1 appearance of rolling stock

The rolling stock consists of traction stock and hauled stock.

The hauled stock consists of:

- coaches, for the transport of passengers;
- wagons, for the transport of goods.

The traction stock can be the following:

- locomotives; to haul coaches or wagons;
- EMU’s (electrical multiple units): these coupled coaches in fixed composition have
their own electrical traction;
- diesel power cars: these coupled coaches in fixed composition have their own diesel
traction;
- fixed train set: this is a fixed composition of coaches and locomotives, sometimes with
so-called ‘Jacobs’-bogies;

1.1 train composition

A train consists of
- one or more coupled EMU’s, diesel power cars or articulated trains;
- one or more locomotives with hauled or pushed coaches; in order for the coaches to
be pushed, a driver cab at the front end of the train is needed;
- one or more locomotives with hauled wagons;

1.2 a coach

A coach is meant to transport

passengers. In order to move
the coach, it needs to be
hauled or pushed by a
locomotive.
figure 1: a twin deck driver coach

A coach must provide everything on board in order for the passengers to be able to travel in
comfort:
- benches and/or seats;
- heating and air conditioning;
- lighting;
- public address;
- sanitary facilities;
- passenger information system;
- …

Special facilities can often be found as well. For instance, on the train to Tibet an oxygen
installation was added to keep the pressure in the coaches at 1 atmosphere, given the
thinness of the air.

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1.3 goods wagons

Goods wagons, or just: wagons, are used to

transport goods. They are hauled by one or
more locomotives.

There’s a multitude of special wagons: bulk

wagons, cooling wagons, coil steel wagons, figure 2: goods wagon
car wagons …

1.4 The EMU

figure 3: an EMU

An EMU has a driver cab on both sides, so changing directions can be done quickly. This is
particularly convenient in dead-end stations (Ostend, Paris-Nord, …).

The NMBS uses two-way, three-way and four-way EMU’s. Currently three-way EMU’s are
most popular.

The number of coupled EMU’s cannot be more then 5, due to several reasons:
- More than 5 EMU’s will draw currents which might cause the circuit breakers to
intervene;
- The pantographs lift up the catenary excessively.

Train lines are the low voltage cables that send the controlling commands of the controlled
driver cab through all EMU’s.

1.5 The articulated train

An articulated train is the composition of

locomotives on the heads as well as the
coaches in between. Almost all high speed
stock belongs to this type (TGV, ICE, X2000,
PBKA, TMST, X2000).

A TGV-A has a locomotive on the heads with

7 coaches in between.

figure 4: composed coach (TGV-A)

The TMST (TransManche Super Train, commercially known as the first generation Eurostar)
consists of two symmetrical train halves that can be separated in the channel tunnel in case
of an emergency.

An articulated train can generally be coupled to increase the capacity. The length of the
platforms, however, needs to support this.

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1.6 a locomotive

Locomotives can haul coaches as well as wagons, which means they have an ample field of
use.

Push-pull trains avoid change cab ends. This means the locomotive can be either at the
front, where it can pull the train, or at the back, where it can push the train. The driver cab is
then built into the driving coach (figure 1). The locomotive can then be controlled from there.
Pushing the train causes the wheel flanges and the rails to wear more, since the coaches
tend to be slightly turned diagonally opposed to the axle line of the rails. If the couplings
between the coaches are sufficiently tight and by using greasing for the wheel flanges, this
can be largely avoided.

Train lines are the low voltage cables that send the controlling commandoes of the served
driver cab through all EMU’s.

Locomotives can be used during the day for the traffic of passengers. During the night they
can be used to haul goods trains. This way the locomotives are optimally used.

If a locomotive is not used as a push-pull train, it is usually used for longer courses. This way
there will be less need to execute the lengthy change cab ends in the ends, the moving of
the locomotive on the other side of the train.

Locomotives are much used on international connections as well. A goods train that covers a
course in different current systems, needs to be hauled by an adjusted locomotive for each
system. An alternative is the use of a multivoltage locomotive, which can be used in different
traction systems.

A locomotive that needs to be able to drive in two directions, is symmetrical and has two
driver cabs. Locomotives in articulated trains only have one driver cab.

To compose goods trains and haul them over short distances, shunting locomotives are
used. Above all, they need to have a good tractive force at low speeds.

Universal locomotives can haul heavy goods trains at a somewhat lower speed as well as
light passengers trains at higher speeds.

To have as much tractive force as possible, the entire mass of a locomotive is used as
adhesive train mass. In Europe the axle load is 20 to 22.5 tonne. The weight of the
locomotive itself compared to the hauled load, is decisive for the slopes that can be driven.
For lines with slopes, riding in so-called multiple-unit traction is therefore often needed. Two
or more locomotives are then coupled and controlled from the front driver cab.

Locomotives generally have electrical traction or diesel traction. Less frequent ways of
propelling also exist, for instance gas turbines.

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2 car body-bogie topology

figure 5: possible forms of car body-bogie couplings

The most classic form of the car-body topology is the one shown on the left in figure 5. Two
wheels on one axle form a bogie, or with a pars pro toto, a wheelset. Two wheelsets carry a
bogie. Generally the car body is carried by two bogies. Car bodies are coupled.

A so-called Jacobs-bogie (Wilhelm Jakobs, 1858-1942) is shown in the middle of figure 5. On

the right of figure 5 we see an experimental composition that allows for smoother driving in
curves. figure 13 shows the combination of a Jacobs-bogie with a car body.

The suspension between the wheelset and

the bogie is the primary suspension. The
suspension between a bogie and the car
body is the secondary suspension. The axle
box is the connection between the axle
journals of the wheelset and the primary
suspension (figure 6). The spring seat of the
primary suspension springs is clearly visible.

figure 6: an axle box

Goods wagons generally only have one
suspension: the primary suspension
between the wheels and the bogie. The
structure of the vehicle is then resting
directly on the bogie. Some vehicles are
directly supported by the wheelsets, with the
primary suspension in between (figure 7).
figure 7: goods wagon without bogie

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figure 8: air suspension

Suspension between car body and bogie can be a traditional spring and damper system or
an air suspension system (figure 8).

3 coupling of vehicles
Vehicles are mechanically coupled in different ways.

3.1 buffer-and-chain coupler

figure 9: buffer-and-chain coupler

The buffer-and-chain coupler consists of buffers, to take the compression forces, and hooks
to take the tractive forces.

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To couple two vehicles, a total number of four buffers and two hooks is needed. The vehicles
are coupled by hand using a hook and links with a turnbuckle that draws the vehicles
together.

The buffer-and-chain coupler is used between locomotives, coaches and wagons. It should
withstand 850 kN.

In passenger trains the couplings are always well-tightened. In long and heavy goods trains,
they are loosely coupled. In this case the buffers do not constantly push against each other.

3.2 other couplings

Aside from the mechanical coupling, there are a number of

pipes that run throughout the entire train, the so-called
train pipes. These are the most important:
- the through brake pipe (always present) at 5 bar;
- the power pipe for compressed air at 8 bar; which
can supply several devices on a passengers train
with energy, such as:
o doors;
o platform gap fillers;
- electrical lines:
o high voltage, for instance for the power of
air conditioning units and heating units;
o low voltage, especially for steering (for
instance to control a drive cab in the front of
the locomotive from the back);
- signal lines, for instance for public address,
passenger information systems (‘news tickers’), …

When there is a transfer possibility for people from one

figure 10: an interconnecting
gangway
coach to another, it is called an interconnecting gangway.
Especially the interconnecting gangway between EMU’s is
desirable in operation. This way the attendant and the
passengers can move throughout the train. This comes in
handy especially when a train with EMU’s is separated to
reach two different far destinations. This way passengers
don’t need to switch EMU’s using the platforms.

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3.3 The automatic coupler

Modern EMU’s and articulated trains have

an integrated automatic coupling that allows
fast coupling and decoupling in operation.

figure 11 shows an integrated coupling with

from top to bottom: the electrical coupling
(1), the mechanical coupling (2) and the
pneumatic coupling (3).

figure 11: integrated automatic coupling

figure 12 shows the detail of the

electrical coupling. Notice the cap
(1) that protects the electrical
contacts when in the decoupled
position. It turns away to couple.

New designs send signals by

means of laser-LED lights at a
speed of 1Gb/s.

figure 12: detail of the electrical coupling

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3.4 the semi-permanent coupler

The semi-permanent coupler is applied between the coaches of an EMU. It is generally a

thick tube that is attached with hinges to the two coaches. The semi-permanent coupler is
not decoupled during exploitation. They are only detached during some maintenance works.

3.5 The articulation

The articulation (figure 13) that couples the car bodies is supported by one bogie on which
the other car body is resting. This construction is a passive safety for derailment. The car
bodies are tightly kept in line by this articulation. The train is less likely to jackknife or
telescope. The principle is applied on TGV- and AGV-bogies.

On 21 December 1993 at 7.03 am the TGV from Valenciennes to Paris derailed at a speed
of 294 km/h at a place where the rails were prolapsed due to heavy rainfall. All coaches
remained standing during the whole braking. One passenger got lightly injured. During
derailments at high speeds in 1992 and 2000 the TGV remained standing, there were no
casualties. During accidents at lower speeds the TGV remained standing and came to a halt
each time: in 1983 after a bomb explosion, in 1988 after a collision with a transformer vehicle
(100 t), in 1997 after a collision with a construction vehicle, in 2001 after a derailment due to
a rail breakage and in 2003 after a collision with a truck.

On 3 June 1998 the ICE train from Munich to Hamburg derailed in Eschede. 101 passengers
died after a derailed coach collided with a bridge pillar. The ICE has a topology as shown in
figure 5 on the left. We can only guess how the story would have ended if the trainset would
have been an articulated train.

figure 13: articulation between coaches with Jacobs-bogie (TGV)

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4 The pantograph
The pantograph on the roof of a traction vehicle takes electrical current from the catenary
(figure 14). The pantograph pushes against the catenary with a constant force. The pan head
has two pantograph wearing strips that ensure the electrical contact with the catenary.

figure 14: pantograph

In the up position, spring R

and the kinematic system of
the pantograph deliver a
constant force of the pan head
against the catenary (figure
15). The force of the
pantograph (130 to 250 N)
needs to be in concordance
with the tensile stress on the
catenary (order of magnitude
30 kN).

figure 15: pantograph: kinematics

To let the pantograph down, the air pressure in M is taken away, so spring D pulls down the
pantograph, against the force of R. This way only R will determine the force against the
catenary, independent of the air pressure. Without compressed air current collection is
impossible.

The speed of the train always needs to be lower than the mechanical wave speed of the
contact line. If not, the catenary might be ripped off. The wave speed is determined by the
mechanical tensile stress and the material density of the catenary line:

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 T
λ= , where T is the tensile stress and ρ the material density.
ρ

Generally the train speed is maximum 60% of the wave speed. At 70% the contact between
the catenary and the pantograph wearing strips is no longer good. At 80% or more the
catenary might be ripped off.

In operation preferably only one pantograph is lifted. If possible, the most downwind
pantograph is opted for. This way the aerodynamic resistance is a bit smaller.

Seen from above, the catenary is not one straight line. The steady arms of the catenary
supports make sure that the catenary has a zigzag pattern. This way the pan head will wear
more evenly during driving. The pan head, however, needs to be wide enough so it is not
pushed above the catenary in extreme situations. Severe damage would occur: a torn-off
catenary, damage to the train and a halt of train operations during the maintenance work.

In tunnels there is often no space for a catenary. A profile is then suspended from the ceiling.

In some countries, such as the

United Kingdom, the ‘third rail’
system is used (figure 16). A
collector shoe on the traction
vehicle slides over the so-called
third rail next to the rails on
which the wheels run. If there is
a potential danger of contact
with people, the third rail is
shielded.

The variables of the third rail

are: the height of the third rail
and the orientation (equal to the
rails or the other way around). figure 16: third rail

For applications in trams a rare form of power transfer exists, without catenary nor conductor
rail. A loop system in the track bed structure transfers a limited amount of electrical power (±
250 kW) to the tram through induction. To be able to support peaks, a battery or a capacitor
bank is used that can buffer 1 kWh in order of magnitude. This application is only useful, and
at the moment only possible, for usage in trams. With this technique the power transfer does
currently not allow a profitability higher than 93%. This system is installed most commonly in
environments where catenaries are aesthetically undesirable, especially in squares where
poles are needed to support the catenary.

chapter 3 – rolling stock page 10

5 References
Philippe Girou - Arnaud Carre. Vers de nouvelles connexions entre rames. Le Rail N° 159
(sept 2009)

Eric Fontanel – Reinhard Christeller.Rolling Stock, Volume 1. (2017)

Lesley Brown (2015). Pantograph catenary couple. A volatile relationship. Eurailmag issue
22

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