TALON Not LIMITED ABERDEEN N.D-E, CENTRE, UNIT 9, MURCAR COMMERCIAL PARK DENMORE ROAD, BRIDGE OF DON, ABERDEEN AB23 SW TEL: +44 (0) 12268 2+ 44 (0) 1224922252 EMAL : faked talommdt.co.w: ULTRASONIC ‘ INSPECTION COMPANY REGISTRATION No. 174563obs ey ts bs to ba La Ls Lt TABLE O Sensitivity. Graphs and DAC eurves.. ‘Scanning patterns 0° probe. Sizing methods 0° prote .. ANGLE PROBE SCANNING.. Calibration: Angle probes test sensitivity Scanning patteras Skip factors. ‘The ratio ofthe sides ofthe triangles inthe three most common probe anges... ‘The irradiation factor. Plotting systems. Sizing methods angle probes... TESTING TECHNIQUES A,B & C scanning Pulse echo systems. ‘Through transmission testi; ‘The tandem technique... Immersion testing.. ULTRASONIC THICKNESS SURVEYING Acceptireject criteria .. Reporting... ULTRASONIC WROUGHT PLATE TESTING ULTRASONIC WELD TESTING... Technique .. Defect signal interpretation... ULTRASONIC TESTING OF FORGINGS General... Techniqu Defects in forgings... Accept and reject criteria . Reporting... ‘ULTRASONIC TESTING OF CASTINGS General Technique. APPENDIX A -APPA-1 .- APPENDIX B Peon BRITISH STANDARDS. British Standards relating to ultrasonic testing . FORMULAE USED IN ULTRASONIC TESTINGBLE OF CONTENT TABLE OF ACOUSTICAL VELOCITIES APPENDIX C ‘Table of acoustical velocities in different materials.. . APPC-L TABLE OF ACOUSTIC IMPEDANCES wm APPENDIX D ‘Table of acoustic impedances for different materials. see APPD-1 ATTENUATION FACTOR ... APPENDIX E APPE-I Example method for determizing the attenuation factor of a material EXAMPLE CALCULATIONS enon Example calculations used in ultrasonics rq ceamam20 Note I: Modern ditt faw®® detectors se more recent spay technologies such 2s plasma or LCD sereens. 0 a 0 (Note 2: The eho at Al is the result of sound energy reflecting bock of the Jront “fae ofthe specimen together with ale ringing of the eral ond the fiat ‘use all merged into one Signal envelope, bd 100 SoU AKT BASIC PRINCIPLES INTRODUCTION TO THE BASIC CONCEPT ‘The most common technique used in ultasanic testing is the pulse echo technique. ‘This makes use of the phenomenon that sound waves travel in straight lines and are reflected by az obstacle placed in their path, ‘The mechanism is just the same as audible sound waves bouncing off a brick wall and an echo being received. The strength of the echo is controlled by the size of the wall. Al, if the time lapse between sending and receiving the sound is measured, it is possible to determine the distance tothe wall Given the required instrumentation we ean pass sound waves through solid materials and receive ectoes from the back wall ofthe material, If a defect is present in the material then the sound energy would be reflected back from it and give an echo earlier ‘han that from the back wall because the sound has not travelled as far. The strength or amplitude of this echo will be an indication of the size of the defect and the distance traveled by the sound will tell us its dept. ‘This then is the basis of ultrasonic testing The instrument that produces the sound energy is called the probe and the echoes are shown on a cathode ray tube! (CRT) within a flaw detector. Probe 012345678910 Sound energy is transmitted from the probe into the test specimen at surface "A" producing an echo at AV, Some of the sound ix reflected by the defect at "B" and the resulting echo appears at B1. ‘The remainder of the sound continues through the specimen to be reflected by the back wall “C*, the echo from the back wall appearing acl IE the screen is calibrated from a test block of known thickness then zhe depth of the defect from the specimen surface (A to B) can be tead off the screen. ‘THE NATURE OF SOUND Sound is caused by mechanical vibrations. In order for sound to pass there must be a medium that will support mechanical vibrations therefore SOUND CANNOT TRAVEL IN A VACUUM. ‘The particles (molecules) within the medium vibrate passing om energy from one to another giving the effect of sound movement through the material. yes eoRuane & TPONe The density and elasticity of Teactrmiaaey Pacts tha effec the 10 velocin. 20 20 0 0 « Note: Votciy i sometimes denoted bythe eter ‘e Note: The mama Frequency the human ear 9 ean detect reduces with ge. is generally cecepted tht most people wil have heard al the high frequency sounds th they are able ‘w encounter by the tine they reach ten yearsafege 100 The ability to support sound depends on the elasticity and density of the medium. Since these propeties will vary, from one material to another, some materials will pass sound more easily than others. ‘Sound follows a waveform: Wavelength 7 z 4 Timeldistance One evele VELOCITY is the distance moved in unit time WAVELENGTH is the distance between successive peaks of a wave PERIOD is the time taken for one complete cycle FREQUENCY is the number of cycles per second 1 oycle per second 1 Hertz (Hz) I Kilohertz (KHz) = 1,000 Hz 1 Megahertz.(MHiz) = 1,000,000 Hz ‘Wavelength ‘Wavelength is a fiction of frequency and velocity Velocity y Wavelengh= —st0eity_ a BO" Freqemy AT ‘Therefore: v= f xa and + Tae AcousTIC SPECTRUM ‘Manual contact testing range + > Steels > Infrasonic | Sonic (audible)| Ultznsonic IMBz — SMEz LY) A AR A rl YU i 1 L 1682 20K = SOOKE 25M “ Tier mS unts 1 a we i i 0 6 0 oy 0 K factors: Extreme (0% intensity) ege~ 1.22] 50% edge dB = 056 1096 edgetIO a8 = 03 109 Teepe ee ying THE PROPAGATION OF SOUND 10 | THE ULTRASONIC BEAM ead zone, ‘beam eaige aie ‘Ypstan of veraece 2 —> beans conte ee (100% tensity) cept Sele raieiea ieee +> ae beam edge bela (0% tension 20 0 ‘The dead zone ‘Seen oa the CRT as an extension of the inital pulse, the dead zone is the ringing time of the crystal and is minimised by the damping medium behind the crystal. Flaws or other reflectors, lying in the dead zone region of the beam will not be detected. The dead zone can be Seen at the start of the trace on a CRT displaying A-scan, but only -vith single erystal probes. ‘The dead zone increases when the probe frequency decreases. ‘The near or fresnel zone In this region of the beam, te sound intensity is variable owing to wave interference, therefore, reflectors or flaws lying in this zone may appear smaller or larger than their actual size. The signal heights displayed on the CRT are unpredictable so it is desirable to Keep the near zone length to a minimunt. ‘The near zone longth can be calculated using the following formula: Po Dxt a aR ‘Where: crystal diarneter (mm) 2.= wavelength (ram) f= probe frequency (Hz) ‘y= test material velocity (mm/s) It can be seen ftom the formula that rhe near zone can be decreases by decreasing the crystal diameter or decreasing the probe frequency. ‘Near zone length (nam) = ‘The far or fraunhoffer zone Beyond the near zone the far zone exists. In the far zone the beam diverges reauiking, in a decay in sound intensity as the distance from the crystal is increased, just as a ‘beam of light from a torch gets weaker the further it travels. ‘The amount of beam divergence depends upon the crystal size und the wavelength as shown in the following formula: Ka, Kxv ou D Dxf Where #7 = the half angle D = crystal diameter (mm) K = aconstant £ = probe frequency (Hz) ete wavelength (mm) vy ~ material velocity (mm/s) tame a TP ONE ae anes UrUNIT UT2 - THE PROPAGATIO? inh) Temay be seen from the above beam spread formula, thatthe beam divergence can be decreased by increasing the crystal diamicter or by incteasing the probe frequency. Unformnately this will extend the length ofthe near zone, So in probe design there isa compromise 1 obtain a minimal beam spread und a short neat 20n2. beam extreme cdg© 9, intensity 10% intensity edge half angle 50% intensity edge 20 beam ceatre 100% intensity near zone etc a crystal : 10% intensity edge 30 ‘beam extreme edge 0% intensity {In the far zone of the ultrasonic beam there is no wave interference therefore the sound intensity inthis zone is predictable. ‘The sound intensity reduces from 100% in the cede to O% at the edge of the beam , go | therefore when the centre of the beam hits a reflector/flaw the amplitude of the signal on the CRT will be at its maxima. ‘The sound intensity will also decrease with a greater distance (in the range axis) to a reflector or flaw. In the far zone the amplitudes of reflected sound ftom large and small reflectors follow different laws. LARGE REFLECTORS (larger than the width of the ultrasonic beam) follow the INVERSE LAW - The amplitude is inversely proportional 10 the distance, i. ifthe distance is doubled then the signal amplitude is halved (ic... reduced by 6dB). SMALL REFLECTORS (smaller than the width of the bean) follow the INVERSE | SQUARELAW - The amplitude is inversely proportional to the square of the distance, icc. if the distance is doubled then the amplitude from the second reflector is one ‘quarter of the amplitude of the nearer (124B less) 0 Large refitetors ‘Small reflectors n fone me ura10 0 © 100 NM JT2+ THE PROP. TION OF SOUND SDE LOBES Side lobes are secondary lobes to the primary ultrasonic beam or main lobe that are fooned at the fice of a transducer and radiate away from the main lobe. They represent areas of high and low acoustic intensities and may cause unwanted echoes to ‘be reocived by the probe, especially on rough surfaces, which may be mistaken for flaws on the CRT. For shear wave probes, the minimum refracted beam angle in siel is approximately 33° to 35%, but at these relatively acute angles, side lobes may be formed which, although usually negligible, may ceuse spurious indications on the CRT. For this xeason it is usually safer to set the minimum beam angle for shear wave probes in steel at 40°, ‘The narrower the main lobe, ie, the smaller the half-angle of the beam, the weaker and ‘more numerous the side tobes. ‘THE ULTRASONIC PULSE Jna modem ultrasonic pulse echo flaw detector the pulse of ultrasound is ereated by charging a capacitor in the circuitry then suddenly releasivg this charge of electrical energy, about IKv to 2Ky, into the probe, This electrical energy is converted into a ‘mechanical vibration by the piezo electric crystal in the probe. The ultrasonic vibrations are formed by the collapse of the crystal after the electrical energy has been removed. The behevionr of the crystal, on collapse, can be likened to the behaviour of a spring when it is stretched then released. The spring will return to its former shape then shorten then stretch, sc. until it finally comes to rest in its original shape. This cycle of expansion and contaction is what forms the ultrasonic pulse. Maximum, expansion | Original] size ae ‘Maxitnum| contraction we nnn 12320 0 ® o 10 Putse length ‘This length of pulse is unacceptable since in order to show separate, clear reflected signals on the CRT then the pulses of sound must be short and sharp. To shorten the pulses the ultrasonic crystal must be damped with a backing medium which absorbs the sound energy (in much same way s6 a shock absorber fitted to a spring on motor vehicle dampens the vibration of the suspension}. In this way the pulse length ean be reduced to between 3 and 5 cycles. ne cycle Amplitude ‘Timeldistance The ideal pulse length would be approximately two eyeles but such levels of damping are difficult to achieve with conventional backing mediums and commercially available crystals. DAMPING, then controls PULSE LENGTH (the number of cycles x wavelength). ‘The other factor that controls pulse length is probe frequency. The higher the frequency the shorter the wavelength, ic. the length of each cycle fa the pulse and hhence the shorter the pulse length (coniaining the same number of cycles). PULSE LENGTH controls RESOLUTION. ow O05 ur4J 7 ga aimee eee asus ts . a a Auane & TPONe pons 30 “0 Note: PARE. sometimes called imebase frequency. ” RESOLUTION Resolution is the ability to separate om the timebase two or more reflectors that are close together in terms of bear path length. Consider two reflectors within the beam with a beam path, length, difference of 3mm. If the pulse length was greater than 3mm then the signals from the two reflectors ‘would be contained within the same envelope, as in (a). If the pulse length was less than 3mm then, in practical terms, the signals would be separated, asin (). Oras 45 6THSI0 OTTSeS ETE DW ® © The above therefore demonstrates that the shorter the pulse length, the better the resolution. PULSE REPETITION FREQUENCY (P.R.F.) ‘The pulse repetition frequency (p.c.f) o pulse repetition rate (pr) isthe number of pulses of ultrasonic energy that leave the probe in a given time (usually pet second). Each pulse of energy that leaves the probe must return before the next pulse Teaves otherwise they collide causing "ghost" or spurious echoes to appear on the CRT. The time taken for the pulse to travel from the probe and retum is known as the transit time. ‘The time between pulses leaving the probe is known as the clock interval. Therefore it can be stated thatthe transit time must be shorter than the clock interval or ghosting occurs. Practically speaking the clock interval should be around five times the transit time, __ DISTANCE TRAVELLED (mx) VELOCITY (kan/s) ‘TRANSIT TIME (psec) CLOCK INTERVAL : Minimum > TRANSIT TIME practical = 5 x TRANSIT TIME fore wae unsFuone a UNIT UT2 - THE PROPAGATION OF SOUND MODES OF PROPAGATION Compression or longitudinal waves Noe: Compression waves Probes that produce compression waves will normally have an incident and refracted repro nsec fhe Gelenroretagie at | angle of, or close to, 0° perp thn Soman 7 “These waves vel rough ame - causing th pres fhe atrial 0 cx parallel ote decdon of = prvagaton and oni alate ite Coopresin and coe peste waves. eocwood ee oro 0 o » $18) cinntpaise Comes Sen tin eee Compressive wos in steel = 530m at Compression waves can propagate throng sols ids and gases since . als coh aes Dineen pcsoa tony exits in sol) isnot eset Shear or transverse waves 50 articles vibrate at 90° tothe dizection of propagation and have a whip lke action . Shear velocity in steel = 3240 m/s ‘ote: Shear waves only are produced in stel the Incident angle of the beam (a persper is between ‘approximately 28° and 36% w ‘Shear waves can only propagate in solids, 0 rigid particle bonding being a pre-requisite, Diresion of propagation a0 | cc=Incident angle 0 tere os uresby ty es tes cy ti ti ti wt L as 30 30 BOUNDARY WAVES ‘These forms of propagation can only occur when a solid to gas interface is present. If the objects were immersed, these modes would be fully attenuated. Surface or rayleigh waves Sucface waves are formed when shear waves tefract to 90°, The whip-like particle vibration of the sheax wave is converted into an elliptical motion by the particles changing ditection atthe interface with the surface. These waves are not often used in industrial N.D.T. although they do have some applications in the aerospace industry. Their mode of propagation is clliptcal slong the surface of a materia, penetrating to a depth of one wavelength. They will follow the contour of a surface and they travel at approximately 90% the velocity of shear waves. Depth of pecetration (one wavelength) iretion of particle motion ‘Where stamp changes in contour occur, such as a comer edge, reflected energy will return tothe probe, Plate or lamb waves Plate waves are formed by the introduction of surface waves into thin plate material. ‘They are @ combination of compression and surface or shear and surface waves causing the plate material to flex by totally saturating the material. There are two types of plate waves: 7 Surface wave Symmetrical ior ence <> << <> <> <> Consitudinl wave Surface wave v v Plate distortion y iY % s ge OOOO ems oe i (Shear wave) a tire LO OO IO ome enema trent tones es ur27" antsotropte: The grains are ave diferen dase ropertes afore ‘rections. 30 0 ote Velocity ts cometnes ‘denoed by the ltr ‘e (constant velocin). FACTORS AFFECTING THE PROPAGATION OF ULTRASOUND random Meriznaten aad 10 | THE propagetion of ultrsonic waves in a material is dependant on the deasity and elastic properties of that material and the type of wave transmitted. ‘The practical considerations which will affect propagation will include: the test material's graia size * _ etteanation (absorption and scatter effects) ‘acoustic impedance ofthe test material + characteristic impedance of inclusions + diffraction * lack of homogeneity anisotropic! materials ACOUSTIC IMPEDANCE Acoustic impedance (Z) isthe resistance of a material to the passage of ultrasound. It is the product of the material density (p) and sound velocity (¥) ie Z = pv tis the acoustic impedance difference between two different materials/mediums which governs the intensity of ultrasound reflected from the interface between them. Conversely, the amount of ultrasound passing from one material to another depends on this difference between the two materials. This difference is expressed as the acoustic impedance ratio, ‘Theoretically if an ulnasonic wave was passed through two materials, with the same acoustic impedance (1:1 mti), in intimate contact, then no reflection would occur, Le. 100% transmission of sound would occur. In practice itis very difficult to achieve intimate contact without a coupling medium (see next section). ‘The couplant would hhave a different acoustic impedance to the material and 50 would affect the amount of sound reflected. “The amount of energy reflected at an interface can be calculated with the following formula: Where Z1 and Z2 are the as respective acoustic impedances of the two ‘materials. Zi-z2 21+, % Reflected energy -{ Itean be seen from the forma that: HIGH ACOUSTIC IMPEDANCE RATIO (eg, 20:1) MORE REFLECTED ENERGY LOW ACOUSTIC IMPEDANCE RATIO (eg. 1:1) =MORE TRANSMITTED ENERGY Tt can also be seen from the formula that the same amount of energy is reflected, regardless of which direction te sound is travelling across the interface. im Ie cs Ur28— meee ee PER ‘ote: The ideal acoustic 19 ‘impedance of eouplant Should be in between the ‘acoustic impetiancs ofthe probe and the acoustic Iinpetance ofthe test tril. Thiel ‘thickness ofthe ayer of ‘couplant should beone 20 (quarter ofthe wavelength of Sound through fe ‘Some recent developed Ulirasonie tens use no cat ee row ‘alr eoupied stom and sowypeend = ‘ampifcstion aed sensitive ‘reccived circu 0 so 100 INIT UT2 - THE PROPAGATION OF SOUND COUPLANT Because of the very high acoustic impedance ratio of air to a solid. material almost 100% of the energy is reflected at an interface between them (the basis of flaw detection). ‘Therefore to enable the sound energy to transmit more readily into the test specimen we lave to exclude any air that may be present between the probe and test surface. This is achieved by substituting the air with @ material that has a closer acoustic impedance ratio tothe probe and test material. TbiS is known as a couplant, Common couplants ae: water, oil, grease, polycell, swarfega and glycerine “The seleciinn of couplant is sometimes based on the post-test use ofthe material being tested, e.g, water based couplants may cause rusting or osTosion but afe easier to clean off in preparation for painting or coating when compared ‘ ail or grease, which may actually protect the material from corrosion. Viscosity of the couplant may also be a consideration, ideally rough surfaces require @ ‘more viscous couplant to effectively fill the air gaps more uniformly. Whatever couplant is used for calibratiow/setting the search sensitivity, this must be used throughout the subsequent inspection. ATTENUATION Atteouation is defined as the loss in intensity of toe wltasonic team as it passes through a material and is dependant upon the physical properties of the materia, ‘The two main causes of attenuation are SCATTER and ABSORPTION Scatter This is the major cause of attenuation and is the redirection of the sound waves reflecting off grain boundaries, porosity and non-metillic inclusions, etc., and becomes ‘more apparent on the inspection when the size of grains become 1/10" of the ‘wavelength ofthe seazoh unit being employed. Absorption AAs the sound travels through 2 material a small amount ofthe energy is used up by the ‘interaction ofthe particles, as they vibrate, causing friction which is dissipated as heat. AAs the frequency of the sound is increased the attenuation increases due to more particle vibration (absorption) and increased sensitivity to snail reflectors (scatter from ‘grain boundaries, porosity and inclusions) which is related to the wavelength of toe sound. Materials such as castings and austenitic stainless steel are highly attemuative due to their coarse grain structures, etc. The attenuation factos of @ material can be measured and is expressed in di/inm (see the appendices for an exemple). ‘Natural attenuation also occurs duc to the divergence of the beam in the far zone, i.e. assuming compression probe use, the amplitde of the backwall echo will be halved (-64B) every time the distance fram the prove is doubled. ‘omamet? ona es exes umsTHE PROPAGATION OF 20 «0 0 0 00 THE DECIBEL (DB) ‘The decibel is a logarithmic bese unit used vo compare sound intensities. Because we do not know the actual energy being transmitted by a probe, we can oaly compare sound intensities being received and express them a8 a ratio, eg. twice as auch, fen times as much et. ‘A change in sound intensity, expressed in dB, can be measured by comparing signal heights on calibrated CRT. ‘The change in dB is given by the formula: B= 20 logy Bt ‘Where Hl and H2 are the respective signal heights By transposing the formula itis possible to determine the ratio of the signal heights ‘when the dB difference is known, ‘The gaia/ttenuator controls on a conventional ultrasonic aw detector ate calibrated in decibels, i. if we reduce the intensity of ultrasound by 64B any signa} on the CRT. will drop to half ts original height. If we reduce or increase the intensity by 20dB then the signal will reduce toa tenth or increase by ten times its original height respectively. Its important to note that on certain flaw detectors, if reject or suppression is used to remove small unwanted sigoals from the display, then the linearity of the amplifer, and hence the other signals, will be adversely affected, fc. a 6€B drop will not reduce the signal by 50%, ‘Table of approximate dB drops: «B Ha Drop BU: ratio 20 10% 90% 10:1 4 20% 80% Sal 2 25% 75% «| 10 33% 61% 3:1 50% 30% 2 2 80% 20% Se uraBuane & TP OWe! op 0 The selection fa matrial snitable for producing raround and receiving ‘the result pulse back is ‘asad on three parameters sensitivity 20 Fi resobuton te ffiiensy 30 0 ” Findavseme frequency is ‘ala athe resonance frequency and is the lowest frequency the bodyinsteriabokject wilt 0 100 SOUND GENERATION ‘THE PIEZO ELECTRIC EFFECT ‘This is defined as the property of certain crystals to convert electrical energy into mechanical energy and vice versa. ‘These crystals maybe naturally occurring, sstificially manufactured or grown in solution. => Electrical cnergy out Piezo electric crystals These crystals may be X-cut or Y-cut depending on which orientation they are sliced, ‘rom the crystal material. The crystals used in ultrasonic testing are X-cut duc ta the ‘ode of vibration they produce (compressional). ‘This means that the crystal is sliced With its major plane (the crystal face) perpendicular to the X axis of the crystal wate Gold sive condoctrs (sverng) reoforeed wilh ero fr wear resistance ‘The frequency ofthe exystl is determine by is thickness and its acoustical velocity and can be calculated withthe formula: pee MWe Ff = Rumen tqney From he formals itcan be 2 Y= Costly sen thatthe thinner the dea crystal, the higher the frequency. Piezo electric erystal materials Natural “Artifcaty grown Manufactured ceramies Barium Titanate (BaT0,) : : j Lad Zirconate (P20) Quarta Tourmaline | Liha Sulphate (iSO) | Ped ee TT ny Lead Metaniobate (PDNI,0,) nema ron et nes UT3-4‘The tintaion of modern eramte ensal material are that they hoe a ‘mechanical srength, Le. dey tre brie, and tay havea tendency oage. The 20 DE BU Le) Properties of piezo electric materials | (Cryst materia: “vantages Limieatioas z Sabie Foor pica ~ eleetie = Good weas resistance properties fascias Best received and ealy ‘Soluble in water damped Best transmitter and good eae piczo electric properties . ed ‘advance however that ee May be preformed to focus | Tempersture critical Soyer pers Bae Geese Good piezoelectric properties Good transmitter and all ae so | [Lend Ziconate Tteonte | SOO oper Poor silvering The Curie emperaurefor | The polarisation of ceramics Brriom Tuanave i around 100°C to 120°C, although the piezo eleenic. 0 properties of Barium Titanate wil sor to degrade at temperatures of 7% and above, ‘The primary reson stander probes are not eal sed ‘on materi above SO°C is 50 because ofthe pesibitoy af degradation of the erst The secondary reason i due ‘othe probe shoe harecteristes beginning to change alert acy. ‘tent oon eg © ‘on thea wave probes, * Specular: Mirror, 100 In their natural state the polycrystalline ceramic material's crystals are randomly orientated and the piezo electric properties cancel each other out. To polarise these ceramics they are heated up to their Curie temperature and subjected to an electrostatic field. The crystals align themselves with the direction of the field, which is maintained during cooling, This polarised vecamic material then behaves as a piczo electric transducer until heated again to its Curie temperature. ‘The most common crystal materials in use are Barium Titanate and Lead Zisconate Titanate, REFLECTION, REFRACTION & SNELL'S LAW Reflection Ultrasonic waves are reflected by objects or intecfuces placed in their path. When striking a specular! reflector the angle at which this reflection takes place is governed ‘by the law of reflection, which states: Angle of incidence = Angle af reflection Refraction ‘This describes what happens to an ultrasonic beam when it passes from one medium to another where the two media have different acoustical velocities, e.g. frora perspex to steel, The beam changes direction or angie in the vertical plane. Tacident angle @ Reflected angle ocidest ongle cr) @ Refracted sound Reflected sound Refiacted angle ® meg ones uT32Shells Lave oben from the lows of optiesigh. A ‘change of loci rom ‘ne medi o ancther Is reprd allow ‘arotion vo occur Noe: 7 remains constant car increases, the larger the est refracted ‘angle wil be. 0 » x 0 0 0 COE WUC Snell's Jaw “The relationship between the incident angle and refracted angles is governed by Sells law that states: Sing _ VI Whee: @ = incident angle Sin V2 B= ‘refracted angle velocity in medium 1 velocity in medium 2 MOvE CONVERSION ‘A chasge in wave-form ffom one to another, together withthe accompanying change in velocity, due to reflection or reffaction ‘at am interface. An example of mode conversion that we make use of is when the compression wave, generated by the crystal ina shear wave probe's petspex shoe, evosses an interface between the shoe and 4 steel test piece and converts to shear wave Another example of mode change that we do not want {0 occur, e.g: shear waves changing to compression waves. This occurs fairly regularly when camying out a critical root scan ot a single v fully penetrated weld with a shear wave probe, ie. some of the ultrasound entering the root bead can be reflected vertically up to the weld cap and if a critical angle is exceeded, the wave mode will change from shear to compression. Accordingly on its retum path to the probe, the received spurious signal displayed on the time base will represent an indication that appears to plot on full skip just autsde the weld side wall on the opposite side from the scanning surface. ‘The operator however will not be able to confirm this from the opposite side of the wold on half skip which, if it had been an actual flaw, be would have expected to do so. As this type of mode change/spurious indication gives a fuirly characteristic signal display, an experienced operator would be expected to interpret this effect fairly easily. It is also possible though that mode conversions and/or spurious indications can be aisinterpreted as flaws, particularly if not investigated carefully DIFFRACTION ‘This occurs when sound waves pass the tip of a narrow reflector. Some of the sound scatters off the tip causing waves in diferent directions that einforee or cancel out the original waves. This results in a series of high and low intensity waves radiating out ‘rom the tips, giving the impression of sound bending around the edges of the defect. Sound waves UT3.310 ro 0 CRITICAL ANGLES ‘These are the incident angles inthe fist medium at which the refracted angles im the second medium change over from one wave-foom tothe next. ‘The frst critical angle is. ‘where the refracted compressional wave is just about to disappear leaving only shear waves inthe second medium, ‘The second critical angle is where the refracted shear ‘wave has changed to a surface wave. ‘The critical angles can be calculated using Snell's law. Ist critical angle (6) * a a! r c vi we Critical angles perspex to steel Tn diagram (1) a compression wave (¢) is incident on the boundary between perspex and steel at an angle of 0°. At the interface some energy reflects (1) and some is transmitted across (¢) continaing through at 0°. In (2) as we increase the angle (a) of the incident wave (c), in the perspex (ie. tess than fist incident critical angle), the ‘wave in the steel (c) refracts (B*), due to the difference in the velocities of perspex (v1) and steel (v2). However as well a the refracted compression wave there wil also ‘ve weak shear wave mode (s)- see sketch (2). In (3) f We increase the incident angle (q) until the reftacted wave (c) reaches 90° (6°), then the incident angle (a) has reached what we term the first critical angle. Following behing the refracted ‘compression wave is a shear wave (s) and in (4) as we increase the incident angle (c) sill further, the compression wave internally reflects (¢) leaving only shear waves (s) in the steel At (5) ifthe incident angle (a) is further increased then the shear wave refiacts until it reaches 90° (B%s)). This is what we term the second critical angle At this point the shear wave bounding slong the interface has changed into a surface wave (su). Therefore we can see that () compression aud shear waves exist in the second medium when the incident angle is between O° and the first critical angle. (ti) Only shear waves exist when the incident angle is between the frst and second eritical augles and (ji) surface waves exist only at the second critical angle. Beyond the second critical incident angle, asin diagram (6), all conventional modes of propagation ave reflected internally. ica wrs4— ees edie feed td ene & FEBS i i Calculation of the critical angles for a perspex to steel interface. a = incident angie B = refracted angle to] vt comresionl vlc in papex = 2740 mf v2 » ween et, compressional” 5960 shear 3210 Istria ante: » a 2140 ws Saa= thes sing = 2700 si oop v2c ane @ * 3960 mis . Sina = 0AS973IS43 x 1 a= 214 30 2nd critical angle: Sina = 2740 mls 3240 mis x Sin 90° o 845679012 x 1 a= S77 so | Atthe frst critical angle compression and shear waves co-exist, 50 the lowest angle for shear waves only in practical use, is just beyond the first critical angle, at an incident angle of 29°, which gives a reftacted shear angle of 35°. eo ne at een xsee ta Tea Sin = 1182481752 x 0.4848096 faa 70 | tthe second critical angle surface waves exis so the highest incident angle we use for shear waves is 56° tat gives an 80° shear wave. So the range of shear wave probe angles in stoel (For practical purposes) are 35° to 80°, produced from incident angles of 29° to 56° in perspex. % 100 ie 6 as uss+ May also be referred tas vin erst probe 20 0 50 " Dead zone: Ringing ime 60 Penptal ” Laney EQUIPMENT PROBES The angle of @ probe used in ultrasonic testing is measured from a line drawn perpendicular to the test surface. This line is known as the normal. A OP probe then is one which transmits sound at 90° to the test surface. Also known as ¢ normal probe, this probe ustally transmits compressional or longitudinal waves. A 60° angle probe would transmit sound at 60° to the normal, ie. 30° from the surface. The most common angle probes transmit shear waves (althougls angled compression probes do exist for special applications) and the manufacturers quote the angle of the. probe for use on mild steal 0° combined double* probe Electrical connections Backing | -Casing medium Crystals ‘Cork separator Perspex Double probes have two crystals, one transmits and the other receives ultrasound. The cork separator in between the shoes prevents "cross-talk" or "chatter* between the crystals. Using oil as 2 couplant may eventually break down the acoustic barrier and produce spurious standing echoes on the display. Having separate crystals eliminates the dead zone! on the display, enabling the detection of near-surface defects. These probes are therefore useful for testing thin sections, e.g. thickness gauging and ‘examining for near surface flaws. The crystals may be focused to give a focal point at ‘the ideal beam path range to be examined. Single crystal angle probe Electrical connection Casing Index point Perspex shoe Single crystal probes have one crystal that transmits and receives ultrasound. The flaw detector controls te process by transmitting a pulse of energy then switching the circuit to receive, listening for any returning sound, in between pulses. The circuitry ccan be switched quicker than the crystal can be damped. So the receiver picks up the last few vibrations of the crystal, as it switches in, and displays them on the screen as the dead zone, ‘This climinates the possibility of detecting near-surface defects. tee one ure. a a eee fete ee eeeAngle probes have a perspex shoe, on which the crystal sits, that can be machined to ‘ny angle. The angle of the wedge determines the angle that the ultrasound strikes the interface (incident angle). This in turn, according to Snell's law, controls the angle that the sound will propagate through the test material (refracted angle). Damping material on the back of the crystal (also kmown as a backing slug) controls the length of the ultrasonic pulses by absorbing the sound energy, producing short sharp pulses. The length of the pulse is the main facor in determining the resolution of the equipment. ‘The most common damping/backing medium is Tungsten Araldite. SHORT PULSE LENGTH/WIDTH/DURATION MEANS GOOD RESOLUTION. Soft nosed probe Electrigal connection ‘This has a soft diaphragm mounted on the front ofthe crystal, clamped in place by a threaded ring, the space in between the diaphragm and the crystal being filled with couplant to expel any air. The soft diaphragm follows the contour of the surface under test, making this probe ideal for rough or uneven surfaces, e.g. castings or rough ‘machined components ‘Water gap or gap scanning probe Electrical ‘water connection’ it in Probe Column of water acts as couplant Nozzle. ¥ ‘Test material ‘Sound path ‘This consists of a water jacket with a nozzle at the end and a probe inside. Water is fed into the jacket and flows out through the nozzle, forming a column of water, to the test ‘surface, through which the sound can travel. Because of the flexibility of the coupling rcdium, (water) the probe can be used on rough or uneven surfaces. These probes are usually used in automated ultrasonic scanning systems and can be set up, using a ‘guide wheel to follow the contour of a component. They can also be used in arrays to scan a wider area, iveael tt UT42Ruane & TPOWe! poo 2» 20 0 n QUIPMEN’ ‘Wheel type probe i Hlectrical connection Spring loaded Joint Soft tyre, solid ‘or water filled Crystal (within axle) v_ “Test surface Sound path In this probe the crystal is within the axle of the wheel and the sound travels through the soft tyre into the test material, ‘The spring loaded joint allows the probe to follow ‘the contour of the surface sa it can be used on rough or uneven surfaces. It is used in 2 similar way to the water gap probe. The main advantage of this type of probe is that it removes the requirement of externally applied couplant, mainly used in aerospace industries. Delay line probe Blectrical connection angie [|] Se hg (Clamging Copstal cig 5 Long poepex ef ioe ‘The delay line probe is very similar in coastmuction to the soft nosed probe, The difference is that it has a long perspex shoe clamped in instead of a diaphragm. The length of the shoe extends the time taken for the echo from the front surface, of the material under test, to return to the crystal. ‘This places the front surface echo (FSE) further along the timebase, ic. beyond the dead zone. This enables near surface defects to be located or thin plate to be tested using a single crystal probe. ‘These probes are usually high frequency probes (which means they have a small dead zone), ‘but high frequency = long near zone, therefore, to use them for near surface flaw detectionsizing, the long shoe is used to contain the near zone in the probe not in the test material tee tna urdrn Fuane FESR Fy “0 50 The frequency sated on the robes known asthe ‘omral operating frequency. Tiss the fequeny of the © Highest out of sound from the probe. n 0 0 100 cay Magnetostrictive transducers A, Cr Upto I" dia ‘Detection equipment Frequency 100 KHz 00) 23 Used for detecting defective bar stock, the transducer coil has @ magnetic field that is switching at ultrasonic frequency. This field causes the bar stock to vibrate at an ultrasonic frequency and the vibrations travel along the length of the bar. When the vibrations reach the other end of the bar, they reflect back and are then picked up by the transducer (in receive mode) and register on the detector. The equipment is calibrated off a defect free piece of bar stock to register 2 specific value on the detector and defective bar stock is recognised by a change in this value. PROBE FREQUENCY, BANDWIDTH & DAMPING ‘An ultrasonic probe transmits sound at a range of frequencies, not just at the stated frequency, ths is known as the bandwidth. For example a MHz probe may produce a frequency range of 4 to 6MHz. ‘The bandwidth is also an indication of the damping factor. Broad Band Probes ‘Narrow Band Probes ‘They are highly damped “They have low damping Have a short pulse length ‘A longer pulse length Crypically 1to 2 cycles) (ypically 3 or 4 cycles) ‘A short ringing time (dead zone) ‘Along ringing time (dead zone) ‘Better resolving power Poor resolution Poor penetration Good penetration omamea TP ONL er sts ura430 100 PROBE SELECTION ‘The selection of probes for ultrasonic inspection is influenced by various aspects of the test and the particular material under fest. These may include; the type and size of defect being sought, the type of material under test and the distance the sound has to travel through the material. Probe angle is another consideration when searching for defects at different orientations throughout the material, Below is a table of properties of probes using the two criteria that we can select, ive. frequency and diameter. Effect of frequency Low Frequency High Frequency Long wavelength Short wavelength ‘More beam spread Less beam spread Shorter near zone ‘Longer near zone ‘Better penetration [Less penetration Less attenuation Longer dead zone Less sensitivity Effects of Diameter Large Diameter Small Diameter ‘Less beam spread More beain spread ‘Longer near zone Shorter near zone Better penetration Less penetration ‘Less attenuation (due to beam spread) ‘More attenuation Difiicult coupling on curved surfaces | Easier coupling on curved surfaces ‘More coverage on flat surfaces Less coverage on flat surfaces Another consideration is whether to use a single crystal or a combiaed double crystal probe. The advantages of a single erystal probe are; better penetration, forthe same size probe as a double, because the effective transmitter crystal diameter is lager, no focal point, i. it works effectively over a longer range and east (cheaper). The main advantage of a double erystal probe, is that there is no dead zone on the screen, this ‘means better near surface resolution caa be achieved. It-can be seen from the tables that higher frequency probes have a higher sensitivity. In this context, sensitivity refers to the ability to detect small defects. The higher the probe frequency the smaller the wavelengtn and the smaller the size of reflector the probe can detect. It is generally accepted that the smallest reflector a probe can detect is half the probe's wavelength. So a probe with a long wavelength (low frequency) will not detect small reflectors, such as small defects or grain boundaries and so the sound will penetrate further through the material because itis not reflected at these small interfaces. acs 5 UT4-s‘THE ULTRASONIC FLAW DETECTOR (FLOW DIAGRAM OF A. TYPICAL A SCAN FLAW DETECTOR Receiver Attenuator ampliter as Probe Suppression » elec) Pulse pla veapsmiter ee] crt) 4 Xeplates Pulse Timabase generator [>] generator “9 | The Pulse Generator, also known as the clock or timer this circuit controls the synchrovisation of the flaw detector, It sends am electrical signal to the timebase generatot and to the pulse transmitter simultaneously. These electrical signal frequensies are known as PRF/PRR (Pulse Repetition Frequesey/Pulse Repetition Rate) It is usually controlled automatically by the range (coarse) control setting, this in tur ultimately controls the maximum depth of inspection and the ultimate scanning speed. The Timebase generator or sweep generator, upon receiving the electrical signal from the pulse generator this circuit controls the voltage or charge on the X-plates causing the electron beam in the cathde ray tube to sweep across the screen ina linear motion. © | ‘The pulse transmitter or pulser circuit, the electrical signal from the pulse generator triggers this circuit to send a burst of electrical energy, about 1 to 2Ky, to activate the probe. ‘The probe or search unit, converts the electrical energy, sent by the pulse transmites, into pulses of ultrasound by means of a piezo electric erystal (Tx). The returning, 70 | ultrasound from the test matesial is converted back into electrical energy by the probe (Rx) and seat to the amplifier. ‘The receiver amplifier circuit accepts end amplifies the incoming electrical pulses. ‘The amplification required is about 10,000 to 100,000 times and the output must be linear with the input. The amplifier must also be capable of accepting a range of different frequency signals o accommodate the range of probe frsquencies used. Broad band amplifiers accept a very wide array of frequencies producing an accurate representation of signal shape. This enhances defect interpretation (type) but the sigaal t0 noise ratia will be poor, so defect detection may be adversely affected, ic. a reduction in sensitivity, because of high noise (or grass) levels. Narrow band amplifiers, on the other hand, suppress the parts of the signal that are % | outside the frequency band that it operates at (the pass frequency). This creates a cleaner signal (although not a true representation af the input signal), which means that the gain (amplification) can be increased which in tura enhances defect detectability (ensitivity), The disadvantage of this is thatthe altered shape of the signal means that defect interpretation is more difficult. top | The Attenuator or gain control xeduces the amplification from the amplifier by controlling the voltage or charge on the Y-plates in the C:RT., which will control faves eas Ure6 —— oe eee ee30 0 0 UNIT UT4 + EQUIPMENT signal heights, bringing them down to a readable level. ‘The controls works on a logarithmic base and it does not affect the linearity of te amplifier. Suppression or reject reduces the grass or noise level on the display by effectively raising the time base, but in doing this it destroys amplifier linearity. Usually reserved for toking thickness measurements. Some modern digital aw detectors have “linear reject" function which does not destroy amplifier linearity and shows the amount of reject in use as a percentage of display height, e.g, 50% reject indicates that all signals below 50% soreen height have been removed but the remaining signals are stil the same height as before. The Cathode Ray Tube (C.R-T.) consists of a vacuum tube with a positively charged phosphorescent coating on the inside of the front surface, @ cathode ray gun at the ‘opposite end, a focusing coil and X-plates and Y-plates to control the direction ofthe electron beam. ‘The gun produces a shower of negatively charged electrons that are attracted to the positively charged coating on the front of the tube. As the electrons travel toward the front (meeting no resistance because of the vacuum), they pass through the focusing coil which focuses the shower into a single stream (or beam). ‘They then pass between the X and Y plates and are attracted toward any of these plates that have 9 positive charge or voltage applied. This bends the beam toward the ‘espective plate so deflecting the position that it hits the font surface of the tube, Le. the screen. When the electrons finsily reach the front surface they react with the phosphorescent coating causing it to glow (green in most analogue sets), producing a dot on the screen. ‘This dot is changed into signals purely by the deflection of the beam by the X and Y plates. Cathode ray gan - Blectron beam, ‘Vacunim tube owe wns uray i}l The caren British Standard For ts ulrazonic calibration Blocks BS EN 12223 which ‘fers ot Caltoration 20 lock No.1 The ony difference berveen ‘BS EN 12223 calibration block nod and BS 2706 42 ‘look the diameter ofthe ide drilled hole ~ this has naw increased 3 mm O39 100 Dem) CALIBRATION BLOCKS AND THEIR USES Tolerances: Wherever practical the limits ou dimensions should be + 0.1 mm, Materials: Steel biocks are made from low or medium carbon ferritic stee! (killed), normalised to produce a fine grained homogenous structure throughout. ‘The international institute of welding (L. LW.) block Also referred to as Block No.1, A2, V1, DIN54/120 or dutch block. 0° COMPRESSION PROBE USES Calibration 0° probe calibration can be set using back wall echoes (BWE) off the various thicknesses available, ic. 5, 10, 25, 100 and 200mm. It can also be checked (rough) on the 23mm thick perspex insert which gives a teading of SOmm when calibrated on steel (the ratio of sound velocity in steel to the velocity in perspex is 5960m/s to 2740m/s = 50:23). A minimum of two echoes are required for calibration with O° probes. The Simm siep in the block serves to calibrate the screen for use with shear ‘wave prohes by using a compression probe. Ifa O° probe is placed over the 91mm and the echoes placed at § une 10 on the graticule then the screen is calibrated for a range of 0 to 182mm compressional. This is equivalent to Oto 100mm shear, the ratio of the velocities of compression to shear waves is 1.82:1 (S960m/s:3240m/). Dead zone measurement (single crystal probe) Place the probe over the Sam section. If the signal is visible outside the dead zone then the dead zone is less than Sram. If the signal is not visible then place the probe on the 10mm section. If the signal is now visible then the dead zone is greater than Smm but less than 10mm. Ifthe sigaal is still not visible then go on to the 1Smm deep hole. This procedure can be carried out with an uncalibrated screen. An alternative method ‘would be to calibrate the screen and read the length of the dead zone off the flaw detector graticule, Resolution ‘The resolution of a 0° probe can be checked by using the three different thickness sections around the slot below the centre of the 100mm radius. Place the probe sbove the slot and with a calibrated screen note the separation between the 85, 91 and 100mm, signals Probe output Place the O° probe on the perspex insert and note the mumber of BWEs. A good probe should give three BWEs. ean 08 Tas2» 0 The euren ch Standard for his catbrtion block i ‘BS EN 27063, o 0 100 SHEAR PROBE USES Index or sound exit point Place the probe on the top of the block over the centre of the 100mm radins, with the ‘beam travelling toward the radius. Maximise the signal by moving the probe back and forth, stopping at the point where the signal is highest. Mark the position of the smell slot, in the block, onto the probe, this represents the point where the centre of the sound beam is leaving the probe. ‘The engraved lines either side of the small slot (and the ones on the probe) can be used to measure the movement of the index point a the probe shoe wears down. Shear probe calibration ‘This cam be carried out using the 100mm radius, repeat signals being secured by the small slot used for indexing. Shear probe angle check Maximise the reflected signal from. the SOmm diameter (side) ofthe perspex insert and note the position of the probe index, ia relation to the engraved graduations on the block, to read off the approximate angle. A more accurate check can be made using the reflection from the 1.Smm diameter hole in the same way. Shear probe outpat ‘Maximise the signal from the 100mm radius and adjust to full sereen height, using the ‘gain, and note the dB figure indicated on the controls. This figure can be used to compare different probes or to check the probe in use, daily, for deterioration. BLOCK No.2, A4, V2, DINS4/122 OR KIDNEY BLOCK 25mm radius on 15 or5mm ae dia. hole 12% mm oF 20 mum (COMPRESSION PROBE USES Calibration ‘This block can be obtained in various thicknesses, although the current standards in use for ultrasonic calibration blocks may only mention 12.5, 20 or 25 mmm. The repeat signals seeured from this through thickness can be used to calibrate the O° probe. SHEAR PROBE USES Probe calibration With the probe siming towards the 25mm radius, signals occur at; 25mm, 100mm, 175mm, 250mm, 325mm, 400mm, ete. ‘With the probe facing the other way, toward the 50mm radius, the signals occur at; 50mm, 125mm, 200mm, 275mm, 350mm, 425mm, etc. ewes sams ures [ee See eee FeCl a end zane measurements, resohwion and shear probe ‘angle checks con only be ‘approximated onthe A284 Blocks. Specific blocks such ashe AS, AS and A? ‘should be swed for more ‘acenrate reproducible results as quoted ix ‘asacited stndards, Le BSEN [2668 : Par 3. 20 0 7 i ney What) To calibrate; the radius which gives the easiest signals, within the range selected, 10 align on the graticule should be selected Index or sound exit point Using the 2Smm or the 50mm radius, maximise the reflected signal and mark the position of the central graduation (the centre of the radiuses) onto the probe. (It is tecommended however that block no.1 is more accurate for this check), Probe angle check Maximise the echo from the dcilled hole and check the angle from the position of the index poiat. INSTITUTE OF WELDING (I.0.W.) /A5 BLOCK This los § contains four E ftanyorsetotes | [8 St Seam ai, : 7 SIDE VIEW ice nm eine ki Pe2nin t Seeger cS PLAN VIEW “This block can be used as a calibration block with a compression probe, however, its rtin-use is asa reference block with ether compression or shear wave probes. Its two ‘most common uses are for ploting the beam profile and for setting test sensitivity, using the various individual side drilled boles as reference reflectors ‘The five side drilled holes on ove side of the block that are drilled close together may ‘be usefill to check the resolution capabilities of angle probes. EQUIPMENT CHECKS Periodically ultrasonic flaw detection equipment must be checked to ensure performance characteristics have not deteriorated. ‘Some of the checks include: ‘© Timebase linearity Amplifier linearity + Timebase range calibration ‘+ Signal to noise ratio Angle probe index point * Probe angle check > Beam profile determination Resolution check This is not a compreliensve list, the recommended checks to be carried out can usually be found in the relevant current standards". uT#10PORE ® The olerance for inebaze ineaity in BS ED 12268 is £206 f the whole cinebase 0 + Tig tolerancefor mpfr linearity ix BS EN 12668 is quoted for) ‘each step ofthe check, i cavertger approximately 558 ‘Timebase linearity Carried out over the ranges to be used, this is performed by placing @ compression probe on a calibration block to obtain multiple echoes. Calibrate the screen by placing the frst and last echoes, within the required range, in their correct respective positions on the timebase and check thet the intermediate echoes are in their comect respective positions. The tolerance* on linearity can be found in the current standard’ Amplifier linearity Position a probe on a calibration block to obtain a reflected signal from a 1.5 or Smm diameter transverse drilled hole, Using the gain adjust this signal to 80% of fullscreen Incight. Increase the gain by 24B and the signel shoutd vise ta 100% fullscreen height. Now reduce the gain by 84B and the signal should fall to 40% sereen height. Reducing the gain a further I2db should see the signal fall to 10% screen height and a further 6 dB should take the signal down to 5% sereen height. The tolerance” on signal heights can be found in the current standard! Timebase range calibration Check the ability of the equipment to be calibrated to the ranges required. Signal to noise ratio Place the probe on a calibration block to obtain a reflected signal from a transverse drilled hole. Using the gain adjust the sigoal to 20% of full sereen height and note the gain setting (4B). Increase the gain until the grass (noise) level reaches 20% screen height at the same timebase position and note the new gain setting (AB). ‘The difference in the two dB gain settings isthe signal to noise ratio and can be used to ‘compare different equipment or to monitor the equipment in use. Angle probe index point This check is covered inthe calibration block section ofthe notes, Probe angle check Also covered in the calibration block section, the more accurate check being when plotting the beam profile using the A5 block (see next paragraph). Beam spread Example: 20 4B drop beau spread (vertical) Although the beam spread can be calculated, itis usually plotted out practically using, the AS block and a range of different depths of reference holes. Before plotting the ‘beam profile the probe index point should be checked. ‘The probe is placed above one of the holes, then by moving the probe back and forth, the signal from the hole is maximised and the gain adjusted to give a signal at 100% full screen height. ‘The position of the index point is then marked onto the block. The probe is then moved forward until the signal falls to 10% screen height and again the position of the index point js marked onto the block. The hole is now in the 10% (-204B) intensity tailing edge of the beam and the distance between the two marks on the block represents the distance from the centre to the 20¢B trailing edge of the beam at the depth ofthe bole. ‘The procedure is then repeated in the opposite direction (backwards) to find the leading edge of the beam. aur uses ura20 » 0 we This is repeted on several (# minimum of thes) different depths of ol to find the profile of the beam, ‘The marks on the block can be transfered to a graph to give a Pictorial representation ofthe beam and/or transferred t0 a ploting system for use in ploting and sizing defects Tits ds fem) i 0 30 506 7 M0 [208 beam plot] | | Faia 3"e'8 a8 Resolution ‘This check can be found in the calibration block section of the notes. Ter as UTs-12CRE. ~Cathede Ray Tube? 20 40 + Dead zone although wit vin erytl probes no ible indicoron exists on ‘the CRT, the term dead znd correctly means on area ‘whore indeations cannot be Toctted and iil present eae sufoce dhe 0 the angle ofthe crystals used to oct the beam athe ‘optimum usage renge. 70 Ey * There ar cwo methods of achieving calibration: a) multi-bockwall echo; 1B) delay technique, 00 Lt} 0° PROBE SCANNING CALIBRATION ‘The intial pulse or main bang isa test signal thatthe flaw detector crestes and has no significance for calibration. Tt usually lies just off to the left ofa calibrated screen. Initial pulse. Visible area of CRT. OTas 4s 678910 ‘When an ultrasonic probe is placed on toa piece of steel, some of the ultrasound in the probe reflects off the interface between the probe shoe and the steel and some is transmitted through into the steel. When the transmitted cnergy strikes the back surface ofthe stet it virtually all reflects off the steel to air interface and retams to the steel to perspex interface. Here some energy transmits info the probe and creates the first signal (1) and the rest reflects back inside the steel and the process repeats itself, creating the repeat signals, (2 etc.) until the energy decays away. The spacing between the echoes represents the thickness ofthe stel, so ff we place the probe on a A2 block, on the 25mm thickness, then the echoes are 25mm apart. Note. If we are using a single crystal probe then the initial energy that reflected back into the probe will create a signal at the start of the screen (F) which will be very close to the initial pulse and there will also be a dead zone visible on the CRT. If we are using @ double crystal ‘probe (Separate transmit and receive crystals) then there will be no signal from the front surface and no dead zone* visible. Fl Crystal Probe shoe ‘Test | Material Orases 678910 TO CALIBRATE A 0° PROBE TO A RANGE OF: 0 TO 100 MM" ‘Apply couplant tothe A2 block and place the probe on the 25mm thickness to obtain ‘multiple echoes. We require a range of 100mm on the screen so four echoes would ft in to this range, so we adjust the coarse range control to give us about four echoes on the screen. We then adjust the delay control to position the first backwall echo a quarter of the way along the screen and the fine range control to position the fourth echo at the end ofthe screen. This procedure is repeated until all four echoes take up their respective positions (see sketch). ‘The same basic procedure applies to different ranges using different thicknesses. By dividing the range by the thickness we can ‘hinin the number of echoes required and by evenly spacing the echoes on the screen ‘the desired range is achieved. Toned ans UTS4 ben (ieee——— oe 20 30 0 50 ” 100 0——— to —~> 100mm range (CALIBRATION EXERCISES Using the V1 block: Calibrate the timebase for: 100 mu range using the 25 mm thickness Method: Multiple BWE 200 mm range using the 25 mm thickness Method: Multiple BWE. 4400 mm range using the 25 mm thickness Method: Muliple BWE. 100 mi range using the 100 mm thickness Method: Delay technique 200 mm range using the 100 mm thickness Method: Multiple BWE 4200 mm range using the 100 mim thickness Method: Multiple BWE 20 mm range using the 10 mm thickness Method: ‘Multiple BWE 10mm range using the 5mm thickness Method: Multiple RWE 10 mm range using the 10 mm thickness Method: Delay technique 1000 mma range using the 200 mm thickness Method: Multiple BWE ACCURATE MEASUREMENT For accurate beam path measurement, such as thickness surveying using @ flaw detector, the achievable accuracy is determined by the range selection. For example if the range is set to 100 mms fal screen, thon each large gratcule division is 10 mm and ‘each small division is 2 mm. This means that the most accurate that you could read the screen, by judging the halfway distance between the divisions, would be t mm. However, the manufacturers of analogue flaw detectors using a C.R-T., can only ‘guarantee the horizontal (time base) linearity of the display to be within 2% of the Whole time bast. This means that an echo could be one small division (or 2 mm on the 100 mm range scale) out of position, so the guaranteed accuracy would normally have a tolerance of 42% of the range (the Same size as one small division). Timebase range | Largedivision | Small division | Read accuracy 500 mam 50mm 10mm Sam 200 mim 20mm 4mm 2mm 100 xam 10 mam 2mm 1mm 50mm Simm Tm 05 mua 20 ann 2mm 0.4 mm 02 mm 10mm Tom 02 man 0 mm ‘ames ans ursz[ooo 2 30 40 70 * Section UTY- Equipment 100 iY MULTIPLE BACK WALL METHOD Another method of reading accurate thickness measurements is to use the multiple bbackwall method. ‘This involves calibrating the screen to a larger range then reading the nth repeat signal from the thickness ard dividing the reading by 1, where 7 is the clearest signal that you can read the furthest along the screen. 100mm range In this example the 6* signal can be quite casily read off the sereen at a beam gath of A 45am. i : : ‘The thickness can be calculated by: AUT i Obras eT tao $ -a5mm 6th signal Different materials ‘When testing materials other than steel, the velocity of the sound wave may be different. If this is the case, then the difference in velocity between the material under test and the calibration block must be taken into consideration and used to compensate for the difference in seadings obtained. Alternatively, a calibration block made of the same material as the test material rast be obtained. The following formula can be used to compensate when the CRT js calibrated using a steci calibration block: Material Velocity x Timbase Reading Actual Thickness = : Calibration Block Velocity If the sound velocity in a material is not knows but the acttal thickness can be physically measured, then the velocity can be caloulated by transposing the above formula thus: Actual Thickness x Calibration Block Velocity Velocity Tecan DEFECT DETECTION ‘When using a 0° probe to search for defects we nmust consider the following. Which range should be used, for accuracy and through thickness coverage?. Probe selection, taking into account material atequation and defect size. What level of test sensitivity to use to ensure that defects which are considered harmful to the product (not necessasily all flaws are considered harmful), are located and to assure that reproducible test restlts cam ‘be obtained, by different operators, using different ‘manufacturers equipment. Probe and range selection have been covered in previous sections! of these notes, setting sensitivity is SENSITIVITY ‘There are various methods of setting the test sensitivity these include: © Back wall echo level method (0° probes only) © Grass level © Using a reference reflector © Using a graph or curve plotted from reference reflectors eo uueaes rssa ee Diba 8 sy Baek wall echo (b.w.e.) ‘The backwall echo micthod involves coupling the probe to the test material and ‘increasing the gain until the back wall echo is at the pre-determined level. The level to | cam be varied in several ways, eg. if the second back wall echo (bwe) is set to full screen height (fh) this would be more sensitive than setting the first bwe to fh. Another way is to set the bwe to a lower level (less sensitive) or to set it to a percentage of fsh and add a pre-determined number of dBs to the gain (increase sensitivity). The bwe method can obviously only be used with 0° probes since reflections off the back surface, when using angle probes, do not return tothe probe. Grass ‘The grass or grain interference method involves coupling the probe to the test surface and increasing the gain until the reflections from the grain structure of the material reach a pre-determined level. This is often quoted as 2 mm - 3 mm in height at the maximum test depth but ideally should be referenced as a percentage of full screen 30 | height as not all flaw detectors use the same dimension screen The sensitivity can be adjusted by increasing or decreasing the level or by adding or subtracting dBs to or ‘from the gain, Reference reflectors jo. | -Acommon method of setting sensitivity isto set» maximised signal from a reference reflector, at target depth, to a predetermined level, for example full sereen height. The seference reflector could take the form of a known reflector, e.g. A transverse side drilled hole, a flat bottom hole, a slot or a vee notch, or it could be a real, or simulated, defect of known size and type. 30 GRAPHS AND D.A.C. CURVES Another common method of setting sensitivity involves plotting a graph or curve on paper or on the flaw detector screen using transverse or flat bottom holes. One of these is known as the distance amplitude correction (DAC) curve. This is a curve plotted on the screen using transverse of flat bottom holes, of the same size but at different 60 | depths, in a block of the same or structurally similar material a8 the material under examination. The screen is calibrated to the sequired range and the probe is placed ver the hole that gives the best signal response. ‘The response is maximised and sct to a pre-determined level using th gain, Tae peak of the signal is then marked onto the screen (usually on a transparent inlay) and the probe is then moved along to a deeper hhole. The signal fiom the deeper hole is then maximised ard with the gain setting 70 | unaltered the peak of the signal is marked onto the screen and the probe is thet moved to the next hole down. The procedure is repeated until the end of the range is reached. ‘The marks on the sereen are then joined up with a line drawn through and this forms the DAC curve. AB ED E 2 Po »o Po . fle . 4 oTases erat The range, grin setting oni probe identification should all be recorded (on the screen usually) along with the curve, The curve shape is a probe characteristic, the gain setting is dependant on the flaw detector, i. ifthe flaw detector is changed for another 100} one the gain setting will be different and if the probe is changed for another one, another curve should be plotted. ae es urs4us TPO 30 0 Distance gain sizing or DGS, although « sizing technique, is sometimes used as a sensitivity level, eg. Looking for defects up to a certain size as acceptable and above that size as rejectable. An example method to set the sensitivity would be: The bwe from the reference (DGS) block is set to a pre-determined level and the gain setting noted. The maximised signal from a reference reflector (usually a flat bottom hole) at target depth (test matesil thickness) is set to the same pre-determined level and the difference between the new gain seting and the previous one is noted. ‘The bwe ftom the tost material is set to the pre-determined level and the difference noted in the first ‘two gain settings is added to the present gain and this thea is the scanning sensitivity. SCANNING PATTERNS 0° PROBE ‘When scanning for defects the scanning pattern to be used is sometimes dependant on the size of defect sought. The two main factors to consider are the pitch (distance between scans) or overlap (the amouzt, if any, that the each scan overlays the next) and ‘he pattem or direction of scanning. Ifthe pitch is less than the size of the probe then the scans will overlap. UF the pitch is greater than the sizeof the probe then there will be a gap between the scans. Whether there is a gap between the seams or not may depend on the size of defect sought and the size of the test piece. For example on a large test piece looking for defects over 100mm the pitch may be 75mm between seams, regardless of the probe size, because scanning every 75mm will locate defects over 100mm in size. The pattem may require scanning in one direction or in two directions at 9° wo exch other. nae Probe di Piteh SIZING METHODS 0° PROBE ‘There are four main sizing techniques used with O° probes: + 64B dep © Equalisation © Maxinum amplitude * Des GdB drop technique Used ta size large defects, Le. defects that are bigger than the beam spread, such as laminations, this is where the probe is moved off the edge of the reflector until the signal amplitude is reduced by 50% (6B). The position of the centre of the probe is then marked onto the materia surface. The probe is now in & position where the beam is half on and half off the defect. If this is repeated along the edge of the reflector the reflectors size and shape will be marked out onto the material's surface. A 3 UTSs