LAB

IN THE

Generalprecautions

For

the
Reliability Repeat experiment 9

the

average

For safety

use goggles

For take more

readings

accuracy
carefully avoid parallax

measure

error

when drawing the best fit

For graphs

line in a do not include

graph

points that seem to be out of the

curve use a
sharp 9 make the

curve smooth Label the axis

For describing out use words

gas given
effervescence
9

bubbling

Precautions

like
experiments involving poisonous gases

NOL NH or
Boz use fume cupboard or

well ventilated room

heat
polystyrene
use

Experiments involving
for insulation 9 maintain the

Cup

same initial temperature

allow

experiments involving crystallization

9

to cool use more water more

slowly q

salt for better results

over burette

measuring cylinder

burette is more accurate while

is to measure

measuring cylinder easy 9 quick

LabAppara

beaker storing 9 transport

measuring cylinder

measure volume

of

liquid

advantage

quick 9 easy
not accurate
disadvantage

Conical flask

perform

reaction

Round bottom flask

used for distillation

volumetric

pipette

measure volume of liquid

accurate measurement RV

fixed volume


volumetric flask

solutions of known

prepare

concentration

Burette accurately
variable volume of

measure

liquid

test tube

to perform reaction for small

quantity

tube

Boiling
heat liquid of small quantity

Gas
syringe

collect cy measure

volume of

gases

funnel

Separating

immiscible liquid

separate

Liebig

Condenser

cod to

vapours

condense liquid

during distillation

FSpTnF sp

Bunsen Burner

stand Wire

Tripod gauze

container above burner

support

9 Ringstand

Clamp

support g hold
Clamp

glassware at

Ring

variable height
stand

Evaporating

dish

used for evaporation

process

Crucible
G lid

heat solids at
high

temperature

Mortar Pesthe
g

Crush solids in small particles

Pasteur pipette OR

tea pipette dropper

add liquid drop wise

balance

Top pan
of substance in

mass

weigh

grams

Add
solid

Spatula

in the reaction

Glass rod Stirrer

Stir solution

250 Thermometer

Used to measure

temperature of liquid

Graphso

title label for each axis units to be

9

included
independent variable

on X axis

dependent variable on Y axis

bar for 9

graph categories
line graph for numbers

at least 314th of

use

graph

draw straight line with ruler

Testsforct

water

turns from white to blue

anhydrous Cusoy

adding

Cock turns from blue to pink

adding anhydrous

gas Ek

Chlorine

bleach the damp litmus paper

damp blue litmus paper red then bleaches to while



Oxygen
relights rekindles the glowing splint

Hydrogen

with sound

Ignites
a
pop

colourless 9 neutral with litmus paper

CO2

turns lime water milk cloudy

NBCAmmonia

turns damp red litmus blue

paper

Testforpurityotsubstain

solids test for

melting point

ice 0 C
g

Liquids test for boiling point

water 100 C
eg

Methodsotpreparinggasff

Oz
cost tho

Salt
Metal carbonate t Acid

Calls t cost H2O

Cacos t2Hc I

Ck

t MnOz Mn Ck t 21720 t Ck

HHC1

H2

metal t Acid Salt t Hz

Zn t 2 HCl
Zn C k t Hz

02

M 2420 t Oz

24202

MethodsofCollectinggat

Downward

Upward Collection Gas

of
delivery delivery gas syringe
over water
Used for used for collect
denser less Used por 9
gases gases measure
than air denser than gases volume of
insoluble in
air
Ah SO NH
gas
water
G eg
eg Uk eg any
HCl
H2
Hz Oz gas

Methodsotdnynggas
1Oaenc.H soy used for all other gases
NHz as it neutralise acid
except
used for all other
Anhydrocaqq gases except
NHz it forms calcium hydroxide
9
as
ammonium chloride
 all gases including Mts
calgiy.my

Indicators
Universal Indicator

Acid 0 to 3 Red
pH
pH 4 to 6 Orange Yellow

Neutral 7 Green
pH
Alkaline 8 to 10 blue
pH
11 to 14 purple
pH

Phenolphthalein
Neutral Colourless
Acid colourless
Alkali Pink
Methyl orange
Acid Red Neutral Colourless Alkali Yellow
LocatingAgentC
to locate colourless
Nin hydrin
C commonly amino acids
pigment

Compoundsgcoli
metals
Group 1,293
white
Solid compounds
colourless
compounds
Aqueous
I metals
Group 92 solids
white
while silvery solids
shiny grey
3 metal
Group
solid its compounds
9
are
Zinc is a
grey
white solids

lead is shiny bluish medal

 shiny blackish solid
Iron is a

Iron CI sails are

green
salts are red brown
Iron
Chlorine is a
green gas while
chloride lead chloride are
Silver g coloured

Bromine is a red brown liquid

brown vapours
bromide lead bromide are cream
silver g coloured

is black solid
Iodide a

purple vapours
iodide lead iodide are yellofowned
silver 9
is a pinkish solid
Copper
Cusoy Cul0412 Cu NB blue coloured

Cuck Cuco coloured

green
Cuo black solid
 NOz is a brown
gas
Sulfur solids
g phosphorus are yellow

FIame

Lit ion Red

Nation Yellow

Kt ion lilac

red
Ca Orange Brick
Sr't Red

Ba't Apple green

Cult bluish
green
Reag

Acidified KMnoy Oxidizing agent

Colourless
colour from purple to
changes

Acidified Kero Oxidizing agent

colour from to
changes orange green

Aqueous KI Reducing agent

changes colour from colourless to brown

SO Reducing agent
no colour change
Organic
test for unsaturation

Alkene t Bromine colour changes

water from brown to
colourless

Alkane t no in colour
Bromma
ine change

Er

Use of inappropriate apparatus

of measuring cylinder instead of
use
eg burette
 Systematize
Source use of incorrect equipment
Parallax error

measurement from different eye level

eg
How to identify this error

entire data would be affected

would
get
regular pattern but not
as
expected

Howtocorrect
Use apparatus with a
greater accuracy
 KandomE

which has direct control like

Source things no

in room temperature during

change
exothermic reaction
endothermic
4
How tiPy

shown as anamalous result

it reduces reliability

Howtocorrect
accuracy
Use apparatus with greater
I increase number
measurements
of

measurements more carefully

taking
Makingobservati

Record observation means

see hear smell or feel

effervescence
fizzing bubbles or
eg
describe appearance
colour state like solid liquid or
g gas

to describe of
gradation
use
key terminology
reactions like
reacts more violently vigorously
much
produce ppt quicker
Identificationotion
A Cations
N

NHyt t NaOH NH3cg

NH turns damp redlitmuspapertot

Cr tsNaOH Cr OH 13Nat
Add NaOH
indexesPPatnd
t which dissolves
g forms green solution
Add NH Cyst NH t HD CroreztNH
insoluble in excess
p
 i
Fe 2NaOH Fe 0412 t2 Nat
add NaOH
insoluble in excess
g iptak
Felt t NH t HD Fe OHL t NHI
add NH
soluble in excess

jpitakin
F t3 Nat
3 NaOH Fe OH
add NaOH Fest t
excess
ipa insoluble in
Redb
FecOtb t NHyt
add NHz Fest t NH THD
insoluble in excess

Rta
c Cielote t 2 Nat
add NaOH cu't t 2hr04 z

insoluble in excess
lightbhieppt
Cuco4 tNHyt
add NHz cu't t NHz t H2O z

to form

f
 While precipitate
Add NaOH solh
Ca't Mog't 2h27 Alst
I
Add excess NaOH som
f
Precipitate Redissolve

x
Soluble in
Insoluble excess
in excess
2T At 2nA
Cast gmg
I
1
with
Flame test Repattest
NHS
wthiheppt
Brick No Name IT
Red colour Soluble in excess Insolubl
in excess
Cast Mgk zn2t
A 1st
B ANIONS

ap
metal t wz t HD
CoE t H4 chloride

add dil Hcl

test released i
effervescence
gas
turns limewater m9lky doudy

Ha
add dil HAO tag Agnos lag Pbchodz
Chloridenoncct
cwhitepptoo 4 t Nos
crept Agnos Ag
Pb Ck t Nos
G catt Pb Noda
white ppt
 BromideiencBrt
creamppts
t 1h05
Br Ept AgNg Ag Br
NOT
BrEpt PbcNode PbBrzt
cream ppt

todide.in
yellowppts
IEgytAgN0s xAgItnoj
Pb Iz t NO
PbtNO3 at
I Ept
yellow ppt

N0 add Naorff Aluminium foil

t warm
goth
released is tested
gas
is NHS smell
pungent
gas turns moist red litmus blue
 SOI cap
5042 t Backeag Basoy t2 CT
whiteppD

9 then add
add HCl Back

whitepptotBoi
Basog
t 2h05
Saf t Bacnodacag
white ppD

add H NO then add Bacaos

ptoP Bason
add HCl test
so gas
cap fy released

Gas bubbled through KMnoy

purple coloured colourless

solution hems


List of Cations Anions

9

MONOATOMIC
mno
sf

Bivalentcations

Hydrogen Ht Best

Beryllium

Lithium Lit magnesium Myst

Sodium Nat Calcium Ca't

Potassium Kt Bamum Bast

strontium soft

Rubidium Rbt

Copper bit

cesium Cst Fest

IroncII

CoppercII cut Nickel Nist

2nA

SilverCI Agt zinc

Hg't
MercuryLII

Aft

Silver LII

Tin Sn't
Lead CII

Hydride H Pldt
F

Ruoride Chromium CI Cft

Ct

chloride

Bivalentamonsf
FILE IBI

sulfide S2

Oxide 02


MONO Atomic

Trivalent Tetravalent

cations

Iron LII Fest Mercury tight

Aft lead CI
Pb4tChwmiemuIJ

Aluminium

Cr3tTziralentAni

h9tn.de Ns

phosphide ps

Ions
Polyatomic

monoralentcat

no CN

cyanide

permanganate CRI MnOj

amide NHI
hydroxide OH
405

bicarbonate

Polyatomic Ions

BiralentAni Tneralentani

chromate Pop

Cray phosphate
dichromate

POI
czof phosphine

Sulfate

5042
sulfite

SOE

Bonding

I Ionic Bonds

eg MgCk

NAI KI

formed between metal 9 nonmetal

metal

lose electron
9 forms cations

metal electron forms anions

non
9

goin

bond is formed due to

strong
attraction

between Ct req ne charged ions

oppositely

i e
electrostatic force of attraction

forms lattice

have ionic structure made of

giant up
the

re

g charged particles alternately

have m P are soluble in water

high
conduct in molten
aqueous state

electricity

crystalline solids at

are room temperature

ratio of tre
g re ions so

change
to form neutral

that out
they cancel

compound

0 0 00 0 Ionic
00 0 00 0

lattice

0 00 00 0

0 00 0

bond of Ca Ch

Ionic

i
leleeton of

calcium

Il Covalent bond

in elements Oz 0 0 Ck

Cl g
ey

th H g

Iz I I

Na NEN

Brd Br Br

in compounds the C H o H

Oz O C 0

HF H F

NHS H

H
Y

cthe
H H
Ef

formed between two nonmetal

atoms stare electrons

of

have bond but weak force

strong

attraction ie Vanderwal's forces

donot have ions

have low M P g BP

water beet soluble in

insoluble in
solvents like ethanol

organic

few soluble in water

eg cod

very
do not conduct electricity as no ions

covalent bond of Nz

em

of

pair
electron

II metallic Bonds

metallic lattice of

giant consisting

positively charged ions

surrounded by

sea oil elections

delocalised electrons

in of identical ions

arranged layers

metallic bond but not

strong rigid

electrical conductivity in solid molten

good

state both as have delocalized e s

they

particles are so hae

closely packed

high density
except in alkali metals which have low

due to loosely pack particles

density

malleable 9 ductile due to arranged in

layers

Alloys

bonds the original

forms

stronger

individual metal

as
per usage

are designed

alloys
4 lead

solder tin

eg connection as it has too

electrical

helps making

m p

brass copper g zinc

in colour

is golden
g

harder than pure copper

steel iron carbon

9

iron
stronger 9 harder than pure

Stainless steel

iron chromium nickel carbon

harder than iron doesn't rust

pure q

Bronze
4 tin

Cropper

harder than pure copper



Structure of metallic lattice

transomed

delocalized electrons

Structure of Alloy

Yepdartide

00000µA

880888

metalparticle

0000000

Giant molecular covalent crystals OR

Macromolecules

held together by strong covalent

bonds

are

Diamond

have covalent bonds in all directions

strong

ie each carbon is surrounded 4 carbon

by

atoms ie tetrahedral

thus have MP as more

energy
is

high
required to break these strong bonds

it's hardest of all natural substance

thus used
9

in cutting

drilling glass

diamond saws

all electrons in outermost orbit of carbon

are used to make covalent bond so no

free

electrons thus electrical

poor conductivity

it's colourless transparent sparking

hence used in jewellery
4

crystal ornamental

objects

more dense tha graphite

Structure of diamond

q I

OR
IN

I
C
f

Graphite

have strong covalent bonds but in

only

3 directions and 1 free electron

thus good electrical

conductivity

molecules flat layers

arranged in

are

these layers are held by weaker forces of

attraction these layers can slide over eachother

thus it is used as lubricant as it

feels slippery

it thin layer of
leaves a

graphite on

hence used for in the

paper

writing

form of pencil

solid

it's dark

grey shiny

less dense than diamond

Silicon E oxide
structure similar to diamond
in this each Silicon is bonded with
atoms while each oxygen with
4 oxygen
2 silicon atom hence formula is Si 02

have high m P
hard 9 o
Eg Sand quartz
i
i

l
Si
1

i O
O
o
si
 Atomic structure
9 Bonding
Atoms particles
of matter
tiny
its is made of same of atom
Element type
Molecule a of atoms bonded together
group
A compound
HD
element
02 eg two aqmqggglat.myEgon
eg atoms
two
of oxygen
a of two different elements
Compound
bonding
fixed
in proportion
c µ so glucose
coz 9
eg c re o

I 2 I

Yixture it a combination of two or more elements

compound in different proportion

concentrated
eg
salt
g water f dilute
Sub particles particles present inside an atom
atonic

I I
electrons
te

Protons Neutrons
1
I 1840
date
mass

t I O l
Iharge neutral

Atomic
also called proton number
Number
nucleus
it is the number of protons present in

of an atom
represented by Z

it position to element in the periodic

gives
table
to 1 12 mass of C 12
Relative Atomic a unit is equal
Mass Ar Relative Atomic I
Eg mass of H
Atomic Mass also known as Nucleon Number
is the sum total of neutrons
prolong
present in
nucleus of an atom

represented by
A
rate
a higher
0 Atomic mass
of
element

9 g Symbol
value
smaller
A
number
FAtomic

Isotopes Atoms with same number of protons but

different number of neutrons

will have different atomic mass thus hone

same
position
in periodic table
because
they have same chemical
property they
have same electronic in atom
arrangement

KC Hc
eg
Ions charged particles
tre ions formed when election is lost
P E
metals form the non

K 2 8,8 D donde le
eg
t
Kt 2 8,8

re ions formed when election is gained

RE
nonmetals Rom ne Ren

Ct 2,8 7 le
Eg gain
CT 2,8 8

Atoms are neutral P E

tie Cation P E
Ions are
charged

ve Anon PL E
 Atomic number number of protons

atomic number of number of

electron

neutral particle
will have differentnumber odes
Charged particles
Atomic mass Pt N

N Atomic mass P

List of Cations Cy Anions

CATIONS
MONO ATOMIC
Yonovalent Bivalent Trivalent tetravalent Polyatomic
H t2 t 3 ty atom

Lithium Calcium Aluminium lead II Ammonium

Lit A Apt
Sodium Magnesium Gallium Gast pb4t NHyt
Nat Mg Tin I
olassiem Barium Iron
Kt Balt Sn4T
Fest
Caesium IronCIffettchromiem
St CIT
Rubidium CopperCI at
crest
Rbt Cu
Zinc 2h't
Copper I
ManganeseCI
cut Mnt
 Anons
Monoatomic suffix Tde
moreygient Bivalent trivalent Polyatomic
luoride oxide nitride N
02 permanganate
F
phosphide Ps Hydroxide
ynq
chloride sulfide OH
a 5 cyanide CN
bromide selenide hydride H
Br
Set nitrate Mj
iodide sulfate Saf
Sulfite 505
carbonate Wj
chromate Grof
dichromate
CroE
phosphate pop
phosphine pop
bicarbonate
Haj
bisulfate Hsg
 formulae CIonic compds
Making
Chromium oxide
G 3T 02
t
Cris

Potassium dichromate
Kt craft kz.GE
For covalent valency means e gainedHoo
in the outermost
number of bonds
valency
has 3
nitrogen valency
will make 3 bonds

carbon has valency 4

bonds
Will make 4
NH nitrogen valency 3
eg I
hydrogen valency
 3
phosphorus valency
z
BQ
oxygen valency
2
sulfur valency Sch
chlorine valency 1

Carbon
valency
4
Goy COI
2
Oxygen valency simplified

Dot Cross DIAGRAMS

G
Ionic Structures Covalentstructures
between metal 9 for nonmetals
Always Always
on metal
treg wrong H2O H o H
Nat
org Nack CT
a
8,8 Xx

oxo

f
I
x
XX
X
T
2 8
e comes
Nat from Na
Covalentstructures µ

city H d H

H
X O

C
H
p g

X
H

CO2
0 1 0

xx xx
x x
0 O
C x 0
O x
O O

xx xx
Na NEN
XX oooo

x
N 9 N

0 0
02
XX o

X
O X O
o
XX
 Bonding
Ionic Bonds
arranged in 3D in
regularpattern lattice
ways solid at R T

have
they oppositely charged particles
are held by strong forces of
particles
attraction Electrostatic forces
hare P BP need
m
g
as
high they
more to break forces
energy strong
In solid state tre Cy re ions can't
floo so don't conduct electricity
In liquid molten dissolved in water
or
aqueous
they have free ions so conduct electricity
always dissolve in water water soluble
 0 ways

Covalent Bonds Simple molecular structure

share e to Rom bond
they
don't have charged particles free e

they
are held by weak forces Vander Waal
they
have low mP
g BP as less
energy
required to separate particles
be R T
they can liquid or gases at

Can t conduct
electricity
as no ions e

they don't dissole

in water but dissohe is
organic compound
 Acids Bases Salts
9
Acid
pH befoot tft
donors loss of
I proton
Mineralacids eg Hel
two
types acids Hing
strong HEOy
distociacotempletely they
acids
acids carboxylic
Organic ctfcoat
eg recooH
weak acids
acid
ascorbic
dissociatefinite tartaric
acid
partially
in
after dissolving
chemical is acidic only
any
water
is not
acidic
Hcl acidic
eg gas dissolved in water
when
Hcl gas
All acids
are aqueous
 Base alkali
water soluble
above 7
pH
protonacceptorcgantet
Bases
Theater
Water insoluble
Soluble
mgonk
Alkali g work
fuggy
g
Element Oxygen Oxides
y

t.wonnyef.de t.mgde t t
Basic Amphoteric Neutra
Acidic
1 I Dont
feactwl React w Read wl
both acid
react
alkalido acids with
but butdo alkali
metroid notroet alkali
ALI acid
withaad with alkali eg
egtsoz.CO
No
egt
CaO
MgO
ZnO
PBO
980
No
ALG t.G.tk
AI.bt2H0ALOgt6Na0H
2NazAIOgt3Hz0
sodium
aluminate

Acidic
tho
Maa apt
SO t2Na0Hcagp

Basic CaChait HD
t2H Clog
Cao
Amphoteric Salts
244 Inch t HD
ZnO
HD
t2NaoH Naa2h02
ZnO
Sodium
zincate
 as a Base
Ammonia
to
base pH
Nthcog
NH 44 salt
NHI flag d
Baar accepts proton

Nacl t Ntft H2O

Clt NaOH water
NHy alkali salt famm
CNHE gas
acidic

red litmus blue

NHz turns moist
NHS

v
Acid HzSOy
Alkali
wood
Salt
I
soy
fitly
 SALTS

Water water
Insoluble
soluble w
Ptrecipitation
Metal Acid SalttHz method
s

Metal raid SalttcoztHD

Enigmata.ee salttiho
S

1 Metal Acid Salt THO

hydroxide x

Alkali the
Pics
RicaeptRzcag t
insoluble
salt
precipitate
 Salts
List of Soluble
9 Insoluble
Salts Soluble Insoluble
Halides All halides except Pb halide G
chlorides halide
bromide
Ag
insoluble
iodide

All nitrates
Nitraffy

a
All sulfates except Casoy
so Pbsoy
sulfates

Afl carbonates
Carbonates
2
Mat Kt Nyt insoluble
cog soluble

Oxides Ca NHpt All oxides

Grpl insoluble
O are soluble

hydroxides Nat Kt NHyt All hydroxide

insoluble
OH are soluble
 Soluble Salt

method I 9I
1 Add acid in flask
more
bubbles are sea
till
2 Add solid in
excess no

excess solid wash residue 4

filter out
3
add washing in to filtrate

filtrate till point of saturation

4 Heat
to obtain crystals
5 Air dying

Method II
1 same as a bore

2 add solid in excess warm it till no more

solid dissolve

3
a
as
same boy
 Method I tho
Acidayt
Alkalicog Salteapt
conicalflask w
pipette
1 Add Aud in

2 Add 2 drops of indicator

3 fill burette w alkali add dropbydrop
acid
in conical flask containing
till colour changes
charcoal to remove indicator
0
4 Add
1103 w out indicator
repeat step
out charcoal
collect filtrate
filter 9
1h till of saturation
5 Heat filtrate so point
to obtain crystals
6 Air dry
 Acids.Basescyfo.tt

Acid contain Ht

Sour in taste

oxides of nonmetals

Corrosive

pH less than 7

Acids

Mineral acids
Acid Organic
methanoic acid Hoo
Eg Ha Ha y eg
HND etc ethanoic acid CCHz WOH

Weak kid
Strong Acid 9 r
r dissociates partially
dissociates completely
to produce to
Htions produce
Htin
 Base pm eph o9libY
pH above 7
oxides of metals
µ soapy
bitter in taste
OH pens
water soluble
water insoluble
Alkali

Indicators
In Acid In Alkali Inneutra
Phenolphthalein Colourless
Colourless pink

litmus Red Blue Purple

SOM

Redpink Yellow
methyl orange Orange

Universal Indicator
3 Red 8 lo blue
PH o
 4 5 Grange Il 14 violet
5 6 yellow purple

7
green

Note substance when dissolved in water

Any
makes solution
aci.diclalkathej ydwchloriaE.d
Hcl when dissolved in
gas water LYe
HCl gas
if dissolved in
methyl benzene solvent
it's not acidic organic

oxides
Types of
element t Oxide
oxyen

Basic Neutral
Acidic Amphoteric
 oxides
Ajidic
these oxides will neutralise alkali 4
do not react with acid

nonmetal oxides
commonly
glows red
G soluble in water
slightly

502 1205

E Basic oxide
these neutralize acids 9 do not

react withalk ali

metal oxides
commonly
CaO GO
Naro MgO
g Golublein
insoluble
slightly
soluble

water soluble
HI Amphoteric oxide
these neutralize acids alkali both
q
ZnO Alsos
Eg
ZnO t LH 4 trick t H2O
t
ZnO f Lma at Naz2h02 HD
Sodium
Zincate

E Neutral oxides
do not neutralize neither acid nor alkali

HD Noenitrogen monoxide
eg Cpo

carbon
monoxide
 Ammonia
G Ammonium
ok wtf gaska NH donated
pry basinamine
y
sata
in
nature

b neutralized
A NH t Hc
NHI
but do not react with alkali

Nyt NaOH
NII t NH.zcgyttH.co
Taika neutralisation

t HCl no reaction
NHyCl acidic
Ts it's
c f
 SAIL Linwood
XInsoluble
Soluble salt
Salts
to

Soluble Insoluble
All nitrates Nos
a halides Ct Bi I Agu G Pbchtwhileppt
PbBraccrepapf
except Aga g Pba AgBr g
are insoluble AGI 9 Pbi He
fft
I All carbonates COE
Grp 9 Nthetarbonate
except Grpl gNHyt
are soluble

All sulfides S2
grpl 9 Mtf sulfide NHytsoluble
except
I9
grp are soluble

all sulfates Cast Pyatt Pb't soy

Ca't Batt Pb't
except are insoluble µ
whileppt

except Grpl G NHyt All oxides

 I 9
All hydroxides
exceptgyd whet q cast
are soluble

Preparing Salts

Soluble Insoluble

t Acid Salt Hz
1 Metal
solid Cag Cag g

IN Moffatt Ag
D fatty
t
Heeg solidted
solid
mgfbtodndetafigdfsaagyttfift9
gg
solid

technique
add excess solid in acid
filler out excess solid

collect filtrate
evaporate filtrate till point of saturation
point
 I
the solution for an
drying
to obtain
keep
crystals

Metal t Acid Salt t water

E hydroxide e
9 og
ag

technique
fill burette
fill pipette
flask add indicator
add pipette soln in

titre against solution in

burette
solution
observe colour change 9 stop adding

Add charcoal to removeindicator repeat

without indicator

filler out charcoal collect filterate

Obtain crystals by evaporation crystallization

 Insoluble salt
4
method
Precipitation

t t Beag
Ricag Raag Pp

t2Na
Bacrobat NazSOy Basely
eg ag ag white ppt
9

technique
Add solution to each other
g
Alteration
Obtain precipitate by
residue distilled
with water to
Wash the precipitate
soluble impurities Gadd
washing in
firate betudined
Residue is dried dnedin arent
Cnsduble salt
filler
paper
to obtain soluble salt filtrate is evaporated
 Ionic compds dissociated with help
Electrify
f of
electricity
Use of
Electro
electricity
breakdown
lysis

Conductor Insulator Nonconductor

material
allowing maternal doesn't
arranging Endutent Hoo

E non electrolyte
Yk Solution which doesn't
Solution which conduct
conduct electricity
electricity
confounds
mutate
state
aqueous
no Eme compd will conduct electricity
PANIC
AN Cathode A
to a
flooedham
positive
negative
Anode
e
Cathode
od electrode

Hefectrode go
anti aIE
gYEniens
fane.nu
cations
take part
donot
in
electrolysis

electrodes
Inert electrodes
carbon platinum
eg
Reactive electrodes take patin
electrolysis
iron zinc aluminium
eg copper
terminal re terminal
Current flow the
terminal the terminal
Electron flow re

In electrolysis
external
in circuit floo from
electrons
re terminal of battery
to cathode q
terminal of battery
from anode back to the
 Cations from electrolyte towards cathode
tre go
re t e Metal electrode
ions Atom oncathode
commonly
netalion Reduction

towards Anode
Anions from electrolyte
go
C re
t e
re rimmed
ins oxidation
atom
molecule
on
anode

gained chord
molten Mac
leg Ma
At cathode Nat t e
4811
2,8

At anodei ICI 42cg t 2e

loss of e
Oxidh
 Rules of
electrolysis M
metal Are
Molten Halides a ien

to
Hal gnc
Metatron nontindal
ti ion
Cathode te
ti Anode
metal Atom 4
Diatomic
nonmetal
molecule

Non halides 1 Halides

in
state solution
aqueous
SOF nos POP NOI 805,05

On Cathode On Anode
mteiallht.ms
to cathode
go readte
less
reactive if metal Ca Ag
T.pe metal more B
Hzgas than Hydrogen
thanHydrogen cathode depositedeondhude
released on metal
 Anode

Halide Nonhtalides

F ct.BE SOF.no5 noi.SE

Poy5 P0s
concentrated dilute f
ti te will be
oxygen
halogengas oxygen released on Anode
released bemused
on
onpnode
anode
 Examples
Molten Nacl Nat gct
Na Red
At cathode Matte
2e acid
At anode 2C I
CLT
electrolyte Used up
concentrated Nacl
CN.at
Aqueous 4nn.eHTo.H

At cathode 2 Htt 2e Hz
At anode Ici Cbt 2e

NaOH Cchlor alknalidism

electrolyte

dilute mac 1 Nat Ct Ht OH

At cathode i 2Mt t2 e He
t 4e
Af anode 404 02 2420
conc NaCl
electrolyte
 dil Hasoy Ht SOF OH
Htt 2e Hz
cathode
At
2h20 thee
At
anode 404 Oat
conc Hasley
electrolyte 2e Cu
cathode bitt

Cus04 anode 4 OH Oztathot4e

Ag Haag
HI SUI tuft electrolyte
molten PbBra
Pb
Cathode Pb2tt2e
anode 2135 Bret 2e
used
electrolyte up
 Electroplating
I

affect
code 0 0

Agt Agnos

te Ages
At cathode Agt
At amodei Ag Agt t e
 Electrochemistry

Electrolysis breakdown of ionic compound in motion

or in solution by the use of electricity
aqueous

Electrodes
I
Positive electrode electrode
Negative
t 4
Anode cathode
connected to connected to negative
positive terminal terminal of battery
of
battery

of electrodes
types
Inert electrode electrode does not
participate in
reaction
any
g platinum gold graphite carbon 4 rhodium
Reactive electrode electrode which participate
actively in reactions

copper lead 9 silver

zinc
eg
 Electrolyte liquids that conduct electricity by
movement of ions are called electrolytes

that do not conduct electricity

Non electrolyte liquids
as don't hare hens are called
they
non
electrolyte

Movement of Ions
The of ionic compounds is
conductivity
explained by the fact that ions move in a particular
direction in an electric field

Positive ions attracted to negative

are

electrode ie cathode hence called Cations

are attracted to positive
Negative ions
electrode ie anode hence called Amiens

battery
flow of electrons

anode e electrode
cathode C
the electrode I a

e
electrolyte
Oxidation at anode Reduction at cathode
 Rules of electrolysis

of molten compounds commonly halides

At cathode metal reduction of metal ion

At anode halide oxidation of halide

nonmetal
electrolyte used up
of aqueous solution
solution
Aqueous

t t
Cathode Anode

I t
if metal if metal less
reactive than
more reactive
than Hydrogen Hydrogen

Hz gas released metal released

metal iron in eg Ca Ag
solution Ht 1 on in
Na K Fe solution
Eg 2n etc
 Ano.de

t d
Non halide
Halide

x
concentrated Dilule
t t
halide released 02 gas
9 OH ion in released
solution 40M 02 21101 45
q
halide in solution
11
released
oxygen
404 02 21 01 45
non halide in solution
eg Sof CoE SOE nos
ete
 Electroplating

The process by which one metal is coated with another

Electrodes used reactive electrodes

At cathode object to plated

At anode metal used for coating

soluble metal used for coating
Electrolyte
solution

As process proceeds the

mass of anode
decreases is plated with the metal
9 object
 Redox Reactions

X oxidation
Reduction

Reduction Oxidation

of tf loss of Ht
gain of 02
loss of 02 gain
of e loss of e

gain number
oxidationnumber increase in oxidation
decrease in in
13
3
2
It reduction 1 oxidation
O
O
l l
Z
Z
3 X
3

It Blake Reduction
featon gone
lose
 Oxidiung Reducingagent
agent
reduced itself gets oxidized
itself gets

eg eg colourless lob on

acidified kMn9GwP
KI oxidizing IZ
LIMITED
Iff
ours agent brown

acidified KC Ot orange

GH Cft
green
orange
 Examples
oxidation
at

314Gt 3t
Akkad 3mgsoyI t2AI
t 2Aptog Yag t2AI
Ionic egh 3
mga 3mg
loss of e
Oxidn Mg Mg
of e
Reducth APIs At
gain
Ablsods
Oxidising agent
metal Mg
magnesium
Reducing agent
Oxidation ganoro
2
Caw Gi Cao t CO2
n loss of 0
Oxidation
2

2Cuso t
g KI Cut t Ioa 214504

Findon
Oxidising agent Cusoy

Reducing agent KI
Experimental Techniques

variable conical
flask
pure

µquddm

measured
gum

stirrer
great

eatin
µmetal
 stand
tripod

measure time stopwatch

Measure thermometer
temperature
Measure balance
top pan
mass

measure volume of
released gas syringe
gas
 burner
Spirit
Heat

type of mixture technique to separate

solid in solid con basis of

sieving particle size

sublimation if one of
solid can be sublimed
 by adding mater f Haakon
9 crystallalisation
One solid is water soluble g
the water insoluble

sulfur q Nacl
g
Soliday liquid to obtain solid
only
soluble solid
crystallization
f Iteration insolublesolid

to obtain
liquid
Simple distillation
 liquids miscible
liquid g liquid are

fractional distillation
on basis of boiling point

liquids are immiscible

Gas fractional Intonation
g gas convert
gas
to 1 gud
g
than fractional distillation
diffusion
difference
by using of Mr

Chromatography

separate pigments
on basis of Rf value

Retention factor
 Rp distance travelled by solute
distance travelled solvent
by

value of Rf zero

Baseline pencil
colourless use
if pigments
are locatingagent
amino acids
Cninhydnon
g sugar
carbohydrates
 Particulate Nature of Matter

Solid liquid Gas

Arrogant Regular Randomly

Randomly

movement vibrate on fixed move around more quickly

position each other in all directions

closeness
hey close
Close far
apart

energy proceed
takefanpomiffenendothermic
Solid melting
freenenngfgyligitdenottdensexoffetma.se
process

Melling
solid takes in energy to form liquid
slide
particles of solid gain energy vibrate
more to
over each other

takes place at fixed temperature Melting point

 1
Boiling evaporation
to form
liquid takes
in
energy gas
heat energy
Boiling requires
heat causes bubbles of to form below
gas
the surface of a
liquid g gas particles
from the surface
escape
fixed temperature Boiling point

it takes place surface of liquid

evaporation through

Large
sundae of liquid exposed faster
the
evaporation
takes at of temperature
place range

Ram solid
Freezing liquids lose energy to

energy 9
lose come
liquid particles
close to each other forming solid
takes place at fixed temperature thee.If
Condensation lose energy to form liquid
gases
particles
lose energy come closer
gas slide over each other
to Romany
liquid
solid to form
Sublimation gan energy gas
solid
gans energy
9 more
apart
to form without into liquid
gas turning

substances
For pure
is fixed
point 9 boilingpoint
Melting

In of
case
impurity
is lowered
P 0 C
Melting point Ice
M

Pure 0k
lower than
Impure
increased BP 100 C
is
Boiling point Pure water more than
100

Impure
Brownian motion
random movement of particles in
zigzag way
move
solid particles don't move on their
own
they
due to movement of or liquid particles
gas
 Diffusion
to
movement of particles from higher concentration
lower concentration

diffusion is faster
at higher temperature
Hr diffuse faster
compounds with lower
Mr
gases
121 16 2 44
CO2
2
1 2
H2
diffuse faster
Hz hare less Mr so
N 14
4 1 D I
gu why
4 355 14 1 3 17
y y

diffuse fastest solid don't diffuse on

Gases
their own