g books inav a p p e a r re p e titio n s. For
■which s i m p l e m e a n s t h a t t l i e v e v a l u a t e a s t u d e n t ' s instance, a listening item and a read in g item
p e r f o r m a n c e in c o m p a r i s o n w ith t h a t o f o t h e r s tu ­ mav actually have the same item stim ulus (e.g., a
d e n t s in t h e s a m e c la s s o r in o t h e r c la s se s.
w ritten question) and differ onlyw ith respect to
See th e a p p e n d ix , under "A ssessin g S p e a k in g
the way the m ultiple-choice responses tire p re­
S k ills." f o r a d i s t i n c t i o n b e t w e e n s o c i o c u l t u r a l a n d
se n te d — orallv. in the case o f the listening item
s o c i o l i n g u i s t i c c o m p e t e n c e o r ab ilitv .
and in writing in the rase of the read in g item.
4 It w o u l d b e p o s s i b l e to a v o i d th is bv h a v in g th e
m u l ti p le - c h o ic e a l t e r n a t h e s a lso p r e s e n t e d o r a l h .
This appendix provides a brief sam pling
•’ O v e r a l l rap id in sp e c tio n w ith p e rio d s of c lo se
of some types of items that mav be of benefit in
in sp e c tio n . testing, dep en d in g upon what is needed.
() L o c a t i n g a s p e c i f i c s v m b o l o r g r o u p o f s v m b o l s —
e .g .. a d a te , a n a m e o f a p e r s o n o r p la c e , a s u m o f
m o n ev .
Assessing Listening Skills
' D isc o v e rin g a c c u ra te ly w h a t th e a u th o r seeks to D iscrim ination o f Sou n ds
convev. a. T h e re s p o n d e n t in d icates w hich vowel
H I n i n t e l l i g e n t t u t o r i n g sy s te m s , t h e c o m p u t e r d i a g ­
sound o f th re e is different from the o th e r
n oses th e stu d e n ts' str a te g ie s a n d th e ir rela tio n ­
two. (Taped stim ulus): (1) sun (2) p u t (3)
sh ip to expert str a te g ie s, and th e n g en erates
dug: (response choices): (a) 1 *(b) 2 (c) 3.
i n s t r u c t i o n b a s e d o n th is c o m p a r i s o n .
b. These sounds could be in sentence context.
9 T h is p o sitio n is a n e n d o r s e m e n t o f th e need to
ta k e in to a c c o u n t " p e r c e iv e d v a lid ity ” (L o w 1 9 8 3 ).
(Taped stim ulus): (1) It's a sheep. (2) It’s a
as d is c u s s e d in t h e c h a p t e r u n d e r "v a lid ity .” shoe]). (3) It's a ship. (Response choices):
10 T h e p o i n t h e r e is t h a t s u c h c a s e s o f b i a s c a n he (a) 1. (b) 2 A c) 3.
v ie w e d as a g o o d th i n g — as i n t e n t i o n a l bias. T h e
a i m w o u l d b e t o s e t u p t a s k s t h a t t e s t - t a k e r s w ill b e
Intonation
m o tiv a te d to p a rtic ip a te in . such as th o se th a t a. The resp o n d en t is to indicate w h e th e r two
a p p r o x i m a t e re a l-life s i tu a t io n s (S p o ls k v 1 9 8 3 ). phrases have the same in to nation. (Taped
II F o r m o r e o n v e r b a l r e p o r t a s a r e s e a r c h t o o l , s e e stim ulus): You're com ing?. You're com ing.
C o h e n 1998, p p. 3 4 -8 9 . 4 9 -b l. (Response choices): (a) same, *(b) different
b. The respondent m ust determ ine the m ean­
ing o f the phrase from the intonation.
(Taped stim ulus): G ood m orning! (Response
choices): (a) lrappv u> see employee, A b)
annoy ed that the em ployee is late to work
Listen in g fo r G ram m atical D istinctions
T he resp o n d e n t has to listen carefully for inflec­
tional m ark ers— for exam ple, the respondent
m ust d e te rm in e w h eth er the subject an d verb (bv m anipulating the stim ulus m aterial, the
are in the singular or the plural. (Taped stim u­ task posed, the learners' response, a n d /o r the
lus): T he boys sing well. (Response choices): (a) scoring criteria) to m eet different assessment
singular, *(b) plural, (c) same form for singular purposes" (1998b. p. 20). Bailev offers the
a n d plural. partial dictation and the gradnated dictation
as alternatives to a full dictation. In the first,
Listening for Vocabulary
parts o f the text are already on the page. In
T h e resp o n d en t perform s an action in response the second, the size o f the phrase groups
to a com m and (e.g., getting up. walking to the betw een pauses is gradually increased. In
window) or draws a picture according to oral addition, the length o f the pauses and the
instructions (e.g., coloring a picture a certain wav, speed at which the phrase groups are read
sorting a set of objects according to instructions). can be varied.
Auditory Com prehension
Assessing Vocabulary
a. T he respondent indicates w hether a response
to a question is appropriate. (Taped stim ulus): a. R espondents receive sets o f six words an d
How’re you gonna get hom e? At about 3:30 th ree m eanings and are in stru cted to choose
p.m. (Response choices): (a) appropriate. *(b) the right w ord to go with each m eaning.
inappropriate Thev are to write the n u m b er o f that word
b. T h e resp o n d e n t hears a statem ent and m ust next to its m eaning (N ation 1990):
indicate the ap p ro p riate p arap h rase for the 1. applv
statem ent. (Taped stim ulus): W h at'd von get 2. elect ________ choose by voting
yourself into this time? (Response choices): 3. jum p ________ becom e like water
(a) W hat are you w earing this time? (b) 4. m anufacture ________ m ake
W hat did you buy this time? *(c) W hat's vour 3. m elt
pro b lem this time? 6. th re a te n
c. T he respondents listen in on a telephone
b. Respondents receive a long list of words (e.g.,
conversation betw een two people and at
10 0 ) and are to indicate w hether thev know
appropriate times m ust indicate what thev
their m eaning. T he list consists of both real
would say if thev were one of the speakers in
a n d im aginary words (n o n ex isten t words
the conversation. (Taped stim ulus): M other:
which the resp o n d en t could not possible
Well, Mary, vou know vou were supposed to
know) (Meant and Buxton 1987):
call m e last week. Man". I know. Mom. but I
got tied up. M other: T hat's really no excuse. Check the words to n know the m ean in g of.
M an" (Response choices): (a) Yes. I'll call e.g.. ✓ 'milk
him . *(b) You’re right. I'm sorrv. (c) I’ve gath erin g forecast woclesome
really h ad n o th in g to do. lovalm ent flane crope
d. T he resp o n d en t hears a lecture, with all the dismissal sloping bluck
false starts, filled pattses. and o th er features enclose rehearsion turm oil
that m ake it different from oral recitation o f a
written text. After the lecture, there arc taped
c. C ontextualized vocabulary; R espondents are
asked to indicate what a word m eans within
m ultiple-choice, structured, or open-ended
the context of a given passage. T h e response
questions to be responded to in writing on
could be open -en d ed o r m ultiple-choice —
the answer sheet.
e.g.. W hat does delinquent m ean in line 7?
e. D ictation can se n e as a test o f auditory com ­
p rehension if it is given at a fast eno u g h pace (O p en -en d ed re s p o n s e ):_______________ .
so th at it is n o t simply a spelling test. As Bailey (M ultiple-choice re sp o n se ):
notes, “ [D ic ta tio n is really a family of related (a) naughty (b) haughtv
procedures that can be systematically altered (c) sinful *(d) irresponsible
Assessing Speaking Skills
G ood practice calls for using varied m easures of
speaking, such that for each learner m ore than
one type o f speaking is tapped (e.g., reporting in
the L2 the contents of an article read in the native
language, p articipating in g roup discussion on a
com m on and possible controversial them e, tak­
ing p art in role play, an d lecturing).
T hen it would be im portant to establish
which speech functions are to be assessed in each
type of interaction (e.g., reporting: ability to state
the m ain ideas and express an opinion about
them ; discussion: arguing; role plav: appropriate
execution of the necessary speech acts— request­
ing, com plaining, apologizing, com plim enting).
C ohen (1994, Ch. 8) provides scales for rating
com m unicative language ability in term s of socio­
cultural, sociolinguistic, an d gram m atical ability,
respectively T he sociocultural scale assesses the
appropriateness of the strategies selected for real­
izing speech acts in a given context, taking into
account (T) the culture involved, (2) the age and
sex o f the speakers, (3) their social class and
occupations, and (4) their roles and status in the
interaction.
T he scale for sociolinguistic ability is in tended
to assess the ttse of linguistic forms to express the
intent of the speech act (e.g.. regret in an apology,
grievance in a com plaint, the objective of
a request, or the refusal of an im itation). For
exam ple, when a student e a rn in g coffee bum ps
into a professor, spilling it on the professor's dress.
“SornT' would probably constitute an inadequate
apology. This categoiw assesses the speakers' con­
trol over the actual language forms ttsed to realize
the speech act (e.g.. "sorrv," "excuse me," “yen'
sonw," "reallv s o i t v " ) . as well as their control over
register or formality of the utterance from most
intim ate to most formal language.
T he grammaticality scale deals with how
acceptably words, phrases, and sentences are
form ed and p ro n o u n ce d in the resp o n d en ts’
utterances. T he focus is both on clear cases of
errors in form , such as the use of the present p er­
fect for an action com pleted in the past (e.g., “We
have had a great time last night at your house"),
as well as on m atters o f stvle (e.g., the learner uses
a passive verb form in a context w here a native
would use the active form: "The CD was lost” vs. ”1
lost vottr C D "1. Major errors m ight be considered
those that either interfere with intelligibility' or
stigmatize the speaker. M inor errors would be
those that neither get in the way of the listen e r’s
co m p reh en sio n n o r annoy the listener to any
extent. Thus, getting the tense w rong in “We
have h ad a great tim e last n ig h t at your h o u se ”
could be viewed as a m in o r error, w hereas p ro ­
d u cin g “I d o n ’t have what to say” by translating
directly from the a p p ro p riate H ebrew language
(for “I really have no excuse”) could be consid­
e re d a m ajor e rro r since it is n o t only u n g ram ­
m atical b u t also could stigm atize the speaker as
ru d e a n d u n c o n c ern e d , ra th e r th an apologetic.
Assessing the Interaction of Reading
and W riting
An exam ple o f a test o f read in g and w riting is
that o f sum m arizing. Sum m arization tests are
com plex in nature. T he read in g p o rtio n entails
identifying topical inform ation, distinguishing
su p e ro rd in a te from su b o rd in ate m aterial, a n d
identifying re d u n d a n t a n d trivial inform ation.
Writing up of summ ary entails selecting o f topical
inform ation (or generating it if it is n o t provided ),
deleting trivial and red u n d an t inform ation, substi­
tuting superordinate m aterial, and restating the
test so that it is co herent and polished (Brown and
Da\ 1983; Kintsch and van Dijk 1978).
Given the lack of clarity that often accom pa­
nies such tasks, it mav be useful to give specific
instructions as to how to go about the sum m a­
rization task. For example:
Instructions on H ow to Read
■ Read to extract the m ost im p o rtan t po in ts—
for exam ple, those constituting topic sen­
tences signaled as crucial bv the paragraph
structure: points that the read er o f the sum-
man- would w ant to read.
■ Reduce inform ation to superordinate points.
■ Avoid re d u n d a n t in fo rm atio n — points will
be taken off.
Instructions on H ow to Write
■ P repare in draft form a n d th e n rewrite.
■ Link points smoothly.
■ Exact length o f sum m ary (e.g., 10 p e rc e n t
o f original test, so 75 words for 750-word
text)
■ W rite in your own words.
■ Be brief.
■ W rite legible.
It may also be beneficial to give raters specific
instructions as to how to assess the sum m aries:
■ C heck to see w h eth er each im p o rta n t p o in t
is in clu d ed (points th at were agreed u p o n
by a g ro u p of experts in advance).
■ Check to ensure that these points are linked
together by the key linking/integrating ele­
m ents appearing on the m aster list.
■ Points will be taken off for each irrelevant
point.
■ Points will be taken off for illegibility.
Assessing W ritte n Expression
P erhaps the m ain th in g to be said ab o u t the
testing of w ritten expression is that it is a p o o r
substitute for rep e a te d sam plings o f a le a rn e r’s
w riting ability while n o t tin d e r the pressure o f an
exam situation. T he c u rre n t process-oriented
a p p ro ach to w riting suggests that it is u n n a tu ra l
for a le a rn e r to write a draft o f a com position
an d subm it it for a grade. Instead, learners p re­
pare m ultiple drafts that are reviewed both bv
peers (in small groups) a n d bv the teach er at
a p p ro p riate times. H ence, if writing is to be
assessed on a test, it would be im portant to proride
the learners with specific guidelines as to the
nature of the task. For example:
Your boss has asked vou to rough out
an a rg u m e n t fo r whv the factory
employees should not get longer coffee
breaks. Try to present your argum ents
in the most logical and persuasive wav.
Do n o t w o rn ab o u t gram m ar and
punctuation at this point. T here is no
time for that now. Just concern yourself
with the co n ten t of votir ideas, their
organization, and the choice of a p p ro ­
priate vocabulary to state your case.
It is also im portant for the person assessing the
writing to pav attention onlv to those aspects of
the task that learners were requested to perform .
Furtherm ore, the field of T2 writing has
em braced the use of portfolios whereby the stu­
dents prepare a series of com positions (possibly
including the various drafts o f each as well). Each
entrv mav represent a different tvpe o f writing—
for instance, one could be a narrative or descrip­
tive or expressive piece, the second a form al essay,
and the third an analysis of a prose text. H ence,
the portfolio represents m ultiple m easures of the
students' writing ability. (For m ore on portfolios,
see Hamp-Lvons and Conclon 2000.)
 Keeping Up to Date as an
ESL or EFL Professional
J O A N N (JODI) C R A N D A L L

Crandall's chapter identifies a number of strategies and resources for continuing professional
development. The strategies include participating in professional associations, serving on curriculum
developm ent or textbook selection committees, researching classroom issues and practice, and
working collaboratively with professionals Tom other fields. Also discussed are relevant journals,
clearinghouses/centers, publishers, and Internet resources.

“That’s the best part of teaching— understand ou r students, ourselves, ou r discipline,

the learning. ”
(An ex p erien ced tea c h e r serving as a Peace
Corps vo lu n teer in K iribati)
IN T R O D U C T IO N
T h o u g h you m ar be about to com plete o r mav
have recently com pleted a program to prep are
you as an English as a second or foreign lan ­
guage teach er a n d vou've lea rn ed a lot about
theories o f teaching a n d learning, language
acquisition an d developm ent, the structure of
English, approaches an d techniques for teach­
ing a n d testing language skills an d proficiency,
a n d cross-cultural com m unication a n d have had
the o p p o rtu n ity to read about, discuss, and
research a n u m b e r of specific topics related to
second a n d fo reig n language tea c h in g and
le a rn in g — this is onlv a beginning. If con have
b een able to teach d u rin g votir program , you
know how m uch m ore you learn w hen you can
test out w hat you have b e e n read in g a n d th in k ­
ing about. T hat testing and learn in g will now
becom e a p a rt o f your daily routine. It was a wise
person who said th at teaching is lifelong le a rn ­
ing. I t’s th at learn in g ("the best p a rt o f teach ­
in g ”) w hich m otivates m anv English language
professionals to keep teaching w hen the benefits
from o th e r jo b s w ould otherw ise draw them
away. C om pleting an academ ic program is really
onlv the beginning of a lifelong quest to better
and the approaches and techniques we can use to
help others to becom e com petent users o f English.
A n u m b er o f resources are available to stim­
ulate new ideas and to help us reconsider old
ideas or practices. You have undoubtedly used
manv of these during vour TESOL program .
Tliev will becom e even m ore im p o rtan t w hen you
find yourself in settings w here there are fewer
colleagues to share concerns a n d ideas with on a
regular basis than when vou were a student. Some
of the wavs in which vou can continue to grow
as a teacher and becom e a better-inform ed EST
professional include:
■ Participating in professional associations
concerned with the teaching o f English or
o th er foreign languages, including attending
local, national, or international conferences.
■ Subscribing to journals and regularly read­
ing periodicals about language teaching and
learning and related fields.
■ Placing your nam e on m ailing lists of m ajor
ESL /EFL textbook publishers an d inform a­
tion clearinghouses o r resource centers.
■ O ffering to review texts for publishers o r
journals.
■ Participating in electronic (e-mail) discus­
sion groups and using the In te rn e t to access
language teaching a n d learning websites
an d electronic jo u rn als.
■ Serving on textbook selection com m ittees
in vour ESL program .
■ W orking on curriculum or textbook devel­
o p m en t team s in vour ESL. program .
■ A ttending or giving in-service workshops
an d sem inars lo r teachers.
■ Participating in sum m er institutes or special
graduate program s to augm ent and update
vour knowledge and skills.
■ Researching issues in vour own classroom or
participating in research projects that will
enable to n to work with colleagues from
vour own and o th er institutions who are
engaged in an ah zing issues relevant to vour
classroom.
■ W orking collaborativelv with professionals
in o th e r fields.
■ Being m entored bv experienced colleagues
and then becom ing a m entor to novice
teachers or those who are new to vour insti­
tution or program .
P R O FE S S IO N A L A S S O C IA T IO N S
A N D O R G A N IZ A T IO N S
Professional associations and organizations offer
an excellent m eans of keeping in touch with o th ­
ers in the same field. Thev provide a n u m b e r of
form al an d inform al channels (publications,
conferences, sem inars, workshops, and com m it­
tees) to learn w hat o thers in sim ilar contexts are
thinking a n d doing a n d to share insights and
ideas from vour own experience. Most also offer
a n u m b e r o f professional dev elo p m en t o p p o rtu ­
nities on the In te rn e t and the W orld W ide Web,
such as electronic discussion groups, online sem ­
inars or w orkshops, and e-mail question and
answ er services. W hile atte n d in g conferences or
sem inars in person mav provide op p o rtu n ities
for interacting with manv colleagues, increasinglv
it is possible to have that interaction w ithout leav­
ing hom e, through the In te rn et and o th er tech­
nology. These associations also publish a range of
materials, including newsletters, journals, teacher
reference books, and student texts or o th er m ate­
rials, each of which provides a different wav of
keeping inform ed about new research, materials,
o r issues in the field. Most associations also host
conferences, both at a national and m ore local
level. These conferences offer m ultiple avenues
for professional growth. Plenarv addresses often
discuss e m e rg in g questio n s; p a p e rs analvze
rese a rc h results; w orkshops in tro d u c e te c h ­
niques o r strategies: and book exhibits provide
an o p p ortunitv to exam ine new stu d e n t and
teach er resource texts. Thev also offer o p p o rtu ­
nities for inform al conversation with o th ers
who share sim ilar interests or concerns, often
leading to long-term professional c o rre sp o n ­
dence and friendship.
T h ere is perhaps no single ex perience with
m ore potential for ed u cating a n d refreshing a
professional than an intern atio n al English lan­
guage teaching conference. But even at a smaller,
national, regional, or local level, these organiza­
tions and conferences are a great resource, som e­
tim es providing inform ation o r assistance th at is
of m ore im m ediate use. since professionals in
the same geographic area are likelv to share similar
concerns. Professional associations usuallv also
offer ongoing program s of professional develop­
m ent through sum m er institutes, short courses,
an d sem inars, scheduled so that teachers and
others who are w orking are able to attend.
O pportunities to participate in these professional
developm ent sem inars from one's hom e, an o th er
institution, or through distance education are
also increasing. T hese sem inars, institutes, an d
workshops can all help revive a teach er who is
feeling b u rn e d out from the dailv stress of class­
room teaching.
T hrough a professional association, vou can
also becom e m ore activelv involved in im proving
the profession: in helping to set standards for
instruction, in developing criteria for evaluating
program s, or in recognizing exem plarv research
or practice. Most organizations also have a num ­
ber of special interest groups which com m unicate
regularlv through publications, e-mail, or confer­
ences about specific aspects of the profession —
for exam ple, the use of com puters or video in
teaching, the teaching o f specific skills or specific
levels, and the different roles of English language
teaching professionals, such as m aterials develop­
m ent or program adm inistration.
But reading others' work, listening to what
others are learning or doing, or taking courses is
also onlv a beginning. You need to trv out vour
ideas bv p resen tin g som ething vou have learn ed
through vour experience, perhaps giving a poster
session w here von displav the results o f an action
research project y o u have undertaken in vour
class or participating in an informal "swap simp"
or "what works" session where y o u join several col­
leagues in sharing teaching techniques that y o u
have fo u n d particularlv effective. T he m ore
actively you participate, the m ore the profes­
sional association will offer vou and the m ore
vou will learn.
W hile there are manv professional associa­
tions of interest to English language teaching pro­
fessionals, the following are am ong the largest and
m ost im p o rta n t (unless n o ted otherw ise, all
organizations listed are in the U nited States):
Teachers of English to Speakers
of Other Languages (TESOL)
700 South W ashington Street. Suite 200
A lexandria, VA 22314
P hone: (703) 836-0774
Fax: (703) 836-7864
E-mail: inf o@ tesol.org
Website: http: 4vww.tesol.org
TESOL publishes TESOL Matters (the organiza­
tion's newsletter, with an excellent calendar
o f upcom ing conferences), TESOL Journal (a
p ra c tic e -o rie n te d m agazine, in c lu d in g "Tips
fro m th e C lassroom "). 'TESOL Quarterly (a
research jo u rn al), a n u m b e r of special-interest
newsletters, and a range of teacher reference
texts. It also m aintains tut extensive website. In
addition to an annual conference, which draws
about 10.000 English language teaching profes­
sionals, the organization also sponsors profes­
sional developm ent sem inars and academ ies and
articulates standards for English language teach­
ing in diverse contexts. M embers can participate
in 20 Interest Sections, with new ones form ing as
new interests em erge. T here are also m ore than
90 TESOL Affiliates aro u n d the world, represent­
ing m ajor m etropolitan areas, states, provinces,
regions, and countries. These "local” language­
teaching organizations tire also im portant sources
o f inform ation, often sponsoring conferences,
professional developm ent seminars, publications
fairs, and job lists, offering teachers an opportu-
nitv to link up with colleagues teaching in similar
contexts. Manv affiliates also publish newsletters,
journals such as the CATESOL Journal, published
by the C alifornia Association o f Teachers of
English to Speakers of O th e r Languages, and
w orking papers, such as those published bv the
W ashington, DC TESOL (WATESOE) affiliate.
International Association of Teachers of
English as a Foreign Language (IATEFL)
3 Kingsdown C ham bers
W hitstable. Kent CT5 214. UK
E-mail: iatefl@ com puserve.com
We b si t e : 1111 p :/ www. i a t e f1. о rg
This UK-based professional organization hosts an
annual conference, usuallv held in conjunction
with one o f the 70 national professional organiza­
tions associated with IATEFL. T he 14 Special
Interest G roups also jointlv sponsor an annual
svmpositim, often in conjunction with the British
Council. IATEFL m em bers receive reduced rates
on a n u m b er of professional journals, including
the ELL Journal, Modern English ’Teacher, and English
Teaching Professional. IATEFL also makes available
teacher reference texts, some of which consist of
papers from past IATEFL conferences. T he web­
site provides an extensive conference calendar, as
well as news of the association.
International Association of Applied
Linguistics (AILA)
с о Am erican Association for A pplied Linguistics
(AAAL)
PO Box 21686
Eagan. MX 55121-0686
Phone: (952) 953-0805
Fax: (952) 431-8404
E-mail: aaaloffice@ aaal.org
Website: h ttp :/,/www.aaal.org
All.A Website: h ttp ://w w w .b ra d .a c .u k /a c a d /aila
AILA. is an international association m ade up of
national associations o f applied linguists. Because
it has no fixed secretariat, the easiest wav to find
out about AILA is th rough a national affiliate
such as the Am erican Association for A pplied
Linguistics (AAAL) or th rough the AILA website.
AILA hosts a W orld C ongress on A pplied
Linguistics in a different country every 3 vears,
providing an excellent opportunity to becom e
acquainted with research and practice in m ore
than 30 areas in applied linguistics. In addition,
the association publishes AILA Xews and the A ll A
Review (them atic occasional papers). A VAL, the
U.S. affiliate, convenes an annual conference,
with a n u m b er of plenarv speakers and colloquia
on a range of topics in applied linguistics. It also
publishes the AX\Letter (available at the website)
with notices about conferences, issues of concern
to applied linguists, and a m em bership directory,
as well as a directorv o f graduate program s in
applied linguistics in N orth America. It also m ain­
tains an electronic m ailing list for posting job
notices and o th er inform ation.
National Association for Bilingual
Education (NABE)
1030 lo th Street, X\V, Suite 470
W ashington, DC 20005-1503
P hone: (202) 898-1829
Fax: (202) 789-2860
E-mail: NABE @n a b e .о r g
W ebsite: h ttp :/ / www. n a b e .org
Focusing on the ed u catio n o f language m inority
students in the U n ited States. NABE offers a
n u m b e r of services o f interest to ESL and EFL
language professionals, including an extensive
w ebsite, w here back issues of the Bilingual
Research Journal a n d ЛABF. Xews (the associa­
tion's new sletter) are archived. A m ong XABE's
18 Special In terest G roups are ones focused on
Earlv C hildhood, Elem entary. A dult /V ocational
o r H ig h er E ducation, Global E ducation, Critical
Pedagogy, a n d Inform ation Technology. T h ere
is also a Special In terest G roup for Parents.
NAFSA: Association of International
Educators
1307 New York Avenue, XW, 8th Floor
W ashington, DC 20005-4701
P hone: (202) 737-3699
Fax: (202) 737-3657
E-mail: inbox@ nafsa.org
Website: h ttp :/ Avww.nafsa.org
With a focus on international exchange of scholars
to and from the U nited States, this association
(formerly the National Association for Foreign
Student Advisers) includes am ong its m em bers
directors of international program s, educational
advisers and admissions officers, and ESL. teachers
and program administrators, working principally
in h ig h er education. T he association hosts a
national and several regional conferences, pub­
lishes International Educator (a quarterly news­
letter), and proticles an electronic news service
which keeps m em bers current on legislation and
policy discussions, as well as m ore routine news of
the association.
Linguistic Society of America (LSA)
1325 18th Street. NAG Suite 211
W ashington. DC 20036-6501
Fax: (202) 835-1717
E-mail: lsa@lsadc.org
Website: http: / www.lsadc.org
An association principally o f theoretical an d
descriptive linguists, ESA publishes the jo u rn a l
Language and the LSA Bulletin, convenes an
a n n u a l scholarly m eeting, sponsors sum m er
institutes, and offers a n u m b e r o f journals at
red u c e d rates to m em bers. Its website provides
an extensive listing o f publishers, journals, and
o th e r inform ation of interest to ESL/EFE lan­
guage teach in g professionals.
While participation in language and linguis­
tics professional associations m ight seem an obvi­
ous source of professional growth, what mav be
less obvious is the role that related professional
organizations can plav in helping to broaden and
deepen one's understanding of language teaching
and learning. For exam ple, attending a confer­
ence of reading or writing professionals or read­
ing a jo u rn al c o n c ern e d with cross-cultural
com m unication or curriculum developm ent can
offer insights relevant to ESL /EFI. teaching.
Participating in a related professional organization
can bring the insights of that field to o n e ’s own
teaching and also bring together professionals who
have m uch to share and learn from each other.
With expanding linguistic and cultural diversity in
national populations and increased stuclv or use of
English as an instructional m edium for some por­
tion of education in m any countries of the world,
links with o th e r professional associations will
becom e increasingly im portant for English lan­
guage teaching professionals. These organizations
exist in m any parts of the world. In the United
States, the International Reading Association (800
Barksdale Road, Newark, DE 19711;
h ttp ://w y m re a d in g .o rg ), the National Council of
Teachers o f English (1111 Kenyon Road, Urbana,
IE 61801; http://w w w .ncte.org), The Am erican
Council on the Teaching of Foreign Languages (6
Executive Plaza, Yonkers, NY' 10701;
h ttp ://w y m a c tfl.o rg ), and the Association for
Supervision and Curriculum D evelopm ent (1793
B eauregard Street, A lexandria, УА 22314;
h t tp : / /w y m ascd .o rg ) all provide publications,
conferences, a n d professional developm ent
opportunities relevant to ESL and EFL profession­
als. T heir websites, as well, are excellent sources of
inform ation about topics of relevance to ESL and
EFL professionals. Most of these organizations also
have regional, state, or local affiliates that provide
a m eans o f developing professional relationships
or collaborations with those closer to hom e.
P R O FE S S IO N A L JO U R N A LS
A nother wav to keep current is to read and
respond to journals in the field (some of which
are published by the professional associations dis­
cussed above) and to subm it com m ents, book
reviews, and articles to them . Because the num ber
of journals relevant to the teaching and learning
o f language continues to grots, only major, repre­
sentative ones are described below. In the section
on Electronic Resources, a n um ber of websites are
provided which can lead vou to o th er journals of
interest. Mans of these journals also provide some
portion of their current or past issues online. If
vou are unable to locate pap er copies o f these
journals, you may be able to access at least por­
tions of them through their svebsites.
Annual Review of Applied Linguistics (ARAL)
C am bridge University Press
110 M idland Ave.
Port Chester, NY 10573-4930
Or
Shaftesbury Road
E d in b u rg h Building
C am bridge CB2 2RU UK
Website: h t t p : / / u k .c a m b rid g e .o rg /jo u rn a ls
A i annual, them atic issue with invited contribu­
tions, ARAL provides a comprehensive, up-to-date
review o f research and practice in an area of
applied linguistics. Each article gives a critical sum­
mary o f one topic, followed bv an annotated bibli­
ography o f key references and a list of other
references o f interest. A broad range of topics is
covered, including language teaching and testing,
literacy, and language policy.
Applied Language Learning
D efense L anguage Institute, Foreign Language
C enter
Presidio o f M onterey, CA 93944-5006
Websi te : http: / / cli-wwvv. army, mil / p a g e s/
jou rn al/all9 8 -0 9 .p d f
Published semi-annually bv the Defense Language
Institute Foreign Language C enter and Presidio of
M onterey this journal focuses on the application
of research from a num ber of fields to language
teaching m ethods and techniques, curriculum and
materials, testing and evaluation, and o ther con­
cerns related to language professionals.
Appi led L i ngu isties
O x fo rd U n iv e rsity P ress
G reat C larendon Street
O xford OX2 6DP UK
Or
2001 Evans Road
Can-. NC 27513
E-mail: journal.info@ oup.co.uk
Website: h ttp ://w w w .o u p .c o .u k /jo u rn als
Published in cooperation with the Am erican and
British Associations for Applied Linguistics and
the International Association of A pplied Lin­
guistics. this jo urnal includes theoretical and
research articles discussing first and second
language acquisition, language teach in g and
testing, bilingualism and bilingual education,
discourse analysis, an d o th e r topics of in terest to
ap p lied linguists in diverse fields. Book reviews
are also included.
E LI' Journal
O xford University Press
G reat C laren d o n Street
O xford 0 X 2 6DP UK
Or
2001 Evans Road
Carv, NC 27513
E-mail: journal.info@ oup.co.uk
Website: http: / / w vvw 3.oup.co.uk/eltj/
Formerly the English Language leaching Journal,
the ELT Journal “seeks to bridge the gap between
the evervdav practical concerns of the ELT pro ­
fessional and related disciplines such as educa­
tion, linguistics, psychology, and sociology" In
addition to reviews of new publications and arti­
cles relating theory to classroom practice, ELTJ
reviews a “key concept in ELT" yearly providing a
synthesis and suggesting av enues for furth er read­
ing. Key concepts have included deductive and
inductive language learning, learner training,
learning strategies, and project work.
English for Specific Purposes
Elsev ier Science
P.O. Box 945
New York, XT 10159-0945
Or
T h e Boulevard, L angford Lane
K iddington, O xford 0 X 5 1GB UK
E-mail: usinfo-f@elsevier.com
Website: http://w w w .elsevier.com
Known formerly as the ESP Journal, this quarterly is
the m ajor source of inform ation about research,
program design, materials, teacher education, and
o th er issues in the teaching of English for Specific
Purposes around the world, including content-
based language instruction and vocational ESL.
Also has reviews of text materials and scholarly
books on topics of interest to ESP professionals.
English Teaching Forum
301 4th Street, SW, Room 312
W ashington, DG 20547
Website: hup: ex ch anges.state.gov/fo ru m /
W hile in te n d e d for teachers o f English outside
th e U n ited States a n d d istrib u te d by US
em bassies a ro u n d the world, the Forum is a
m ajor source o f in fo rm atio n on practical issues
in language teaching and teacher education for
ESL EFT professionals in the U nited States, espe­
cially those interested in international perspectives
on language teaching and learning. The Eorum
occasionally publishes thematic issttes and regu­
larly includes practical discussions of innovative
teaching techniques. O rdering information and
back issues are available on-line at the address listed.
ESL Magazine
B ridge Press
220 M cK endree Avenue
A nnapolis. MD 21401
E-mail: eslm agazine@ com puserve.com
Website: h ttp :/ vvvvvv.eslmag.com
A relative newcom er, this practical m agazine
includes articles about teaching in a variety of con­
texts (mostly second language) and instructional
approaches and techniques especially for the K-12
teacher. Some articles are available on its website.
Issues in Applied Linguistics
D epartm ent of Applied Linguistics and TESL
UCLA
3300 Rolfe Hall, P.O. Box 951531
Los Angeles. CA 90095-1531
E-mail: ial2@ hum net.ticla.edti
Website: h ttp :/, w w w .hum net.ucla.edu/
lium net TESTAE ial
Published bv the graduate students in applied
linguistics at UCLA, this journal focuses on new
departures and cross-clisciplinarv applied linguis­
tic research in areas such as discourse analysis,
sociolinguistics, language acquisition, language
e d u c atio n , an d language assessm ent. Book
reviews of teacher references and student texts
are also frequently included.
Journal of Second Language Writing
Ablex C orporation
с о Elsevier Science
P.O. Box 945
New York. NY 10159-0945
Or
T he Boulevard, L angford Lane
K iddington, O xford 0 X 5 1GB UK
E-mail: usinfo-f@elsevier.com
Website: h t t p : / /wwvv.elsevier.com
This journal features theoretically g ro u n d e d strategies, m otivation, o r bilingual education. Also
reports of research and discussion o f issues central published is an annual research reriew that identi­
to second and foreign language writing and writ­ fies trends in language teaching and learning from
ing instruction, including characteristics and atti­ the prerious vear.
tudes o f L2 writers, features of th eir texts, an d
read ers' responses to and evaluation of their Language Testing
writing in a variety o f contexts. A rnold Publishers
Jo u rn a l D ep artm en t
Language Learning 338 E uston Road
Blackwell Publishers L o n d o n N W 13B H UK
350 Main Street W'ebsite: http: / /a rn o ld p u b lish e rs.c o m /
M alden, MA 02148 Language 'testing is an international journal con­
Or cerned with issues of testing and assessment o f first,
P.O. Box 805 second, and foreign languages and is of interest to
108 Cowlev Road researchers and practitioners in ESI, and EFL test­
O xford 0 X 4 1FH UK ing. .Articles and research reports discuss testing
Website: theory and procedures and their practical implica­
h ttp ://w w w .blackw ellpublishers.co.uk tions. .Also included are book and test reviews.
A “jo u rn a l of research on language studies,"
Language Learning includes research and theoret­ Modern Language Journal
ical articles on child, second, and foreign language Blackwell Publishers
acquisition and learning, language education, 350 M ain Street
bilingualism , literacy, pragm atics, a n d culture, as M alden, M assachusetts 02148
well as book reviews, notes, and a n n o u n cem en ts. Or
It also provides an an nual su p p lem en t to sub­ P.O. Box 805
scribers in e ith e r the Best of Language L earning 108 Cowlev Road
Series or Language Learning M onograph Series. O xford OX4 1JF UK
While directed primarily it) language researchers, Website: h ttp ://w w w .blackw ellpublishers.co.uk
it also includes articles of interest to language
M L / focuses on foreign languages, but has articles
teachers.
on ESL as well. A range o f research, reriew, and
response articles is included, as well as publication
Language Leaching and m edia reviews, a calendar of events, and news.
C am bridge University Press
110 M idland Ave.
Reading in a Foreign Language
Port Chester. XT 10573-4930
Or In te rn atio n a l E ducation C entre
E d in b u rg h Building University College o f St. M ark a n d St. J o h n
Shaftesbury Road D erriford Road
C am bridge CB2 2RU UK Plym outh PL6 8BH UK
Website: http: / /u k .c a m b rid g e .o rg /jo u rn a ls This journal focuses on research a n d instruc­
Language Teaching abstracts articles in applied tional issues related to read in g in a second or
linguistics, language studies, foreign languages, foreign language.
and E SL /LFL teaching from journals published
in several languages, with particularly co m p re­ Studies in Second Language Acquisition
hensive coverage o f E u ro p e a n sch o larsh ip . C am bridge University Press
O f special interest is the feature sum m ary article, 110 M idland Ave.
which presents a state-of-the-art overview of some Port Chester, XT 10573-4930
im p o rtan t area in the field, such as lea rn er Or
E d in b u rg h B uilding
Shaftesbury Road
C am bridge C.B2 2RU UK
W ebsite: h ttp :/ / uk. cam bri d g e .o r g /
Each year, one issue of SSLA is devoted to a par­
ticular them e. T he o th er two issues are concerned
with theoretical and research topics in second and
foreign language acquisition and learning.
TESOL Journal
700 South W ashington Street, Suite 200
A lexandria, VA 22314
E-mail: info@ tesol.org
Website: http: / /www. tesol.org/'
T h e Journal p u b lish es articles on te a c h e r
research, teaching techniques, and issues of
im p o rta n c e to classroom te a c h e rs w orking
directly with E ST /EFL students. Also in cluded
are classroom tips, m aterials reviews, a n d a spe­
cial section on websites a n d technology in lan­
guage teaching. Special issues devoted to them es
such as secondary school students o r content-
based language instruction.
TESOL Quarterly
700 South W ashington Street, Suite 200
A lexandria, VA 22314
E-mail: info@ tesol.org
Website: h ttp :/' / www.tesol.org/
TESOL Quarterly publishes scholarly articles of
in terest to researchers, teach er educators, cur­
riculum developers, a n d teachers of English
a ro u n d the world. It also publishes book reviews,
len g th ie r review articles, book notices, a n d b rie f
research reports an d sum m aries. A special fea­
tu re is a forum for debate on issues th at have
been raised previously in the journal.
World Englishes
Blackwell Publishers
350 M ain Street
M alden, MA 02148
Or
108 Cowley Road
O xford 0 X 4 1JF UK
Website: http:/,/wvvw. blackw ellpublishers.co.uk/
As the of variety of Englishes increases, so does
the interest in studying them in th eir cultural
a n d sociolinguistic contexts. This journal focuses
on the studv a n d teaching o f these '‘W orld
Englishes,” with an international perspective on
language, literature, and m ethodology of English
language teaching. T he C om m ents/R eplies and
O p en Forum sections encourage lively discussion
o f the issues.
O th e r periodicals that deserve m entioning
include TESOL Matters (the newsletter of the
TESOL association, which pro\ides inform ation
on m eetings, conferences, legislation, and publi­
cations o f interest to ESL/EFL professionals);
Cross Currents (a journal which is particularly con­
cerned with cross-cultural issues in English lan­
guage teaching); the RELC Journal (a publication
of the SEAMEO Regional Language C entre in
Singapore, which focuses on language teaching
and learning in Southeast Asia); the JALTJournal
and The Language 'Teacher (publications o f the
Japan Association of Language Teachers, the latter
offering them atic issues dealing -with special topics
in English and other foreign language teaching);
the TEST ReJjorter (a slim journal with timely sug­
gestions for ESL/EFL classroom teachers); the
Canadian Modern Language Rei’iew (a jo u rn al with
parallel articles in English and French concerned
with language teaching and learning); TESL Talk
(a "journal for teachers o f ESL,” especially those
w orking with im m igrants a n d refugees, p u b ­
lished bv the M inistry of Citizenship in T oronto,
C anada); English Teaching Professional (a new/
practical quarterly m agazine in te n d e d prim arily
for classroom teachers o f English in secondary
schools); Reading in a Foreign Language (with a
focus on research an d practice in second and
fo reig n lan g u a g e re a d in g ); a n d Language
Teaching Research (which publishes both q u an ti­
tative and qualitative research related to teach ­
ing of second and foreign languages [including
English], with topics such as m aterials design,
m ethodology, teaching of specific skills, and lan­
guages for specific purposes).
In addition, associations of professionals in
the fields o f reading, waiting, foreign languages,
teacher education, and curriculum developm ent
publish journals an d magazines of relevance to
English language teaching. For exam ple, the
In te rn a tio n a l R eading A ssociation publishes
Reading Research Quarterly, with theoretical articles
and reviews of research o f interest to reading
researchers; the Journal of Adolescent and Adult
Literary (previously the Journal of Reading) focuses
on theoretical and practical articles -which are rel­
evant to ESL/EFL literacy teachers at secondary
school or adult levels; and The Reading Teacher,
for elem entary school teachers. T he National
Council of Teachers of English, with an ESL
Assembly at its annual conference, publishes jour­
nals on writing with increasing discussion of sec­
o n d language issues, including Research in the
Teaching of English, Teaching English in the Two-Year
College, and College Composition and Communication.
T he Association for Supervision and C urriculum
D evelopm ent publishes Educational Leadership, the
single m agazine for keeping current on program ­
m atic and political issues confronting public
school education in the U nited States, with recent
issues focusing on m ultiple intelligences, technol­
ogy in teaching, and constructivist teaching.
Eoreign Language Annals, published bv the
.American Council on the Teaching of Foreign
Languages, is in te n d e d for foreign language
administrators, researchers, and teachers in the
U nited States, but contains theoretical, practical,
and poliev-oriented articles of interest to English
language teaching professionals.
P U B LISH ER S
A N D C L E A R IN G H O U S E S
To keep c u rre n t on stu d e n t textbooks, teacher
referen ce m aterials, audiovisual m aterials, and
software, you will want to have your nam e or the
n am e o f vour educational in stitution ad d e d to
the m ailing lists o f the m ajor ESL /EFL and
applied linguistics publishers and inform ation
clearinghouses so that vou can receive regular-
m ailings o f th eir catalogs or c u rre n t m aterials
and services. M am publishers also provide a list
an d description of their publications online. You
can consult the websites listed below to see what
m aterials and o th er sen-ices (e.g., newsletters,
answers to questions, or lists o f local marketing-
representatives) are provided.
T he expanding role of English as an interna­
tional or additional language has led to the devel­
opm ent of an un p reced en ted quantity o f English
language teaching texts and reference materials,
published bv a wide range of publishers. It is
impossible to list them all here. W hat follows is a
representative list of those that produce diverse
types of ELT publications. Readers o f a form er
edition o f this chapter trill note that m any of the
previously listed publishers are now p art of larger
publishing houses. Since the form er publishing-
im prints are still in distribution, I have listed them
u n d e r their new publisher.
T he m ajority o f addresses provided below
are for the L’nited States an d U n ited K ingdom .
Most publishers also m aintain offices an d distri­
bution centers in a n u m b e r o f countries. If vou
work outside the U nited States and the U nited
K ingdom , consult th e p u b lish er th ro u g h its web­
site or bv mail for inform ation ab o u t publication
distribution closer to hom e.
CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY PRESS
40 West 20th Street
New York, NT 10011
Or
T he E d in b u rg h B uilding
C am bridge CB2 2RU UK
Website: http: / /u k .c a m b rid g e .o rg /jo u rn a ls
III INI M \ \ \
Eurospan G roup
3 H e n rie tta Street
L o n d o n WC2 8 LU UK
"Website: h ttp ://w w w .h e in e m a n n .c o m /
HEINLE & HEIXLF, PUBLISHERS
(publishers o f H einle & H einle an d Newbury
H ouse)
Division of T hom son L earning, Inc.
25 T hom son Place
Boston. MA 02110
Websi t e : h ttp :/ /■www. heinle. com
h t t p : / / w w w .thom sonlearning.com
HOUGHTON MIFFLIN COMPANY
222 Berkley Street
Boston, _\L\ 02116
Website: http: / / www.hrnco.com
JOSSEY-BASS Website: http: tM M v.press.um ich.edu/esl
350 Sansom e Street
San Francisco, CA 94104 Two o th e r publishers 'b o o k distrib u to rs also
Website: h t t p : / / w w w . jo s s e Y b a s s . c o m Fill orders for books from o th e r publishers:
i MVR1-NCF ERLBAUM ASSOCIATES. INC. ALTA BOOK CENTER PUBLISHERS
10 Industrial Avenue 14 A drian C ourt
M ahwah, NJ 07430-2262 Burlingam e, CA 94010
Website: http://tMMv.erlbaum.com Website: h t t p :/ ' tvtvtv.ahaesl.com
h t t p : / / t M M v . m h e d u c a t i o n . c o m
DELTA SYSTEMS CO.. INC.
McGRAW HILL COMPANIES 1400 M iller Parktvav
1221 Avenue o f the Am ericas M cHenry, IL 60050-7030
New York, NT 100202 Website: h ttp /' tMvtv.deha-svstems.com
W ebsite: http://4M nv.m cgratv-hill.com
T h e re are also three major e-connnerce sites for
ML LTII4NGLAL MATTERS
book orders that can prot ide inform ation about
F rankfurt Lodge, Clevedon Hall
c urrent (and some out-of-print) books:
Clcvedon BS21 7H H UK
http: ' tMvtv.amazon.com
Website: h ttp :/' /www.multilingual-
http: tMMv.barnesandnoble.com
m atters.com
http: / tvtvtv.borders.com
NATIONAL TEXTBOOK COMPANY N il
4255 West Touhv Avenue
L incolnw ood, IL 60712-1975
Website: http: / /wwtv.ntc-school.com C L E A R IN G H O U S E S
OXFORD UNRTRSITY PRESS A n u m b e r o f inform ation clearinghouses car.
ESL D ep artm en t provide timelv inform ation a n d answers to ques­
198 M adison Avenue tions that mav arise as y o u work in the ESL/EFL
New York, NY 10016 field. Som e o f these, such as the E ducational
Website: http://4vtvw .oup-usa.org esl Resources Inform ation C en ter (ERIC) system
Or are long-standing; others develop as the need
English L anguage Teaching Division for them arises, onlv to dissolve w hen the issue'
Great. C larendon Street are no lo n g er as pressing o r w hen fu n d in g is m
Oxfor d 0 X 2 6DP UK lo n g er available. You will want to ask to b e
Website: h ttp ://w w w .o u p .u k placed on regular or electronic m ailing lists and
to consult th eir websites for fu rth e r inform ation
PEARSON ED U CAT IО N Also be on the lookout for new clearinghouses r :
(Publishers of Longm an, Prentice Hall Regents, centers that mav arise. Some of the m ost use!/.,
Scott Foresm an, a n d Addison-Wesley) include the following:
10 Bank Street, Suite 900
W hite Plains, NY 10606-1951 ERIC CLEARINGHOUSE ON LANGUAGES
Or AND LINGUISTICS (ERIC (11.
E d inburgh Gate C enter for A pplied Linguistics
I larlow 4646 40th Street. MY
Essex GM20 2JE UK W ashington. DC 20016-1859
Website: h ttp :/ /tvtvtv.longman-elt.com E-mail: e ric @cal.org
UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN PRESS W ebsite: h ttp: / / www.cal.org / e riccll
839 G reene Street, Box 1104 ERIC CEL is one of 16 US-govcrnm ent funded
A nn Arbor, MI 48106-1104 educational clearinghouses. Its m ajor objective >
to m ake available to practitioners and researchers
c u rre n t inform ation a n d resources on topics
related to language teaching and learning, or
m ore broadly, to applied linguistics. It abstracts
and summarizes articles from journals, conference
presentations, and o ther sources and inputs these
into a com puterized database to which all the
clearinghouses contribute. It is possible to search
the database online or to have searches conducted
by the clearinghouse. Searches conducted for
previous clients are available as well. ER1C/CLL
also publishes the ERIC/CLL News Bulletin (a
quarterly electronic new sletter), Language Link,
R esource Guides, Digests, and “Q & As" which
synthesize answers to questions frequentlv asked
of clearinghouse personnel. M am of these are
available at its extensive website, which also con­
tains a list of "In tern et Resources for Teachers of
English as a S econd L anguage" an d a n o th e r for
teachers of foreign languages. An adjunct clear­
inghouse, the N ational C learinghouse for ESI.
I.iteracv E du catio n , dissem inates answers to
questions on topics related to adolescent and
adult literacy, workplace and worker education,
and o th er topics related to adult second language
education. For inform ation about other ERIC
Clearinghouses and svstem-wide scnices. see the
website: www.accesseric.org.
CENTER FOR .APPLIED LINGUISTICS (CAL)
4646 40th Street, NAV
W ashington, DC 20016
E-m ail: i n fo @cal.org
W ebsite: h ttp :/,/www.cal.org
T he mission of CAL is "to prom ote and improve
the teaching an d learning of languages, identifv
and solve problem s related to language an d cul­
ture, and s e n e as a resource for inform ation
about language and culture.” CAL carries out
research, analvsis, and dissem ination o f inform a­
tion, design and developm ent of instructional
m aterials, technical assistance, teacher education,
and policy analysis in a range of areas, including
second, foreign, and heritage language educa­
tion. It operates a n u m b er o f clearinghouses and
technical assistance centers (including the ERIC
Clearinghouse), and collaborates with a range of
educational institutions in conducting research,
providing technical assistance, and dissem inating
inform ation.
CENTRE FOR INFORMATION ON LANGUAGE
TEACHING AND RESEARCH A ll I
20 B edfordbury
L o ndon WC2N TLB UK
E-mail: library@ cilt.org.uk
Website: h t t p : / / www.cilt.org.uk
H o u sed in L o n d o n , b u t with links to centers
th ro u g h o u t the U nited K ingdom , CILT collects
and dissem inates inform ation on all aspects o f
m o d ern languages an d the teaching o f m o d ern
languages. It houses a resource library, with an
extensive collection of books, periodicals, and
language teaching m aterials of all types (texts,
visual aids, softw are, videos, e tc .), su p p o rts
research, organizes courses an d conferences,
and answers questions bv e-mail a n d on-site. T he
website has an extensive set of helpful links.
MODERN LANGUAGE CENTRE
O n tario Institute for Studies in E ducation
252 Bloor S treet West
T oronto, O n tario M5S 1V6 C anada
Website: h ttp ://w w w .o ise.u to ro n to .ca/M L C
T he M odern L anguage C entre at the University
o f T oronto offers courses, hosts sem inars and
colloquia, conducts research, a n d dissem inates
in form ation on curricu lu m , in stru ctio n , and
policies for second, foreign, and m inority lan­
guages. with particu lar referen ce to English and
French in C anada, b u t also to o th e r languages
and settings. Its library has o n e o f the m ost
extensive collections o f lan g u ag e e d u c atio n
m aterials in Canada.
NATIONAL CENTRE FOR ENGITSH LANGUAGE
TEACHING AND RESEARCH (NC.ELTR)
M acqu a rie U n ive rsi ty
N orth Ryde NSW 2109 A ustralia
E-mail: nceltr@ m q.edu.au
Website: h t t p : / /w w w tnceltr.m q.edu.au
NCELTR's mission is to provide leadership and
prom ote excellence in English language educa­
tion through innovative and high quality research,
professional developm ent program s, publications,
resources support, and English language courses.
NCELTR, in partnership with the Institute for
E ducation at La Trobe University, also houses the
Adult M igrant English Program Research Centre,
p ro d d in g research and professional developm ent
for A ustralia’s adult m igrant program s.
NATIONAL CLEARINGffOUSE FOR BILINGUAL
EDUCATION (NCBE)
G eorge W ashington University
C en ter for the Study o f Language and E ducation
2121 К Street, NW, Suite 260
W ashington, DC 20037
E-mail: askncbe@ ncbe.gw u.edu
W ebsite: h ttp :,//wtvw.ncbe.gwu.edu
NCBE focuses on policy a n d practice in the e d u ­
cation o f language m inority students in the
U n ited States. It offers a website th at is easy to
navigate, with links to n u m ero u s professional
resources. It also has an online new sletter (with
back issues archived) that provides timelv infor­
m ation on legislative debates, new policy, funding
opportunities, and o th er inform ation of interest
to those teaching linguistically and culturally
diverse students, principally in the U nited States.
SEAM КО REGIONAL LANGUAGE CENTRE (RELC)
30 O ran g e Grove Road
Singapore 258352 Republic o f Singapore
E-mail: adm in® relc.org. sg
W ebsite: h ttp :/ / www. r e 1с .о r g .sg
A regional educational project o f the Southeast
Asian M inisters o f E d u catio n O rg anization
(SEAMEO), RELC is a center for research and
info rm atio n dissem ination "dedicated to lan­
guage teacher education.” with special attention
to Southeast Asian contexts. RELC offers courses
(on-site and bv distance), publications (including
the RELC Journal) , and an annual them atic con­
ference on a state-of-the-art question in language
teaching, the proceedings of which it publishes. It
m aintains one o f the best libraries an d inform a­
tion centers in applied linguistics in the world.
RESEARCH CENTRE ON MULTILINGUALISM
Brussels University K.U.B.
V rijheidslaan 17
B-1080 Brussels Belgium
Website: http: /wwm.kubrussel.a c .b e /
cen tra ovm eng.htm l
Focusing on language contact and language con­
flict in m ultilingual settings, the Research C entre
on M ultilingualism carries out research, convenes
conferences, coordinates and disseminates infor­
m ation, and publishes a series (Plurilingua) on
contact linguistics.
IN T E R N E T R ESO U R CES:
W E B S IT E S , E-M AIL D IS C U S S IO N
G R O U P S ,A N D O N L IN E
P U B L IC A T IO N S
T he In tern et has created global access for profes­
sional developm ent th rough e-mail, electronic
lists (e-mail discussion groups), and the W orld
Wide Web. w here accessing one website m at- lead
to scores of o th er interesting sites linked to it.
Most associations, publishers, journals, clearing­
houses. an d o th er resources have m ade it possible
to get at least some of the inform ation tradition­
ally available in print or th rough personal visits by
accessing a website or subscribing to e-mail o r a
list. Electronic journals and newsletters are also
becom ing increasingly available, published by
research institutes, educational institutions, pro­
fessional associations, and the like; many of these
can be easily dow nloaded or printed for future
access. T he online form at also supports the dis­
sem ination of m ore tim e-bound inform ation such
as notices of conferences, em ploym ent o p portuni­
ties. and political issues, and prom otes interaction
through related e-mail or discussion groups. Even
if vou have onlv lim ited access to resource centers,
libraries, journals, or colleagues, the In tern et can
provide m uch of the inform ation vou need.
Websites
Attem pts to categorize websites are doom ed to
failure because m ost language and linguistics wTeb-
sites have m ultiple audiences, foci, and purposes.
W hat follows, th en , is a representative sam ple of
the vast w orld o f websites available for E SL /EFL
language teaching a n d learning. T hose with the
greatest n u m b e r an d diversity o f lists a n d links
are listed first.
h ttp :// alt.venus.co.uk/VL/A ppLingBBK /
welcom e.htm l
This site is a good general web resource in applied
linguistics, with lists o f conferences, dissertations,
and theses in applied linguistics, societies and
associations, publishers, a n d ESL/EFL electronic
m ailing lists, m any with links to o th er sites.
h ttp ://www.linguistlist.org
This extensive and easilv-navigated list includes a
conference calendar an d calls for papers, m ore
than nine pages of linguistic associations with
links, an extensive list of journals with descrip­
tions an d subscription inform ation, inform ation
on subscribing to a n u m b er o f electronic discus­
sion groups (listservs), an d a host of o th er
resources for language educators.
http:/ / www. eslcafe. com
Possibly the best-known site for ESL/EFL, Dave's
ESL Cafe has n u m ero u s pages o f Quizzes,
Q uotes, Slang, Idioms, Discussion Forum s, and
C hat C entral, o f interest to students, and sections
such as T he Web Guide and the Jo b Center, of
interest to teachers. Special discussion lists are
also available on this site.
h ttp :// owl.english.purdue.edu
P u rd u e Universitv's O nline W riting Lab offers a
w ealth of m aterials on general w riting concerns,
professional writing, writing across th e c u rricu ­
lum , Power Point presentations, an d online writ­
ing resources.
http:/ / www. esl-lab .com
R andall’s Cyber Listening Lab has an impressive
am ount of listening m aterial for students, includ-
ing general and academ ic listening quizzes, longer
conversations, and short listening exercises.
h t t p : //m em bers.tripod.com /
-tow erofenglish
ESL students can practice th eir English as they
roam th ro u g h th e various room s o f the Tower
o f English, including the Studv Hall, the Gam e
Room , the Movie T heater, the Post Office, the
D ebate Hall, a n d the Library.
h ttp ://www.thinkquest.org/
T hinkQ uest, an an nual intern atio n al contest,
invites students betw een 12 and 19 years o f age to
create inform ation-rich, web-based educational
tools and materials. Past submissions are available
for viewing at this site.
h ttp ://u s.im d b .co m /
T he In te rn et Movie D atabase site offers a w ealth
o f inform ation on movies an d is very p o p u lar
am ong students and teachers alike.
h ttp ://www .gutenberg.net/
T he goal o f Project G u ten b erg is to create digi­
tal versions of im p o rta n t books. T he list o f books
already online is lengthy.
h ttp :// ww w.oup.co.uk/elt/m agazin e/w ork sh /
worksh.html
This site offers a variety of inform ation an d
hands-on teach in g m aterials, m any o f them
designed for use with O xford University Press’s
textbook series a n d o th e r m aterials, such as the
Oxford Learner's Dictionary of English Idioms.
http://www.library.ubc.ca/ejour
This site has links to hundreds o f electronic jo u r­
nals on the web. It is excellent for those with little
co n fidence in o r know ledge o f electronic
research. It is an electronic library, with links to
the most im portant journals available on the web.
http:/ / www.gsu.edu/-wwwesl/jegw / index2 .htm
This site seeks to prom ote discussion o f topics that
have not been discussed elsewhere and to serve as
a forum for the publication o f previously u n p u b ­
lished research articles and book reviews, princi­
pally relating to gram m ar theory and pedagogy.
h ttp ://llt.m su.edu
This site focuses on computer-assisted language
learning and teaching, including on-line publica­
tion of articles on current research.
h ttp :// wwwvkyoto-su.ac.jp/information/
tesl-ej /ind ex.h tm l
This site is an electronic jo u rn a l for teachers of
English as a second o r foreign language, TESL-EJ.
http://w w w .aitech.ac.jp/~iteslj
At this site is the Internet TESL Journal, an elec­
tronic journal lor ESL and EFL teachers.
www.google.com
This is one o f the m ost "intelligent" search
engines. It ranks each hit based on the n u m b er of
links to it. It can help locate publishers, journals,
libraries, and o th er resources on an im m ense
array of topics.
E-mail Lists/Electronic Discussion
Groups
A n u m b e r o f e-mail lists or electronic discussion
groups of interest to ESI. EFE professionals
exist. Thev are an excellent place to get quick
response to questions from colleagues with simi­
lar experiences. Many also discuss teach in g
m aterials, provide suggestions for o th e r places
to search, a n d m aintain archives of previous arti­
cles which can be searched. Regional, national,
a n d intern atio n al lists all exist. T he following
provides a sam ple o f the intern atio n al lists, with
instructions on how to subscribe to them . For
each, the e-mail address is provided, followed bv
what should be tvpecl in the both of the message.
(Do not tvpe anvthing else.)
CALI.-ED
An e-mail discussion list for teacher trainers
a n d educators in terested in com puter-assisted
language learning.
M a j о rdom o@ coe.m issouri.edu
Subscribe call-ed
LINGUIST
A m ajor resource for all areas of theoretical and
applied linguistics.
Lis tse rv@ tamvm l.ta m u .e d u
Subscribe linguist Your first nam e Your
last nam e
NIFF.-F.SI.
O ne of several lists o f the N ational Institute
for I.iteracv, this list focuses on issues in literacv
theorv and practice for adult second language
learners in a varietv of contexts.
Listproc@ literacv.nifl.gov
Subscribe NIFL-ESI. Your first nam e
Your last nam e
SI.ART-I.
An e-mail discussion list on second language
acquisition o f interest to researchers and teachers
Listserv@ cunw m .cunv.edu
Subscribe SF.ART-I. Your first nam e Your
last nam e
TESLA.
With 20.000 m em bers, this is one of the most
extensive lists. .After subscribing, sou mav want to
narrow vour list to one of the sul>lists (K—12, Jobs,
CALL, etc.) TESL-L also has substantial archives of
prior discussions that can be searched.
Listserv@ cunw m .cunv.edu
Subscribe TESL-I. Your first n am e Your
last nam e
M ATERIALS REVIEW ,
S E L E C T IO N CO M M ITTEES,
A N D C U R R IC U LU M
D E V E LO P M E N T T E A M S
Publishers and journal editors are continuallv in
need of professionals to review m anuscripts,
teacher reference books, o r stu d en t texts and
m aterials. Publishers routinelv require evalua­
tion o f textbooks or o th e r m aterials by outside
reviewers before publishing them . If vou wish to
serve as a reviewer, contact the publishers, usually
through their ESL EFL editors, or contact book
review editors of newsletters or journals to let
them know of vour interest. Indicate the skill,
level, or focus that vou are particularly interested
in and vour qualifications, and vou may find your­
self regularlv keeping up to date, since vou mav
be reading new books o r m anuscripts even before
thev are published. An additional benefit of writ­
ing reviews for journals is that vou usually are sent
the book for vour own professional library. To get
started, vou mav want to write reviews lor a newslet­
ter or a publication of a local affiliate (T one o f the
professional associations discussed above. Abu may
soon find that y o u are being sent books for review
on a regular basis, keeping y o u current and
enhancing Your own librarv.
Text and m aterials selection com m ittees of
Your p rogram or textbook a d o p tio n com m ittees
for local, state, or regional ed ucational agencies
offer a n o th e r source of professional growth.
These com m ittees usuallY request copies of sev-
eral relevant, new publications from a n u m b er
o f publishers from which the com m ittee m akes
their final selections. By participating in these
com m ittees, y o u haYe an opportunitY to keep cur­
rent on the kinds of techniques and strategies that
are included in the latest ESI. EFL. materials and
to enrich t our ow n teaching, lesson planning, and
m aterials writing projects. You are also likelv to
broaden Your circle of English language teaching
colleagues and to benefit from their unique edu­
cational backgrounds and experiences.
You m at find, after reeiewing m anuscripts
an d books and s e ttin g on m aterials selection
com m ittees, that to n tram to create m aterials or
books o f t o u r own o r serve as a m em b er of a cur­
riculum w riting team , p rep a rin g new m aterials.
In the process of researching, developing. and
field-testing these m aterials, y o u will learn a
great deal about c u rren t practice in ESI. EFL
classroom s and will u n d o u b ted lt ad ap t som e of
to u r own teaching accordinglt. You will also
h a te the benefit of w orking with o th e r profes­
sionals, so that y o u can learn from each o th e r as
y o u collaborate on the writing projec t.
W O R K SH O P S, SEM INARS,
IN S T IT U T E S , A CA D EM IES,
A N D G R A D U A T E PROGRAM S
Naturallv, one of the best wars of keeping up to
date is to participate in local, state, national, or
international in-sercice workshops or seminars,
some of which are notv being provided bv distance
learning. These continuing education program s
may be sponsored bv a professional association, a
university-based teach er ed u cation program , a
resource or technical assistance center, or bv a
d e p a rtm e n t or m inistrv of education. Thev mat
offer graduate credit or help lead to emplov-
m ent advancem ent. O f equal im portance, thev
offer a forum for sharing problem s and p o te n ­
tial solutions, as well as ways o f e x p a n d in g o n e ’s
te a c h in g r e p e rto ire o r id en tify in g areas o f
potential classroom -based research. W hile you
mat begin p articipating as a learner, over tim e,
von are likelv to find Yourself increasing vour
con trib u tio n s to th e discussion, particip atin g as
a m em b er of a colloquium or panel, o r leading
one o f the professional dev elo p m en t program s
vourself. You mav also lind vourself becom ing
part o f a teach er research group, sharing your
findings with colleagues in b o th vour own and
o th e r com m unities.
Deserving special m ention are the sum m er
professional developm ent institutes for students
and teachers that are hosted bv a varietv of profes­
sional associations and universities. It is possible
to enroll in intensive, short courses with English
language teaching colleagues from manv parts of
the world, learning from them as well as from the
instructor, in what is usuallv an inform al, collabo­
rative learn in g experience. T he o p p o rtu n ity to
participate in one of these intensive program s
should not be missed: von are likelv to em erge
from the ex perience feeling renew ed as a p ro ­
fessional an d reassured th at you have chosen the
right profession. You will also u n d o u b ted ly m eet
professional colleagues with w hom you will cor­
resp o n d or collaborate for m anv years to com e.
R ES E A R C H A N D
C O L L A B O R A T IV E PRO JECTS
f h e m ore y o u teach, the m ore likelv y o u are to
begin asking questions about vour own class­
room . learners, or teaching practice. These ques­
tions can serve as the basis of a series o f ongoing
research projects o f vour own. C onsider keeping
a teaching journal or diary in which you record
some of the '’episodes" in vour classes and some
o f vour em erging insights about vourself, your
teaching, or vour students. This journal may h igh­
light some areas for research, beginning, per­
haps, with studv ing the progress o r problem s of a
few students in vour classes. You m ight want to see
how a change in vour own approach to teaching
(for exam ple, substituting som e extensive read­
ing for the intensive reading in vour svilabus;
introducing electronic discussion in vour writing
class; involving students in projects in your con­
versation class; o r developing them atic units
based on the students' o th er academ ic classes)
affects your students’ m otivation or proficiency.
You may also want to becom e part of a larger
research group or project that is investigating
questions o f interest to you. You can identify
p o te n tia l research collab o rato rs o r o n g o in g
research projects by contacting educational insti­
tutions o r centers n ear you or bv talking with col­
leagues at conferences. You m ight be surprised to
learn that some university' researchers have diffi­
culty identifying teachers with whom to collabo­
rate or classrooms with which to work: thev are
likely to welcome your interest in some kind of
jo in t project, one th at will have as its objectives
som ething that can be applied to vour classroom
o r your particular teaching situation (see Bailee's
ch ap ter in this volum e).
O th e r interesting and broadening collabo­
rations can occur within your own educational
institution. L earning what is expected o f students
a n d w hat kinds o f m aterials and instructional
techniques are used in the teaching of natural
a n d social sciences, m athem atics, or technical
a n d professional fields can provide vott with ideas
for including m ore academ ic or professional con­
ten t and discourse in vour ESL/EFL classroom.
Similarly, the science, m athem atics, social sci­
ence, technical, or professional instructors mav
becom e m ore sensitive to the nature of the dis­
course dem ands o f their disciplines w hen thev
talk o r work with you or observe vour classes.
C ollaborations such as these are valuable at ele­
m entary, secondary or tertia n levels, and across
the curriculum , especiallv w here English is used
as a textbook or instructional m edium . A brief
exchange in the hall about a particular student or
assignm ent can grow into ongoing collaborative
research, curriculum developm ent, or even team
teaching, all o f which are likelv to be profession­
ally rew arding experiences. You may also want to
link up with the testing and assessment team s in
yrntr institution o r at a local, state, or national
level, h elp in g to develop o r field-test new item s
o r tests, an d m ore im p o rtan t, b rin g in g the class­
ro o m te a c h e r's persp ectiv e to e d u c a tio n a l
assessm ent (see C o h e n ’s c h a p te r in this vol­
u m e). This is especiallv im p o rta n t w hen the tests
are in te n d e d for students who at e proficient (or
native) users of the language an d vour students,
who are only learning the language, are expected
to pass them . Parents and com m unity m em bers
can also be p o ten tia l collab o rato rs in your
research a n d teaching.
T he increasing availabilitv of e-mail and elec­
tronic discussion groups makes it possible for
long-distance collaborations. You may want to link
up with an English language teacher o r program
in a n o th e r citv or countrv and use this as a basis
for some of vour instruction. Students can write
to e-mail pals; groups can work on a variety of
research an d writing projects; or classes can con­
duct m ini-ethnographies on aspects o f their com ­
m unities that are of interest to the o th er class,
perhaps com piling an introductorv guide to each
o th ers’ schools or com m unities.
C O A C H IN G A N D M EN TO R IN G
N EW TEACHERS
D uring vo u r first vears as a teacher, it will be very
helpful if vott can find an e x p erien ced colleague
who can provide vott with guidance a n d advice,
som eone to act as a so u nding b o a rd as vou think
th ro u g h challenging situations or students. You
mav want to observe that te a c h e r’s classes o r dis­
cuss hom ew ork or grading policies with him or
her. As vou becom e m ore exp erien ced , you are
likelv to notice the challenges facing new col­
leagues and to rem e m b e r how vou felt early in
vour assignm ent or career. O ffer to m en to r
b eg in n in g teachers or colleagues new to your
institution. M eeting regularly with them , inviting
them to observe vour classes, co-teaching with
them , or h elp in g with paperw ork, policies, o r
p ro ced u res can not only alleviate som e of th eir
b u rd en , but also illum inate som e of vour own
growth as a professional, help in g vou to articu­
late m ore clearlv vour own teaching assum ptions
and practice. O ng o in g coaching an d m en to rin g
is also likelv to h ighlight areas of vour own teach ­
ing that vou mav w ant to research or lead you to
search for instructional m aterials o r reference
works on topics th at you may n o t have considered
previouslv.
C O N C L U S IO N
C om pleting a TESL/TEFL program is the begin­
ning of a lifetime of professional growth. Teaching
is, in itself, a continual growth experience, since
one really “learns" som ething only when asked to
explain o r teach it to others. Students are often
ou r best teachers, and you will learn from new stu­
dents each term . If y o u have the opportunity of
teaching different courses, grades, o r levels or of
adding a new role or responsibility as a tester, pro ­
gram adm inistrator, resource center coordinator,
or m entor, vou will find that vour understanding
of the field and o f vour own practice will continue
to grow. T here are many wavs in which being an
ESL or EFL teacher is a growth experience. The
suggestions offered here are onlv a few o f the wavs
to keep up to date.
ENDNO TE
U pdating this chapter while on leave in Kiribati (a
small country of islands in the C entral Pacific,
where one In te rn et service is mv m ajor link to the
academ ic and professional world) has heig h t­
en ed my appreciation of the value o f online
resources for English language teaching profes­
sionals and also of the im p o rtan t role that col­
leagues in m ore resource-rich environm ents can
play fo r those w ith o u t access to academ ic
libraries, receipt of journals or o th er serial publi­
cations, o r opportunities to engage in discussions
with m any colleagues. A n u m b e r o f people
helped in updating this chapter. Silvio Avendano,
Caitlin Jam es. M ora H ockstein, H e a th er Williams,
a n d Je an n e Yacoubou (u ndergraduate an d grad­
uate students at UMBC) tracked down addresses,
p h o n e num bers, websites, and o th er inform ation
that eluded me. In addition, Neil A nderson, Dora
Johnson, C hristine Meloni, Jen' Reid, and Dick
Tucker all m ade im portant suggestions o f publi­
cations, websites, or o th er resources to include,
a n d mv brother, R obert C randall, a n d niece,
M argaret C randall, also provided a great deal of
long-distance help. Mv thanks to all o f them .
D IS C U S S IO N Q U E S T IO N S
1. This c h a p te r has discussed a n u m b e r of ways
in w hich ESL an d EFL professionals can
keep c u rre n t in the field. W hich are you
already doing? W hich do you th in k will be
m ost helpful to you?
2. Are th ere o th e r ways o f "keeping up to d a te ”
that are n o t in clu d e d in this chapter? Get
to g eth e r -with colleagues who are en ro lled
in a TESOI. program an d see if vou can id en ­
tify o th e r sources of in form ation o r m eans of
sharing ideas that are n o t discussed here.
3. Why is it im p o rta n t to belong to a profes­
sional association in vour field? W hat kinds
of professional d evelopm ent op p o rtu n ities
do then offer? If vou c a n n o t b elo n g to one of
these associations, are th ere o th e r ways in
which vou can benefit from th eir services?
4. Why do vou think th at it is so difficult for
teachers to keep c u rre n t in th eir fields?
W hat are som e of th e factors th a t m ight
affect vour ability to keep up to date?
5. W hat kinds of resources for professional
d e v e lo p m e n t are available th ro u g h th e
In te rn e t or e-mail? How m ight you involve
vour students in this?
S U G G E S T E D A C T IV IT IE S
1. Even if vou are not a m em ber, a tte n d o n e of
the in tern atio n al, national, o r local conven­
tions or m eetings o f o n e o f the ESL/EFL
professional associations. Trv to a tte n d som e
plenary (large group) sessions, som e papers
an d workshops, a n d the book exhibits. If
th ere are poster sessions w here colleagues
inform ally share th e ir teach in g ideas o r
research, spend som e tim e there, talking
with colleagues a n d g etting ideas for related
posters th at you m ight develop to share with
colleagues back hom e. Allow yourself tim e to
get to know som e o f your colleagues by
a tte n d in g social activities, engaging in in fo r­
mal discussion groups, o r sp e n d in g tim e at
the p o ster sessions.
2. Visit an inform ation clearinghouse or center
in vour area or visit online or write to one
described in this chapter. Find o ut about the
services thev provide a n d the publications
they offer. Have vour nam e ad d ed to any
m ailing lists (including electronic lists) they
m aintain.
3. Develop a form letter to send to publishers,
describing your background and interests as
an E SL /E FL professional. Leave e n o u g h
room so that vou can ty pe in the nam e and
address of the publisher. T hen mail this letter
to a n u m b er of publishers. If vou send the
letter to the attention of the ESL/EFL Editor,
this letter can serve both to get vour nam e
ad d ed to th eir English language-teaching
m ailing list and also to indicate vour interest
in serving as a m anuscript or m aterials
re\ie\\'er.
4. Choose three o f the journals listed in this
chapter to exam ine m ore cioselv. W hat articles
are included? W hat kinds of colum ns or infor­
m ation does the jo u rn a l provide? W ho is the
in tended audience? Do vou think the jo u rn al
will be useful to vou? hr what wavs? Share vour
findings with a colleague.
5. Make a list o f individuals or groups with
w hom vou m ight collaborate an d indicate
som e o f the wavs in which vou m ight work
to g e th e r or sh are ideas a b o u t lan g u ag e
teaching an d learning.
FU R T H ER R EA D IN G
Crandall. J. A. 2000. Language teacher education.
Annual Review of Applied Linguistics 20: 34-55.
Freeman. D.. series eel. Teacher Source Series. Boston,
MA: Heinle &: Heinle Publishers.
Underhill. A., series ed. The TeacherDrcelopmen! Series.
Oxford: Heinemann.
Warschauer. M.. H. Schetzer. and C. Meloni. 2000.
Internet Par English Teaching. Alexandria, VA:
TESOL.
 Teaching English as a
Second or Foreign Language
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