nergy Conversion and Management 257 (2021) 114108, Contents lists available at ScienceDirect, Energy Conversion and Management ELSEVIER Journal homepage: ww.c\sevier.conlocateleneonman A multi-objective predictive energy management strategy for residential grid-connected PV-battery hybrid systems based on machine learning technique Kumar Shivam“ , Jong-Chyuan Tzou", Shang-Chen Wu * paprneof Mec Pager, Kit Son Unive, Na 195; Kuda Rb, Yongkang Dt, Tay 71, Tawa "prc Machinery Rewer Deepen Cte (PC), Ne. 27, 7 eal, Tear nl Pa, Than 40708 eet ewe Mikitecve voi goin “ine srs renting “This paper proposes x multiobjective predictive energy management strategy based on machine earning techniqe for residential gridconneeted hybrid energy systems. The hy system considered inthis wy compese thre peineipal companents: «photovoltaic aray as «renewable energy source, a etry bank rs an energy storage system, ed residential bling san elec loe, The peoposed strategy comps thee levels fof contol logical evel to manage the computational lod and accuracy, adel prediction model bas on tes env eile ronvtional networks for energy prcuction nnd let loud om system, and mle tbjectve optimization fr effieen te of energy with the uly vi by battery charge seeding The pee= Aiton model used in this study an provide one-step abead photovoltae energy production ad lowd orcas sith slit meerocy wing 9 aidng window fouinig tecec mad cm be txplemeaied an vege Personal compute, Te energy management problem comprises itil objectives that incre minimization of ‘ergy bought fom wily gid maimization the battery bank's state-of charge and eduction of carbon donde tmsson. The optimiation problem is contained to the maximum allowed carbon dori production and Tater Inak'sstateotcharge lini. The proposed stray stated fr static and yam eleteeity prices, ‘sing hourly energy and nd date. Simulation rests show a hgh cofficent of determination af 92.08% for ‘energy prodicton predictions and 07.29% fr electric loed predictions using proposed dal prediction model The proposed prediction models hendhmarked against naive prediction, support Vector machine and ntl ewe nctwork mec ring several mri and shore noticeable improtemess pdt accarscy. Not ‘nly the proposed strategy combined with the props prdicton model ean hae over 508 f the total yearly Toad rerement bt also shows w slant deeresein electricity bil and carbon dole compared o res ental buildings without hybrid energy systems and hybeid energy system without energy nemagement state. 1. Introduetion, mode", a PV-battery HES can provide sufficient reliability and enable trade of excess energy generated. Grid-connected hybrid energy systems The hybrid energy systems (HES) are gaining popularity among residential users because of lower installation and operation cost in recent years. The residential HES comprises several renewable energy sources auch as PV, wind turbines, micro-turbines and geothermal. The energy storage systems (ESS) like batery bank, fuel cell and/or super capacitors are often used together with the HES fo storing excess en. egy. Photovoltaic (PV) and battery bank based HES systems are most poplar because they are easy to install and require less capital ive ment among other renevable energy options. Combined with biirec- tional connection with utility grid, also known as “grid-connected (GCHES) like PV-battery systems enable residential users to not only decrease the environmental impact of electricity consumptions but also provide means to decrease the monthly uty bis. Therefore, energy ‘management strategies are deployed to maximize the efficiency of such systems To efficiently manage the energy generated by GCHES, model pre Jictve control (MPC) methods are one of the popular choices among researchers. Since MPC ean incorporate feedback mechanism for the ‘model's uncertainties and uses forecasting method to handle future demand and power generation, it is widely used for economic * Gorrsponding author at: Department of Mechanical Engineering, Kun Shan University, No, 195, Kunda Rd, Yongkang Dis, Tainan City 710, Tawa mall ree 10600240. sO Sia ap://daong/10.1016/ encom 2021,114108 Received 28 September 2020; Accepted 20 March 2021 ‘Available online ® pri 2021 10196-89040 2021 Elsevier Le, All sights reserve.optimization of HES. In (1), diferent aspects of energy management systems in micro grids and MPC are discussed, Recent studies exten sively focus onthe economic objectives of MPC for micro grid. A mult objective MPC strategy is proposed in 2) for grid-connected solar-wind HES with pumped hydro storage. Multi-objective performance indexes are handled by linearization of the optimization problem, and timeof- we tari is used as the input of the control system. [3 introduces a ‘multi-agent multi-objective energy management technique considering electricity bills, power purchase from grid and power quality. This study showed and 2-659 reduction in electricity bills n (4), a novel rule based multiobjective energy management is presented for off grid micro-grid, which is optimized using grasshopper optimization algo rithm, This approach showed a reduction of fuel consumption up £0 92.496 and carbon dioxide (CO.) emission by 92.3%. A multi-objective energy management for HES and battery EES is presented in (5) for attaining optimal capacity of PV, wind turbine, diesel generator, micro turbine, fuel cell and battery with considering several objectives such as cost of energy, fuel cost, charging/discharging schedule and penalty of areenhoute gas emissions. Ths sttategy was shown to reduce 1.60% of Co, emission against traditional system fora standalone HES, Many advanced energy management strategies (EMS) are also Introduced in recent years for micro grids (6-6). (9) proposes an autonomous scheduler system for residential buildings, which helps decrease the total power consumption when used with solar PV eystem. Also, in (71,2 supply demand energy management strategy is introduced for off grid HES for residential buildings, which shows improvements over only supply sce management strategy. In [10], a hybrid squirel search algorithm with whale optimization algorithm is proposed t0 handle the energy management of HES consisting of PV, sind turbine generator, battery and fuel cell In), areview of several optimization methods of energy management is presented. Several nature inspired algorithms including genetic algorithm, partileswarm optimization, differential evolution and Fuzzy logic is reviewed. Genetic algorithms tnd particle swarm optimization techniques are popular among te searches for their ability to find global optimum solutions. ‘Most of the MPC and other predictive energy management system (PEMSs) techniques rely upon the accurate predition of future demand load and energy generation (12-15). Many PV power forecasting algo: rithms use advance machine leaning techniques to predict the future PV power production data, In [16], a LSTM-RNN model i proposed t0 tackle the conventional machine learning deficiencies lke over iting nd generalization. The review of several studies presented in (17) for the photovoltaic energy generation forecasting techniques, it can be pointed out chat artifical neural networks ean predict PV generation data with high accuracy. However, from [17-19], most of the fore casting models require significant amount ofthe historical data to pro vide good prediction accuracy. In other field of studies such as wind speed prediction, water level forecasting, seismic forecasting, dilated and causal variants of convolutional neural networks model has proven to provide higher aceuraey other machine learning models with limited amount of historical data [20-2 ‘This study is motivated by the shortcoming of HES systems without EMS techniques which includes unnecessary storage of exceee energy in battery banks, which leads to reduced efficiency in energy trading for aridconnected HES. The goal fo this study is to reduce amount of the unnecessary energy storage by optimally scheduling battery charge and decrease the energy cost by increasing the frequency of excess energy trade with the utility gid. In this paper, we propose a multi-objective predictive energy management strategy for grid-connected PV-battery HES. This study ses a 1-hour horizon for both prediction and opti zation tasks. We deploy a pair residual dilated causal convolutional network (Res-DCCN) for the parallel forecasting of one step lead en: ergy production and load using aslding window technique to tackle the forecasting problem with limited historical data (16h). Mult objective optimization problem is formulated using maximum state-of charge (GoC) limit of the battery bank ar input. Objectives considered for tary Comer a Magen 297 (2021) 114108 optimization include total cost of electricity, SoC limit, CO emissions ‘and the problem is constrained to maximum allowed CO, emission at each energy management step. In summary ‘A mult-objective predictive energy management strategy Is pro posed for residential grid-connected PV-battery HES using three-level control method for EMS: monitoring including logie/rule and machine learning, multiobjective optimization and PV-battery system power distribution including trade Parallel forecasting model is used for predicting the one-step ahead ‘energy production and load. A variant of Res DOGN is deployed as the predietion model to improve prediction accuracy on limited historical data and sliding window technique is used for model taining and prediction Proposed forecasting model is benchmarked against traditional forecasting methods ineluding naive/persistence prediction, support vector machine (SVM) regression and artificial neural netvrork (ANN). Proposed strategy fs benchmarked using simulation for statie and dynamic electric prices in Taiwan area. ‘Using propoted strategy, the cost of eleetrilty can be dynamically decreased compared to traditional systems while redueing the CO, emissions. Also, the proposed strategy together with dual-Res-DCCN prediction model shows superior performance than other prediction ‘models wsed for benchmarking ‘The paper ie structured ae follows: in Section 2, the mathematical nodels of the photovoltaic system, the battery bank and the grid connected HES are discussed. Socton 3 provides the details of the pro- posed multi-objective predictive control strategy, including Res DGCN ‘and problem formulation. In Section 4, we discuss the accuracy of the forecasting model and results of proposed strategy on static and dynamic energy pricing cases. A comparison of proposed methodology with several related EMS strategies is discussed in Section 5. Lastly, conel sions are presented in Section 6 2. Mathematical models ‘This section describes the mathematical models of PV system and battery bank. The operational outline of grid connected PV battery HES. for residential building i also presented. The climatological data i used to compute the PV system's power output that is used inthe ease study 2.1. Photovoltaic sytem ‘The power output of the PV array (Py) can be calculated asa fune: tion of solar irradiance and ambient temperature (T™) At given time sep f the Py. can be computed using following equations (25): Pn = Ne x (GIGV[L+TS(T — TY], ® T= 74 ((P™ —20)/800)x6) ® where Py, isthe rated power output ofthe PV modules. Ny represents the total number of PV modules in the PV array. G represents the solar irradiance (W/m?) and solar irradiance at reference conditions with the value of 1000 (W/m?) is shown as G's used to denote the solar cell, temperature and Tis the solar cell temperature at standard test con ditions set as 25°C. T° is the temperature coefficient, ~3.8 x 10° (1/ °C) for polycrystalline PV modules [26], T can be caleulated as a function of ambient temperature T™, nominal operating cell temper ature T= and solar ieradiance G. In tis study, a PV array of 44 poly crystalline PV modules is considered with a combined maximum rated power of 14,520 (W). Polyerystalline PV module used for simulating the V eystem's power output comprises 72 cells rated at 16.9296 maximum, efficiency by Motech Industries (1M72CB-330). The technical parame- ters ofthe PV modules can be found at (27)22. Bawery bank Battery banks are most poplar choice for the string excess energy senerated by HES, in this eae PV system. This stored energy is thereafter ‘wed fo compensate forthe energy requirement by the load when the PV system cannot meet the energy demand. In this paper, we use lead-acid batteries to model our batery bank. The battery bank's state-of charge (oC) determines the quantity of stored energy. The rate-of-charge of the battery at time step ¢,$0G, can be computed as following equations (25), Paxt ‘were P isthe power supplied or discharged from the Batery banks (W) at time step ¢ (1- hour). The round-tip efficiency, uy set as 80% for charging and 100% for discharging mode. The total numberof batteries inthe battery bank is denoted as Ny (8 batteries), the nominal eapacity of individual batteries is represented by Cyq(100 Ab). The nominal voltage of the battery is denoted as Vig (12 V), and nui the self discharge rate ofthe battery (5%/720 h) |29). The battery bank's SoC ‘constrained toa maximum SoC limit et at time step ¢, SoC" (34), and 1 minimum limit, SoC" (20%). The combined energy storage capacity (0 800 (Ah) i sed for the modeling the battery bank with DC voltage of 12(V}. When the battery bank reaches the set SoC)" or cannot meet the demand for battery bank's $0C, equals SoC, the residual power Pe-"* at given time step t can be computed using Bq (#)-A positive value for pe the required energy needed to meet the load demand, ® (suey — 806; (S00 = $06) Nie x Vig) S0C sic scp" soc o an ¥ Gy ws Va) " indicates excess energy generation and a negative value indicates GC cae Fig. 1 Residential grid 2.3. Grid-connected PV-batery This study considers a rescental building equipped with PV arrays ss renewable energy generation soutce and lead-acid battery bank for energy storage. This configuration operates in eid-connected mode that enables the trade of energy with the utlity grid. The PV energy gener ation system and battery bank are connected to each other through a predictive energy management strategy (PEMS) controller. The controller is also connected to the utility grid through a smart meter via circuit breaker that enables the exchange of energy from the grid. The circuit breaker acte as the eafety and manual switching interface be ‘ween grid and PEMS controller. The PEMS controller manages the load demand by effcienty directing the required energy from the PV system, battery bank, and utility grid. It also manages the charging and dis. charging ofthe battery bank, as wells setting the maximum SoC limit for the battery bank. The general schematic ofthis system is shown in Fig. 1 ‘The mathematical model for the energy supply and demand forthe v-battery HES can be writen as fllowing equations ova (semss © where P:" (kW) denotes the residual power of the PV-battery HES at sven timestep ¢, which i subjected to the SoC Limit set by the PEMS controller as defined in Eqs. (3) sn (')- (USS) represents the cost of clectrcity exchanged from the grid, whichis negative if the electricity is sold to the grid at fixed feed in-taiff Cf (USS/kWh) and positive if the clectrcity is bought from the grid at the dynamic or static price of electricity (USS AW). In Fis. 2; the energy flow behavior of PV: battery HES is shown based ‘on two days of hourly data. The simulated data consist of first day with relatively lower PV production followed by second day of higher PV power output, while the load patter is kept same for both scenarios, The ‘minimum S0¢ limit onthe battery isnot applied. From the Fg. 3, weean observe that during both days, the PV output during the daytime ie suficent to satisfy the load with excess energy available for battery comected PV atery hyd energy systom with energy management system.tary Comer a Magen 297 (2021) 114108 10) —— Load 100 = pvenersy Excess energy 8 % 5 . Energy rom grid g E | serene co ¥ ga ao 2 2 2 oy of L ° 00°00 0600 1600 0000 0600 1200-18100 00°00 “ime Fig, 2 Simulation of hously power Now, land and battery SoC of gid connected PY-battery hybrid energy system. Energy Management System ———= =< Hig. 8. the Mierarchial contra steatgy for predictive energy management in eesidentialyridscanected PV:Detlery systems However, during the night, the battery SoC drope to critical levels approaching 0% and the required energy to meet the load demand needs to be bought from the grid. Its important for maintaining the battery health that the battery's minimum SoC limit is constrained to a safe level. With availablity of excess energy, it sao important to develop an efficient EMS strategy that can manage the transaction of energy with the utility grid In order to provide both economie and environmental benefits Energy management strategy ‘This section gives detail explanation of multi-objective predictive control strategy of PV-battery system. At frst the outline ofthe energy ‘management strategy is described, followed by the description of Res CONN architecture used for forecasting one-step ahead energy gener tion and load demand. Last, the problem formulation for the mult objective optimization is presented 1. Mulcobjective predictive conrol strategy The erratic behavior of solar radiation and load demand makes ea: ergy management for PV systems dificult to deal with. Therefore, bat tery bank is used for energy storage during low energy generation periods. However, grkdconnected mode of operation reduces some system reliability burden from the EMS tasks and other axpects Like conomie and environmental impact ean be addressed with higher pi ity. A hierarchical control strategy is introduced for predictive control cof energy flow in residential grid connected PV-battery HES as shown in Fig. 3. The proposed strategy begins withthe monitoring and prediction ofthe energy generation and load demand. A logieal/rile based contol fs applied to the data flow to contol the computational load om the system and Improve the accuracy of following prediction and control processes. A machine learning prediction framework is deployed to fake energy generation and load forecast based on historical data collected through monitoring and filtered by the logic based data con trol. Thereafter, at second level, a mult-objecive problem is formed using the forecast which fs optimized using metaheurste optimization algorithm. The solution obtained ftom optimization is then used at control level, for battery charge scheduling for next timestep (1-hour in this ease, followed by energy trade with the utility grid for recent time step and result of PEMS process is then recorded by the monitoring and prediction level Fig. 4, aflow chart of proposed strategy is presented. The process begins with collection of PV system's energy output and an electric load at current time step. Thereafter, sliding window [20,30,31] method for preparing model training data is applied tothe collected PV energy and electric load data. Training data is prepared as a set of 168-time steps ‘with maximum sets of data constrained to 21 and a siding window of 1 time step. Ifthe dataset exceeds the total sets 21, the oldest set in the dataset is disearded, Prepared data is then used to train the Res DCCN ‘model and other benchmark prediction methods including naive/ persistence predictor, SVM and ANN and using the latest (21st) set of data, PV energy and electric lad demand for next timestep i predicted. Corrections are applied to predicted data by checking the sunrise totary Comer a Magen 297 (2021) 114108 ‘Menitoting and Prediction [Mult abjecive Optimization Contra: H ‘onelave reson NOES OE Pry ti enh — Cromer }(m) | 77 | Sent” ey LI conot oc ‘er red 4 Fig. 4. sunset time (6 AM to 6PM) and ifthe current timestep isin night period, the PV energy output predictions are adjusted to zero value, else the predicted values are used for further processes. Predicted values for nergy and losd data are the used for multi-objective optimization for ung optimal battery charge limit for next time step. The optimization process continues tll convergence, after which a solution is ealculated satisfy the balance between the defined objectives for optimization. ‘Then, the current time step's load demand is compensated using PV energy, battery bank o if equired from utility grid as shown in ‘control section of Fi. 4. Ifexcess energy is generated that surpasses the battery bank's scheduled maximum SoC limit, then i is sold tothe utility gid ‘The next time step's energy and load data is then compared with the predictions of forecasting model, ifthe prediction error of previous step issmaller than the et threshold of error for both data, the training ofthe model (except for naive predictor is skipped forgiven time step. Thus, reducing the computational load on the PEMS controller and speeding Up the EMS proces. 82. Prediction model A variant of residual dilated causal convolutional network (Res CCN) is used for forecasting one-step ahead energy generation and Joad demand. Convolutional neural networks (CNN) are an excellent choice for time-series prediction for their inherent feature extraction capabilities, which eliminates the need of advance pre-processing of data. Also, unlike fully connected neural networks, CNN incorporates features ffom neighboring steps, giving them an advantage for leveraging parallel processing techniques and learning local time series trend, Cauca variation of convolutional network eneuree the onder of time series convolution is always one-drectional, ie, the convolution urput of any time step uses information from previous time steps. Dilation during convolution allows the convolutional filters of smaller size kemels to capture larger data than its specified length. Thus, the smaller numberof filters are required and the total numberof trainable parameters can be reduced, Also shipped connections asin residual ar chitecture can help reduce the vanishing gradients during the model training by allowing the flow of data from previous convolutional step ro the next one. The DCCN architecture used in thie tudy is an one step T_gx—F lwehart of proposes mt objective predictive energy management sate head forecasting variation of ‘SeriesNet” proposed in 2). thie study ‘wemodiy the number ofites, tobe equal to thenumber ofhoursina day (24) and kernel size, s 10 3, which corresponds to the hour time Sep as our data is sampled at hour interval. The progressive inerease {in dilaton at each residual block ensies thatthe model learns diferent Joeal wend and global wen ofthe tine series at diferent eonvolutional stages. For more detals on residual diated causal convolutional network and siding window technique, one may refer to the previous work of authors in (20) In this study, we use a Res-DCCN archleectur a shown in Fig. S(. ‘The proposed architecture comprises 7 residual blocks with proges sively increasing dilation rates. The skipped connections ofeach residual bok are then added to extrac the time series featutes ofthe energy generation and load demand data. A dropout (95) of 1086 isadded othe Inst vo reid blocks to imi the influence of higher order dilation in the Inst results A'1 x 1 convolutional layer for one-to-one feature ‘mapping is applied, fllowed a layer of fully connected layer of 168 neurons with linear activation to transform the extracted features to one-step ahead prediction. The los function for the mode training ix specified as mean absolute error of preted and actual values. To train {wo univariate models fr PV energy generation and load demand data, the los function of two models are chained using summation and are optnized togeter using a fistorderstochasie gradient descent algo- rim, Adam [). By chaining the loss functions of two models as shown in ig 5(), pale and simultaneous training and prediction on {wo diferent datatypes canbe performed using one prediction mode ‘The optimizer parameters ae setae fllows, lemming rate ~ 0.00075, exponential decay rate for fist moment estimate = 09, exponent decay rate for second moment estimate ~ 0.999 and epilon value for ‘numerical stability ~ 10”. The models rained unl reaching a training Joss 00001 or maximum traning epoch of 50. The prediction model is coded in ‘TensorFlow” [35] machine learning iixary fr ‘Python pro- gramming environment Im order to benchmask the proposed Res-DCCN model, we use three popular prediction techniques (Nalve, SVM, ANN) that are sed in en gy management strategies (17,10), Nave/persistence technique uses the previous tie step values to make the one step ahead forecart. We also wed SVM regression model (36) with radial basis function kereInput: Time series 1248361 248362 1248304 tary Comer a Magen 297 (2021) 114108 f248:3d8 £24s:3d-16 £248:3d:92 f248:3.d:64 oH ‘Symbols: i f: Number of Filters 's: Size of kernel meni 4: Dilation rate (5) fxs xd Dilated Conv1D Block 7 Ti Selu Activation [J] 1x1 Convi Block : eee [5 Retu Activation E Time step sum i © © Dropout i @ Fully connectes Neuron Prediction Model Vener (TT es 2con Pv enery sonra ata oda senerton proitons Load demand pf | rexocon : Load demand ‘nn ‘soa. | {———+ rotctone Tuas | Las al Model Las tosh Loe ¥ TOA orice ig. 5. (a) Proposed residual ated causal convolutional network for PV energy generation and lad demand prediction. (b) Parallel trining and prediction of 40 Res DCEN models by chaining the modes lowes. for predicting the load and PV output data. The regularization parameter for the SVM i set to 10 and the stopping criteria for the training loss is set to 0.001. SVM implementation for this study used ‘Sckit learn’ li brary [97]. Also, an ANN alzo known multilayer pereeptron (MLP) is ‘wed for comparing the prediction performance, ANN is modelled to hhave two hidden layers with 42 and 21 neurons each with sigmoid activation function. A dropout rate (3°) of 20% is applied forthe outputs of frst and second hidden layers in order to prevent over fitting. The parameter search for both SVM regression model and ANN model is ddone using ‘Scikit-earn’ library by cross-validated grid-search over a parameter grid using fist 21 sets of time series data. Both SVMand ANN ‘models ae trained over mean squared etror loss function, where ANN is optimized using Adam optimizer for maximum training epoch set to 100 and stopping criteria for training loss is 0.001 33. Problem formulation and mul-obecive optimization The proposed PEMS strategy targets the residential buildings quipped with PV-battery hybrid systems. Since the economic objective of such systems is of highest protty forthe residential users. However, the environmental objective cannot be undermined, therefore, this study considers the total CO, production and offset as one ofthe objectives for energy management. Three objectives are considered in this study, net cost of electricity, total CO; emission and maximum battery SoC limit The battery charge scheduling problem is formulated as following equations si (SoC) = min gh Soe) o subjece Ft < +104 20% < SoC < 100% o where: (075,000) x 0421 ° F:pe = (ebsf 000) x 041 a0) ‘As shown in Ep (7), the objective funtion comprises minimization of cost of electricity exchanged from arid CP (USS) as economic objective, minimization of CO emision of P-batery HES, # (kg) a8 tavironmental objective and maximization of battery banks maximum charge lini Soir 0) a8 technical objective, Since the optimization isperformed for batery bank's charge scheduling for onestep ahead, there for the time step is denoted ae ¢ + 1, and Soc is used asthe input for the optimization problems, The optimization is eonstrained oF” being smaller than the COs emission of system without PV-battery system denoted as FS and SoG" is bounded by minimum limit of 20% and ‘maximum limit of 10086 as shown in Eq (©). The minimum limit fo the 506 limit is bounced to 20% in order to prevent the damage to the batteries due to critically low charge (29) ss shown in Fig. 2. The CO emission constraint is applied to the optimization problem in order to prevent the optimization algorithm for finding solutions where, all the residual power left after compensating the electrical load is sold to the sid. An ovethead of 10 is added tothe constraint in order to limit the complete transaction of residual energy tothe utlty grid. This overhead is especially useful when the SoC limit i a its minimum for a longer period and in order to prevent damage to the batteries due to eef discharging, the additional power can be used to compensate the power loss in batteries, In Equation (9) and Eq, (10), the method for caleulating the CO, emission for residential building with and without V-battery HES is shown. Where the constant, 0.421 is the amount (kg) of CO: produced per unit of eletricity (kWh). This value is referenced from the Taiwan Power Company for year 2019 (5). ‘The differential evolution variant of muls-objective evolutionary algorithm (MOBA/D:DE) [39,40] i used to solve the optimization problem shown in Eqs. (7) (10). The constrained are handled using ‘Kur's death penalty’ method as described in [11], The MOBA/D.DE parameters are set (a) population size = 11, (b) generations = 15, {6) neighborhood size = 25, () differential evolution parameter = 0.5, {¢) crossover probability = 80%, (0 distribution index = 20, neighbor: hood consideration probability = 80% and (g) diversity preservation by ‘new population ~ 3/lteration. The mult-objective optimization is coded using Pygmo’, "Python" binding for‘Pagmo’ optimization library (#2) ‘The best solution for each multi-objective optimization step is chosen by an equal weighting method for each objective function as shown in Ea. (1) ane (2). Bach of objectives are normalized between the maximum and minimum values of the Pareto front population. By using equal weights, the equal consideration of economic, environmental and technical objectives for PEMS battery charge scheduling, is ensured. tary Comer a Magen 297 (2021) 114108 orm(s) = (~~) ay fone = infnorm( CE)? + morm(,)? + nom —Sot4)*) co) ‘where, Eq, (71) represents the normalization operation for veetor x. In Eq, (1) the method for find best solution, fy ie shovsn, which states the balance between al three objectives, 4. Results In this section, the simulation results of proposed multi-objective predictive control for PV-battery EMS are presented. In the beginning the data used for the simulation is discuseed. Thereafter, the perfor ‘mance ofthe prediction model on the dataset fs presented. Finally, two case studies, considering (a) static electricity pricing and (b) dynamic tlectrcity pricing is presented to evaluate the performance of proposed nethodology in these two scenarios. 44, Simulation dota For this study, we use ERAS global reanalysis data (3), to get the solar radiation and ambient temperature variables for Tainan city, Talwan for Year 2019. Using these photovoltaic variables, the PV energy generation for yeat 2019 is caleulated a shown in Fig. 6(a). To simulate realistic residential load conditions, the load data from “Typical Mete ‘orological Year” third edition dataset [for Key West, Flot, USA is ‘wed since the location shares same climatology to that of Tainan ety Time series for load demand is shown in Fie. o(b). By subtracting the hourly load from hourly PV energy generation, the excess PV energy available at hourly interval can be calculated as shown in Fis. (). 4.2, Predition models and errors ‘The prediction accuracy of chained prediction model consisting two ‘Res-DCCN model is tested on the PV energy generation and hourly load, demand datasets shown in previous subsection. The predictions are rade on the two time-series datasets using siding window training and prediction technique as discussed in Section 3. for 1000 runs. Similar, a) “a 300 “abo a0 ‘bo ( 1 faces Eneroy a0 ce Fig. 6. (2) Hourly PV energy goncrtion (b) Hourly residential load, (e) Howry excess energy production for Year 2019,the ANN miodelis used for predicting the load and PV output dataset and prediction model is run for 1000 times. Since both Res-DCCN and ANN models have dropout layers and are trained using stochastic optimiza tion algorithm, Adam. Itisimportant to test the models multiple times in order to capture their stochastic behavior for predictions. Because ofthe deterministic behavior of naive prediction and SVM regression, these ‘models are only analyzed for single run. In Fig. 7, normalized absolute error for dally prediction of each model is shown. The mean absolute errors are normalized using maximum value on hourly predetion and the average of 24 is taken inorder to convert them to one-day horizon. For the residential load dataset, as shown in Fis. 7(a), nave forecast model retuins the highest ettor, followed by ANN and then SVM regression approaches. Our Res DCNN model has lowest prediction fervor rate on average. From the is. 7(a, the stochastic behavior of ANN sd CNN can be clearly observed as they have come randomness in their prediction error, whereas, naive and SVM regression prediction errors are mote deterministle for load dataset. In Fig. 70, for PV energy generation dataset, both naive and SVM regression models shows higher fervor rates and randomness, whetess, ANN and our Res-DCNN model ‘models, de to their stochastic behavior are able to provide more ae curate predictions. This is de tothe stochastic nature of the PV energy generation dataset which depends on several factors including solar inradiance, ambient temperature etc. Therefore, the stochastic predic tion models such ae ours and ANN ate better at learning such temporal randomness in the PV energy generation data The error metres [17,20] fr two datasets for including coefficient of determination (R2 seore) (17), mean absolute error (MAE), mean ab solute percentage error (MAPE), symmetiic mean absolute percentage error (SMAPE), normalized root mean squared error (NRMSB) are pre sented in Table 1, The mean (i) and standard deviation (0) for ANN and four Res-DCCN model metrics are computed for 1000 training and pre diction simulations For load dataset, nave predictor shows an R2 score of 0.8674 which can be considered reasonably accurate for low precision application. However, SVM regression shows better prediction accuracy on diferent metres than ANN model. For stochastic dataset such as PV energy dataset ANN model provides much better accuracy than naive and SVM models. But overall, our Res-DCNN model with chained loss tary Comer a Magen 297 (2021) 114108 Table 1 [Error mets of peedlction model for lal and PV energy generetion dataset. (os) im WON Onto” osTa ‘rine ae E onse —_Go00 Nise foe omen oe oom tuaining provides highest prediction accuracy on both datasets among, the prediction models used fr benchmarking. As for model uncertainty, the standard deviation values for our proposed model are lower than ANN model, which indicates that our model is able to capture the temporal trends ofthe dataset much better than ANN. Therefore, it ean be concluded that our proposed prediction model is not only highly accurate but also numerically stable with lower prediction uncertainty 43. ergy management case sudy ‘To test the performance of proposed PEMS, two electricity pricing ‘cases are considered in this study. Case 1 considers the electricity price from grid to be fixed for all around the year at 0.082 (USS/KWh), Whereas, in case 2, dynamic pricing for units of electtcity used during Normalized Absolte or toad) SEeEcEs 3 300 350 Fig. 7. Comparison between nite, ANN, SVM and our Res-DCCN moe for) Normalized daily mean absolute eons for residential load dataset, (0) Normalized ‘ally mean sbaote eros for PV energy generntion dase.diferent seasons is considered. The dynamic pricing chart (45) fo ease 2 is presented in Table 2. tn Dynamic pricing for summer (June to September), the prices of electricity are usually higher than other ‘months and the cost of electricity Increases according to amount of, electricity consumed on monthly basis. For both cases the feed-in tariff Istaken asa fixed value of 0.19 (USS kWh) as according trates 6) et by Taiwan's authorities for PV system up to 18 KW capacity vali for ‘next 20 years. For comparing the performance of proposed predictive control strategy, variables of residential building with PV system referred as ‘No-PV" and residential building with PV system but without EMS referred as ‘NoEMS’ is used. For reference, ‘No-EMS’ mode of operation considers the same power flow model as EMS move, with Aitference being no battery charging scheduling. The battery charge limite Soc and SoC™" fixed at 100% and 20% rexpectivly All the computational models are programmed and simulated on ‘notebook personal computer with following configurations: CPU: iS 7200U, CPU cores: 2 physical cores (with hyper threading), RAM: 8 GB sud GPU: Nvidia GeForce 920K, 43.1. Case 1: static electricity pricing For case 1, the electricity prices are set ata fixed value of 0.082 (US S/kWh) and simulations are performed using the proposed PEMS strategy for 100 runs on the datasets described in Section 41. Results of simulations are listed in Table 3 including energy, economie, technical and environmental variables for one-year data. Using the proposed strategy, not only more than half the energy requirement for the res- dential bulling can be met by PV-battery system but also a higher amount of excess energy can be sold tothe utility grid than bought. As the electricity prices are fixed in this case, we can observe a profit of 1286.03 (USS) (19.87% increase) fora one-year petiod. A reduction of 7515.44 (kg) oF 155.6946 of CO emissions can be observed compared 10 the ‘No-PV’ configuration. Here CO; emissions are calculated as the Ufference of CO emission and CO offset. The proposed PEMS strategy alo shows an inerease in profit compared to No-EMS, PEMS with nalve prediction, the PEMS with SVM regression model and PEMS with ANN ‘model at 156.79%, 22.0996, 23.70% and 24.72% respectively. Also, using our PEMS, 48.7196, 9.70%, 9.66% and 9.58% less CO, emission ate recorded compared to No-EMS, PEMS with nave prediction, PEMS ‘with SVM and PEMS with ANN, respectively. The similarity in the results of PEMS with SVM and PEMS with ANN ean be observed due to models are unable to predict both load and PV energy data with similar acc: racy. As shown in Table 1, SUM is has lower error onthe load dataset ‘however, ANN was able to predict PV energy data with higher accuracy than SVM. This difference leads to similar optimization results fo these ‘oo methods. Due to highest prediction accuracy, PEMS with our dual Res-DCCN model was able to converge at more accurate results and provided optimal battery charge echeduling which resulted in superior performance. Overall PEMS with naive predictor has lowest computa ton time requirement followed by SVM and ANN, Average computation time required by proposed PEMS strategy is approximately 2.1 (see step). The numerical stability of proposed strategy can be determined by lover standard deviation of each variables ae shown in Table 2. The esiation of calculating the reduction of total cost of energy and CO2 ‘table Dynamic letrieity prices for ene 2 Nba of nits iy ps GW) awn Seamer Gime ‘ies (Oneber vo Seen) Ma) tary Comer a Magen 297 (2021) 114108 emission from the baseline model (No-PV system) is as follows: ah P= 10x as) ‘where, Pi the percent reduction for the variable value, x compared t0 the baseline variable value, x. In ig. 8, the time series plots for our proposed PEMS with dual Res- DDOGN is shown, From the plots, it ean be observed that using ou PEMS. strategy the frequency of energy bought from the grid i reduced while the battery bank is regularly used for providing the enerey to the ‘compensate the load. The SoC of battery iskept under 50% level for most ofthe time steps, which resulted in lese unrequired energy storage and ‘an inerease in energy that fs sold to the utility gril (gr debit). Also, during the higher PV production period (see Fir. 6) more energy was sold while keeping SoC levels higher that resulted in higher CO. offet. Although, during the low PV energy higher amount of energy was ‘bought from the grid, our PEMS was able to optimally utilize the battery storage system i order to trade some ofthe excess energy tothe gid Therefore, cost of electricity sold to the grid is constantly higher and the amount of CO; offset is much higher than the CO, production. In Fig. 9, the monthly sum of energy, economic and environmental variables are shown. From Fir. a), it can be observed that for the ‘months of June to August the load demand is higher than the PV system energy generation, which erulte tothe less energy debit and lover COs offet ofthese months, However, forthe resto the year, the energy debit ‘and ©» offset values aze well above the CO» production levels, which results in overall better performance of our proposed strategy on yearly horizon, Although, our proposed PEMS strategy has higher energy credit values than 'No-EMS" configuration but that is compensated by its su petior energy debit performance as shown in Fie. 90D). Alo, proposed EMS strategy shows superior performance than ‘No-PV" and ‘No-EMS' configurations for CO; emissions by consistently having higher CO2 offet values as shown in ic. 0), 43.2, Case 2: dynamite electricity pricing Incase, the dynamic electricity prices as specified in Table is used for evaluating the performance of proposed PEMS strategy. For dynamic electricity pricing, the computational load on the PEMS strategy is increased by a factor of 20%, However, the profit for one-year horizon ie very close to that of stati pricing with a slight decrease of 75.81 (USS). Also, the PEMS strategy sol! more energy to the grid to compensate for the economic losses, As shown in Tobie #, our propoced PEMS etrategy shows better performance than “No-PV", “NoEMS', PEMS with naive predictor, PEMS with SVM and PEMS with ANN, for both economie and ‘environmental objectives, Numerical stability ofthe propoced strategy ie not affected by the dynamic pricing of electricity as the standard devi ation of 1000 runs are similar to the stati pricing ease with minor di ferences. Also, from Table S and Table 4, Itean be observed that PEMS. strategies offers significant reduction in total cost of energy and total (C02 emission compared to No-EMS configuration, however the predic: tion accuraey ie a Key factor for the finding optimal battery charge Scheduling. For both static and dynamie pricing cases the results of PEMS with SVM and PEMS with ANN are relatively similar. Alo, significantly higher prediction accuracy on load dataset and relatively higher accuracy on PV energy dataret gives an advantage to proposed PEMS with dual Res-DCGN and it was able to achieve mote reduction in total cost of energy and CO, emissions. From Fig. 10, the response of proposed PEMS strategy for dynamic clectrcity pricing differ from the static pricing case, Higher battery bank's $0C levels can be periodically observed in Fis. 10(b). Due to the dynamic pricing, the higher energy rated are observed during mid-year also the PV energy production slower that leads the higher amount of energy bought fom the grid (Pig. 10(0) and lower instances of high amount energy sold to grid ean be observed in ig. 10(@). Similarly, the lower instances of high CO offset can be observed as shown in Fir. 10 (9, however, some instances of higher CO, offsets are set by the FEMS.tary Comer a Magen 297 (2021) 114108 Results of proposed PEMS strategy for 100 runs on «your data using stati lect pices Var ory NOES ———PEMSNve ——PEMSSVAT PENSAR PS Ou Tal FV energy) Vesa yaad 7pm wan yaaa Va ‘Toa | wssassssans1 sms tos tems weosst ‘Toa ners ld ND) S a7ma7— gz838 Rar RIM 75 ‘Saas Gar ‘Toa energy bot A) rssass1 Base Fe 9 patra 7mm 720 gamen San Toa cot of eneay (08) mas. “on “ot9 “Sam Sk sma Total seteton at ergy (8) ‘oua 778 17408 ie imap Tal CD, emimion i) ssus7 874 246874 ast kat sas us ‘Teal 0D ede PC) e to. 105.99 6.03 fect soe compton ie ee : : os co ost 21 ast Energy from grid (i) ‘ai i — Battery Soc 4) io — Grier (058) ear — Gra dea (U58) Megs 7 ase font a gun Co: produced tk) (cis AN ac Fig. 8. Time series pots of proposed PEMS trategy on stati clectrcty ries) Energy bought fom grid (b) Dery bank's SO () costo crc Bought fom rs (4) cnt of letiity sol to gi, (0) CO, pred by buying etry, (D Dy ffet by sling letilty tothe grid strategy to optimize the environmental objective whenever higher amount of PV energy generation is observed. Therefor, the total OO reduction sll exceeds 100% as shown in Tale 4, ‘On monthly horizon the dynamic pricing does affect the overall, economie and environmental variables as shown in ig. 17. It ean be dbserved that the energy debit o total price of electricity sold to the utility is signffeantly lower during the months of June to August reaching a minimum during the month of August. This phenomenon can be explained by the higher electricity prices during these months and lower PV energy generation. However, for the rest of the year the amount of electricity sold to the grid is slightly higher than the static pricing mode which compensates less energy trade to the utility grid during June to August. The CO, emission levels follow a similar trend as the energy debi dung these three months when the energy production 's lower, however, the lower CO, offsets are compensated by proposed PEMS during the other months ofthe year when a higher amount of PV energy is available Prom the F, 1 (a) itcan be seen that our proposed EMS strategy actively buys more electricity from grid than NoEMS configuration, however, from Fig. 11(b), our proposed method also sells significantly higher amount of energy to the grid, This active transaction of energy between grid and GCHES enables the higher reduction in overall electricity bill. Similarly, our proposed PEMS results in overall higher CO, offset than No-EMS configuration as shown in Fig. 11, 5. Discussion Several studies have tried to tackle the problem of ecient energy ‘management of HES systems using innovative control and optimization strategies. Among these studies We compare some of the relevant onetary Comer a Magen 297 (2021) 114108 = Gare i tery eet 58) POMS ou | 9 = Co prosce Pens 200 = ete tem a 1) Nees Ta Srey ee se) -noens = €0, proud tg) ho EHS za] rey see uss) meen | yg, = Co) tbe) NOES 0 i Wr Rr Wy aa Ri ep Oe Wo De @ 0 iF Ri in i Sip OR WoO i) 0 i Fr Ary J i Ag Sip OH Wo De cy Fig. 9, Monthly comparison plots of PEMS strategy resus for sai eletiiy pricing () energy vara, (2) economic variable, () environmental viable. ‘Tables Results of proposed PEMS strategy for 1000 runs on yon data sing namic eect pices Vara Sty NOP NOES PEMSAve PENS PENSAR PES Oo Teal cera OW) Tecan yaa yaaa aon Va otal 1) isamsst—1Sa2881 roa25s1 : tse oa energy ml ND) S rm pee zs ‘oat ‘Ton ener Dong rsmaas amon rattan 72 risa Teal eo of neay (8) "580 m6? oa Oe tien Total OO; emi 0) sas0n 97 8 aor sinkies 86 ‘Total 0D ede) eS Tous 1598 S re = compton in ee) e = ost ean ast oa ‘with our proposed method in Table 5. Chakir etal. (47) proposed an Aowchart/switching and control algorithm based energy management approach for GCHES comprising PV and battery components. Although, simple to implement this method rather focuses on maximum utilization of power generated by PV array than exploiting the full potential of GGCHES, therefore control behavior is similar to standalone HES as the objective isthe maximum use of renevable souree. In Zupanéi¢ et al. [40], a tree-based control method is discussed as EMS strategy for CGCHES with PV and battery system. This method develops a decision twee for power flow after analyzing the historical data including electric load, eleticity prices and sola ittadiance fr the specific location and by performing a multi-objective optimization using non-dominated sorting genetic algorithm It (NSGA-ID considering operational cost and green factor (independence from the grid). Although the control method Itself is compitationally simple, the optimization of decision trees required access to large amount of historical data and compu: tationally expensive optimization process. Also, this method will require ‘the control model updates ifthe eletreity prices and/or solar irradiance pattern are changed. In contrast othe flowchart and tree-based control methods where the controlled parameters are fixed, predictive control methods update the control parameters of EMS by optimizing the EMS objectives using predicted HES variables. Aghajan ea (0) presented an EMS strategy that uses AN to prec the future values for load, wind turbine power and PV array power. The predicted values are used for multi-objective optimization of operational cost and 003 emission ob: Jectves using multi-objective particle swarm optimization (MOPSO) algorithm. In tis study, it was also shown that fre flow of energy be ‘oveen the HES and grid can lead to higher reduetion in cost and OO emission objectives. In Dahimane etal. (12), an predictive EMS strategy |s inuwoduced for a standalone HES that’ uses artificial neuro-fuzzy Interface system (ANFIS) to predict the load and weather variables. ‘Thereafter the predicted variables are used to compute the power potential and to minimize the use of non-renewable sources. Since, the folar and wind power potentials are computed indirectly using weather data, the model uncertainties cannot be avokded. Aso, acces tthe local weather data requires a sensor system to be incorporated with HES system thus increasing the system complexity. In Mbuwir etal. (50), an reinforcement learning (RL) agent is used to optimally maximize the use the PV output power. Although ths strategy only requires the system's ‘operational data to function the optimization objective only focuses on maximization of PV power usages thus storing the excess energy in Dattery for future use, Our proposed PEMS strategy incorporates a restricted energy flow model, where the PV output is given priority, hhowever, the excess energy isnot constrained and can be either stored in batcery bank or sol to the grid considering the optimal balance between cost, CO, emission and SoC objectives. Our methodology doesn’ trequire ‘complex sensor installation for acquiring the weather data. Also, a¢ shown in results section, our dual Res DCCN model ean provide higher prediction accuracy which is essential for obtaining near-optimal per- formance [>], Sinee our prediction model uses sliding window training ‘method and updates model every iteration, there is no requirement for large historical data and the model can ee adjust tothe uncertainties in power output and load pattem. Therefore, our proposed prediction ‘ode! can find high quality solution for optimization objectives and ean ‘work out-of box without any preprocessing or data requirement, Also, only one control parameter, maximum SoC limits considered to reduce the implementation complexity. A hierarchical control method is also Introduced to control the data flow, prediction model training and switching off the prediction model during night, which further lowere the computational lond, The computation load of our proposed meth fodology can easily be handled by a low. prce single board computer or embedded edge computing modules, therefore doesn’t increases the {inital eapital cost of HES significantly.tary Comer a Magen 297 (2021) 114108 Energy fom grid (i) ‘a ove — Batery SoC 4) or ms — nicer (058) as eo! Gra deat uss) ‘or ve — co; prosveed (a) oe 7 — Co, ofset bg) ‘tr ig-10. Time series pots of proposed PEMS strategy on dynamic electricity prices (a) Energy bgt from sri (Battery bank's SC; () cont of eectrcty bought from grid, (4) os of electricity nl to grid, () COs priced by buying esti, (CDs off by sling electri to the gi Peery rary cea 58). ©, pecice 9) NOY Casta i roy ced 18) PENS ur | sop | Sc, rovces eg) Pens aus 200 = ery rem gee) “nes rary crt 88) no. = oy produced) Neos oer Tar Wy in i A Sp 62 Wow Bae @ 0 ie Fe War Ap ay in a A Sip 02 Wav Dae ) © i Wr Hi Way Rin i Ai Sp 02 Nv Bae o Fig. 11. Monthy plots of PES strtegy rents for dye electricity pricing (x) energy variable, (6) Economic variables, () environmental vriable. 6. Conclusions ‘This study proposes a multi-objective predictive control strategy for sgrid-connected PV-battery systems for residential buildings. A hierar chieal control method is introduced including logiel control of data flow for computational load and accuracy management, machine leaming framework of dual Ree DCCN model for predicting one-step ahead energy production and load demand and a multi-objective opt ‘mization for battery charge scheduling. The multi-objective optimiza tion problem is formed using the predictions of the machine learning framework and considers economic, environmental and technical ob jecives foreach time step. Economie objective i epecified asthe cost of electricity, environmental objective considers the CO, emission/redue tion and technical objective considers the maximum limit of battery bank's state-of charge. The performance of dual Res-DCCN model is evaluated on the PV energy generation and load demand data by using a sliding window prediction technique for 1000 runs. The proposed pre diction model is benchmarked against popular prediction strategies including naive predictor, SVM regression and ANN. Two case studies are presented fo evaluate the proposed PEMS strategy, PEMS with nave‘Comparison of elated energy management strates tary Comer a Magen 297 (2021) 114108 Tefowaces —_Enay Sistem onguton Hise date ‘ously ‘Opinion opines "Egy mage guranet sprint ‘Gk Gr, Van ery Nene Teale withing ing the operon egy Howat ad orl te hoses sign ‘nietal. Gr, Vand bry Lond, lciciy pies Tress raegy ‘Mini the operational cas end Mt ojative te) snd irae raring the sen nce ‘pinton wig NSA Adupaictsl. Grid micosutin, PY, wind Lenk wind and PY ARN with fowchart Mining he operation a ad rn urine feel an ery) power oa renin ‘ination ing MOPSO srr Dbmmne Sandon PY wind tins, La adn, ANAS with sate Mining thes en renee No na certain 2) bateryand desl nent tngerare and wind conrad iching soe rsniami eet Moire a, Grid PV and bate Tad PV power ate, Ragen wih sching, — Masnisng the PV power wnge Pte Qierion 0) (Grid tametion (our propened Gri, Vand tery Ld PV oat crcl conte with Mining the energy bagi oe Mai obj DealesCN soda gr COz cin a arniing —_optiization wing MOEA/ predictor, PEMS with SVM and PEMS with ANN considering statie and dynamic electricity price. The numerical stability of the proposed strategy is tested by running simulation 1000 times, The following conclusion for tis study ean be made: Proposed dual Res-DCCN model provides superior prediction accu: racy compared to naive predictor, SVM regression and ANN model. While reaching R2 scores of 0.9308 for PV energy production and 0.9275 for the load demand data, this model also shows better perfor ‘mance on MAE, MAPE, SMAPE and NRMSE metrics with excellent a merical stability over 1000 runs. Proposed PEMS strategy shows superior performance compared to ‘No-PV", ‘No-EMS, ‘PEMS-Naive’, PEMS-SVM" and ‘PEMS-ANN’ con- figurations fr both reducing the monthly electricity billeup to 199.7% and overall CO emission up to 155.6996 forthe residential building, ‘hile handling more S0% of yearly load requirement for both static and dynamic electicty pricing mode. The proposed multi-objective predictive control strategy also shows excellent numerical stability and computation time on both ease studies Including state and dynamic electciy pricing ‘The signifieant reduction in total cost of energy and CO, emission Justfes the usage of PEMS in residential buildings. PEMS strategy can help residential users significantly decrease the energy cost without undermining the environmental objectives. The limitations and key observations of tis study ean be listed as follows: EMS strategies are generally better at energy management and battery scheduling task as PEMS nave” strategy was able to achieve significant performance gain over ‘No-EMS' configuration even with lover predietion accuracy. Prediction accuracy of PV energy generation and load demand plays an important roe in finding optimal optimization solution. As shown in this study both SVM and ANN prediction models ended up having similar PEMS results because they had lower accuracy than each other in lone of the datasets, Ax Res-DCCN model wae able to predict both data sets with higher accuracy, PEMS equipped with Res-DCCN had better performance. Limitation of Res-DCGN model and our PEMS sttategy is the computational complexity, on an average notebook computer, i takes over 2 to train, predict and optimize. Therefore, it may not be practical ‘enough for application with shorter time steps than 1 min and i may require the improvement in computational efficiency and memory consumption. However, for applications with 10 minor higher EMS time Interval, ur proposed method is highly practical, ‘The future work of this study includes investigation of including Intemet-of things technology and real-time improvements forthe pro posed algorithm. The development ofa low-cost control system for the proposed PEMS strategy is also planned for future research ditectons. “The researchers and engineers interested inthis tole ean improve upon, cour rerearch and explore the real-time implementation aspects of pro- posed predictive control strategy for residential PV-battery systems on shorter interval time steps This research received no external funding, Declaration of Competing Interest ‘The authors declare that they have no known competing financial {terest ot personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper References 10) Soden Garin Tres Rid MA. Medel Predictive Cantal of Mire 20a pl a 10.10077978-3 090 2470 2 Sit, Bans Atel pete cota see org owe sole ‘th pede Ec a oS 191 Mong LP, Wang Wag. 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