A Comparative Study of Teacher Preparation and Qualifications Ingersoll (2007)

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A Comparative Study of Teacher Preparation and Qualifications in

Six Nations
Richard Ingersoll
University of Pennsylvania, rmi@upenn.edu
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A Comparative Study of Teacher Preparation and Qualifications in Six Nations
Abstract
Across the educational systems of the world, few issues have received more attention in recent years
than the problem of ensuring that elementary and secondary-school classrooms are all staffed with
adequately qualified teachers (Mullis, et al., 2000; OECD, 1994, 2005; Wang, et al., 2003). Even in nations
where students routinely score high on international exams, the issue of teacher quality is the subject of
much concern. This is not surprising. Elementary and secondary schooling is mandatory in almost all
nations and children are legally placed in the care of teachers for a significant portion of their lives. It is
widely believed that the quality of teachers and teaching are among the most important factors shaping
the learning and growth of students. Moreover, this impact goes beyond student academic achievement.
Across the world, observers routinely tie the performance of teachers to numerous, larger societal goals
and problems—economic competitiveness and productivity, juvenile delinquency, moral and civic culture,
and so on. In addition, the largest single component of the cost of education in any country typically is
teacher compensation. Along with a general consensus among many nations that the quality of teachers
and teaching is a vital resource, there is accordingly much concern surrounding how equitably this
resource is distributed within educational systems. Indeed, some nations suffer from an apparent
paradox—that despite an overall overproduction and oversupply of new teachers, there nevertheless
appear to be substantial numbers of students without access to qualified teachers.
Such concern has resulted in a steady stream of commissions, reports, and studies all targeting teacher
quality as one of the central problems facing school systems. In many nations this concern has resulted
in new legislation and policy. Foremost among these have been widespread efforts to increase the entry
standards and preparation requirements for teachers. Hong Kong, for instance, initiated in 1997 an “all
graduate, all trained” policy requiring new primary- and secondary-school teachers to have bachelor’s
degrees and to be professionally trained. In Japan there has been an active reform movement to increase
teacher preparation requirements and increase evaluation and accountability of teachers. In the United
States this concern surfaced within a massive new piece of legislation in 2002, the federal law known as
the No Child Left Behind Act, which in addition to new standards for student achievement, set a new and
unprecedented goal— to ensure that elementary and secondary students in the United States are all
taught by highly qualified teachers. In addition to, or perhaps because of, recognition of its importance,
the issue of teacher quality also is a source of debate and disagreement in many nations.
Disciplines
Educational Sociology | Education Economics | Education Policy | Elementary Education and Teaching |
Secondary Education and Teaching
Comments
View on the CPRE website.
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A Comparative Study
of Teacher Preparation
and Qualifications
in Six Nations
Edited by Richard M. Ingersoll

ABOUT CPRE
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in Education (CPRE) unites seven of
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necessarily shared by CPRE or its
institutional partners.
A Comparative Study of Teacher Preparation
and Qualifications in Six Nations
By
Richard M. Ingersoll, United States
With
Ding Gang and Sun Meilu, People’s Republic of China (PRC)

Kwok Chan Lai, Hong Kong
Hidenori Fujita, Japan
Ee-gyeong Kim, Republic of Korea
Steven K. S. Tan and Angela F. L. Wong, Singapore
Pruet Siribanpitak and Siriporn Boonyananta, Thailand
CPRE
Consortium for Policy Research in Education
University of Pennsylvania / Teachers College - Columbia University

Harvard University / Stanford University
University of Michigan / University of Wisconsin-Madison
Northwestern University
Table of Contents
Table of Contents ..............................................................................................................................................................i
List of Tables ......................................................................................................................................................................iv
List of Figures ....................................................................................................................................................................v
About the Authors..............................................................................................................................................................vi
Acknowledgments ..............................................................................................................................................................vii
Chapter 1. A Comparative Study of Teacher Preparation and Qualifications in Six Nations ......................................1
Introduction ......................................................................................................................................................................1
The Research Project..........................................................................................................................................................4
1.) What are the Preparation Requirements and Standards to Become a Teacher? ............................................................5
2.) What are the Levels of Qualifications of the Current Teaching Force? ..........................................................................6
3.) What Proportions of Teachers are Not Qualified in the Subjects They Teach? ............................................................6
Data and Methods..............................................................................................................................................................6
Teacher Preparation Requirements and Standards ..............................................................................................................7
Governance ................................................................................................................................................................7
Education Requirements ............................................................................................................................................8
Professional Training Requirements ............................................................................................................................9
Selectivity of Programs, Caliber of Candidates and Attractiveness of Careers ..............................................................9
The Qualifications of the Teaching Force ..........................................................................................................................11
Teaching Assignments and Out-of-Field Teaching..............................................................................................................12
Overview ....................................................................................................................................................................12
Reasons for Out-of-Field Teaching ..............................................................................................................................13
Implications ......................................................................................................................................................................14
References ..........................................................................................................................................................................17
Chapter 2. The Qualifications of the Teaching Force in China..................................................................................19

Introduction ......................................................................................................................................................................19
Teacher Preparation Requirements and Standards ............................................................................................................21
Data and Measures ............................................................................................................................................................22
Out-of-Field Teaching ........................................................................................................................................................25
Implications and Conclusions ............................................................................................................................................25
References ..........................................................................................................................................................................27
Chapter 3. The Qualifications of the Teaching Force in the Hong Kong Special
Administrative Region, China ....................................................................................................................................29
Introduction ......................................................................................................................................................................29
The Education System ................................................................................................................................................29
The Teacher Education System....................................................................................................................................30
The Changing Policy Context ....................................................................................................................................30
Professional Training Requirements ............................................................................................................................31
Academic Qualifications Requirements ......................................................................................................................32
Retreat on Professional Training ........................................................................................................................................37
One Quest for High Quality..............................................................................................................................................38
References ..........................................................................................................................................................................40
Chapter 4.
The Qualifications of the Teaching Force in Japan ....................................................................................................41
Introduction ......................................................................................................................................................................41
The Teaching Profession in Japan ......................................................................................................................................47
Job Conditions and Retention Rate ............................................................................................................................47
Teachers’ Perceptions of Their Profession in Japan in Comparison with China
and the United Kingdom ..................................................................................................................................................48
Impacts of Recent Education Reform on Teachers’ Perceptions ..........................................................................................49
Teachers’ Perceptions of Their Work Lives in Japan in Comparison With China and the United Kingdom ......................50
References ........................................................................................................................................................................54
Chapter 5. The Quality and Qualifications of the Teaching Force in the Republic of Korea ....................................55
Introduction ......................................................................................................................................................................55
Teacher Preparation............................................................................................................................................................57
Teacher Preparation System ........................................................................................................................................57
Teacher Preparation Curriculum ................................................................................................................................59
Teacher Certification System ..............................................................................................................................................62
Overview ....................................................................................................................................................................62
Data on Teachers’ Qualifications ......................................................................................................................................64
Conclusions........................................................................................................................................................................69
References ..........................................................................................................................................................................70
Chapter 6. The Qualifications of the Teaching Force: Data from Singapore..............................................................71

Introduction ......................................................................................................................................................................71
Overview of the Singapore Education System ....................................................................................................................72
Primary Education ......................................................................................................................................................72
Secondary Education ..................................................................................................................................................72
Teacher Preparation, Requirements and Standards ............................................................................................................72
Role of the Ministry of Education ..............................................................................................................................74
Academic Qualifications Required for Teaching ..........................................................................................................74
Role of the National Institute of Education in Teacher Training ........................................................................................75
Programs Offered by NIE to Train Teachers ......................................................................................................................75
Levels of Qualifications of the Current Teaching Force in Singapore ..........................................................................77
Secondary-Grade-Level Teachers’ Subject Qualifications and Subjects Taught in School ............................................78
Issues of Out-of-Field Teaching and Underqualified Teachers ............................................................................................80
Conclusions and Implications ............................................................................................................................................81
References ..........................................................................................................................................................................83
Chapter 7. The Qualifications of the Teaching Force in Thailand ............................................................................85

Introduction ......................................................................................................................................................................85
Formal Education........................................................................................................................................................85
Nonformal Education ................................................................................................................................................85
Informal Education ....................................................................................................................................................85
Educational Administration and Management ..................................................................................................................86
Administration and Management of Education by the State ......................................................................................86
Administration and Management of Education by Local Administration Organizations ............................................87
Administration and Management of Education by the Private Sector..........................................................................87
Teachers’ Salary Structure ..................................................................................................................................................87

Out-of-Field Teaching ......................................................................................................................................................91
References ........................................................................................................................................................................93
Chapter 8. The Preparation and Qualifications of the Teaching Force in the United States ......................................95
Introduction ......................................................................................................................................................................95
Implications ......................................................................................................................................................................104
References ..........................................................................................................................................................................106

List of Tables (by chapter)
Chapter 1 Chapter 4
Table 1 Average Mathematics and Science Achievement Table 1 Types of Teacher’s Certificates in Japan..................43
of Eighth-Grade Students for Nations Participating in the Table 2 Types of Teacher Training Programs in Japan ........44
Third International Math and Science Study, 1999 ..........4 Table 3 Highest Degrees Held by All Fulltime Teachers
Table 2 Teacher Preparation Requirements and at Different Levels of Education in Japan (%), 2004 ........46
Standards, by System ..........................................................8 Table 4 Percentage of Secondary School Classes
Table 3 Percent School Teachers, by Highest Degree Taught by a teacher without a Certificate in the Field,
Earned, and by Teaching Certificate, by System.................11 by subject, 2004 ................................................................47
Table 4 Percent Secondary School Teachers in Four Table 5 Percentage of Secondary School Teachers
Academic Fields Without a Major in the Field Taught, Who Teach Classes Without a Certificate in the Field,
by System............................................................................12 by Subject, 2004 ................................................................47
Table 5 Percent Secondary School Teachers in Four Table 6 Percentage of Retired Teachers in Japan,
Academic Fields Without a Teaching Certificate or by Reason of Retirement, 2004 ..........................................48
License in the Field Taught, by System ..............................13 Table 7 Percentage of School Teachers in Japan,
by Monthly Salary (Unit: 10T=100,000), 2004 ................48
Chapter 2 Table 8 Teachers’ Perceptions of the Teaching Profession –
Table 1 Numbers of Schools, Students, Teachers Percentage of those who answered “accurate” or
in China by Educational Level (2004)................................20 “accurate to some degree”. ..................................................49
Table 2 Numbers of Students, Graduates in China Table 9 Teachers’ perceptions of their work lives –
by Educational Level for Teacher Preparation, 2004 ..........20 percentage of those who answered “Yes” or “Sometimes” ....49
Table 3 Qualified Rate of Record of Formal Schooling Table 10 Determinants of the feeling of “authority
of Elementary, Junior Secondary, Senior Secondary of teachers is declining” ......................................................51
Teachers in China by Type of Subject Taught, Table 11 Determinants of the feeling of “happy to have
Type of School, in percentages, 2004 ................................22 become a teacher” ..............................................................51
Table 4 Percentage of Record of Formal Schooling of Table 12 Determinants of the feeling of “want to quit
ELEMENTARY School Teachers in China, by Type teaching” ............................................................................51
of School , by Type of Subject Taught, 2004......................23
Table 5 Percentage of Record of Formal Schooling of Chapter 5
JUNIOR Secondary School Teachers in China, by Type Table 1 Secondary Teacher Training Institutions with
of School, by Type of subject Taught, 2004........................23 Freshmen Quota, 2005 ......................................................57
Table 6 Percentage of Record of Formal Schooling Table 2 Number of Vacancies and Employment Rate
of Senior SECONDARY School Teachers in China, (Elementary), 1999-2005 ..................................................58
by Type of School, by Type of subject Taught, 2004 ..........24 Table 3 Ratio Between Preparation and Employment,
Table 7 Percentage of Different Types of Teachers in Secondary School Teacher, 1999-2005. ..............................59
ELEMENTARY Schools in China, by Table 4 Credit Hours Assigned to Curricular Domains
Type of School, 2004..........................................................24 in the Universities of Education ........................................60
Table 8 Percentage of Different Types of Teachers in Table 5 Types and Required Credit Hours of Practice
SECONDARY Schools Teaching, University of Education......................................62
in China, by Type of School, 2004 ....................................25 Table 6 The Summary of Teacher Certification System......63
Table 7 Teachers’ Academic Qualification, by Location,
Chapter 3 School Level, and School Type, 2005 ................................64
Table 1 Number of Teachers in Hong Kong by Academic Table 8 Teaching Certificate Holders, 2005 ......................65
Qualifications/Training, 2005 ............................................34 Table 9 Percentage of Secondary Teachers in Korea
Table 2 Number of Teachers by Academic and Teacher in the Core Academic Fields Without a Teaching
Training Qualifications, 2005 ............................................34 Certificate (Major) in the Field by
Table 3 Distribution of Teachers by Subject Taught by Type of School, 2005. ........................................................66
Whether Teaching Out-of-field, 2005 ................................36

Table 10 Percentage of Secondary Teachers in Korea in the Table 3 Percentage and Number of Elementary and
Core Academic Fields Without a Teaching Certificate Secondary School Teachers in Thailand by Highest Degree
(Major or Minor) in the Field by Type of School, 2005.....67 Earned, and Types of School, ( Academic Year) 2004 ........89
Table 11 Percentage of Secondary Teachers in Korea in the Table 4 Percentage of Secondary Grade Level Teachers in
Core Academic Fields Without a Teaching Certificate Thailand in the Core Academic Fields Without an
(Major, Minor or Minor Acquired through In-service Undergraduate or Graduate Major or Minor in the
Training) in the Field by Type of School, 2005..................67 Field, by Types of School, (Academic Year) 2004 ..............90
Table 12 Percentage of Secondary Teachers in Korea in Table 5 Percentage of Secondary Grade Level Teachers
the Core Academic Fields Without an Undergraduate or in Thailand in the Core Academic Fields Without an
Graduate Major in the Field by Type of School, 2005 ......68 Undergraduate or Graduate Major in the Field,
Table 13 Percentage of Secondary Teachers in Korea by Types of School, (Academic Year) 2004.........................90
in the Core Academic Fields Without an Undergraduate
or Graduate Major or a Minor in the Field by Type Chapter 8
of School, 2005 ..................................................................69 Table 1 Percentage of Elementary and Secondary School
Teachers in the United States, by Highest Degree Earned,
Chapter 6 and by Highest Type of Teaching Certification or
Table 1 Summary Statistics of Teachers in Schools, 2006....76 License, by Type of School, 2003-2004..............................101
Table 2 Percentage of Teachers in Singapore by Table 2 Percentage of Secondary Grade Level Teachers in
Academic Qualification by Level of Schools, 2006 ............77 the United States in the Core Academic Fields Without
Table 3 Percentage of Vice-Principals and Principals an Undergraduate or Graduate Major or a Minor in
in Singapore by Academic Qualification by Level the Field, by Type of School, 1999-2000 ..........................102
of Schools, 2006 ................................................................78 Table 3 Percentage of Secondary Grade Level Teachers
Table 4 Matching Teaching Subjects (Fields) with in the United States in the Core Academic Fields
Subjects (Majors) offered by Universities and Without an Undergraduate or Graduate Major
Curriculum Studies Assigned in NIE ................................79 in the Field, by Type of School, 1999-2000 ......................103
Table 5 Summary Statistics on Teaching Subjects Table 4 Percentage of Secondary Grade Level Teachers
of Secondary School Teachers, 2005 ..................................80 in the United States in the Core Academic Fields Without
a Teaching Certificate or License in the Field, by Type of
Chapter 7 School, 1999-2000 ............................................................104
Table 1 New Teacher Classification Framework, 2004 ......88
Table 2 Previous Teacher Classification Framework............88
List of Figures (by chapter)

Chapter 2
Figure 1 China’s Formal Educational System and Institutions................................................................................................19
Chapter 5
Figure 1 Elementary Teacher Training Institutions with Freshmen Quota, 2005 ..................................................................57
Chapter 6
Figure 1 Structure of Schooling in Singapore by Education Level, Typical Age and Years of Schooling, 2006 ....................73
Chapter 7
Figure 1 The Thai Education System, 2006 ............................................................................................................................86
Figure 2 Educational Administration and Management Structure, 2006 ..............................................................................87
Chapter 8
Chart 1 Matching Teaching Fields With Preparation Fields ..................................................................................................100

About the Authors
Richard M. Ingersoll is a Professor of Hidenori Fujita, Ph.D., Professor, Steven K. S. Tan is associate professor
Education and Sociology at the International Christian University and associate dean (professional
University of Pennsylvania in the (ICU) development) of the National Institute
United States. His research is concerned He received his Ph.D. from Stanford of Education, Nanyang Technological
with the management and organization University in 1978. Before moving to University in Singapore. He has been
of elementary and secondary schools ICU in 2003, he had taught sociology involved in the teaching, development
and the character and problems of the of education as a professor at the and review of both pre-service and
teaching occupation. He has published University of Tokyo for 17 years and professional development curriculum
widely on the problems of teacher served as a dean of Graduate School of since 1995. His research interests are in
shortages and underqualified teachers. Education there from 2000 to 2003. educational reform and initiatives, and
He is Professor Emeritus of the the induction and socialization of
Ding Gang is a Professor and Dean of University of Tokyo, member of Science beginning teachers.
School of Education Science, East Council of Japan and Chief Researcher
China Normal University of the Peoples of Japan Society for the Promotion of Angela F. L. Wong is an associate
Republic of China. His research is Science. He was the President of professor with the Learning Sciences
concerned with the culture and social Japanese Association of Educational and Technologies Academic Group,
development of education and the Sociology (2000-03) and served on the National Institute of Education (NIE),
change of teacher education and National Commission on Education Nanyang Technological University. She
Teacher Professional Development. He Reform (2000) and Central Council for also is the Associate Dean for Practicum
has published numerous books and Education (2005). and School Matters in the Foundation
papers in the research areas. Programmes Office. She lectures in
Ee-gyeong Kim serves as the Director instructional technology and classroom
Sun Meilu is a lecturer in the School of of Teacher Policy Research at the management modules. Her research
Education Science, East China Normal Korean Educational Development interests are in learning environments,
University of the Peoples Republic of Institute. She has directed several instructional technology and
China. Her research is concerned with research projects on teacher issues that practicum-related issues in teacher
vocational and adult education and have greatly influenced the formulation education.
human resources development. She has and implementation of teacher policies
published numerous papers in the of the Republic of Korea. She has S. Gopinathan is Professor of
research areas. written books and articles on Education at the National Institute of
educational decentralization and on the Education, Nanyang Technological
Kwok Chan Lai is the Head of quantity and quality of teachers. Her University. His research interests are in
Strategic and Academic Planning at the recent research interests include the teacher and higher education, and in
Hong Kong Institute of Education and evaluation and professional education-society relationships. He is
responsible for the Institute’s academic development of teachers and school co-editor of the Asia Pacific Journal of
planning, strategic planning and administrators. Education and a founder member of
academic manpower planning. He had the Educational Research Association of
been the Head of Department of Social Singapore.
Studies of the Institute. His research
interests include teacher education,
teacher demand and supply, teacher
professionalisation, environmental
education and geographical education.

Kim Chuan Goh is associate dean and Siriporn Boonyananta is the Deputy
has been involved in teacher education Secretary-General of the Education
curriculum review and management, Council, Ministry of Education and
and student development and liaison Honorary Advisor to the National
since 2000. He has written on teacher Parliament’s Committee on Youths, the
and teacher education issues. Currently Disadvantaged, and Women’s Affairs.
he is leading a team to conduct "a Her vast experience comprises 20 years
longitudinal study of teacher as curriculum development specialist at
preparation and professional the Ministry of Education and part-
development in Singapore", funded by time lecturer in graduate schools of
the Ministry of Education. many leading universities in Thailand.
Isabella Y. F. Wong is an Assistant

Professor at the National Institute of
Education, Nanyang Technological
University. Her research interests are in
teacher professional development and
she has a long-standing interest in the
preparation and induction of new
teachers.
Kong Hong Ong is a Vice Principal in

a secondary school in Singapore. His
prior experience includes research and
corporate planning at the Ministry of
Information, Communication and the
Arts, as well as education policy and
human resource development at the
Ministry of Education. During his stint
in Personnel Division in the Ministry of
Education, he worked closely with the
National Institute of Education to look
at the recruitment and training of
teachers to meet the needs of Singapore
schools.
Pruet Siribanpitak is an Associate

Professor and Dean of the Faculty of
Education at Chulalongkorn University
in Thailand. He is also served as the
President of the Thailand Education
Deans Council. His research is
concerned with the policy and
development strategy of teacher
education. He has published widely on
the development strategy of teacher
education and education for sustainable
development.

Acknowledgements
This report is based on research by the
authors with the support of the
Consortium for Policy Research in
Education (CPRE) and funded by the
Institute of Education Sciences, U.S.
Department of Education, under
Grant No. R308A960003. Opinions
expressed in this publication are those
of the authors and do not necessarily
reflect the views of the Institute of
Education Sciences, the U.S.
Department of Education, CPRE, or
its institutional partners.

CHAPTER 1
A Comparative Study of Teacher
Preparation and Qualifications
in Six Nations
Richard M. Ingersoll
Introduction a general consensus among many within a massive new piece of

nations that the quality of teachers legislation in 2002, the federal law
Across the educational systems of the and teaching is a vital resource, there known as the No Child Left Behind
world, few issues have received more is accordingly much concern Act, which in addition to new
attention in recent years than the surrounding how equitably this standards for student achievement,
problem of ensuring that elementary- resource is distributed within set a new and unprecedented goal—
and secondary-school classrooms are educational systems. Indeed, some to ensure that elementary and
all staffed with adequately qualified nations suffer from an apparent secondary students in the United
teachers (Mullis, et al., 2000; paradox—that despite an overall States are all taught by highly
OECD, 1994, 2005; Wang, et al., overproduction and oversupply of qualified teachers. In addition to, or
2003). Even in nations where new teachers, there nevertheless perhaps because of, recognition of its
students routinely score high on appear to be substantial numbers of importance, the issue of teacher
international exams, the issue of students without access to qualified quality also is a source of debate and
teacher quality is the subject of much teachers. disagreement in many nations.
concern. This is not surprising. Such concern has resulted in a Perhaps nowhere is this debate
Elementary and secondary schooling steady stream of commissions, more pronounced and more divisive
is mandatory in almost all nations reports, and studies all targeting than in the United States. In recent
and children are legally placed in the teacher quality as one of the central years, the quality of elementary and
care of teachers for a significant problems facing school systems. In secondary teachers and teaching has
portion of their lives. It is widely many nations this concern has been widely criticized in the United
believed that the quality of teachers resulted in new legislation and policy. States, both by those inside and
and teaching are among the most Foremost among these have been outside the educational sector (e.g.,
important factors shaping the widespread efforts to increase the Levine, 2006). However, while there
learning and growth of students. entry standards and preparation is widespread agreement that teacher
Moreover, this impact goes beyond requirements for teachers. Hong quality is a problem in the United
student academic achievement. Kong, for instance, initiated in 1997 States, there is little consensus and
Across the world, observers routinely an “all graduate, all trained” policy much disagreement, often
tie the performance of teachers to requiring new primary- and acrimonious, in regard to the sources
numerous, larger societal goals and secondary-school teachers to have and reasons behind the purportedly
problems—economic bachelor’s degrees and to be low quality of teaching in American
competitiveness and productivity, professionally trained. In Japan there schools and, hence, the best strategies
juvenile delinquency, moral and civic has been an active reform movement to improve teacher quality.
culture, and so on. In addition, the to increase teacher preparation One of the most prominent
largest single component of the cost requirements and increase evaluation viewpoints in this debate holds that
of education in any country typically and accountability of teachers. In the the problem of low-quality teaching
is teacher compensation. Along with United States this concern surfaced can be traced to inadequate and

insufficient pre-employment training requirements. These regulations, they biased, or because they screen out
and licensing or certification of charge, are motivated less by an otherwise worthwhile candidates who
prospective teachers. In this view, the interest in protecting the public and are unable to pass over particular
preparation of teachers in college or more by a desire to protect the hurdles because of an underprivileged
university teacher education interests of those in the occupation. background (e.g., Villegas & Lucas,
programs, and government As a result, this view holds, large 2004).
certification standards, all too often numbers of high-quality candidates Proponents of variants of the de-
lack adequate rigor, breadth and are discouraged from getting into the regulation perspective have pushed a
depth, resulting in high levels of occupation. By doing away with range of initiatives, most of which
underqualified teachers and low these regulatory impediments, this involve a loosening of the traditional
student performance. Accordingly, argument concludes, schools could occupational entry gates. Among the
the solution, from this viewpoint, lies finally recruit the kinds and numbers most widespread of these reforms are
in making the entry and training of candidates they deem best and this alternative certification programs,
requirements for teaching more would solve the quality problems whereby college graduates can
restrictive, deeper and more rigorous. that plague teaching. postpone formal education training,
The examples this view looks to There are different variants of obtain an emergency teaching
emulate are the traditional higher this deregulation perspective. One of certificate, and begin teaching
prestige professions, such as the more popular variants favors a immediately. It is important to note
medicine, academia and law. To this training model analogous to that that proponents of these deregulation
group, the surest way to upgrade the utilized for entrance to post- reforms claim the same rationale as
quality of teaching is to upgrade the secondary academic careers. The pre- proponents of upgrading existing
qualifications standards required of employment preparation of entry standards and programs—the
new teachers (see, e.g., National professors in the United States enhanced recruitment of high-quality
Commission on Teaching and usually includes little formal training candidates into teaching.
America’s Future 1996, 1997). Low- in pedagogical and instructional Because this debate is highly
level standards and requirements for methods. Similarly, from this politicized and often acrimonious in
entry into teaching have long been viewpoint, having an academic or the United States, advocates of one
considered a factor maintaining subject-matter degree in a subject is side or another are prone to
teaching as a low-status occupation sufficient to be a qualified school exaggerated claims and counter-
and having a low level of teacher in that subject. Content or claims–making it difficult for neutral
professionalization. subject knowledge—knowing what observers and policymakers to
On the other side of this debate to teach—is considered of primary separate rhetoric from reality. One
are those who argue for deregulating importance for a qualified teacher. way to shed light is to place such
entry into teaching. This viewpoint Formal professional training in debates and claims in context, and
also holds that the quality of teacher pedagogical and methodological one useful context is cross-
education and certification is poor. knowledge and skills—knowing how occupational. How does teaching, its
But, rather than increasing to teach—is considered less necessary entry requirements, and their value
requirements, this opposing view or even irrelevant (e.g., Finn, et al., compare to those in other lines of
holds that entry into the teaching 1999). work?
occupation already is plagued by Another variant of the In the United States, teaching as
unusually restrictive and deregulation perspective is motivated an occupation has an unusually
unnecessarily rigid bureaucratic entry by concern for the demographic ambivalent character. Compared with
barriers (e.g., Finn, et al., 1999; diversity of the elementary and other occupations and professions,
Hanushek & Rivkin, 2004; Ballou, secondary teaching force. From this teaching is relatively complex work,
1996). From this viewpoint, viewpoint, teaching’s entry with relatively low pre-employment
traditional teacher preparation and requirements have resulted in entry requirements, but nevertheless
state certification requirements, in reduced numbers of candidates from with relatively high scrutiny and
particular, are akin to monopolistic minority racial or ethnic groups skepticism of the requirements that
practices. These critics argue that entering the occupation, either do exist.
there is no solid empirical research because the requirements are Among those who study work,
documenting the value of such entry themselves racially or ethnically organizations and occupations in

general, teaching has traditionally skepticism and evaluation than for teacher performance. Typically such
been classified as a relatively complex other lines of work. For most studies try to assess the relationship
form of work, characterized by occupations and professions there has between various measures of teacher
uncertainty, intangibility and been little, if any, empirical research preparation and various measures of
ambiguity and requiring a high a done assessing the value-added of student performance (for an earlier
degree of initiative, thought, practitioners having a particular review see, e.g., Murnane & Raizen,
judgment and skill to do well (e.g., credential, license or certification 1988). And, contrary to the skeptics,
Bidwell, 1965; Lortie, 1975; Cohen, (Kane, 1994; American Educational a number of studies have indeed
Raudenbush, & Ball 2003). For Research Association/American found teacher education and
example, in a classic comparative Psychological Association/National preparation, of one sort or another,
study of a number of occupations, Council on Measurement in to be significantly related to increases
Kohn and Schooler (p. 68, 1983) Education, 1999). Such research can in student achievement. This is a
concluded that secondary teaching be difficult to undertake; if licensure telling finding given the widespread
involved greater substantive is mandatory in an occupation, it is criticism from both insiders and
complexity than the work of impossible to compare the outsiders that teacher education is of
accountants, salespersons, machinists, performance of those licensed with low quality in the United States. For
managers and officials in service those who are unlicensed. example, in a review of 60 empirical
industries and in the retail trade. Nevertheless, occupational entry studies on the effects of teacher
Despite its complexity, from a requirements, whether enforced by education, Greenwald, Hedges, and
cross-occupational perspective, precedent or by law, are common. Laine (1996) concluded that
teaching has long been characterized Indeed, it is illegal to do many lines teachers’ degree levels consistently
as an easy-entry occupation. of work, from plumbing and showed “very strong relations with
Compared with other occupations hairstyling to law and medicine, student achievement ...” in “a wide
and with the traditional professions without a license. For example, variety of studies over a three decade
in particular, teaching has a relatively almost all universities and colleges in period” (pp. 284-285). Some studies
low entry bar, and a relatively wide the United States require a doctorate have looked closely at the amount
entry gate (Etzioni, 1969; Lortie, degree for full-time professorial and effects of subject-specific teacher
1975; Ingersoll, 2001). Indeed, positions. There is, of course, a education. For example, in a
teaching is unusual in the United growing secondary labor market in multilevel analysis of data from the
States in that most of those who academia in which those without 1992 National Assessment of
desire to enter the occupation are free doctoral degrees are hired for various Educational Performance (NAEP),
to do so–individuals choose the instructional or research positions, Raudenbush, Fotiu, and Cheong
occupation, not vice versa. In usually as nonpermanent (1999) found teacher education in
contrast, the opposite prevails in employment. However, there are very mathematics (as measured by a major
many occupations and most few examples of a “professor effects” in math or in math education) to be
traditional professions, such as law, literature examining whether “consistently positively and highly
medicine, engineering, architecture, professors’ qualifications have a significantly related to math
dentistry, and academia. Especially in positive effect on outcomes, such as proficiency” in eighth-grade students.
the latter career fields, entry is highly student achievement, or on research Similarly, a recent analysis of 2000
selective, occupational gatekeepers quality (e.g., Pascarella & Terenzini, NAEP data found that eighth-grade
have a large say in choosing new 1991). In other words, in most students whose math teachers had a
members and not all who desire to occupations and professions in the regular teaching certificate in math,
enter succeed in doing so. Hence, United States, it typically is taken as or had a major or minor in math or
placed in this context, entry to a given that particular credentials are math education scored significantly
teaching does not appear especially necessary to practice particular kinds higher on the eighth-grade math test
restrictive or burdensome. of work. (Greenberg, Rhodes, Ye, &
Finally, although teaching’s entry In contrast, there is an extensive Stancavage, 2004).
training and licensing requirements body of empirical research, going Accurately isolating and
are lower than those for many other back decades, devoted to evaluating capturing the effects of teacher’s
lines of work in the United States, the effects of elementary and qualifications on their students’
they are subject to far more secondary teacher qualifications on achievement is difficult, however, and

not surprisingly, the results of such at the University of Pennsylvania wide range, providing useful
research are, at times, mixed and since 1993 and directed by Susan contrasts. On one end of the range
contradictory. Moreover, there also Fuhrman. lies Singapore, a small city-state with
are large gaps in this research (for a The selection of the seven about 500,000 students enrolled in
recent review, see Allen, 2003), systems in this study was not a result 360 elementary and secondary
further fueling the ongoing debate of any particular analytic strategy; schools. On the other end lies China,
and fostering a large interest in their participation was simply a with over 212 million students
further pursuit of this line of function of their membership in the enrolled in 485,000 elementary and
research. But, placed in a cross- existing Eight Nations consortium. secondary schools. Our seven systems
occupational context, the mixed and However, the seven educational also represent a wide range in terms
limited quality of research systems in our study do represent a of international student performance
documenting the value of entry
requirements for teaching is not Table 1
unusual; what is unusual is the Average Mathematics and Science Achievement of Eighth-Grade Students for
existence of any such empirical Nations Participating in the Third International Math and Science Study, 19991
research at all.
Mathematics Science
While perhaps more extreme and
Nation Score Nation Score
visible in the United States than
Singapore 604 Chinese Taipei 569
other nations, similar concerns and Korea, Republic of 587 Singapore 568
debates have been occurring across Chinese Taipei 585 Hungary 552
the world. Hence, besides adopting a Hong Kong SAR 582 Japan 550
cross-occupational perspective, Japan 579 Korea, Republic of 549
another way to shed light and place Belgium-Flemish 558 Netherlands 545
Netherlands 540 Australia 540
such debates and issues in context is Slovak Republic 534 Czech Republic 539
through cross-national comparisons. Hungary 532 England 538
Policy research can provide a useful Canada 531 Finland 535
function by comparing teaching’s Slovenia 530 Slovak Republic 535
entry and training requirements Russian Federation 526 Belgium-Flemish 535
Australia 525 Slovenia 533
among different countries. How do
Finland 520 Canada 533
the qualifications of teachers differ Czech Republic 520 Hong Kong SAR 530
between nations? This is the subject Malaysia 519 Russian Federation 529
of this study. Bulgaria 511 Bulgaria 518
Latvia 505 United States 515
United States 502 New Zealand 510
England 496 Latvia 503
The Research Project New Zealand 491 Italy 493
Lithuania 482 Malaysia 492
The objective of this report is to Italy 479 Lithuania 488
present the results from a Cyprus 476 Thailand 482
collaborative, comparative study that Romania .472 Romania 472
Thailand 467 Israel 468
sought to address some of the above
Israel 466 Cyprus 460
issues by examining the preparation Tunisia 448 Jordan 450
and qualifications of elementary and Turkey 429 Iran, Islamic Republic of 448
secondary teachers in six nations and Jordan 428 Indonesia 435
one autonomous region: China, Iran, Islamic Republic of 422 Turkey 433
Hong Kong , Japan, South Korea, Indonesia 403 Tunisia 430
Chile 392 Chile 420
Singapore, Thailand, and the United Philippines 345 Philippines 3.45
States. This project was begun in Morocco 337 Morocco 323
2003 under the auspices of the larger South Africa 275 South Africa 243
Eight Nations Educational Research Average of 38 nations 487 Average of 38 nations 488
Program, a consortium devoted to
comparative education research based
1
Mullis et al., 2000.

assessments. Students from a number Thailand. study addressed this overarching issue
of the Asian systems in our study, Team members met four times in by examining comparative data from
such as Singapore, Japan, Korea, and the course of this project. A first each of the seven educational systems
Hong Kong, typically perform well meeting was held in Philadelphia, on three specific sets of research
above average on most international sponsored by the University of questions:
assessments in math, science and Pennsylvania, in November, 2003. A
reading literacy. In contrast, students second meeting was held in 1.) What are the Preparation
from Thailand often perform below Shanghai, sponsored by the East Requirements and Standards to
average on international assessments China Normal University, in June, Become a Teacher?
in math and science. For instance, as 2004. A third meeting was held in In each system, what are the
shown in Table 1, data from the Tokyo, sponsored by the requirements to become a teacher
Third International Math Science International Christian University, in and do they differ according to grade
Study (TIMSS) on eighth-grade March, 2005. A fourth meeting was level? Do candidates need to
science and math student held in Bangkok, sponsored by the complete both educational and
performance indicate four of our Thai Ministry of Education, in professional preparation
systems (Japan, Singapore, Hong November, 2005. Meetings focused requirements? The former refers to
Kong, and Korea) are well above on determining the project the general level of post-secondary
average, while Thailand is below objectives, defining common education—the courses and
average. U.S. students typically measures and methods, and working degrees—required of teaching
perform slightly above average. But, out the all important issues of data candidates. The latter refers to
there are exceptions to the latter. For and indicator comparability. Data occupation-specific or professional
instance, in the Progress in collection, analysis and writing for preparation and training
International Reading Literacy Study, each system proceeded throughout requirements–the subject
fourth-grade American students the entire project. coursework, pedagogical coursework,
perform better than students in Unlike other recent cross-national practice teaching, and tests–for those
almost all of the other 34 nations teacher studies, this project adopted a entering teaching. Are teachers
tested, including Hong Kong and relatively specific focus on one key normally required to have completed
Singapore (Mullis, et al., 2003). issue linked to the performance and a baccalaureate degree? Are teachers
Our study was undertaken by a quality of teachers—the normally required to obtain some
team of scholars and senior education qualifications and preparation of kind of government-issued teaching
officials. Members of the project teachers. Our objective was not to certificate or license? What are the
team were Richard Ingersoll and assess or to evaluate the links criteria and requirements to obtain a
Rebecca Maynard of the University between teacher qualifications, certificate or license? Is some kind of
of Pennsylvania in the United States; teaching quality, and student testing of prospective teachers
Ding Gang of East China Normal achievement. We did not seek to involved? What level of government
University in Shanghai, China; Kwok prove that the qualifications required decides on the pre-employment
Chan Lai of the Hong Kong Institute of teachers in any system are, or are education and training requirements
of Education; Hidenori Fujita of the not, beneficial or do, or do not, add for elementary-level and secondary-
International Christian University in value. Our study began with the level teachers? Is decision-making for
Tokyo, Japan; Ee-gyeong Kim of the premise, widely shared among the each educational system, in general,
Korean Educational Development nations involved, that teacher and for teacher policy, in particular,
Institute, Seoul, Korea; Steven Tan qualifications are important. But, we centralized or decentralized? How
and Angela F. L. Wong of the did not presume a particular many teacher preparation institutions
National Institute of Education, definition of a qualified teacher. Our are there in each system?
Nanyang Technological University, objective was to compare how each Regardless of such formal
Singapore, Ong Kong Hong, of the system itself defines teacher requirements, how selective and
Ministry of Education in Singapore; qualifications and standards and then competitive is entry into the teaching
Pruet Siribanpitak of Chulalongkorn to address the question: how well are occupation in each system? How
University in Bangkok, Thailand and the different educational systems does the caliber and ability of those
Siriporn Boonyananta of the Office succeeding in ensuring all students entering teaching compare to those
of The Education Council in are taught by qualified teachers? The preparing for, or entering, other

fields? How attractive is the job and one possible source of underqualified Data and Methods
career of teaching compared to other teachers is the practice of out-of-field
careers in each nation? teaching or misassignment—teachers Our study addressed the above sets of
assigned to teach subjects that do not research questions by collecting
2.) What are the Levels of match their fields of preparation comparative data from each of the
Qualifications of the Current (Ingersoll, 1999). This is a crucial seven educational systems. We
Teaching Force? factor because highly qualified focused on elementary and secondary
What proportion of the existing teachers may actually become highly level teachers from both public and
teaching force is qualified, that is, unqualified if, once on the job, they private schools. Briefly, the data
what portion meets the above are assigned to teach subjects for sources for each system were:
described requirements and which they have little background. China: China Education Yearbook
standards? Is there a gap between the Teachers prepared, for example, in 2005 and Educational Statistics
rule and the reality? What proportion social studies may be unlikely to have Yearbook of China 2004.
of the teaching force holds a a solid understanding of math or The former is annually edited
baccalaureate degree? What how to teach it. and issued by the Ministry of
proportion holds a graduate-level Our study tried to obtain data on Education, and the latter is issued by
degree, such as a master’s degree or levels of out-of-field teaching in each the Department of Development and
higher? What proportion holds a system and the extent to which these Planning of the Ministry of
teaching certificate or license or the levels vary among different kinds of Education. The data on teachers’
equivalent? schools. In which educational qualifications were drawn from
In addition, we were interested in systems does this problem exist? Are school administrative records of all
understanding differences, inequities there differences, inequities and gaps teachers in the nation.
and gaps in teacher qualifications in out-of-field teaching within and Hong Kong: Statistics on Primary
within and across the educational across the educational systems? Are and Secondary School Teachers,
systems. Specifically, we sought to there cross-school differences in the 2004/05 published by the Education
answer these questions: Are there proportions of classes taught by and Manpower Bureau of Hong
differences in the proportions of teachers not holding qualifications in Kong. Teacher statistics are collected
teachers holding the above the field taught? Are classes in yearly by the government through a
qualifications across different kinds higher-poverty schools more likely to Web-based e-services system through
of schools in each system? Is there a be taught by underqualified teachers schools to all 50,000 primary and
maldistribution of qualified teachers? than classes in lower-poverty schools? secondary teachers.
Do teachers in schools serving Are there differences according to Japan: The data on teachers’
higher-poverty or low income whether the school is urban, rural or qualifications were drawn from
communities have fewer suburban? Finally, what are the school administrative records
qualifications than teachers in schools reasons for out-of-field teaching in compiled in 2004 by the Ministry of
in lower-poverty or higher-income these systems? Why do some teachers Education. The data on out-of-field
areas? Do teachers in elementary end up teaching subjects for which teaching are drawn from the
schools have fewer qualifications than they have little background administrative records compiled for
teachers in secondary schools? Do preparation? Nigata Prefecture by its Board of
teachers in urban or rural schools Education. (Japan has 47 prefectures,
have fewer qualifications than Our objective was to compare which are the equivalent of states.)
teachers in suburban schools? each educational system using these Korea: The data on teachers’
three sets of data indicators to qualifications were drawn from the
3.) What Proportions of Teachers are understand each system’s standards 2005 Annual Report on Educational
Not Qualified in the Subjects They for teacher preparation and how well Statistics. This annual compilation of
Teach? each system is succeeding in school administrative records is
Do schools in each system have achieving a qualified teaching force issued by the Korean Educational
difficulties ensuring that all and in ensuring all students are Development Institute and based on
classrooms are staffed with teachers taught by qualified teachers. data collected by the Ministry of
qualified in the actual subject taught? Education and Human Resources
Along with inadequate preparation, Development. The data on out-of-

field teaching were obtained by a For our set of questions on out-
2005 survey questionnaire sent to a of-field teaching, our project team Below, this chapter summarizes
nationally representative stratified encountered serious difficulties in the results from the study as a whole.
sample of 2,000 secondary school obtaining measures that were defined Following this overview chapter,
teachers. The response rate was in a sufficiently similar manner to there are separate chapters for each of
71.2%. make reasonable comparisons across the seven educational systems. The
Singapore: Data on teachers are systems. Hence, the data presented latter chapters provide more detailed
derived from the Education Statistics here on out-of-field teaching must be presentations on teacher preparation
Digest 2006. These data are compiled interpreted with caution. Previous and qualifications in each system and
by the Management Information and studies have used a number of more detailed information on the
Research Branch, Planning Division, different measures of out-of-field data sources and methods.
Ministry of Education and published teaching, representing a range of
in July each year. The data on definitions and standards (Ingersoll,
teachers’ qualifications were drawn 1999). Some measures focus on Teacher Preparation
from school administrative records. whether teachers have a teaching Requirements and Standards
Thailand: The data on teachers’ certificate in the fields they teach;
qualifications were drawn from others focus on whether teachers Governance
school administrative records have an undergraduate or graduate In our study we found that decision-
compiled by the Office of Basic degree. Measures of out-of-field making and governance for our
Education Commission of the teaching also vary according to educational systems, in general, and
Ministry of Education in academic whether they choose to focus on the for teacher policy, in particular, are
year 2004. The data on out-of-field numbers of teachers out of field or highly centralized. In all but one of
teaching were from a 2004 survey of the numbers of students exposed, the seven systems in this study, the
officials in the 175 local education according to which fields and central or national government sets,
service agencies in Thailand subjects are examined, how those oversees and implements
conducted by the Office of the fields are defined and also according qualifications and preparation
Education Council of the Ministry of to which grade levels are investigated. standards for the teaching occupation
Education. The latter data for public Our measures focus on teachers (also see OECD, 1995, 1998).
schools were collected from 64% of at the secondary level (grades 7-12 The exception to this
the local service agencies; the data for grades) who were departmentalized, centralization of teacher policy and
private schools were collected from that is, they teach the same subjects governance is the United States,
37% of the local service agencies. to different classes of students, rather though there has been a steady
United States: The data come than multiple subjects to the same increase of federal involvement in
from the nationally representative students throughout the day. education over the past half century.
Schools and Staffing Survey (SASS) Moreover, we focus only on those This culminated in the 2002 No
conducted by the National Center teaching the four core academic Child Left Behind Act–the largest
for Education Statistics, the statistical subjects—first language, and most comprehensive federal
arm of the U.S. Department of mathematics, science, and social educational reform effort to
Education. This is the largest and studies/social science. date.This trend toward centralization
most comprehensive source of and consistency clashes with a
information and data on teachers in We used two measures: historic tradition of decentralization
the United States. The SASS data are and local control of education and as
collected from random samples • Percentage of secondary-level a result, the education system in the
stratified by state, sector, and school (grades 7-12) teachers in four core United States is in a state of flux.
level. SASS is a large survey; in each fields without an undergraduate or Nevertheless, and despite these
cycle the sample sizes are about 5,000 graduate major in the field. changes, the U.S. educational system
school districts, 11,000 schools and remains in many ways relatively
52,000 teachers. Data on teachers’ • Percentage of secondary-level decentralized compared with other
qualifications were collected in 2003- (grades 7-12) teachers in four core nations. It is, for example, the
04; data on out-of-field teaching fields without a full teaching responsibility of each of the 50
were collected in 1999-2000. certificate or license in the field. individual states to regulate entry

into the teaching occupation in their teacher policy and has one teacher Education Requirements
respective state school systems, and training institution that produces
the states have retained wide latitude virtually all of Singapore’s teachers. All of the educational systems,
in how they interpret and implement Although vastly larger, China also has regardless of their degree of
the teacher quality regulations of the a highly centralized system that centralization, require prospective
central government. As a result, the dominates teacher-policy decision- teachers to complete both
scope and content of the making across the nation, with the educational and professional
requirements to become a teacher exception of Hong Kong. As noted preparation requirements.
vary widely among the states. above, Hong Kong is considered a On the issue of education
Like the United States, most of special semi-autonomous region in requirements, a four-year bachelor’s
the Asian nations have three or four China and has its own internally or undergraduate degree is typically
tiers of educational governance— centralized educational system. the standard for all of the systems.
national, regional, local and school The number of teacher-training But, the different systems vary both
levels—but in those countries, unlike schools, colleges or institutions in within and across as to the level and
the United States, the national each system is telling: Singapore has years of education required, as shown
government dominates teacher-policy one; Hong Kong has four; Thailand in the column in Table 2 on minimal
decision-making. As a result, the has 56, Korea has 381, China has years of post-secondary education. In
scope and content of official 618, Japan has 850. The United Hong Kong, teachers can gain entry
governmental requirements to States stands out with the highest— with the equivalent of a two-year
becoming a teacher are highly 1,206—almost double that of China, sub- or associate degree. In two
consistent across regions and despite having about one quarter the systems–China and Singapore—the
localities within each system. At one students. education required of elementary
end lies Singapore with a central teachers is lower than that for
Ministry of Education that sets all secondary teachers–although in both
Table 2
Teacher Preparation Requirements and Standards, by System.*
Educational Qualifications Professional Qualifications

High Associate or Bachelor’s Minimum Subject-Area Certification Test Training
School Sub-Degree Degree Years Post- and and/or or Exam During
Diploma Secondary Pedagogy License or After
Education Degree
China
Elementary X 0 X X X Both
L. Secondary X 2 X X X Both
U. Secondary X 4 X X X Both
Hong Kong
Elementary X 2-4 X Both
Secondary X 2-3 X Both
Japan
Elementary X 4 X X X* Both
Secondary X 4 X X X* Both
Korea
Elementary X 4 X X X* During
Secondary X 4 X X X* Both
Singapore
Elementary X 2 X X Both
Secondary X 4+1 X X Both
Thailand
Elementary X 4+1, 5 X X X* Both
Secondary X 4+1, 5 X X X* Both
United States
Elementary X 4 X X X Both
Secondary X 4 X X X Both
 * Test or exam not required for license,

but upon employment
of these systems there is movement only two systems—the United States the 50 individual states have leeway
to bring elementary teachers up to and Hong Kong—have what is in the means by which teachers can
par with secondary teachers. For referred to as alternative certification establish “competency” in a subject.
instance, in China a high school routes into teaching, where For example, some states require tests
diploma is the minimum level candidates are not required to have of prospective teachers while others
necessary to enter elementary completed professional preparation do not, and the contents of tests vary,
teaching, while upper secondary prior to employment, and where, for as do the minimum scores necessary
teachers must have a four-year college instance, the uncertified can begin to pass. Moreover, the federal
degree. In Singapore an elementary- teaching before or during their requirements do not apply to
level teacher can gain entry with the preparation and training. teachers employed in private schools
equivalent of a two-year sub- or All of the systems, with the and some states themselves do not
associate degree, while at the exception of Hong Kong, require require teachers in the private sector
secondary-level, Singapore requires candidates to obtain a government- to hold a state license or certificate.
teachers to complete a five-year issued certificate or license signifying However, as will be shown later in
program that includes a bachelor’s that a candidate has completed the chapter on the United States, the
degree plus a year of further required professional preparation and majority of teachers in private
coursework. In contrast, the other training. Interestingly, in all systems schools do in fact hold a regular
systems have similar degree standards the professional preparation teaching certificate. This is an
for elementary and secondary. For requirements include both subject- instance, as in Hong Kong, where
instance, a five-year program is the matter and pedagogical the reality exceeds the rule; that is,
standard in Thailand for both preparation—expertise in both the the level of preparation of the
elementary and secondary teachers. “what” and the “how” of teaching— teaching force is above the official
In the United States, teachers at both is required. In all of the systems, minimum required (more on this
levels are required to hold a professional preparation includes a point in a later section).
bachelor’s degree. period in the field of supervised
practice or student teaching prior to
employment. As a result, in none of Selectivity of Programs,
Professional Training these systems do the rules stipulate Caliber of Candidates and
Requirements that those with only a subject-matter Attractiveness of Careers
degree (e.g., a degree in mathematics)
Beyond basic levels of education are qualified to teach. Also, all of the Listing the educational and
required, all of the systems have systems with the exception of Hong professional requirements to become
professional, or occupation-specific, Kong and Singapore require some a teacher does not tell us a great deal
requirements to enter teaching. Each kind of exam or test for prospective of the rigor of these requirements,
educational system has different teachers. In some systems, these tests nor of the quality of these
variations in the sequencing and are administered as part of a teacher- qualifications. Hence, our team
organization of its professional preparation program; in others, they examined data, where available, on
preparation. One variation merges are administered by the school upon the selectivity and competitiveness of
professional preparation and licensing employment. entry, on the relative caliber and
within a bachelor degree program; Again, because of its unusually ability of those who enter teaching,
hence, educational and professional decentralized character, there is some and on the attractiveness, status and
preparation are completed cross-state variation in these patterns prestige accorded to teaching
concurrently. Another variation in the United States. The No Child compared to other occupations. In
separates the two; the degree is Left Behind Act requires that all some cases our data sources were not
completed first, with the professional teachers be “highly qualified.” The highly comparable in the measures
preparation and certification latter is defined as someone who has and metrics used and, hence, our
subsequent. In the United States, the a bachelor’s degree, who holds a conclusions are limited. But in
latter is referred to as a “fifth-year regular or full state-approved general we found that the different
program”—a post-baccalaureate one- teaching certificate or license and educational systems varied
year teacher-preparation program who is competent in each of the dramatically in these areas.
leading to a teaching certificate. But academic subjects they teach. But, In the United States the

requirements to become an then elementary teachers, followed by attractive occupation. Although there
elementary or secondary-level teacher secondary-level teachers, and finally have been efforts to upgrade teacher
have never been considered especially far above are those who teach in salaries, they have been low when
rigorous, and teaching has long been post-secondary institutions – compared with professions—about
characterized as a relatively non- professors (Ingersoll, 2001). 25% of physicians’ and engineers’
competitive, easy-in occupation. salaries. It is common in Thailand for
Compared with other occupations in Many Asian nations have a teachers to work extra part-time jobs,
the United States and, in particular tradition of respect for teachers. resulting in inadequate attention to
with high-status professions, teaching However, like the United States their teaching. As a result, among
has a relatively low entry “bar” and a many Asian systems have a status many of those enrolled in teacher
relatively wide entry “gate” (Lortie, hierarchy within teaching, with education institutions in Thailand,
1975). As measured by college- elementary teachers at the low end, teaching is a second career choice.
entrance examination scores, those followed by secondary-level teachers, In Korea, teaching is a relatively
entering teaching in the United and professors at the high end. In sought-after occupation because of its
States tend to be in the average to Singapore, teacher-education job security and its high social status
low range compared with other students are among the top third in standing. Relatively competitive
college graduates (Henke, Chen, & the nation academically. Relatively individuals aspire to enter teaching
Geis, 2000). To facilitate entry, the high salaries, comprehensive training, and the rate of teacher turnover is
states early in the last century created and full pay while undergoing very low because most teachers
large numbers of low-cost, dispersed, training all make teaching an remain in teaching until the point of
and nonrigorous teacher-training attractive career option in Singapore. retirement. In Japan, teaching is an
institutions and colleges. Ease of In Hong Kong, teaching is ranked attractive option to college students,
access remains the case; as the data relatively high in occupational stature is relatively well paid, enjoys respect,
reported earlier show, the United by senior-secondary school job autonomy, and a collaborative
States has far more teacher training students—above accountants, community with colleagues that
institutions than any of the other engineers, scientists, doctors and affords chances to grow and develop
nations in this study. artists (Lai, et al., 2005). However, as educators. Not surprisingly,
Moreover, compared with the the quality of new entrants to turnover and quit rates have
more prestigious traditional teaching has been a matter of traditionally been low.
professions, teaching has been concern in the Hong Kong. The But in Japan and Korea as in the
considered a less attractive and less occupation does not attract United States, teachers have come
desirable line of work. This has been candidates with the highest academic under increasing criticism in recent
especially true for males; the majority achievement; the examination grades years (Fujita, 2000a; Ingersoll, 2003).
of teachers are female. Historically of new students admitted to teacher A recent study of teachers’
female-dominated occupations have education programs in the comparative status in Japan, China
tended to have less prestige, lower comprehensive universities generally and the United Kingdom revealed
pay and less authority (Hodson & are lower than those admitted to that an overwhelming majority of
Sullivan, 1995). Teachers rank in the other disciplines (University of Hong teachers perceived their authority to
middle range in surveys of Kong, 2007). be in decline. Moreover, less than
occupational prestige, well below In China, teachers also rank half of teachers in Japan reported
traditional higher-status relatively high in surveys of they enjoyed “high social status.”
professionals, such as physicians, occupational prestige—above, for This was far higher than in the
scientists, engineers, architects, example, fashion designers, corporate United Kingdom where only 17%
dentists and attorneys, and well managers and mid-level military reported this, but far lower than
above blue collar occupations such officers (Li, et al., 2004). However, China, where fully 70% of teachers
as, police, barbers, bakers, plumbers because teachers’ salaries are low in reported high social status (Fujita,
and carpenters. There also is a China relative to other occupations, 2006).
striking status hierarchy within the and especially low in rural areas, the
realm of teaching itself, broadly occupation is not as attractive as
defined. At the low end are pre- some others. In Thailand, teaching is
school and kindergarten teachers, not considered to be an especially

Table 3
PERCENT School Teachers, by Highest Degree Earned, and by Teaching Certificate, by System.
Educational Qualifications Professional Qualifications Both Bachelor’s
Less than Bachelor’s Master’s No Less-than Full Degree and Full
Bachelor’s Degree Degree or Cerifiication Full Certification Certification
Degree Higher Certification
China
Elementary 95 5 0 0 2 98 5
L. Secondary 71 29 .2 0 6 94 29
U. Secondary 21 79 1 0 20 80 80
Hong Kong
Elementary 27 73 7 5 0 95 70
Secondary 8 92 25 5 0 95 88
Japan
Elementary 15 82 3 0 15 85 85
Secondary 3 82 15 0 3 97 97
Korea
Elementary 14 70 16 0 0 100 86
Secondary .5 70 29 0 0 100 99
Singapore
Elementary 52 46 2 0 0 100 48
Secondary 11 82 7 0 0 100 89
Thailand
Elementary 8 88 4 0 8 92 92
Secondary 2 65 33 0 2 98 98
United States
Elementary 1 54 44 4 6 89 89
Secondary 3 49 49 5 8 87 85
The Qualifications of the higher. Moreover, in Hong Kong the uncertified teachers, especially in
Teaching Force majority of teachers hold a teaching schools serving low-income, high-
certificate, even though this is not poverty communities.
Interestingly, the actual levels of required by law. There appear to be For most of the seven systems,
education and professional training at least two incentives behind these there is an elementary-secondary gap
of the teaching force in each system high levels–credential-based salary in teachers’ qualifications, parallel to
are not necessarily predicted by incentives for teachers, and societal the elementary-secondary gap in
official standards. (see Table 3) In a expectations and pressures on school standards, as discussed in the
number of systems, such as China, administrators to hire university previous section. Elementary teachers
the official rules exceed the reality. graduates, even if they cost more. often are less likely to hold a
Sometimes, this results because In the United States, reality baccalaureate degree or a master’s
veteran teachers who were qualified exceeds the rule in some cases. degree than are secondary teachers.
at the time they first entered the Moreover, in other cases, it exceeds In contrast, at the secondary level in
classroom, do not meet newly the rhetoric. As mentioned earlier, most of the systems, at least 90% of
upgraded standards. the majority of teachers in private the teachers hold a bachelor’s degree.
On the other hand, in Hong schools hold a teaching certificate, For instance, in Singapore only
Kong, reality exceeds the rule. While even though one is not necessarily 48 percent of elementary teachers
Hong Kong does not require entrants required. Moreover, over nine in 10 have a bachelor’s degree, while about
to hold a four-year baccalaureate public school teachers hold a 89% do in secondary schools. It is
degree, nevertheless most employed teaching certificate, even though the important to note that teachers in
teachers do so. Sixty-six percent of conventional wisdom, trumpeted by Singapore who do not have
elementary and 90% of secondary the media and school reformers, is bachelor’s degrees nevertheless are
teachers hold a bachelor’s degree or that there are significant numbers of required to undertake substantial

pedagogical training and content who hold a certificate and a higher United States. For example, as shown
coursework in their teaching subjects. degree. These data are displayed in in Table 4, over one third of all those
In China, there are large proportions the relevant chapters. who teach secondary-school
of teachers, even at the lower While providing a useful portrait mathematics in the United States do
secondary level, who do not hold a of the basic education and training of not have a major in mathematics,
baccalaureate degree. the teaching forces across systems, it mathematics education, or in related
On the issue of professional also is important to acknowledge that disciplines like engineering, statistics
requirements, in all of the systems the measures of degrees and or physics. Likewise, over one third
the vast majority of teachers hold certificates illustrated in Table 3 tell of all those teaching secondary-school
regular teaching certificates or us little of the quality of these English classes do not have a major
licenses. But, again, there often is an requirements. Moreover, we do not in English or related subjects such as
elementary-secondary gap and have analogous national data on literature, communications, speech,
currently in some nations, such as other indicators of quality and journalism, English education, or
Singapore, there is a strong push to qualifications, such as teachers’ exam reading education. Twenty-nine
close the elementary-secondary or test scores. Hence, it is important percent of all those teaching
qualifications gap. Interestingly, the to recognize there may be secondary-school classes in any
gap does not always run the same inadequacies or inequities not science do not have a college major
direction. In Japan, there is a 12 revealed by our data. in any one of the sciences or in
percentage point elementary- science education. As shown by
secondary licensing gap, although comparing Tables 4 and 5, similar
this has been decreasing over time. In Teaching Assignments and proportions are found in the United
China, the elementary-secondary Out-of-Field Teaching States when looking at those without
licensing gap runs the opposite a teaching certificate in the field, as
way–elementary teachers are more Overview opposed to those without a degree.
likely than secondary teachers to hold Our study revealed dramatic Thailand and Hong Kong also
a license. differences across the educational have some problems with out-of-field
Thailand and the United States systems in the extent to which there teaching. In Thailand, abut one
represent exceptions—their data is the practice of out-of-field quarter of those teaching math, social
indicate that at both the elementary teaching—where teachers educated studies and Thai language do not
and secondary levels, most school and trained in one field are assigned hold majors in those fields. In Hong
teachers hold a baccalaureate degree, by school administrators to teach Kong, levels of out-of-field approach
many hold a master’s degree or classes in another field. those in the United States. Almost
higher, and most hold certificates. The data in Tables 4 and 5 reveal one third of those teaching math and
Indeed in each nation, elementary large differences across the systems in social science do not have a certificate
teachers actually are slightly more the percentages of teachers assigned in those fields.
likely to hold certificates. Among the to teach classes in fields that do not In contrast, there appears to be
Asian nations, Thailand also stands match their educational background. almost no out-of-field teaching at the
out for its high level of degree The problem is most severe in the secondary level in Japan. Korea also
holders at the elementary level.
For two of the systems (China,
Table 4
United States) we were able to obtain
PERCENT Secondary School Teachers in Four Academic Fields Without a Major
data on cross-school differences in in the Field Taught, by System3
some of the indicators in Table 3 to
discern if there is a poverty gap in Native Math Science Social Science/
teachers’ qualifications. The data Language Studies
from these two systems reveal distinct China NA NA NA NA
inequities in the qualifications of Hong Kong NA NA NA NA
Japan NA NA NA NA
teachers accordingly to the poverty
Korea 3 2 26 3
level of students. In each of these Singapore NA NA NA NA
systems, students in poorer schools Thailand 24 26 15 26
are less likely to be taught by teachers United States 35 38 29 30
 3
NA refers to data not available
field teaching in science in Korea;
Table 5
30% of lower secondary science
PERCENT Secondary School Teachers in Four Academic Fields Without a
Teaching Certificate or License in the Field Taught, by System.4 teachers have no certificate in
science, while this is true for only
Native Math Science Social Science/ 16% of science teachers at the upper
Language Studies secondary level. In Korea, computer-
China NA NA NA NA science teachers often are assigned to
Hong Kong 15 29 17 28 teach science.
Japan .3 1 .2 .5
It also is true in the United States
Korea 2 10 23 2
Singapore NA NA NA NA that teachers in the middle grade
Thailand NA NA NA NA levels are routinely assigned to teach
United States 29 32 29 30 classes in multiple fields. It is
4
NA refers to data not available.
common, for instance, for states to
require teachers employed in middle
schools (grades 5-8) to obtain a
has very low levels of out-of-field as those from the United States. A
generalist degree or certificate in
teaching, with one large exception– teacher with a background in
elementary education that
science. Over one fourth of those chemistry who is teaching biology or
emphasizes a broad background and
teaching science in Korea do not physics is defined as out-of-field in
does not require substantial
hold a degree in one of the sciences. Hong Kong and Korea. In contrast,
specialization in any one subject.
In the two systems (Korea, in the U.S. data, we defined a
But, once employed, many such
United States) where data comparing qualified science teacher more
teachers are assigned to teach subject-
different types of schools are available broadly; in the U.S. data, anyone
matter courses to classes of different
on out-of-field teaching, clear teaching any science is counted as
students all of most of the day, as if
inequities exist. Teachers in high- in-field if they had a degree or a
they are departmentalized secondary-
poverty schools are more likely to be certificate in any of the sciences. If
level teachers. As a result, rates of
out-of-field. Indeed, in the United we redefine a “qualified” science
out-of-field teaching are especially
States, the most glaring and teacher in the U.S. data as someone
high at the middle-grade levels in the
prominent source of inadequate with a degree in the specific
United States. However, in the U.S.
access to qualified teachers is not a scientific discipline they are teaching
data used in this analysis, we were
lack of basic education or (e.g., a chemistry teacher must have
able to focus solely on teachers
professional training of teachers, but a degree in chemistry), then our
employed in secondary schools and
rather the widespread practice of estimates of out-of-field teaching
were able to exclude seventh- and
misassignment. would sharply rise accordingly.
eighth-grade teachers employed in
Another factor in Hong Kong is
middle or elementary schools. This
the practice, especially prevalent at
exclusion was not possible in the
Reasons for Out-of-Field the middle grade levels and in lower-
Hong Kong data, hence, inflating
Teaching secondary schools, of routinely
their figures.
There appear to be a variety of assigning teachers to teach multiple
In the United States, the data
reasons for the levels of out-of-field subjects. For instance, Chinese-
indicate that out-of-field teaching to
teaching reported for these systems, language teachers often also teach
a large extent is a result of the
some having to do with how these Chinese history (in the field of social
manner in which schools are
measures are defined. studies) and science teachers often
organized and teachers are managed.
For instance, one factor teach mathematics—practices that
School-staffing decisions usually
contributing to the high levels of increase the levels of out-of-field
follow a top-down command model:
out-of-field teaching in science in teaching in social studies and
these decisions are the prerogative of
Hong Kong and Korea is the mathematics. These practices often
school administrators, and teachers
manner by which the field is are an administrative measure to
typically have little say over their
defined—a narrower and more bring about an equitable workload
assignments. School administrators
stringent definition of a qualified among teachers. This may also
face the difficult task of providing an
teacher than used in other data, such account for the high levels of out-of-
increasingly broad array of programs

with limited resources, time, budgets, they are among the largest sources of requirements and standards
and teaching staff. But, within those underqualified teachers in schools in themselves. The depth, breadth and
constraints, administrators have an the United States. rigor of college or university teacher
unusual degree of discretion, and training and preparation
there is little centralized regulation requirements and of government
over how teachers are utilized once Implications licensing and certification standards
they are hired. In this context, are possible sources of inadequacies.
administrators report that, from a This study reveals both In these cases, remedies must look to
managerial perspective, they find that commonalities and differences in the reform of institutional preparation
assigning teachers to teach out of preparation and qualifications of programs or of government licensing
their fields often is more convenient, teachers among the seven systems we requirements.
less expensive, and less time- examined. A question, reasonable to A second possible source of
consuming than the alternatives. ask, but difficult to answer, is which underqualified teachers lies in the
For example, rather than hire a approach is best? Our objective, failure of the teaching force to meet
new part-time science teacher for two however, was not to try to identify existing requirements and standards.
sections of a newly state-mandated any one approach as better than This could be for a variety of
science curriculum, an administrator another. Nor did we seek to reasons–including deficits in
may find it simpler to assign two document the necessity or value of candidates’ ability, education,
English or social-studies teachers to teacher preparation and preparation or training. Falling into
cover the science sections. When qualifications. Our objective was to this category are candidates who have
faced with a tough choice between describe the pre-employment not completed a required degree, lack
hiring an unqualified candidate for a preparation and qualifications adequate professional training, have
mathematics teacher position or standards, as well as the educational not had adequate practice teaching,
doubling the class size of one of the and professional training levels of have not obtained a certificate or
fully qualified mathematics teachers, teachers in each system. Our larger license, have not completed sufficient
a school administrator might opt for goal was to address the question: how coursework in their major area of
the former. If a full-time music well are these different educational concentration, or are unable to pass
teacher is under contract, but student systems succeeding in ensuring all required tests. Remedies must address
enrollment is sufficient to fill only students are taught by qualified the source of noncompliance with
three music classes, the principal may teachers? How can this study help the standards and the reasons for
find it both necessary and cost understand where problems may lie gaps between rule and reality. Do
effective in a given semester to assign in meeting these needs? those entering preparation
the music teacher to teach two classes Comparative educational research institutions lack the ability to meet
in English, in addition to the three can provide a useful function by the requirements? Is the problem due
classes in music, in order to employ placing educational systems in to a qualification gap where an earlier
the teacher for a regular full-time context. There are a variety of generation of veteran teachers do not
complement of five classes per possible reasons why elementary and meet newly upgraded standards?
semester. If a school has three full- secondary classrooms sometimes may Does the problem lie with the
time social-studies teachers, but not be staffed by qualified teachers. If adequacy of preparation programs
needs to offer the equivalent of 3 1/2 educational reform is to succeed in and institutions themselves? Do they
full-time positions, and also has more solving the problem of offer inadequate curricula or support
than enough full-time English underqualified teachers, it must for their students? Does the source of
teachers, one solution would be to address the major sources of the the problem lie at the point of hiring
assign one of the English teachers to problem. Misdiagnoses of the sources and employment? Do schools hire
teach both English courses and some of the problem can result in candidates who do not meet the
social-studies courses. misguided or inadequate solutions to existing standards? If so, is this
From a managerial perspective, the problem. because of an inadequate supply of
these choices may save time and Our study suggests at least three willing and able applicants at the
money for the school, and ultimately possible sources of the problem of prevailing wage, or because of
for the taxpayer. From an educational underqualified teachers. One possible inadequacies in the hiring process
perspective they are not cost-free, as cause lies in the pre-employment itself?

A third source of underqualified States has more teacher training requirements to meet such criteria. In
teaching arises in how teachers are institutions than the other systems other words, policymakers at times
utilized once on the job—the and overall entry is not especially have lowered the bar to increase
problem of misassignment or selective. Moreover, unlike most supply.
out-of-field teaching. Again, remedies other systems, prospective candidates One lesson to be gleaned is that
must address the actual source of in the United States can choose from attempts to upgrade entry
noncompliance with the standards. a range of alternative certification requirements cannot be implemented
Is the problem an inadequate supply and entry routes. Requiring unilaterally. Without also upgrading
of willing and able applicants, forcing prospective teachers to have both rewards to a commensurate level,
those doing the hiring to accept subject-matter and pedagogical such initiatives most likely will falter.
underqualified candidates? Or does expertise, as is common in the Some historians have held that
the problem lie in the way teachers, United States, also is not unusual; attempts to upgrade the caliber of
once on the job, are utilized in indeed all of the systems we studied teachers through more rigorous
schools? If, for example, regardless required both. Notably, some training and licensing standards or
of supply, many schools persist systems, such as Singapore, have more selective entry gates often
in assigning teachers to teach lower degree requirements than the resulted in decreases in male entrants
subjects that do not match their United States, especially at the to teaching, who were more attracted
qualifications, then a close elementary level. But, teaching is a to occupations with better rewards
examination of the character of far more attractive and well-paid attached to rigorous standards
human-resource management in occupation in Singapore and, as a (Strober & Tyack, 1980). A policy
schools is necessary. result, entry is highly selective and solution to the dilemma of trying to
This summary chapter closes preparation highly rigorous, without ensure sufficient supply, without
with a brief description of some such requirements. This is consistent lowering the bar, would be to
possible implications of what we have with another recent study that simultaneously upgrade the quality
found in this study relative to just compared filters and requirements and attractiveness of the job.
one of the systems, that of the embedded in the process of Another factor behind difficulties
United States. Recent teacher policy becoming a teacher in across a in ensuring that teachers meet
and debate in the United States number of countries, including standards has do with the adequacy
illustrates the importance of Australia, England, Japan, Korea, of the recruitment and hiring process
adequately understanding the source Netherlands, Hong Kong, and in some U.S. schools. Several studies
of the problem. Singapore and concluded that entry have concluded that the staffing
What counts as the optimal to teaching in the United States is problems plaguing some low-income
content and rigor of entry relatively easy (Wang, et al., 2003). districts, in particular, are exacerbated
requirements for new teachers has Regardless of the rigor and by inadequate human-resource
been a great source of contention in adequacy of entry requirements and departments and flawed hiring
the United States. On one side are standards, a second source of policies (Odden, Milanowski, &
those who argue that entry into problems is the failure of teachers to Heneman, 2007). For instance, a
teaching should be more highly meet the standards–the gap between study of four low-income urban
restricted, as in the traditional rule and reality. Policy debates in the districts in 2003 found that in each
professions. On the other side are United States have underscored the case there were more than enough
those who argue that entry into the tension between the need to qualified applicants to successfully fill
teaching occupation already is maintain adequate entry existing vacancies. But, a
plagued by unusually restrictive and requirements and the need to ensure cumbersome application process,
unnecessarily rigid bureaucratic entry an adequate incoming supply of new layers of bureaucracy, inadequate
barriers. teaching candidates, especially given customer service, poor data systems,
Compared with some other the high levels of teacher turnover. At late budget timetables, and seniority-
nations, the data reveal that entry times this dynamic results in an based teacher transfer rules all
into the teaching occupation in the apparent paradox where states undermined the ability of the
United States does not appear to be develop more rigorous licensing districts to place qualified candidates
especially restrictive, burdensome, criteria, while simultaneously passing in classrooms (New Teacher Project,
rigorous, or difficult. The United legislation that waives the 2004).

Finally, a related problem of
human-resource management is the
practice of misassignment. In
contrast to most of the other systems
in this study, the data indicate that a
major source of underqualified
teaching in the United States is the
administrative practice of out-of-field
teaching assignments. The data show
that compared with some of the
other nations in this study, this
practice is especially widespread in
the United States and especially in
those schools serving disadvantaged
communities.
Understanding the reasons
behind underqualified teaching is
important because of the
implications for solving the problem.
Most contemporary teacher-reform
initiatives in the United States, in
focusing on upgrading the training
requirements of teachers and teacher
recruitment, have overlooked the
impact of the organizational and
occupational contexts within which
teachers work. The data, however,
indicate that solutions to the
problem of underqualified teachers
also must look to how schools are
managed and how teachers are
utilized once they are on the job. In
short, recruiting thousands of new
candidates and providing them with
rigorous preparation will not solve
the problem if large numbers of
teachers receive assignments for
which they are not prepared.

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
CHAPTER 2
The Qualifications of the Teaching
Force in China
Ding Gang and Sun Meilu
East China Normal University
Introduction Figure 1
China’s Formal Educational System and Institutions
Governance of education is highly
centralized in China. Traditionally,
INSTITUTIONS FOR
the provision of education— INSTITUTIONS TEACHER
schooling—is seen as the function of PREPARATION
the national government. From 1949
22
forward, virtually all schools were
Higher Education
designated as public. With the

reforms of recent years, private Normal
20 University University
schools are permitted and their Normal Normal
opening has been encouraged. College College
College (2-year) (3-year
However, public schools still occupy plus 2-
year)
the largest proportion of all 18
educational institutions. Moreover,
Senior Sec. School
Specialized School
Vocational School
Technical School
Secondary
with regard to teacher regulation, Teachers
Senior
School
even private schools are under the
Secondary Education
strict control of the central and local

governments. 15
As Figure 1 shows, basic
education in China is structured as a Junior Sec.
Junior
School
6-3-3 system, representing six years
of primary education, three years of
12
junior-secondary and three years of
senior-secondary education. Primary
and junior-secondary education is
Primary Education
mandatory. In the category of senior-

Elementary
secondary education, besides the School
regular schools, there also are
vocational schools, technical schools
and other specialized secondary
schools. Table 1 shows the number of
schools, students, teachers by 6
educational level in 2003.
In China, three types of Kindergarten
Education
Preschool
institutions educate students to be

teachers. As Figure 1 shows, the first
3
type is known as the secondary
teachers school, which is actually a

Table 1
The central government of China
Numbers of Schools, Students, Teachers in China by Educational Level (2004)1 controls and directs teacher
Schools Students Teachers Student- education through legislation and
Teacher regulation, making basic policies,
Ratio standards and plans, setting up
Total 484,953 212,474,942 10,929,021 19.4 : 1 special funds and projects, etc. Under
Primary Education the central government’s direction,
Elementary schools 394,183 112,462,256 5,628,860 20.0:1 local governments have primary
Junior Secondary Education responsibility for running the teacher
Junior schools 63,060 64,750,006 3,476,784 18.6:1 education system.
Senior Secondary Education In general, the teaching force
Senior schools 15,998 22,203,701 1,190,681 18.6:1 remains undersupplied and in a state
Specialized schools 3,047 5,544,733 197,084 28.1:1 of shortage in China, especially in
Vocational schools 5,781 5,169,246 270,612 19.1:1 the western, less-developed and rural
Technical schools 2,884 2,345,000 165,000 14.2 : 1
areas. Table 1 shows that student-
1
China statistics yearbook 2004. teacher ratios in elementary, junior-
a. Schools include all the public and non-state/private schools. secondary and senior-secondary
schools are comparatively high, being
Table 2 20.0:1, 18.6:1 and 18.6:1
Numbers of Students, Graduates in China by Educational Level for Teacher respectively. As articulated in the
Preparation, 20042
national education-development
Students Graduates
Secondary Teachers School 750,362 262,085 planning objective, gross enrollment
Sub-degree 720,296 190,721 in senior-secondary education3 is to
Undergraduate 11,875,114 194,019 expand from 42.1% in 2003 to 60%
2
China education yearbook 2005.
by 2010. If that goal is achieved,
researchers estimate the gap between
demand and supply of senior-
specialized secondary school that institutions are public schools. secondary school teachers to grow to
prepares students to be teachers in Students enrolled are called normal 1.16 million (Project Team of China’s
primary and pre-school education. education students, and all of them Education and Human Resource
These schools issue a high school get special scholarships. In 2003, Development, 2002). The current
diploma. The second is the normal there were 430 secondary teachers shortage is severe, with principals and
college, which recruits graduates schools and 188 normal colleges and headmasters employing many people
from senior-secondary schools for universities. Table 2 shows the who are not very qualified to fulfill
two-year higher-education programs number of students and graduates for teaching tasks.
and also recruits graduates from teacher preparation by educational China maintains a tradition of
junior-secondary schools for three- level in 2003. holding teachers in high regard.
year senior-secondary education plus Recently, some other education From long ago, teachers have enjoyed
two-year higher-education programs. institutions such as comprehensive relatively high occupational prestige.
The normal college is a kind of universities have been permitted to According to a survey conducted in
junior college that issues a sub- set up teacher-education courses, and Beijing in 1997-1998, primary and
degree, which documents that a individuals also can apply for the secondary teachers rank 29th in
graduate has successfully completed Teacher Qualification Certificate, prestige, above middle-level officers,
two years of higher education. regardless of which type of teaching fashion designers and corporation
Normal colleges prepare teachers for school they attended, thus making managers (Li Peilin, et al., 2004).
junior-secondary schools. The third the teacher-education system more However, teachers’ earnings are not
type is the normal university, which open. But the three types of teacher- relatively high in China, and in some
is a four-year undergraduate education institutions mentioned rural areas teachers (especially those
university that issues bachelor’s above remain the main sources of 3
Gross enrollment of senior-secondary education is the
degrees and prepares teachers for graduates for primary and secondary number of students enrolled in senior-secondary edu-
cation, as a percentage of the population in the age
senior-secondary schools. All these teaching ranks. group from 15 to 18 for this educational level.

who are substitute teachers) with language for teaching—can be that can be taught is indicated clearly
some frequency fail to receive their ranked. There are three levels, with on the certificate. And certificates
salaries in due time. This influences each level divided into two classes, so currently have no tenure limits,
the attractiveness of teaching as an there are six grades in all. The top though there is a proposal under
occupation and makes a lot of level is Class One Level One, discussion to issue certificates with
teachers quit their jobs to seek better followed by Class Two Level One, three different limits—temporary,
careers. In recent years, this situation Class One Level Two, and so on, time limited and lifelong.
has improved somewhat. with the lowest level of competency Normal education students need
being Class Two Level Three. To only to pass the Mandarin test not
Teacher Preparation pass, an entrant should attain Class the four-part professional-knowledge
Requirements and Standards Two Level Two or above, meaning an test because they are assumed to have
error rate on the test of less than obtained training as teaching
Besides Hong Kong, there are 27 20%. In dialect-mixed areas, a test- professionals in their formal
provinces and four cities directly taker should reach Class One Level schooling. However, they are
under the central government. The Three or above, which means the required to take part in a six- to
preparation requirements and rate of making errors on the test eight-week teacher-preparation
standards imposed on teacher should be less than 30%. program.
candidates are established by the Third, entrants should have Since 1999, regulations governing
central government although it is left obtained the professional knowledge who can apply for a teaching
to the 31 provinces and cities to to pass four special tests on pedagogy, certificate have been loosened as a
regulate the entry criteria. Since psychology, teaching methods, and way of enlarging the teaching force.
1993, the central government has teaching ability. The pedagogy, Now, an applicant need not have
promulgated Law of Teachers (1993), psychology, and teaching-methods graduated from a teacher-preparation
Regulations for Qualification of tests are written exams, and the institution, need not already have
Teachers (1995), and teaching candidate also must been a teacher, and need not have
Implementation of Regulations for demonstrate multiple facets of taken part in a teacher-preparation
Qualification of Teachers (2000) teaching ability: subject-matter program. If the entrant can pass the
regulating the teacher education instruction, teaching process, four qualifying tests, he or she can
process. A teacher candidate initially classroom management, blackboard obtain the teaching certificate. After
needs to obtain the teaching handwriting, and classroom acquiring a teaching certificate, the
certificate, under the principles questioning. prospective teacher must find a
articulated below. Having complied with the school to employ him or her. There
First, entrants should have the conditions previously described, an is no unified employment
relevant degree or certificate: entrant can apply for a qualified- examination. Schools recruit new
• To become a primary-school teacher certificate. There are seven teachers on their own.
teacher, a secondary-teachers school types of teaching certificates in However, these legal
certificate (high school diploma) or China: kindergarten teacher; primary requirements and standards are not
above; school teacher; junior-secondary strictly enforced in every corner of
• To become a junior-school teacher, teacher; senior-secondary teacher; China. Not all who enter the
a normal college certificate (sub- secondary-vocational teacher; occupation meet the legal education
degree) or above; secondary-vocational school requirements; the scope and content
• To become a senior-school teacher, internship adviser, and higher- of requirements to become a teacher
a four-year bachelor’s degree or education school teacher. The vary widely among the different
above. certification qualifies a teacher for a provinces. For example, in many
Second, entrants should have teaching post at the level attained, or rural schools in the western
passed the Mandarin language test. a lesser level. There is an exception: provinces, the formal schooling levels
According to the standards Those certified as vocational of many teachers lack four years of
established by the National internship advisers can only work as college and are below the senior-
Mandarin Test Committee, an internship advisers in specialized secondary school level.
examinee’s capabilities of speaking secondary schools, technical schools In his or her teaching career, a
and hearing Mandarin—the official and vocational schools. The subject teacher also should take part in

school education or above; a
Table 3
Qualified Rate of Record of Formal Schooling of Elementary, Junior Secondary, qualified junior-secondary teacher
Senior Secondary Teachers in China by Type of Subject Taught, Type of School, in should have obtained a sub-degree or
PERCENTAGES, 20044 above; a qualified senior-secondary
Elementary School Junior Senior teacher should have obtained a
Secondary School Secondary School bachelor’s degree or above. The
Total 98.31 93.79 79.60 system has been in place for less than
Subject Taught Type 10 years
Chinese 98.42 95.91 84.20
Math 99.33 94.95 82.60 The Qualifications of the
Science 98.01 94.99 81.97 Teaching Force
Social Science 98.08 95.02 81.24
Poverty Enrollment Table 3 shows the “qualified” rates of
Low (East) 99.05 93.79 83.74
elementary, junior-secondary, senior-
Middle(Middle) 98.78 95.12 79.73
High (West) 97.16 92.52 73.76 secondary teachers in China by type
of subject taught and by type of
Community Type
Rural 97.78 91.31 65.36 school. As a whole, the qualified rate
Suburban 99.13 94.94 75.92 at the elementary-school level is the
Urban 99.45 97.72 88.88 highest, 98.31%, while the senior-
4
Educational statistic yearbook of China 2004.
secondary school rate is the lowest,
a. School includes all the public and non-state/private schools. 79.60%. At the elementary-school
b. Low poverty refers to the East Region, which contains Beijing, Tianjin, Shanghai, Jiangsu, Zhejiang, Fujian,
Guangdong and Shandong Provinces. level, science teachers have the
c. Middle poverty refers to the Middle Region, which contains Hebei, Shanxi, Liaoning, Jilin, Heilongjiang, highest qualified rate from the
Anhui, Jiangxi, Henan, Hubei, Hunan, Hainan Provinces.
d. High poverty refers to the West Region, which contains Guizhou, Guangxi, Inner Mongolia, Chongqing, perspective of the four major subjects
Sichuan, Yunnan, Shaanxi, Tibet, Gansu, Qinghai, Ningxia, Xinjiang Provinces. taught—native language; math;
e. The three types of regions are determined by the central government of China.
science including physics, chemistry
and biology; and social science
continuing education and training. Teacher’s schools and colleges,
consisting of politics, history and
According to the Regulations for normal colleges and universities are
geography. At the senior-secondary
Continuing Education of Primary the main providers of continuing
level, science teachers have the
and Secondary School Teachers education and training for teachers.
lowest. At the secondary level
issued by China’s Ministry of
including both junior and senior,
Education in 1999, training is in the Data and Measures Chinese-language teachers have the
following areas: political education
highest rate. The qualified rate
and the ethics of teaching; specialty- The data presented in this chapter
among social-science teachers is
knowledge updating and expansion; are based on two sources: China
relatively lower at all school levels.
modern education theory and Education Yearbook and Educational
From the perspective of poverty
practice; study of teaching skills; and Statistic Yearbook of China. The
enrollment, the qualified rate in
modern educational technologies. former is edited and issued by
western China is the lowest while
New teachers should take training of Ministry of Education, and the latter
that of eastern regions is the highest
not less than 150 periods, and all is by the ministry’s Department of
at all school levels. The gap between
teachers should take job training of Development and Planning. Both of
the west and the middle of China is
not less than 240 periods every five these two authoritative literatures are
much wider than between the middle
years. One period equals about 45 issued every year.
and the east. From the perspective of
minutes to one hour’s learning time. A system called “Qualified Rates
community type, the qualified rate in
Generally speaking, 150 periods of of Record of Formal Schooling” is
rural areas is the lowest while that
training means about one month of commonly used to measure the
rate in urban areas is the highest in
full-time off-job training or other education level of teachers. As
all school levels. Meanwhile, the gap
equivalent endeavor. Teachers also are indicated above, a teacher qualified
in the rates of qualified teachers
encouraged to pursue more schooling to teach in a primary school should
between rural and urban at the
to improve their educational levels. have obtained secondary-teachers
senior-secondary school level is

Table 4
PERCENTAGE of Record of Formal Schooling of ELEMENTARY School Teachers in China, by Type of School, by Type of
Subject Taught, 20045
Graduate Undergraduate Sub Degree High School Diploma Below High School Diploma
Total 0.02 4.58 44.16 49.55 1.69
Poverty Enrollment
Low (East) 0.02 5.88 49.76 43.39 0.95
Middle(Middle) 0.03 4.55 42.95 51.25 1.22
High (West) 0.02 3.22 38.21 55.71 2.84
Community Type
Rural 0.01 2.14 38.00 57.63 2.22
Suburban 0.02 5.12 53.27 40.72 0.87
Urban 0.08 13.43 57.83 28.11 0.55
Subject Taught
Chinese 0.02 4.40 45.49 48.51 1.58
Math 0.01 3.48 42.31 53.53 1.67
Science 0.03 4.03 37.40 56.55 1.99
Social Science 0.05 6.69 45.04 46.30 1.92
5
somewhat surprising, at 27.23%. senior-secondary school teachers urban areas, than in the west, in rural
Tables 4, 5 and 6 show the holding bachelor’s degrees and areas. Tables 7 and 8 discuss the
percentage of the record of formal 64.66% of junior-secondary school types of teachers in elementary and
schooling of teachers as a whole, by teachers holding sub-degrees. The secondary schools in China.
type of school and by type of subject data reveal that in elementary There are three types of teachers:
taught in elementary, junior- schools, science teachers have the full-time, part-time and substitute.
secondary and senior-secondary highest record of formal schooling Full-time teachers comprise the
school levels respectively. Nearly half with 0.03% holding graduate degrees formal teaching force and most of
of the elementary-school teachers are and 4.03% with bachelor’s. In them hold teachers’ qualification
graduated from secondary teachers secondary schools (including both certificates. Part-time teachers and
schools or senior-secondary schools, junior and senior), Chinese-language substitute teachers are not part of the
occupying 49.55%. Secondary school teachers have the most schooling. formal teaching force. Not all part-
teachers have higher records of Formal schooling for teachers is at a time teachers and substitute teachers
formal schooling with 78.56% of much higher level in the east, in hold teachers’ qualification
Table 5
PERCENTAGE of Record of Formal Schooling of JUNIOR Secondary School Teachers in China, by Type of School, by Type
of subject Taught, 20046
Total 0.16 28.97 64.66 6.07 0.14
Poverty Enrollment
Low (East) 0.18 36.00 58.94 4.79 0.09
Middle (Middle) 0.15 27.91 65.63 6.16 0.15
High (West) 0.14 23.27 69.11 7.31 0.17
Community Type
Rural 0.06 18.94 72.31 8.50 0.19
Suburban 0.11 27.91 66.92 4.96 0.10
Urban 0.47 54.55 42.70 2.20 0.08
Subject Taught
Chinese 0.18 34.62 61.11 4.03 0.06
Math 0.14 28.47 66.34 5.00 0.05
Science 0.16 29.55 65.28 4.94 0.07
Social Science 0.19 29.27 63.28 7.10 0.16
6

Table 6
PERCENTAGE of Record of Formal Schooling of Senior SECONDARY School Teachers in China, by Type of School, by Type
of subject Taught, 20047
Total 1.04 78.56 20.00 0.39 0.01
Poverty Enrollment
Low (East) 1.09 82.65 16.00 0.25 0.01
Middle(Middle) 1.13 78.60 19.80 0.46 0.01
High (West) 0.81 72.95 25.76 0.47 0.01
Community Type
Rural 0.35 65.01 33.92 0.7 0.02
Suburban 0.71 75.21 23.66 0.41 0.01
Urban 1.68 87.20 10.84 0.27 0.01
Subject Taught
Chinese 1.26 82.94 15.64 0.16 0.00
Math 1.14 81.46 17.24 0.16 0.00
Science 1.13 80.84 17.82 0.21 0.00
Social Science 1.10 80.14 18.52 0.24 0.00
7
a. School includes all the public and non-state/private schools.
b. Senior School Graduate includes Secondary Teachers School Graduate and Senior Secondary School Graduate.
c. Below Senior School Graduate refers to Without Secondary Teachers School Certificate and Below Senior Secondary School Graduate.
d. Low poverty refers to the East Region, which contains Beijing, Tianjin, Shanghai, Jiangsu, zhejiang, Fujian, Guangdong and Shandong Provinces.
e. Middle poverty refers to the Middle Region, which contains Hebei, Shanxi, Liaoning, Jilin, Heilongjiang, Anhui, Jiangxi, Henan, Hubei, Hunan, Hainan Provinces.
f. High poverty refers to the West Region, which contains Guizhou, Guangxi, Inner Mongolia, Chongqing, Sichuan, Yunnan, Shaanxi, Tibet, Gansu, Qinghai, Ningxia,
Xinjiang Provinces.
g. The three types of regions are determined by the central government of China.
certificates. Most part-time teachers but still at 2.5%. At both the suburban and the urban, are very
are either retired and holding the elementary- and secondary-school close, but data on the west and of the
teachers’ qualification certificate, or levels, the percentage of full-time rural show large lags to that of the
professionals without teachers’ teachers is much higher at public middle and the east, and that of the
qualification certificates. Professionals schools than at private schools; the suburban and the urban. In rural
typically are invited to teach a subject eastern region has more fulltime elementary schools, 8.05% are
in which they have training. teachers than does the western substitute teachers, while in western
Substitute teachers are found mainly region. Moreover, in most aspects, elementary schools, 11.21% are
in places with shortages of full-time data on the middle and the east, of substitute teachers.
teachers. They represent a temporary
teaching force with some problems: Table 7
first, most of them lack a qualified PERCENTAGE of Different Types of Teachers in ELEMENTARY Schools
record of formal schooling; secondly, in China, by Type of School, 20048
they work in poor areas and inferior Substitute Teacher Part-time Teacher Full-time Teacher
teaching conditions; third, they earn Total 6.28 0.30 93.42
lower wages. Public School 6.29 0.25 93.46
Table 7 and 8 present the Private School 9.41 1.76 88.83
situation about the types of teachers Others 3.29 0.59 96.12
in various types of school, in Community Type
different communities, and in Rural 8.05 0.27 91.68
different poverty enrollment regions. Suburban 2.31 0.26 97.43
Urban 3.49 0.46 96.05
As a whole, the percentage of
substitute teachers in elementary Poverty Enrollment
Low (East) 4.22 0.22 95.56
schools is too high—6.3%—and that
Middle (Middle) 3.91 0.32 95.77
in secondary schools is much lower High (West) 11.21 0.33 88.46
 Educational statistic yearbook of China 2004.

8
the public ones, in the west than in
Table 8
PERCENTAGE of Different Types of Teachers in SECONDARY Schools the middle and the east, and in the
in China, by Type of School, 20049 rural than in the suburban and the
Substitute Teacher Part-time Teacher Full-time Teacher urban.
Total 2.50 0.72 96.78
Implications and Conclusions
Public School 2.20 0.40 97.40
Private School 6.69 5.53 87.78
Others 3.06 1.01 95.93 The quality of teachers and
teaching is undoubtedly a key factor
Community Type
Rural 2.60 0.39 97.01 in the education and schooling of a
Suburban 2.03 0.56 97.41 child. For many years, China’s central
Urban 3.06 1.45 95.49 and local governments have put
Poverty Enrollment much effort into teaching-force
Low (East) 2.05 0.66 97.29 development. Despite great
Middle (Middle) 2.44 0.42 97.14 achievements, China still faces several
High (West) 3.09 1.26 95.65 severe problems needing remedies
9
Educational statistic yearbook of China 2004. and reforms.
a. Secondary schools include both senior and junior secondary schools. First, there is a large gap between
b. Low poverty refers to the East Region, which contains Beijing, Tianjin, Shanghai, Jiangsu, zhejiang, Fujian,
Guangdong and Shandong Provinces. the demand for and supply of
c. Middle poverty refers to the Middle Region, which contains Hebei, Shanxi, Liaoning, Jilin, Heilongjiang, elementary and secondary teachers.
Anhui, Jiangxi, Henan, Hubei, Hunan, Hainan Provinces.
d. High poverty refers to the West Region, which contains Guizhou, Guangxi, Inner Mongolia, Chongqing, The shortage problem may arise
Sichuan, Yunnan, Shaanxi, Tibet, Gansu, Qinghai, Ningxia, Xinjiang Provinces.
e. The 3 types of regions are determined by the central government of China.
from two sources: an insufficient
f. Public School refers to those run by education department and communities. supply of new teachers, and too
g. Private School refers to those non-state, not primarily funded by local and national government.
h. Others refer to those run by non-education department. many teachers quitting their jobs to
pursue more attractive careers. In the
Out-of-Field Teaching not qualified to teach the relevant former case, teacher-preparation
subject. It means that a secondary education should be upgraded and
In China, it is difficult to measure school will not hire someone expanded to educate and train more
how many teachers are not qualified majoring in mathematics as a new teachers. Further, the teaching
in the subject they teach. In China, Chinese-language teacher. Teachers in certificate system should be modified
the qualifications required to be an the social sciences are not so limited: so that people who are interested in
elementary school teacher are not as Their major may have been history, teaching and who are qualified but
stringent as they are for teaching high politics, or geography; or sociology, have not graduated from normal
school. In the secondary teachers philosophy, or some other arts major. education institutions can enter the
schools preparing the teaching force In poor rural areas, the situation teaching field more easily. In
for elementary schools, the is somewhat different. There are addition, the treatment of teachers,
curriculum for a prospective teacher widespread shortages of qualified including earnings, medical care and
in math is almost the same as for one teachers, so incoming teachers housing conditions, should be
in Chinese language. somewhat frequently are assigned to improved. Teaching conditions and
Typically, when a secondary teach subjects in which they have work pressures also need attention.
school (junior or senior) seeks to little background. In some poor, Further, teachers need more supports
recruit new teachers, the school will small schools, one teacher has to to help them see a promising
identify which subjects have teach several subjects for one class, or prospect, to make their career
vacancies and how many positions even several grades. Almost all meaningful, and to enjoy their
need to be filled. For example, a substitute teachers, who are not teaching.
school will declare that it needs three considered part of the formal Secondly, China needs to raise its
Chinese-language teachers, two teaching force and who work in the relatively low entry bar to the
mathematics teachers, four science worst of conditions, are doing out-of- teaching occupation, especially at the
teachers and one social-science field teaching. As mentioned above, primary and junior-secondary levels.
teacher. To a certain extent, that this kind of problem is much more At the same time, the rates of
protocol weeds out teachers who are severe in the private schools than in “qualified” teachers remain

unsatisfyingly low. The source of this practice to enhance their
problem may be mainly a widespread qualifications.
shortage of teachers, mentioned
above, but it also may be related to
the insufficiency of continuing
education and training for teachers.
Third, a very prominent feature
revealed in an examination of the
qualifications of the teaching force in
China is the marked imbalance
among various regions. There are
large gaps between the rural and the
urban, the west and the east. In all
aspects, the situation of the rural and
the western areas lags significantly.
For example, applicants to be a
teacher in an elementary school in
Shanghai should hold at least a sub-
degree, while in some poor rural
mountainous areas in the west,
elementary schools have no choice
but to employ teachers whose records
of formal schooling fall short of a
senior-secondary diploma. This
situation may be considered a
consequence of imbalanced
economic development in China but
such an excuse should not be used to
justify an evasion of responsibilities.
Surely the west and the rural need
more financial support. Further, the
education system itself needs reforms
to adapt with due speed to special
circumstances and to accelerate local
development of teaching candidates.
There have been some fruitful
attempts in recent years such as the
“Teaching Practice as Substitute
Teacher” project in Southwestern
Normal University (Zhang Shiya, et
al., 2004) where normal-college
education majors practice-teach their
senior year and at the same time
serve as substitute teachers in schools
in poor areas. By adopting that
approach, schools elsewhere in China
could acquire sufficient additions to
their qualified teaching forces to
meet their needs, while the students
serving as substitute teachers could
greatly benefit from the one year of

References
China education yearbook 2005.
Beijing: People Education Press.
China statistics yearbook 2004.

National Bureau of Statistics of
China.
Department of Development and

Planning, Educational statistic
yearbook of China 2004, Beijing:
People Education Press.
Li Peilin & Li Qiang Sun Liping.

(2004). Social stratification in China’s
today, Beijing: Social Sciences
Documentation Publishing House.
Project Team of China’s Education

and Human Resource Development
(2002). Stride from a country of
tremendous population to a country of
profound human resources, Beijing:
Higher Education Press.
Zhang Shiya & Wu Xiaorong.

(2004). Teaching practice as
substitute teacher: Journals of rural
education, In Ding Gang (Ed.),
China’s Education: Research & Review,
7, Beijing: Educational Science
Publishing House.


CHAPTER 3
Qualifications of the Teaching Force
in The Hong Kong Special
Administrative Region, China
Kwok Chan Lai
The Hong Kong Institute of Education
Introduction prescribed curriculum. In addition, stream students usually study physics,

The Education System there are a number of private schools, chemistry, biology or additional
including “Direct Subsidy Scheme” mathematics, while arts students
The academic structure in the schools, which receive financial study geography, history, economics,
Hong Kong Special Administrative assistance from the government but Chinese history or literature.
Region encompasses six years of have the freedom to set their own In the realm of higher education,
primary education (grades 1-6, ages school fees, teacher salary scales, the eight institutions funded by the
6-11), three years of junior secondary school curriculum and student Hong Kong government’s University
education (secondary grades 1-3, ages admission policies. Grants Committee offer
12-14), and two years of senior In both government and aided postgraduate, undergraduate and a
secondary education (secondary schools, the primary-school small number of associate-degree
grades 4-5, ages 15-16). After curriculum typically consists of programs. Undergraduate programs
secondary grade 5, students take a Chinese language, English language, typically are three years in duration.
public exam—the Hong Kong mathematics, general studies (a In terms of governance, the
Certificate of Education subject integrating social studies and Education and Manpower Bureau of
Examination. Those who meet the science), visual arts, music, physical the government, headed by the
requisite standards may pursue a education, and information and Secretary for Education and
two-year sixth-form course communication technology (ICT). Manpower, is responsible for
(secondary grades 6-7, ages 17-18) At the junior-secondary level, the formulating and reviewing education
leading to the Hong Kong Advanced education consists of Chinese, policies and overseeing the
Level Examination for admission to English, mathematics, integrated implementation of education
institutions of higher education. science, integrated humanities (or programs. Prior to the year 2003,
The school system in Hong Kong studies of individual social subjects policy implementation at the school
is relatively uniform. Nearly all such as geography, history and level had been under the remit of the
primary schools offer classes in grades Chinese history), ICT, physical Education Department, headed by
1-6, while nearly all secondary education, visual arts, and music. At the Director of Education. In 2003,
schools run through grade 7. Ninety the senior-secondary level, nearly all to strengthen the links between the
percent of school facilities are students study the core curriculum of formulation and implementation of
operated by the government. There Chinese, English and mathematics. policies, the Education Department
also are schools called “aided However, the other subjects taken by was dismantled and its work was
schools,” which are run by voluntary students usually depend on their subsumed under the Education and
bodies but are fully funded by the subject streaming or concentration, Manpower Bureau. The work of the
government. Both types of schools that is, whether they choose the bureau is supported by various
share a common salary scale for science, arts, commerce or technical consultative committees, including
teachers and follow a centrally studies stream. For instance, science- the Education Commission, the

Advisory Committee on Teacher amalgamated to form the Hong free and compulsory six-year primary
Education and Qualifications, and Kong Institute of Education, which education in 1971 and the expansion
the Standing Committee on began to replace subdegree-level of compulsory education to
Language Education and Research. awards in both primary and secondary grade 3 (or age 15) in
secondary education with bachelor’s 1978. These developments resulted
degrees and postgraduate diplomas. in a tremendous demand for primary
The Teacher Education At present, teacher education is and secondary school teachers, and
System offered at three comprehensive many of those recruited to be
universities, the Institute of teachers in fact lacked training. For a
Much like many other places Education, and the Open University time, the Hong Kong government
formerly under British rule, teacher of Hong Kong. Both concurrent and focused attention on the creation of
preparation in Hong Kong until the consecutive pathways of pre-service more school facilities to open
mid-1990s was separated into teacher education now serve to classrooms for nine years of
“nongraduate” and “graduate” tracks prepare primary and secondary compulsory education. Beginning in
using one of two models: teachers, a system similar to that in the late 1980s, the government
• Concurrent model: Government- the United Kingdom. The major shifted its attention to raising the
run Colleges of Education offered change has been in the concurrent quality of education.
two- and three-year full-time pathway, where the former In the early 1990s, the
subdegree-level programs (known certificate-level programs have been government decided to massively
as Teachers’ Certificate or upgraded to four-year undergraduate expand its higher education network.
Certificate in Education programs) programs in education leading to As a result, the number of students
to prepare “nongraduate” teachers Bachelor of Education (B.Ed.) or a enrolled in degree programs rapidly
for primary schools and the junior B.A. or B.Sc. in education degrees, increased, and the subdegree teacher
levels of secondary schools. The including a practice-teaching period education programs offered by the
program content in those programs of 14 to 16 weeks. former Colleges of Education became
covered both professional and The quality of new entrants to less attractive. Subsequently, the
subject studies; and the teaching profession has always government commissioned the
• Consecutive model: Faculties of been a matter of concern. The Education Commission to review the
education of two comprehensive findings of a study by Lai et al. teacher education system, with a
universities offered a one-year full- (2005a) on senior-secondary school particular focus on ways of
time Postgraduate students’ perceptions of teaching enhancing the attractiveness of the
Certificate/Diploma in Education relative to other careers suggested teaching career in primary schools.
program to prepare senior- that while teaching in the Hong The recommendations of Education
secondary teachers. This type of Kong society remains a well respected Commission Report No. 5 (1992)
program also is known as the “3+1” occupation, the teaching profession were far-reaching, and included:
route because it focuses on one year does not attract young people with • establishing positions for bachelor’s
of professional training for high academic marks. In addition, degree holders in public-sector
graduates who have completed a the examination grades of new primary schools and upgrading
three-year bachelor’s degree with an students admitted to teacher 35% of teaching posts to graduate
academic major. As such, this education programs in the status within 15 years;
model is similar to a fifth year or a comprehensive universities were • encouraging nondegree teachers to
post-baccalaureate program in the generally lower than those admitted enroll in add-on degree programs
United States. to other disciplines (University of to upgrade their qualifications to
This dual track of teacher Hong Kong, 2007). degree level; and
education has gradually disappeared ? amalgamating the Colleges
since the mid-1990s. First, with the of Education to form an autonomous
creation of positions for degree The Changing Policy Context institution, the Hong Kong Institute
holders in primary schools, primary of Education.
teaching no longer is regarded as a A focus on education policy in Hong In the mid-1990s, in another
career for nongraduates. Second, in Kong in the 1970s and early 1980s directive aimed at ensuring the
1994 the Colleges of Education were culminated in the introduction of provision of good-quality schools, the

government asked the Education education, the government in a school in Hong Kong has to
Commission to begin another study increasingly has resorted to official, apply to the Education and
on measures to improve school top-down reform measures heavily Manpower Bureau (formerly the
management and performance. EC influenced by notions of Education Department) for
Report No. 7 (1997) recommended managerialism, privatization and registration as a “registered” or a
that the professional education of performance standards in education “permitted” teacher. To qualify for
principals and teachers needed to be (Choi, 2005; Lai, 2005). The registration as a registered teacher, a
strengthened to equip them with Education and Manpower Bureau person will have obtained “qualified-
knowledge and skills to cope with the (EMB) and its consulting teacher” status through completion
changes: committees have been actively of an approved teacher education
To provide quality school involved in formulating policies and program offered by a recognized
education, we need quality principals detailed guidelines to raise institution. This program may be a
and teachers with a strong sense of competency standards for both new subdegree-level Certificate in
mission, appropriate personal and serving teachers. Further, the Education, a Bachelor’s Degree in
attributes, adequate academic and EMB has become more active in Education, or a Postgraduate
professional qualifications. They controlling teacher-education Certificate/Diploma in Education. In
should be prepared to initiate and institutions through the University this regard, a registered teacher is
participate in the development of Grants Committee—for instance, by equivalent to full licensure in the
quality education. In return, they stipulating student-intake numbers United States. However, in Hong
should be provided with suitable for various subjects. Kong, “qualified” teacher status does
support and development The purpose of this paper is to not specify the subject area that a
opportunities. (p. 35) review the formulation and teacher can teach. Furthermore, there
After the establishment of the implementation of policies that have is no need for graduates from teacher
Special Administrative Region under influenced teacher qualification education institutions to fulfill any
Chinese sovereignty in 1997, the new requirements and standards in Hong additional requirements, such as
Chief Executive and the regional Kong amid the profound changes in passing a test, to become a registered
government were zealous in their the political, economic and social teacher.
efforts to reform Hong Kong’s contexts since the 1990s. In the On the other hand, a person
education system to meet challenges concluding section, we will examine holding the minimum academic
related to globalization and creation the government’s paradoxical policies qualifications but without a
of a knowledge-based economy towards teacher quality: While the recognized teacher-training
essential to Hong Kong’s social and government is keen to improve qualification may be employed by a
economic development (Hong Kong, professional standards to support school as a “permitted” teacher.
1997). These efforts included education reform, in the recent past He/she will be eligible to be a
measures to raise the preparation it has been unwilling to require new registered teacher after acquiring
standards of the teaching profession, teachers to be professional trained. At qualified-teacher status through
which we will discuss in detail in the the same time, it is preoccupied with completion of in-service training.
next section. At the same time, the measures to ensure that English- The “permitted teacher” status in
Education Commission began a language teachers are both in good Hong Kong is similar to emergency
comprehensive review of the supply and “highly qualified.” The certification or emergency permit in
education system with a view to paper will offer a critique of these the United States in the sense that
drawing up a blueprint for reform for issues, which may have implications permitted teachers have not met the
the 21st century (Hong Kong, for teacher-education policies minimum requirements for full
1997). Based on its elsewhere. registration. However, there is no
recommendations, wide-ranging stipulation that permitted teachers
education reforms in academic must complete teacher training in a
structure, school curriculum and Teacher Preparation specified period to receive registered
assessment have been launched in the Requirements and Standards status. In other words, they will be
past six years (Education allowed to stay in the teaching force
Commission, 2000). Professional Training Requirements indefinitely. Until the year 2004, the
In the quest for quality Any person who wishes to teach requirements were so lax that a

permitted teacher was eligible for replaced by degree or above programs Serving Teachers
registration as a registered teacher (Hong Kong, 1998). However, no In Hong Kong, once teachers
through mere accumulation of target year has hitherto been set to have acquired qualified-teacher
teaching experience. implement this policy. Without a status, that status will remain valid
Nevertheless, a few measures have firm policy commitment, untrained throughout their teaching careers. In
been put in place to encourage teachers have continued to join the other words, there are no
permitted teachers to undergo in- teaching force. In 2005, nearly one- professional-development
service training. For instance, a salary quarter of the teachers newly joining requirements for the purpose of re-
bar is imposed on them should they the profession were untrained. licensing, except for those teachers
fail to complete their professional who wish to apply for promotion to
training within the first five years of senior posts.
service. Training also is necessary for Academic Qualifications However, in the past few years,
promotion to senior teacher posts. Requirements the standards of the teaching
From the 1950s to the 1970s, profession have been the subject of
untrained teachers or permitted The minimum qualification increasing scrutiny by the
teachers had been regarded as a required to be registered or permitted government and the community. The
convenient buffer to meet the teachers in primary and secondary government has issued numerous
tremendous expansion in mass schools used to be secondary-school reports, policy papers and speeches
education. In 1974, the percentages graduation, i.e. attainment of the urging principals and teachers to
of untrained primary and secondary Certificate of Education actively participate in professional
teachers, many of whom had only Examination. Only recently, in 2004, development, which is seen as crucial
completed secondary schooling, were was the requirement raised to include to the success of the education
as high as 27.5% and 67.4% possession of a post-secondary reform. In particular, the government
respectively. In the mid-1990s, with diploma equivalent to an associate has taken an active role in setting
the stabilized demand for new degree in the United States. policies to raise the academic and
teachers and the expansion of teacher However, in reality, the academic professional standards of language
training capacity, the corresponding qualifications of teachers are much teachers.
percentages had significantly higher than the minimum In the past decade, the Hong
decreased to below 15% and 25% requirements stipulated by Kong government and the business
respectively. legislation. At present, the majority community have been increasingly
Though the Education and of new and serving teachers in both concerned with the allegedly falling
Manpower Bureau stipulates that primary and secondary schools English standards of university and
schools should give priority to possess a bachelor’s degree or above. school graduates and keen to
appointing teachers with teacher- As mentioned in a previous section improve the quality of language
training qualifications, this guideline on the Teacher Education System, teaching in schools. In the year 2000,
has never been enforced. It was not since 1998, all pre-service teacher- the government decided to set up
until 1997 that Hong Kong’s new education programs at less than full language proficiency requirements for
chief executive announced the policy bachelor’s degree or sub-degree level over 15,000 new and serving teachers
objective of requiring all new have gradually been replaced by of English and Putonghua
primary- and secondary-school degree-level programs. In 2004, the (Mandarin) in both primary and
teachers to be graduates and last cohort of certificate-level students secondary schools. These teachers
professionally trained in the graduated, symbolizing the complete would have to satisfy the
“foreseeable future.” This policy was upgrading of all pre-service teacher requirements in five areas: reading,
warmly welcomed by the educational education for primary and secondary writing, listening, speaking, and
community. To achieve the “all teachers to degree level. In 2005, classroom language assessment.
graduate, all trained” objective, the 82.5% of primary and 95.2% of Specifically, any teacher who began
chief executive announced in 1998 secondary teachers newly joining the teaching English or Putonghua from
that subdegree primary and teaching force possessed a degree September 2004 would have to
secondary teacher-education qualification. demonstrate, before taking up the
programs offered by the Institute of Professional Development and responsibility, that she or he had
Education would be gradually New Standards Requirements for already met the requirement. In

addition, all serving teachers in these year, recruit language teachers who development programs that satisfy
two subjects will have to meet the had both a degree in the relevant the qualification and standards
requirement before the end of the language subject and teacher requirements stipulated by the
2005-06 school year. Those who education qualifications with a major government, irrespective of their
failed to attain the requirement in that language subject. If the new interests or their specific needs of
would not be allowed to teach the recruit does not have a relevant professional development (Lai,
respective language subjects. degree major, he or she should 2005).
The language-proficiency complete a first degree or
requirements represent the first direct postgraduate-level program focusing
and large-scale government on the subject knowledge of the Data and Measures
intervention to establish mandatory particular language within five years.
professional standards for serving In addition, if the recruit does not Most of the data presented in this
teachers, besides the requirement of have teacher training, he/she will chapter are derived from the Statistics
obtaining qualified-teacher status. have to complete a teacher-education on Primary and Secondary School
This had led to vehement protests by program with a language major Teachers, 2004/05 (titled as Teacher
teacher unions that objected to the within three years. Statistics from 2000 to 2003, and
“re-licensing” of qualified teachers. At the same time, serving Teacher Survey prior to 2000)
Eventually, the government language teachers are encouraged to published by the Education and
compromised by granting upgrade their qualifications and Manpower Bureau.
exemptions to teachers who already pursue continuing professional Prior to the 2002-03 school year,
had a degree major in the relevant development. To help language teacher statistics were collected yearly
language subject; it also agreed to teachers who do not have a degree by the government through
allow teachers to attain the majoring in the relevant language, administering a survey questionnaire
requirements through in-service the government provided incentive through schools to all 50,000
training as an alternative to open grants for postgraduate programs for primary and secondary teachers, the
assessment. teachers to upgrade subject employment data of which were
Even before the proficiency knowledge. By January 2005, over verified by the school administration.
requirement target date was set, the 3,600 applications had been Since 2002-03, schools and teachers
government began to stipulate that approved. Total funding of over HK have been asked to update their staff
all English- and Chinese-language $600 million (US $77 million) had and personal profiles through a Web-
teachers also should be well been allocated. based e-services system. The response
grounded in subject knowledge and For teachers of all subjects, rate has been very high as each
the pedagogy of their respective another consultative committee, the school is held accountable for
subjects. In 2003, a report by the Advisory Committee on Teacher ensuring data is submitted by the
Standing Committee on Language Education and Qualifications, school’s teachers. The Education and
Education and Research (SCOLAR) published a report in 2003 setting Manpower Bureau also sends
stated that: out a teacher competencies reminders to those schools that have
Effective language teachers need framework as well as a policy not submitted their returns.
to be proficient in the language they framework for the continuing Teacher Statistics differentiates
teach, have a good grounding in professional development of serving subject teachers into two types–those
subject knowledge, and be teachers. It recommended that all teaching a subject as their main field
acquainted with the latest theories teachers should engage in continuing (or first major subject taught) and
and practices in language teaching professional development activities of those teaching the subject as either
and learning. They synthesize and not less than 150 hours in a three- their main field or a
apply their knowledge and skills to year cycle. The recommendations are secondary/additional field (or as one
motivate and help their students to not mandatory. However, amidst the of the subjects taught). By definition,
improve language ability. (p. 19) falling birth rate and declining the number of teachers in the latter
Following the recommendations student enrollment in Hong Kong, category is larger than the former.
of the committee, the government teachers are increasingly concerned For instance, in the year 2005,
requested that all school principals, about job security. Many of them among newly arriving teachers in
starting with the 2004-05 school have decided to choose professional secondary schools, 82 taught Chinese

history, but only 14 of them taught
Table 1
the subject as their main or first Number of Teachers in Hong Kong by Academic Qualifications/Training, 20051
major subject.
Level/ Sector Less than Bachelor’s Untrained Trained Bachelor’s
Finally, since nearly all secondary Bachelor’s Degree or Degree or
schools in Hong Kong operate classes Degree Above above and
at both the junior- and senior- Trained
secondary levels, it also is common Primary Schools
for teachers to teach across both (N=22,127)
levels. In this regard, the Hong Kong Government Schools 268 1,302 10 1,560 N/A
teacher statistics do not contain a (17.1%) (82.9%) (0.6%) (99.4%)
Aided Schools 5,103 13,608 820 17,891 N/A
breakdown by these levels. (27.3%) (72.7%) (4.4%) (95.6%)
Private Schools 510 1336 342 1,504 N/A
(27.6%) (72.4%) (18.5%) (81.5%)
The Qualifications of the Total 5,881 16,246 1,172 20,955 15,495
Teaching Force (26.6%) (73.4%) (5.3%) (94.7%) (70.0%)
Secondary Schools
In 2005, the number of permanent (N=26,163)
Government Schools 168 1,757 27 1,898 N/A
teachers in government, aided and
(8.7%) (91.3%) (1.4%) (98.6%)
private primary, secondary and Aided Schools 1,658 19,449 762 20,345 N/A
special schools were 22,127, 26,163 (7.9%) (92.1%) (3.6%) (96.4%)
and 1,380 respectively. Among them, Caput Schools 39 346 19 366 N/A
73.4% of primary- and 92.2% of (10.1%) (89.9%) (4.9%) (95.1%)
secondary-school teachers held at Private Schools 179 2,567 516 2,230 N/A
(6.5%) (93.5%) (18.8%) (81.2%)
least a bachelor’s degree. In primary Total 2,044 24,119 1,324 24,839 23,001
schools, the percentage of degree- (7.8%) (92.2%) (5.1%) (94.9%) (87.9%)
holding teachers was the highest in
government schools. The 1
Statistics on primary and secondary school teachers, 2005/06.
a. Caput schools are schools that receive Government assistance in the form of a per caput grant
corresponding percentages were b. Private schools include Direct Subsidy Schools
similar across all types of secondary
schools (Table 1).
respectively, held a masters’ degree or the highest in the following subjects:
In primary schools, the subjects
higher. English language (3.8%), music
with the highest percentages of
(2.9%) and general studies (3.2%).
degree holders were English language
In terms of professional In secondary schools, the
(79%) and ICT (78.2%). In
qualifications, 94.7% and 94.9% of corresponding subjects were ICT
secondary schools, nearly all the
primary and secondary school (5.8%), music (6.7%), mathematics
teachers of senior secondary science
teachers possessed teacher education (5.5%), physics (4.4%) and English
subjects (i.e., biology, chemistry and
qualifications. The percentage of (4.5%).
physics) and economics were degree
trained teachers was highest in Overall, the majority of serving
holders, followed by English-
government schools (Table 1). In teachers have completed a bachelor’s
language teachers (95.5%). It is
primary schools, the percentage of degree level university education and
notable that both primary and
teachers without teacher training was also held professional qualifications.
secondary schools prefer to deploy
degree holders to teach English
language, irrespective of their subject
Table 2
training.
Number of Teachers by Academic and Teacher Training Qualifications, 20052
In the past few years, there has
Degree & Non-degree Degree & Non-degree Total
been a steady increase in the number
Trained & Trained Untrained & Untrained
of teachers who possessed
Primary 15,495 5,460 751 421 22,127
postgraduate qualifications: in 2005, (70.0%) (24.7%) (3.4%) (1.9%) (100%)
7.3% and 24.9% of primary and Secondary 23,001 1,838 1,118 206 26,163
secondary school teachers, (87.9%) (7.0%) (4.3%) (0.8%) (100%)
 Statistics on primary and secondary school

2
teachers, 2005/06.
The corresponding percentages in chemistry, biology) and economics, or “out-of-field.”
primary and secondary schools were the data are more comparable. The state of out-of-field teaching
70% and 87.9% respectively (Table In addition, for the Hong Kong also is affected by the quality of
2). data, the criteria of matching the preparation in subject matter that
However, in the absence of pre- teachers’ subject field with the primary- and secondary-school
service training requirement, nearly teaching field are more stringent than teachers receive. Similar to other
one-quarter of the newly joined those adopted in other places. For places, secondary teachers in Hong
teachers are untrained. In 2005, 738 instance, a Hong Kong teacher with Kong are prepared to teach one or
and 1,131 new teachers joined a subject major in mathematics or two specialist subjects. However, the
primary and secondary schools physics teaching ICT or one with a preparation of primary-school
respectively, compared with 1,131 major in chemistry teaching biology teachers is quite different from those
and 1,003 in 1997. Among them, will be classified as out-of-field. In countries that prepare teachers for
the proportions without training this regard, the percentages of “out- generalist teaching in primary
were 24.8% and 23.9% respectively, of-field” teaching in Hong Kong are schools, such as the United States,
compared with 37.2% and 70.6% in likely to be higher than those United Kingdom, Australia, Japan
1997. The data indicate that the reported in other places. and South Korea, and from those
reduction in the proportion of newly Nevertheless, the Hong Kong that practice specialist teaching, such
joined teachers without training had data include both majors and as China. Until recently, primary
been faster at the secondary level minors/electives as qualified for a teaching in Hong Kong is organized
than the primary level. Nevertheless, teachers’ subject field. In this regard, somewhere between the “generalist”
similar to past decades, these this definition of “subject-trained” is and “specialist” approaches, and
untrained teachers have continued to more lax than that adopted in other teachers teach on the average three to
serve as a convenient buffer to meet places in which only a teacher’s four subjects. Similarly, the former
teacher demand in Hong Kong. subject major is counted. Colleges of Education and the
Teaching outside one’s subject Institute of Education prepared their
Out-of-field Teaching field has long existed in Hong Kong, graduates to teach three “general”
particularly in subjects in which there subjects in primary schools, i.e.
Caution has to be exercised when has been a short supply of qualified Chinese language, mathematics and
comparing the Hong Kong data on teachers. For instance, only 46% and general studies, plus a fourth elective
“out-of-field” teaching with those of 55.7% of the English language subject chosen from the subjects of
other places. As mentioned teachers in primary and secondary English, ICT, visual arts, music and
previously, the Hong Kong data do schools respectively were classified by physical education. Accordingly, the
not allow a breakdown between the Education Department as Teacher Statistics categorized nearly
teachers of junior- and senior- “subject-trained” in 1996 (see all these graduates, regardless of their
secondary levels. Since it is more Measure 1 below). It was only in the teaching specialization, as subject-
common for teachers to teach out-of- past few years that the government trained in the three “general”
field at the junior-secondary level— and the community have become subjects. Hence, the percentages of
e.g. those with an academic major in concerned with this problem. Such out-of-field teaching in these three
Chinese language and an interest has largely arisen from subjects are very low, but much
history/geography often teach junior- two policy developments–first, the higher in the remaining elective
secondary Chinese history and government’s quest for “highly subjects.
English language respectively—the qualified” language teachers and The Teacher Statistics in Hong
percentages of out-of-field teaching second, the government’s advocating Kong contains data on the number
in secondary-school subjects in Hong of specialist teaching in three core of teachers assigned to teach subjects
Kong are likely to be higher than primary school subjects—English that do not match their academic
those places which only report out- language, Chinese language and majors or minors in degree/subdegree
of-field teaching at the senior- mathematics. With the more studies and their subject majors in
secondary level. Nevertheless, for a stringent requirements, many professional or pedagogical training.
few subjects that mainly are offered language teachers who previously Hence, through different
at the senior-secondary level, such as were considered as “qualified” are combinations of these qualifications,
individual fields of science (physics, now categorized as “underqualified” it is possible to derive four measures

of out-of-field teaching in Hong teacher training. This stringent her three general subjects in a
Kong (Table 3): measure is analogous to the subdegree certificate program in the
1. Non-subject-trained: definition of “highly qualified” former Colleges of Education will be
teachers without a relevant subject teachers in the United States and to classified as “subject-trained.” This
major or minor in their academic that adopted by the Standing explains why only 3.3% of the
studies at subdegree level or above or Committee on Language Education primary Chinese-language teachers
teacher training; and Research as a benchmark for were classified as “non-subject-
2. No relevant degree: teachers “highly qualified” language teachers. trained” in 2005. In contrast, when
without a relevant subject major or Measure 1 is the most lax the more stringent Measure 4 is
minor in their degree studies; measure of the adequacy of subject adopted, the great majority (79.2%)
3. No relevant teacher preparation because any teacher who of these teachers will be categorized
training: teachers without relevant has taken the relevant subject as a as non-subject-trained.
teacher training in the subject they major or minor in his/her academic In general, the percentages of
teach; and (at subdegree level or above) or teachers considered inadequately
4. No relevant subject in teacher-training program is regarded prepared in the subject taught are
degree and teacher training: teachers as “subject-trained.” In other words, higher under Measure 2 (i.e., no
without a relevant subject major or using this measure, any teacher who relevant degree) than those under
minor in their degree studies and had taken a subject as one of his or Measure 3 (i.e., no relevant teacher
Table 3
Distribution of Teachers by Subject Taught by Whether Teaching Out-of-field, 20053
Subject Taught Without a Without a Without relevant Without a Total number of
relevant subject relevant subject teacher training relevant subject teachers
major or minor at major or minor at (Measure 3) major or minor in
sub-degree level degree level or degree studies
or above or above and teacher
teacher training (Measure 2) training
(Measure 1) (Measure 4)
Primary Schools
Chinese Language 3.3% 78.8% 4.1% 79.2% 10,246
English Language 29.1% 74.5% 35.6% 78.5% 7,953
Mathematics 5.9% 91.0% 6.3% 91.3% 9,543
General Studies 6.0% 88.0% 8.2% 89.8% 9,404
Visual Arts 53.1% 93.3% 65.1% 94.1% 5,655
Music 29.5% 80.2% 42.6% 82.2% 3,160
Physical Education 5.1% 84.9% 22.2% 85.7% 3,281
Secondary Schools
Chinese Language 10.3% 30.4% 15.1% 35.5% 5,407
English Language 10.5% 34.8% 18.9% 41.9% 5,614
Mathematics 22.6% 46.9% 29.3% 52.9% 4,906
Science,
Science & Technology 10.8% 33.5% 17.1% 38.7% 2,205
Physics 11.9% 22.1% 22.3% 31.5% 1,197
ICT 49.8% 59.8% 69.3% 78.8% 2,863
Chinese History 40.3% 59.3% 53.7% 71.5% 2,471
Geography 22.3% 34.3% 27.6% 39.5% 1,447
Visual Arts 10.8% 40.6% 17.4% 46.1% 867
Music 13.2% 34.8% 26.6% 46.1% 597
Physical Education 4.4% 42.1% 7.7% 43.9% 1,278
3
Statistics on primary and secondary school teachers, 2005/06.
a. Measure 1: For primary school teachers, regardless of their specialization, graduates from the Hong Kong Institute of Education (formerly Colleges of Education) are all regard-
ed as subject-trained in Chinese Language, Mathematics, and General Studies. For cultural subjects, those having completed relevant in-service certificate courses also are classified
as subject-trained.
b. Measure 1: Trained Teachers are teachers holding a post-graduate certificate/diploma in education, a degree in education, a sub-degree teacher certificate, or those who have
been granted qualified status through the Non-graduate Teacher Qualifications Assessment scheme or equivalent.

training), particularly in the primary teach ICT and mathematics, or Retreat on Professional
schools. For example, while 91% of Chinese language teachers to teach Training
primary mathematics teachers do not Chinese history. Similar to the
have a relevant degree, only 6.3% of primary schools, this practice often is Despite the fact that the chief
them have not received teacher an administrative measure to bring executive had announced in 1997 the
training in the subject. The high about an equitable workload among policy objective of requiring all new
percentages of the former are hardly teachers. Nevertheless, as explained teachers to be graduates and
surprising, as until a decade ago, earlier, the levels of out-of-field in professionally trained in the
primary teaching was still largely a Hong Kong secondary schools are “foreseeable future,” the government
career for nongraduates. In addition, relatively high compared to those in has hitherto refrained from setting a
despite the fact that many primary- other nations are partly due to the target year to achieve this policy.
school teachers had subsequently fact that the Hong Kong data include There is plenty of evidence that the
obtained a bachelor’s degree through both junior- and senior-secondary government has actually retreated
part-time studies, they often had levels, and the criteria of matching from the “all graduate, all trained”
completed a general degree in the subject field with the teaching policy. In 1997, the University
education studies, instead of a degree field are more stringent by definition. Grants Committee was asked by the
with an subject major or minor. The government and the government to make
The data in Table 3 show that, in community, nevertheless, are most recommendations on how to achieve
primary schools, the percentages of concerned with out-of-field teaching the policy, but its report (UGC,
teachers without professional training in the subject of English language, 1998) was never released to the
(Measure 3) are the highest in visual particularly in the primary schools. public. Apparently, at that time, the
arts (65.1%) and music (42.6%). Even using the most lax measure government was concerned about the
The situation has reflected the long- (Measure 1), nearly 30% (29.1%) of additional resources required to
standing practice in primary schools the English-language teachers in increase the number of pre-service
to assign untrained teachers to teach primary schools have not received teacher education places in
the cultural subjects, which generally any training or education in the universities. However, with a gradual
are regarded as less academically subject, compared with 10.5% in the decline in school enrollment and
demanding. This assignment also is secondary schools. Other measures hence a reduced demand for teachers,
in part due to administrative reasons indicate that 74.5% of the former do this reason was no longer convincing.
as many school heads prefer to relieve not have a relevant degree, compared As teacher educators increased
the heavy marking load of language with 34.8% in secondary schools their pressure on the government to
teachers by allocating them a few (Measure 2), and 35.6% of the implement the policy, the latter
periods of visual arts or music. In former are without a relevant teacher began to openly question the
fact, the visual-arts lessons are qualification (Measure 3). desirability of requiring all teachers to
nicknamed by school heads as Using the most stringent be pre-service trained. Different
“dumb” lessons as teachers do not definition (Measure 4), 78.5% of the reasons were given. One was the
have to lecture their students most of primary English-language teachers inadequate supply of trained teachers
the time. have not taken the subject in degree in subject areas such as English
Under all the four measures, the course and teacher training, language. Most disturbing of all, the
highest percentages of out-of-field compared with 41.9% in secondary government asserted that the training
teaching in the secondary schools are schools. These relatively high requirement would deter highly
in ICT, Chinese history, and to a percentages have reflected a prevalent qualified people from entering
lesser extent, mathematics. For shortage in the supply of highly teaching (Cheng, 2002). The
instance, the percentages of teachers qualified English-language teachers in Secretary for Education and
without a relevant degree in the Hong Kong, as school heads often Manpower openly stated that “to
respective subjects (Measure 2) are as have to assign teachers without any capture the best talents, the teaching
high as 59.8%, 59.3% and 46.9%. training or education in English to profession must not be a closed
This largely reflects the prevailing teach the subject. system” (SEM, 2003). Interestingly,
work assignment at the junior- the government also referred to the
secondary level, in which school arguments against pre-service teacher
heads often assign science teachers to education in the United States in the

past few years. On a radio program, a only serves to perpetuate this requirements or are teaching out-of-
senior government official waved a situation. field, with headlines like “Half of the
copy of the report Meeting the teachers failed the language exams”
Highly Qualified Teacher's or “Over 80% of English teachers
Challenge: The Secretary's Annual One Quest for High Quality not meeting the SCOLAR
Report on Teacher Quality (U.S. requirements.” This usually led to
Department of Education, 2002) as While the government does not further public outcries about the
supporting evidence. believe that new teachers have to be alleged poor quality of language
The government thinking on pre- professionally trained, it teachers in Hong Kong. The
service teacher education has paradoxically wants to ensure that repercussion is that the image of the
influenced its teacher education language teachers are “highly whole teaching force has been
policies. Instead of ensuring an qualified.” As reported earlier, it has adversely affected.
adequate supply of pre-service put in place the mandatory language With the portrayed negative
trained graduates, it has instructed proficiency requirement for English- image and an employment market
teacher education institutions to shift language and Putonghua teachers, already affected by a decline in
the balance of initial teacher and supported the standing student population, the attractiveness
education provisions from the pre- committee’s policy requiring of the teaching career to prospective
service to the in-service route. The Chinese- and English-language graduates has sharply declined in the
latter route was considered more teachers to have taken the relevant past few years. For instance, studies
cost-effective. subject in degree- and teacher- by Lai et al. (2005a; 2005b)
What has gradually emerged training programs. These indicated that the percentage of
from the debate was that the requirements are stringent by world Secondary 7 (year 13) students
government has serious doubts about standards and have a number of interested in teaching as a career had
the academic standards of students in implications. declined from 50.8% in 2002 to
teacher education, and perceives that First, the new requirements mean 34.2% in 2005. In addition, recent
the quality of noneducation that most language teachers who data released by the tertiary
university graduates is better because were previously regarded as “subject- institutions indicated that the
they have higher academic trained” (Measure 1) are no longer admissions scores of secondary-
attainments and better mastery of qualified. The impact is most serious school students admitted to most
subject content. Interestingly, this for primary-school teachers because undergraduate programs in English-
perception also is shared by some of the high proportion of nondegree language education had dropped as
secondary school principals who teachers, and the generalist nature of well. In short, instead of attracting
contend that any training their degree and teacher training. more highly qualified entrants to
requirement would reduce their Second, these policies have language teaching, the government
choices of teachers. inadvertently raised the expectations policies of setting stringent standards
In the absence of a firm policy of parents and the community of the and criticizing serving teachers
commitment, untrained teachers standards of language teachers, and probably have quite the opposite
have continued to join the teaching they have become more critical of the effect.
force. As mentioned previously, in prevalent practice of out-of-field There also is evidence that the
2005, nearly 25% of the newly teaching in English language in government’s preoccupation with the
joined primary and secondary school schools. However, as serving teachers quest for highly qualified teachers in
teachers are still untrained. This will not be able to attain the required the language subjects had led to the
absence of training requirements for qualifications within a short time marginalization of other school
people to obtain employment as span, the media and the community subjects, such as visual arts, music
teachers in Hong Kong has been have been increasingly impatient and and general studies. First, many
considered as a condition that many parents have lost confidence in serving teachers and student teachers,
maintains teaching as a low-status the quality of language teachers. being concerned about their
occupation and having a low level of Several times in a year, the media employment prospects, prefer to
professionalization (Morris, 2004). published the percentages of study language subjects in their
The retreat of the government from language teachers who have not met professional development or pre-
the “all graduate, all trained” policy the language proficiency service teacher-education programs

respectively, irrespective of whether
such training really suits their own
needs or interest. Second, in order to
guarantee an adequate supply of
qualified English teachers, the
government has asked teacher-
education institutions to shift a large
number of teacher-education places
from other subjects to English. As a
result, it may result in an inadequate
supply of qualified teachers in the
non-English subjects. Third, the
Institute of Education, in order to
prepare its students for specialist
teaching in the languages in primary
schools, has reduced the curriculum
time devoted to other subjects. In the
future, it is likely that graduates in
primary teacher education may only
be qualified to teach one subject,
despite that they may be assigned by
school heads to teach other subjects
in primary schools. Paradoxically, the
government policy to quest for
highly qualified teachers in one
subject will lead to the increase the
proportion of out-of-field teaching in
other subjects.

Lai, K. C. (2005). Bureaucratic
References control and the professionalization of
Hong Kong primary teachers. New
Horizons in Education, 51, 1-8.
Cheng, Y. C. (2002, November 9)
Teacher status revamp method seen Lai, K.C., Chan K.W., Ko, K.W., &
as realistic. South China Morning So, K.S. (2005a). Teaching as a
Post, Education Post. career: A perspective from Hong
Kong senior secondary students.
Choi, P. K. (2005). A critical Journal of Education for Teaching,
evaluation of education reforms in 31(3), 153-168.
Hong Kong: Counting our losses to
economic globalization. International Lai, K.C., Chan, K.W., Ko, K.W., &
Studies in Sociology of Education, So, K.S. (2005b). Teaching as a career
15(3), 237-256. in Hong Kong: Understanding seven
secondary students’ perceptions.
Education Commission. (1992). Unpublished document.
Education Commission Report No. 5:
The teaching profession. Hong Kong: Morris, P. (2004). Teaching in Hong
Government Printer. Kong: Professionalization,
accountability and the state. Research
Education Commission. (1997). papers in education, 19(1), 105-121.
Education Commission Report No. 7:
Quality school education. Hong Kong: Standing Committee on Language
Government Printer. Education and Research. (2003).
Action plan to raise language standards
Education Commission. (2000). in Hong Kong: Final review report.
Learning for life, learning through life: Hong Kong: Government printer.
Reform proposals for the education
system in Hong Kong. Hong Kong: U.S. Department of Education.
Government Printer. (2002). Meeting the highly qualified
teacher challenge: The Secretary's
Education and Manpower Bureau. annual report on teacher quality.
(2006). Statistics on primary and Washington, DC: U.S. Government
secondary school teachers, 2005/06. Printing Office.
Hong Kong: Government Printer.
University Grants Committee.
Hong Kong. Chief Executive. (1998). Review of teacher education.
(1997). Speech by the Chief Unpublished document. Hong
Executive, the Honorable Mr. Tung Kong: University Grants Committee.
Chee Hwa, at the ceremony to
celebrate the establishment of the University of Hong Kong. (2006).
Hong Kong Special Administrative JUPAS admission grades. Retrieved
Region. Hong Kong: Government February 13, 2007, from
Printer. http://www.hku.hk/admission/jupas-
grades.htm
Hong Kong. Chief Executive.
(1998). The 1998 policy Address:
From adversity to opportunity. Hong
Kong: Government Printer.

CHAPTER 4
Force In Japan
Hidenori Fujita
International Christian University
In collaboration with Walter Putnam Dawson

International Christian University
Introduction conducted cross-cultural research on a whole has been characterized as a

teaching and learning, and students’ single-track 6-3-3-4 system with
It has been said repeatedly that mathematics and reading compulsory and neighborhood
teacher quality is crucial for achievements, in American, Chinese, schooling at elementary and lower
successful schooling. But current and Japanese elementary schools secondary levels. The system is
neo-liberal and market-oriented from the mid-1970s to the 1980s. founded on the value of meritocracy
education reforms seem to have had They found that the academic in that entrance exams determine
the substantive effect, generally, of achievement of Asian elementary admissions to high schools and
undermining the bases for teacher school children was higher than that universities. However, there also are
collaboration, discouraging teachers of their American counterparts. It is many nonselective universities and
from taking initiative, and safe to say that teacher training and special training colleges with open
damaging their sense of efficacy and culture of teaching must have played admissions policies. The Ministry of
confidence, thereby deteriorating the a significant role in affecting these Education, Culture, Sports, Science
quality of teaching and schooling. scores and outcomes. Indeed, the and Technology (hereafter, the
Unfortunately, this outcome seems to researchers identified two important Ministry of Education) controls the
be the case in Japan. characteristics of teaching in Japan. education system centrally by
From the 1970s, Japanese First, they stated that teacher training deciding the curriculum and
education began to attract attention in Japan takes place largely as on-the- educational standards.
as a successful example among many job training. Second, they noted that Japanese elementary and
developed countries including the teachers’ presence in a single staff secondary education is characterized
United States. It is ironical, then, that room contributed to a collaborative by a holistic approach that puts the
beginning in the 1980s, the Japanese culture for teaching facilitated by full development of the child as its
government launched radical discussion of teaching practices with main goal. To this end, schools have
education reform. This reform still peers. Current reforms, however, a wide variety of rituals, events, and
continues, being further intensified have been undermining the extracurricular activities. At both
and attacking both public schools foundations of this practical culture. elementary and secondary levels,
and their teachers. It is the time to Keeping the above in mind, this teaching and learning are
re-examine seriously the necessity, paper investigates some major homeroom-based in that students
appropriateness and effectiveness of characteristics of teacher training and remain with the same teacher for
current reforms, to determine the culture of teaching in Japan, and most subjects in elementary school.
whether they make schooling, then, makes a brief explanation of In secondary school, students remain
teaching and learning better—or and comments on current reforms in in the same homeroom where subject
worse. relation to those characteristics. teachers instruct them in the
Stevenson and Stigler (1992) The Japanese education system as different courses in the curriculum.

Teachers at all levels of public system) and classroom-level practices teacher’s certificates (Table 1). The
education in Japan have maintained a toward values of “technicism,” highest is the “advanced level,” which
strong sense of professionalism, “testism,” market competition, as is conferred with a degree of master’s
which makes them dedicated career well as individualism. There also are or higher. The next is the first level
educators. However, in recent years increased calls for decentralization, certificate for an individual with a
educators have been confronted with deregulation, and devolution of bachelor’s degree, and the lowest
a number of societal problems, which school management, curriculum certificate is the second level
challenge them in their many roles design and policy-making power. certificate, which is a temporary
(Fujita, 1991 & 1997). Teachers are subjected to a culture of certificate valid for 15 years, for those
Globalization, the information evaluation, inspection, and auditing. with junior college degrees. In
technology revolution, and an Most of these efforts serve to addition to the three levels of
increasingly more diverse and undermine proven practices in certification, there are three types of
multicultural society all reflect Japanese education and consist of certificates. The general certificate is
changes in Japanese society with misguided tinkering to the detriment a non-subject-specific certificate for
implications for educational of all Japanese stakeholders in elementary school teachers. There is a
practitioners. The knowledge base, education. Nevertheless, there are a “special subject certificate” for
incentives, and status for schooling number of aspects of Japanese elementary school teachers in fields
have all changed. There are global education that remain strong, with such as music, art, and home
standards for knowledge, technology, teacher training being one of them economics. Finally, the “subject-based
and qualifications. These despite the oncoming wave of certificate” is required for all
developments raise important “reformism” (Fujita, 1997, 2000a, & secondary school teachers. The
questions as to what knowledge 2005). variety of teacher’s certificates
should be taught and what skills available can be seen in Table 1,
developed. Teacher Preparation produced by the Ministry of
Beyond questions of cognitive Requirements and Standards Education.
abilities, schools in Japan are called There are certain requirements
upon to solve social ills that may be In Japan there is the national for obtaining the different certificates
the result of educational pathologies curriculum (course of study), which delineated by the Ministry of
or social pathologies. Such problems has been revised about every 10 years Education. An applicant must
include a breakdown in school and upon which entrance exams for graduate from a university with a
authority structures, social senior high schools and universities teacher training program accredited
maladjustment, and juvenile crime. should be based. Maximum by the Ministry of Education.
Can schools be expected to bear the classroom size is prescribed by the Furthermore, he or she must acquire
brunt of the responsibility to rid Ministry of Education, and funding all the prescribed credits for both
society of such overarching problems? for the salaries of public school subject courses and pedagogical and
They often are called upon to do just teachers is provided by the central guidance courses3, and must
that (Fujita, 1997). and prefectural governments1. participate in a three-week teaching
The current climate in the Public school teachers are hired practicum for all levels of teacher’s
education sector in Japan is one of by the prefectural board of education certificates and a one-week nursing-
“reformism.” A host of ideologies and rotated among schools in the
contend for the lead in educational prefecture usually every seven or
policy dialogue. Among them are eight years. Before employment these 1
A “prefecture” is a local administrative unit within
which cities, towns and villages are encompassed. It is
neoliberalism, neoconservatism, individuals matriculate from various the equivalent of a state in the United States. There are
consumerism, privatization, teacher training programs at colleges 47 prefectures in Japan.
3
Prescribed credits for the 1st class certificate are as fol-
marketization, and as well as a host and universities, and after lows: For elementary school teachers, 8 credits of sub-
ject courses, 41 credits of pedagogical and guidance
of buzzwords such as “accountability” employment, take a wide range of in- courses and 10 credits of either in addition to those for
and “efficiency” (Fujita, 1997, 1998, service training programs provided the BA degree; for junior high school teachers, 20 sub-
ject credits, 31 pedagogical and guidance credits and 8
2000a, 2000b, & 2005). by the Ministry of Education, local credits of either; for senior high school teachers 20 sub-
Major reform trends have boards of education and numerous ject credits, 23 pedagogical and guidance credits and
16 credits of either. In addition to these, 8 course cred-
included the reorganization of both voluntary study associations of its on the Japanese Constitution, physical education,
the school system (the 6-3-3-4 teachers. There are three levels of foreign-language communication, and media literacy
are required for all three education levels.

Table 1
Types of Teacher’s Certificates in Japan. 2
Classification Completion of a Completion of an Completion of a
Master’s course undergraduate course junior college course
Elementary school teacher
2nd class certificate
Lower secondary school teacher
Upper secondary school teacher Advanced certificate 1st class certificate
Kindergarten teacher
2nd class certificate
Nurse teacher
Special school teachers Advanced certificate 1st class certificate 2nd class certificate
(for the blind, the deaf, (plus general certificate for (plus general certificate for (plus general certificate for
and the other disabled) kindergarten, elementary, kindergarten, elementary, kindergarten, elementary,
lower and secondary lower and secondary lower and secondary
school teacher) school teacher) school teacher)
Note: 1. Different lower and upper secondary school teacher certificates are available depending on the subject to be taught. The
certificate for nurse teachers is the same regardless of special school type.
2. In addition to the general certificate, there are also special certificates and temporary certificates.
2
Japanese Ministry of Education homepage.
care internship for elementary and written tests, interviews, proficiency teacher is subjected to a one-year
junior high school teacher’s tests, and an essay test. The written probationary period. Training does
certificates. Upon completion of examination includes a number of not end with the end of this
these requirements, the prefectural sections covering pedagogical theory probationary period, however.
board of education will issue a and methods, educational One major characteristic of
teacher’s certificate. However, the psychology, student guidance and teacher training in Japan is the
acquisition of a teacher’s certificate counseling, subject knowledge, frequency and variety of in-service
does not guarantee employment. education laws and regulations, teacher training programs. This
Due to a decline in the school- educational administration, school variety is reflected in the detail
age population in Japan in recent management, and general school found in Table 2, which summarizes
years, the job opportunities for culture. The personal interview the teacher training scheme in
prospective teachers are limited and includes a requirement that the Japan, as defined by the Ministry of
only about 30 to 40% of graduates applicant conduct a demonstration Education. Another major reason
of teacher training colleges are able lesson. Given the high level of for quality teaching in Japan can be
to secure employment in public competition for teaching jobs in attributed to this scheme of teacher
schools. In the next 10 years, Japan, there even are private cram training, which is closely linked
however, job opportunities will schools, which prepare students for with teachers’ collaborative culture
expand dramatically due to the these examinations. The names of and with research-based
mandatory retirement of a large successful applicants are entered in instructional strategies.
number of teachers. the register of eligible teachers for As depicted here, teacher training
A prospective teacher must pass a each prefecture or district. in Japan is multi-dimensional,
battery of tests as decided by the Subsequently, boards of education continuous, and systematic. There
prefectural board of education or assign these teachers to schools based 4
An “ordinance-designated city (ODC)” is a city with
“ordinance-designated” city board of on the staffing needs of the school. a population over 500,000 persons which has authori-
education4. These tests may include Upon employment, the first-year ty over educational administration like that of a pre-
fecture. There are 15 ODCs.

Table 2
Types of Teacher Training Programs in Japan.5
1st Year 5th Year 10th Year 15th Year 20th Year 25th Year 30th Year 35th Year
Teachers’ Center Training Course
Training at National Level
Offshore Training
Middle Rank Teachers’ Training Course
Leader Training
Principal & Deputy Principal Training Course
Training on Future Course Guidance, Leader or other Trainings on New Industrial Technology or other subject
Teachers’ Overseas Assignment Project

Overseas Training for Young Teachers
Exchange of Citizens between Japan and U.S.A Short time Overseas Visit
Dispatch of Young Teachers to U.S.A.
Training
on Urgent Leader Training for Information Technology Utilization in Education, AIDS and Drug Abuse Prevention Training Meetings, etc.
Problem
Training for Experienced Teachers
Prelecture, Designated the core Municipality
Training Courses offered by the Board of Education
Induction Training for Training for Teachers with Training for Teachers with Training for Teachers with
Newly Appointed Teachers 5 year experience 10 year experience 20 year experience
Training for Student Guidance Supervisors, etc.

Training for Newly Appointed
Teacher in Charge of Planning &
Coordination of Educational Affairs
Training for Deputy
Principals
Training for
Principals
Long-term Dispatch for Training to a University,
Training Institution or Private Company
Specialized Trainings on Teaching Instruction or Student Guidance (held by Education Center, etc.)
Municipal
Education
Board of
Training Held by a Municipal Board of Education

School
Training at the School

Teacher
Trainings held by the Body or Group for Educational Studies

Trainings held by an Individual Teacher
Training on Planning & Trainings on Specialized Trainings held by the Government

Coordination of Educational Knowledge or Technology (Teacher Training Center)
Affairs depending upon the Others
experience Others Trainings Subsidized by the
Government
Trainings depending on
the function
5
Japanese Ministry of Education homepage.
are five levels of teacher training: (1) largely classified into two categories, At the level of prefectures and
the national level; (2) the prefectural regular teacher training, and ad-hoc large cities with populations over
board of education level; (3) the training that seeks to address 200,000 persons, the boards of
municipal board of education level; specific issues such as information education are responsible for offering
(4) the school level; and (5) the level technology or AIDS education. a series of training courses every year.
consisting of voluntary educational Participants in these programs are These include (1) induction training
associations, groups, and including expected to make presentations in for newly appointed teachers; (2)
individual teachers’ self-training. their schools and communities on training for all teachers with five, 10,
Training at the national level is what they have learned. or 20 years of experience; (3) training

for curriculum coordinators, student teachers. The off-campus component and connections with other academic
guidance coordinators, vice- takes place at the teacher training and educational associations. It is
principals, and principals; (4) long- center and includes lectures, evident from the sheer number of
term (one- or two-year) training seminars, and workshops. types of training programs and
programs in universities, research Teacher training at the level of organizations that teachers are
centers, or private companies for municipal boards of education varies provided with a wealth of mandatory
about 10 teachers selected from each among the different municipalities and voluntary forums that they can
prefecture and large city. There also depending on the educational issues participate in for the betterment of
are leader-training seminars for head that the municipalities have judged their pedagogical and administrative
teachers, principals, and vice- to warrant being the focus of training skills.
principals. These programs are all sessions. Teachers also take part in a A number of issues have arisen
compulsory but there also are variety of voluntary education study related to the quality of teaching and
programs created ad hoc by the local seminars, symposiums, and teacher training in Japan. Subject
board of education or the education workshops organized by voluntary knowledge and teaching skill are
training center for which teachers associations created by teachers. typical examples of targets for
either are selected or may volunteer. There also are teacher training reform. Other areas for improvement
Among these training programs, opportunities at the school level. include teachers’ interpersonal
induction training and the training Schools hold lesson-study seminars relationship with their students,
program for teachers with 10 years’ from time to time, which are open guidance and counseling, classroom
experience are mandatory. The either to all teachers of the school or management, as well as teachers’
induction training program is a one- to teachers from other schools with a decline in confidence, dedication and
year program that consists of two university professor and/or staff morality. In relation to these themes,
parts. The first part is a 60-day on- members of the local board of a number of reform initiatives have
campus training period during which education invited as guest been implemented.
the trainee teaches two days a week. commentators. In the case where the Some of the reforms have related
The second part is an off-campus school is designated and supported to recruiting new teachers and
training component during which financially as a research and providing training for low-
the trainee teaches for one day a development school (R&D school) performing teachers. In order to add
week. This off-campus training by the local board of education or diversity to the teaching ranks, some
period includes a five-day teacher the Ministry of Education, it takes districts have introduced a special
training retreat. Under the guidance the form of an all-day workshop, teacher’s certificate for those with
of a mentor teacher each newly often attended by hundreds of experience in business or social work
appointed teacher learns the various teachers. A typical program is but lacking a formal teacher’s
roles of the teaching profession. Off- composed of lesson demonstrations certificate. For teachers who are
campus training consists of a series of in all classes in the morning followed underqualified, special training
lectures, seminars, and workshops in the afternoon by theme-based programs have been implemented
provided at the teacher training discussions among the participants and in some extreme cases teachers
center in the prefecture or city, divided into several groups, and/or a who have not proven their
including school visits and other lecture by a guest speaker such as a competence have been dismissed. A
social activities. university professor, a superintendent volunteer program also has been
The training program for of the local board of education, or created so that some individuals can
teachers with 10 years of service some other distinguished person. act as teaching assistants or help with
includes 20 days of both on-campus Teachers also take their own extracurricular activities. More part-
and off-campus training periods. initiative to improve their time teachers have been hired to
During the on-campus training pedagogical skills. There are a reduce class sizes and help learners
period the teacher conducts a series number of seminars and study who require supplemental
of demonstration lessons, studies on groups that are voluntarily instruction. One very significant
teaching materials, a self-evaluation established and joined by teachers. reform has been the introduction of a
of his or her job performance, and They are created based on the performance-based teacher evaluation
discussions with the principal, vice- following criteria: subject, region, system in Tokyo. Reforms such as
principal, and other experienced teachers’ union, university affiliation, this one, which was proposed and

advocated by the Central Council of data to provide an overview of the teaching profession. Educational
Education and business leaders, tend state of teacher qualifications, job backgrounds can vary quite
to start in Tokyo and then spread to conditions, and attitudes. significantly for teachers holding
other prefectures throughout Japan. virtually the same job status.
Although numerous, these reforms Data and Measures Table 3 presents the percentage of
are by no means the only reforms to teachers with different credentials at
be proposed. There are a number of As discussed in a number of other the different levels of education. In
reforms that are still under discussion chapters in this volume, teacher this table, “normal college and
and these are enumerated below. credentials are a basic indicator of the university” stands for teacher training
One reform proposal would quality of teaching. The assumption institutions at the higher education
make teacher’s certificates is that higher credentials and level, while “general college and
comprehensive and flexible. There is credentials in the appropriate field university” stands for liberal arts
a plan to establish new graduate indicate that a teacher should be an colleges, technical colleges, and
schools for teacher educator graduate effective mode for the transmission universities with several faculties6.
programs. There also is a call to of knowledge to his or her students. “National schools” are those attached
intensify certificate requirements by After examining statistics, it is to national colleges and universities
adding criteria to evaluate practical necessary to read the statistical (national university corporations),
skills related to teaching. A further indicators reflecting teachers’ job while public and private schools are
regulatory proposal would institute a conditions and job satisfaction, as equivalent to those in the United
renewal system whereby teachers these are inevitably crucial for teacher States.
would be required to renew their retention. This table makes it evident that
teacher’s certificates after a designated there is an overall tendency for upper
number of years. The Qualifications of the secondary teachers to be graduates of
The reform initiatives and Teaching Force general colleges and universities. In
proposals address virtually every contrast, normal colleges and
aspect of teacher training and In Japan, as in other developed universities tend to send their
certification. Before examining their countries, there are a number of life graduates to public and national
value it is necessary to present some paths that lead individuals to the schools while private schools draw the
Table 3
Highest Degrees Held by All Fulltime Teachers at Different Levels of Education in Japan in PERCENTAGES, 20047
Normal College and University General College and University
Subtotal MA or higher BA JC Subtotal MA or higher BA JC
Degree Degree Degree Degree
Public Schools
Primary 59.8 2.1 56.6 1.2 40.2 0.4 26.5 12.7 409,665
Lower Secondary 40.3 2.5 37.5 0.3 59.7 1.1 51.9 6.3 235,317
Upper Secondary 19.1 2.3 16.5 0.3 80.9 8.1 70.9 1.2 194,925
Six-year Secondary 37.9 6.1 31.8 - 62.1 4.5 54.5 3.0 136
Private Schools
Primary 39.7 4.1 35.4 0.2 60.3 4.0 48.1 7.7 3,480
Lower Secondary 16.1 3.1 13.0 0.1 83.9 15.8 65.8 2.0 12,837
Upper Secondary 12.7 1.5 11.0 0.1 87.3 11.4 73.6 1.5 60,086
Six-year Secondary 15.8 3.0 12.8 - 84.2 22.6 59.0 2.1 247
National Schools
Primary 85.0 13.9 70.7 0.4 15.0 0.6 11.2 3.1 1,763
Lower Secondary 65.1 17.2 47.2 0.7 34.9 3.6 28.3 2.5 1,640
Upper Secondary 36.1 16.2 19.6 0.3 63.9 26.9 36.5 0.3 594
Six-year Secondary 31.4 18.6 12.8 - 68.6 23.3 45.3 - 87
6
As of April 1, 2006, there are 713 four-year colleges and universities (83 national, 74 public and 666 private ones) and 468 junior colleges (7 national, 40 public and 421 private
ones) in Japan. Among these, those which have accredited teacher training programs are 570 four-year colleges and universities (79.9%) consisting of 77 national, 44 public and 449
private universities (92.8%, 59.5% and 80.8% respectively), and 280 junior colleges (59.8%) of which 14 are public and 266 are private (35.9% and 63.2% respectively).
7
Japanese Ministry of Education, 2004.

Table 4 Table 5
PERCENTAGE of Secondary School Classes Taught by a teacher without a PERCENTAGE of Secondary School
Certificate in the Field, by subject, 20048 Teachers Who Teach Classes Without
Junior High School Senior High School a Certificate in the Field, by Subject,
20049
# of Classes % of Classes # of Classes % of Classes
Japanese Language 652 0.6 41 0.0 Japanese Language 2.3%
Social Studies 671 0.6 357 0.4 Social Studies 2.6%
Mathematics 1300 1.1 214 0.2 Mathematics 5.2%
Science 363 0.3 65 0.1 Science 1.9%
Music 178 0.2 4 0.0 Music 0.7%
Fine Arts 1682 1.4 154 0.2 Fine Art 11.2%
Health and Physical Ed 1311 1.1 104 0.1 Health & Physical Education 2.8%
JrHi: Indus. Arts Industrial Arts 36.3%
SrHi: Info Tech 2358 2.0 395 0.4 Home Economics 34.8%
Home Economics 2644 2.2 165 0.2 English 2.6%
English 411 0.3 100 0.1
JrHi: Other
9
Niigata Prefecture Board of Education homepage,
Prefectural data, 2004.
SrHi: Vocational 7 0.0 1713 1.7
Total 11577 1.1 3313 0.9
8
Japanese Ministry of Education National Data, 2004. affecting teaching quality. Training
teachers who leave the profession
majority of their teachers from general teach. The numbers here are low and defeats the purpose. Training is the
colleges and universities at all three reflect “emergency” personnel first step in providing quality
levels of schooling. decisions where a teacher may teach teaching. Next, the well-trained
classes outside of his/her field as a last teaching workforce must continue to
resort when a teacher from that field is provide a high level of education
Out-of-Field Teaching not available. Nevertheless, this based on the expertise and
occurrence is rare. knowledge they have acquired in
Ingersoll in his chapter refers to “out- Despite the infrequency of out-of- their training and teaching
of-field” teaching as a problem in the field teaching, there are some experiences. Thus it is necessary to
United States that adversely affects the arguments and complaints from examine and discuss teacher
quality of teaching. Table 4 is teachers on the issue of out-of-field retention rates in Japan. Table 6
interesting in that it presents a very teaching. Especially in the small junior presents data that would suggest that
divergent picture regarding “out-of- high schools with one or two classes at teacher retention rates in Japan are a
field teaching” when comparing the each grade level, the number of positive aspect of Japanese education
United States and Japan. It shows that teachers is small, and accordingly, and the culture of teaching.
such a problem is seemingly not of some teachers are forced to teach a The statistics indicate that the
great significance in Japan. subject that is not in their field, which majority of teachers remain in the
Table 4 lists the number and makes them feel uncomfortable, teaching profession and only leave it
percentage of classes, not the number imposed upon, and needlessly busy. at retirement age. The number of
of teachers, which is used as the This is one reason why the teachers who cited job change as a
indicator in the United States. consolidation of small schools has reason for leaving was comparatively
Although no such national data is become one reform policy. very low. These statistics would seem
available in Japan, Table 5 presents to indicate that the teaching
such data for Niigata prefecture. None profession is an attractive profession
of these statistics can be described as The Teaching Profession in Japan that is competitive with
alarming. For the core courses, the in Japan other career alternatives. There are a
percentage of classes taught by “out- number of factors that contribute to
of-field” teachers is negligible. The Job Conditions and Retention Rates the attractiveness of the teaching
teacher certification system in Japan Ingersoll in his chapter on teaching profession, and monetary incentives
assures that teachers should teach the in the United States points to teacher and financial security always figure
subjects they have been trained to retention rates as a major factor prominently in any job choice. The

Table 6
PERCENTAGE of Retired Teachers in Japan, by Reason of Retirement, 200410
Total Total %of retiring disease death job change admission other
Teachers Retires Retires age to schools
Total 934,230
Primary 407,598 9,319 2.3% 63.1% 2.3% 2.3% 8.2% 0.2% 23.9%
Public Schools 402,579 9,128 2.3% 63.9% 2.3% 2.3% 8.1% 0.2% 23.2%
Lower
Secondary 257,605 6,929 2.7% 54.4% 2.0% 2.4% 14.2% 0.6% 26.4%
Public Schools 243,680 6,308 2.6% 57.6% 2.0% 2.4% 14.0% 0.4% 23.7%
Upper
Secondary 269,027 10,313 3.8% 65.2% 2.0% 2.2% 8.5% 0.6% 21.6%
Public Schools 206,236 6,953 3.4% 80.3% 1.3% 2.3% 5.1% 0.3% 10.8%
Private Schools 62,190 3,341 5.4% 33.7% 3.6% 2.0% 15.6% 1.1% 44.1%
10
Japanese Ministry of Education National Data, 2004.
Table 7
PERCENTAGE of School Teachers in Japan, by Monthly Salary (Unit: 10T=100,000), 200411
-10T yen 10-15T 15-20T 20-25T 25-30T 30-35T 35-40T 40-45T 45Tyen- Mean
yen yen yen yen yen yen yen yen (1000yen)
Public Schools
Primary 1.7 0 0.2 4.3 6.2 12.3 22.3 29.6 23.5 389.2
Lower Secondary 1.2 0 0.3 5.3 8 14.2 28.1 24.3 18.4 377.9
Upper Secondary 0.9 0 0.3 4.9 7.1 11.6 22.9 23 29.3 393.5
Six-year Secondary - - - 8.1 5.4 35.1 29.7 10.8 10.8 356.6
Private Schools
Primary 1.5 0.4 2.6 14.4 14.4 13.2 13.1 14 26.5 364.7
Lower Secondary 0.7 0.2 1.7 11.5 13.8 13.3 13.8 13.8 31.2 385.4
Upper Secondary 0.6 0.2 2.5 10.5 10.4 11.4 14.3 15.7 34.4 391.7
Six-year Secondary 9.4 4.7 20.3 32.8 15.6 3.1 6.3 1.6 6.3 229.4
National Schools
Primary 0.4 - 0.1 2.1 7.1 30.6 42.9 10.7 6 358.8
Lower Secondary 0.2 - 0.1 1.4 7 23.3 47.7 13.1 7.2 366.4
Upper Secondary 0.8 - 0.2 1.2 3.7 12.6 26.1 30.7 24.8 400.1
Six-year Secondary 1.2 - 1.2 7 11.6 20.9 27.9 14 16.3 358.5
11
Japanese Ministry of Education National Data, 2004.
a. US$1 = 110 Japanese Yen
following table (Table 7) reveals that educators. But while this trend holds are based on the comparative survey
public school teachers receive true within each country, it is not conducted by the current author and
competitive salaries that are even necessarily relevant to the cross- his colleagues in 2000 for Japan and
comparable with their counterparts national comparison. Attitudes that 2002 for the United Kingdom. Both
in private schools. contribute to a high level of job the English and Chinese
satisfaction to Japanese teachers can questionnaires were translated from
be found in a study comparing the the Japanese questionnaire. The UK
Teachers’ Perceptions of Their United Kingdom (UK), China, and sample is a representative sample of
Profession in Japan in Japan (Fujita, 2001 & 2006). England, Wales, Scotland and
Comparison with China and Table 8 and Table 9 present the Northern Ireland, while the Chinese
the United Kingdom percentage of teachers who answered sample was drawn from Shanghai
“accurate” or “accurate to some and Kunming. The Japanese sample
It should come as no surprise that degree” to the questions concerning was strategically drawn from 11
well paid teachers typically are the teaching profession and their major cities in 11 prefectures
happier in their professions as work lives respectively. These tables including Tokyo, considering the

Third, as shown in the items 7
Table 8
Teachers’ Perceptions of the Teaching Profession – PERCENTAGE of those who and 8, such images as “models of life
answered “accurate” or “accurate to some degree.” for the children” and “intellectuals”
Japan China UK also differ among these three
1. Constant efforts has to be made to improve oneself 98.6 99.6 97.3
countries, with both of the images
2. Requires highly professional knowledge and skills 93.5 95.8 99.1 most pervasive in China, least in
3. Financially secure with good benefits 43.1 51.5 52.5 Japan and in-between in the UK. On
4. Have high social status 42.3 70.0 17.4 the other hand, such perceptions as
5. Involved with every aspect of students’ personality 73.9 88.8 55.5 “financially secured with good
6. Exploits one’s own life extensively 78.2 88.1 77.4
benefits” and “have to maintain a
7. Teachers are the models of life for the children 57.7 94.6 71.3
8. Teachers are intellectuals 56.5 94.0 71.3 relationship of authority toward
9. Teachers are professionals 92.3 67.9 98.0 pupils” are most pervasive in the UK,
10. Enjoy wide range of autonomy in designing work 56.5 46.2 94.9 least in Japan, and China in between.
11. Have to maintain a relationship of authority towards pupils 68.4 84.8 97.5 Among these three, the third
12. Physically demanding 98.9 95.3 96.6 points are especially suggestive for
13. Must have a sense of mission 92.4 94.0 92.4
14. Gives a feeling of accomplishment 94.0 91.3 89.6
understanding current conditions of
Total number of respondents (sample size) 1277 726 1382 Japanese teachers and the impacts of
recent reform policies. Japan is lowest
in all of these four aspects: “models
Table 9 of life,” “intellectuals,” “to maintain
Teachers’ perceptions of their work lives – PERCENTAGE of those who answered authority toward pupils,” and
“Yes” or “Sometimes.”
“financial security.” Why is Japan
Japan China UK lowest among these three countries?
1. Happy to have become a teacher 88.3 77.2 92.3 To answer this question, the
2. Tired chronically 79.4 93.1 88.5
following section provides a brief
3. Authority of teachers is declining 88.8 70.2 96.5
4. Busy everyday 96.6 97.5 99.9 explanation of recent education
5. Want to quit teaching 29.5 24.0 55.1 reform trends in Japan.
Total number of respondents 1277 726 1382
diversity of the localities throughout improve oneself and its expertise, and Impacts of Recent Education
Japan (Fujita, 2001 & 2006). As for its job performance is subjectively Reform on Teachers’
the Japanese survey, a similar survey rewarded with the feeling of Perceptions in Japan
was conducted with focus on the accomplishment. In other words,
organizational culture and work lives expertise, sense of mission, and Responding to the survey, Japanese
in 1995 in eight cities, all of which dedication are critical in teaching teachers displayed a moderate degree
are included in the survey of this profession. of feelings of financial security that is
study (Fujita, 1997). The results Second, the images, perceptions, slightly lower than teacher responses
presented here are substantially and feelings about the teaching in the UK and China. This is not
similar to those of the previous one. profession differ among the countries surprising as Japan has the highest
Table 8 is interesting in that it with the following tendencies: As cost of living in the world. In
suggests at least three trends. shown in the items 4, 5, 9 and 10, its addition, there is a possibility that it
First, all three countries show very social status is less enjoyed in a more reflects the recent decline of
high percentages, over 90%, in items developed country; its role tends to competitive salaries of public school
1, 2, 6, 12, 13 and 14. This suggests be defined as a more diffuse one, teachers compared to employees
that these aspects are the basic features involved with every aspect of holding a bachelor’s degree in their
of teaching profession. Teaching is a students’ personality, in less major and working for a private
kind of job or profession that is developed country; and, concepts company. The decline in salaries is
physically demanding and tends to including “teachers are professionals” due partly to cutbacks in salaries and
exploit teacher’s own life extensively. It and “enjoy autonomy in designing fringe benefits, as well as education
also requires a sense of mission, high work” are more pervasive in a more policies that have led to
expertise and constant efforts to developed country. intensification of teaching job.

Secondly, Japanese teachers tend revised national course of study was Teachers’ Perceptions of Their
not to think of themselves as enforced and the policy called Yutori- Work Lives in Japan in
intellectuals and the role models for kyoiku (education free from stress) Comparison with China and
children compared with their was started, cutting down lesson the United Kingdom
counterparts of UK and China. hours and educational content and
Theoretically, it can be said that these emphasizing a new conception of Table 9 shows teachers’ perceptions
perceptions should be higher in less academic ability, a new progressive of their work lives in Japan, China
developed societies and should tend to style of learning and a new scheme of and the UK. The data come from the
decline along with the socio-economic academic assessment, with the slogan same survey used for Table 8.
development and educational of “Yutori (affordability) and Jujitu Almost all teachers of all three
expansion. Then a question arises: (enjoyable fulfillment).” This policy countries feel “busy every day,” and
Why is it significantly lower in Japan has been further strengthened by the most teachers also feel “tired
than even in UK? One possible five-day school week policy, which chronically,” indicating that the
answer is such that university was partly implemented in 1992 and intensification of the teaching job is
education has expanded more in fully in 2002, giving up Saturdays as now a common feature in many
Japan than in UK countries and a school day12. countries. Most teachers also feel
accordingly there are more BA degree These various policies, however, “happy to have become a teacher”
holders among parents and ordinary have come under criticism since (happy to be a teacher, hereafter).
people in Japan. It also is plausible around 2000, and reactionary reform They also agree “the authority of
that the cultural urbanization has initiatives are being taken under the teachers is declining” (authority
advanced more in Japan than in UK current administration as of January decline, hereafter), but the
countries and accordingly the 2007. The steps being taken include percentages vary significantly among
traditional culture of respecting expansion of the parental choice the three countries: UK is highest,
teachers has declined more. A further scheme and selective six-year public Japan is next and China is lowest.
answer is that Japanese schools and secondary schools, the introduction The most striking results is the
teachers, especially public schools and of the national test for all sixth and differences in the feeling of “want to
their teachers, have been under ninth graders and a school evaluation quit teaching” among these three
relentless attack from various scheme, introduction of the renewal countries: more than half of UK
stakeholders since the 1980s and system for teacher certificates, and teachers indicate a desire to leave the
forced by reform policies to become the emphasis on indoctrinatory profession, while in Japan only about
efficient in some specific aspects such moral education and severe 30% indicate such a desire and only
as school disorder problems. As a punishment of disorderly behaviors. 24% in China.
result, many teachers have become Most of these plans are criticized by Why do these differences appear?
confused trying to make sense of their the current author and other Although it is not easy to identify
roles and lost confidence in being education scholars/critics for reasons their causes or backgrounds, the
teachers, intellectuals and role models including deteriorating further following tables (Tables 10 to 12)
for children. Japanese education and practical and provide some evidence for feasible
Finally, Japanese teachers moral bases of teaching and teachers’ speculation. These tables are the
displayed a moderate degree of collaboration as well as expanding summary results of regression
feelings about the importance of the differences of educational analyses, the dependent variables of
maintaining a relationship of opportunity by family backgrounds which are the feelings of “authority
authority towards pupils, much lower (Fujita, 1997, 2000, 2005, 2006 & decline,” “happy to be a teacher” and
than those of UK and China. It is 2007; Hirota, 2004; Kariya, 2002 & “want to quit teaching,” respectively.
correct to say that this is deeply 2007; Mimizuka, 2007). It is right to Although there are some
related to the educational reform say that these reform movements and differences among these three
movements and policies over the last policy discourse lie behind the countries, major determinants and
three decades in Japan. Especially unique perceptions of Japanese patterns basically are similar. In all
since the 1980s, progressive and teachers mentioned above. three countries, teachers tend to feel
child-centered ideas of teaching and the decline of their authority, if they
12
The backgrounds, contexts and impacts of these poli-
learning have been spread and cies like “Yutori-kyoiku” and “five-day school week” are feel that mass media tend to criticize
emphasized in Japan. In 1980, the investigated and discussed in Fujita’s books and articles the schools and teachers unduly
(Fujita, 1994, 1997, 2000, 2005 and others).

Table 10 authority declining more than those
Determinants of the feeling of “authority of teachers is declining.” who do not feel the need to hold
Independent variables Japan China UK firm authority. In short, these results
Mass media do not understand the
suggest that increasingly harsh
everyday experience of schools .203 .217 .218 conditions surrounding teachers both
Fearful of students .161 .182 .160 within and outside schools make
Parents report complaints often .144 .178 — teachers feel their authority declining.
Teachers have to maintain a relationship As for the feeling of “happy to be
of authority toward students .112 — .085
a teacher,” in all three countries that
R2 .126 .152 .094
Analysis of variance df 4 3 3 disposition depends mostly on the
F-value 43.9 39.3 39.8 feeling of accomplishment
Probability of significance .000 .000 .000 experienced through teaching—
reflecting the nature of teaching
profession and its associated reward.
Table 11 This connection is more prominent
Determinants of the feeling of “happy to have become a teacher.”13 in Japan than in China and UK, as
Independent variables Japan China UK indicated in the above table. Not
Teaching gives the feeling of accomplishment .515 .455 .440 only the feeling of accomplishment
Teachers have high social status — .121 .129 but also the two other variables,
Staying in touch with students “staying in touch with students
whom you taught before .102 — -
whom you taught before” and
Talking about your own experience of life
and your philosophy to students .086 — - “talking about your experience of life
Discussing educational viewpoints and your philosophy to students,”
and directions with colleagues — — .074 have statistically significant impacts
R2 .326 .255 .253 on the feeling of “happy to be a
Analysis of variance df 3 2 3 teacher,” and these three variables
F-value 195.1 114.0 148.7
combine to explain about 33% of its
Probability of significance .000 .000 .000
variance. On the other hand, in
13
Regression analysis; values =ß; all values are significant = .002
China and the UK, the second
largest determinant is teachers’ social
Table 12 status, which is not significant in
Determinants of the feeling of “want to quit teaching.” 12 Japan.
Independent variables Japan China UK The final question to be
Happy to have become a teacher - .516 -.461 - .496 investigated here is why many
Authority of teachers is declining — .255 .199 teachers, especially in the UK,
Busy every day — .117 .072
indicate a desire to leave the
Tired chronically .285 - .179
R2 .402 .359 .449 profession. The most powerful,
Analysis of variance df 2 3 3 negative determinant is to be found
F-value 418.0 124.0 361.9 in the response to the feeling of
Probability of significance .000 .000 .0002 “happy to be a teacher”: If he or she
14
Regression analysis; values =ß; all values are significant at .000 feels happy to have become a teacher,
he or she is not likely to have such a
desire. On the other hand, the
without understanding the reality of vandalism and violence against
feelings of “authority decline” and
schools, and if they feel fearful of teachers. Furthermore, in China and
“busy every day” tend to match
students. In other words, these days Japan, the increase in parents’
teachers’ desires to leave the
teachers feel their authority declining, complaints and claim-makings make
profession in China and the UK, and
partly due to the growing undue teachers feel as if their authority is in
the feeling of “tired chronically” also
criticism of teachers in policy decline. In Japan and the UK, those
tends to do so in the UK. In Japan,
discourse and society at large, and teachers who feel maintaining a
however, not the feeling of “busy
partly due to the increase of such relationship of authority toward
every day” itself but the feeling of
school-disorder problems as students important tend to feel their

“tired chronically” has a much larger far preferable to a situation like that rather than the professional expertise
impact in causing them to desire to in the United States where fully 40- of autonomous teachers.
leave the profession. As indicated in 50% of teachers leave the profession Policymakers have looked only
Table 8, the profession these days is in the first five years of service (see toward narrow-sighted, short-term,
extremely busy and physically Ingersoll chapter). The current and measurable outcomes to the
demanding for a teacher, and tends statistics in Japan regarding teacher detriment of broadly viewed, long-
to exploit one’s own life extensively. professionalism, quality teaching, and term functions and effects of
But at least in Japan, these features retention of teachers paint a positive education. In this changing
are not critical for making teachers picture. environment, teachers and schools
feel unhappy in being a teacher and As proved especially in Tables 6 have been under relentless attack
desire to leave the profession. It is and 9, it also is abundantly clear that from various stakeholders and forced
such factors as the feeling of “tired Japanese teachers are happy in their to cope with the growing pressures
chronically,” partly caused by profession as educators. Furthermore, from backers of the principles of
relentless undue criticism and attacks despite the challenges, they do not market efficiency and quasi-public
against teachers and schools, that indicate a desire to leave the accountability that are embodied in
make teachers unhappy, isolated, profession, an attitude that explains the policies favoring parental choice
hopeless, and desiring to leave the most directly the exemplary rate of of schools, “testism,” the audit
profession. This is the case at least in teacher retention in Japan. The culture, and achievement-oriented
Japan. Japanese teaching profession still teacher evaluation and rewarding
remains an attractive option for systems.
college students in Japan. The rapid pace of reforms and
Implications and Conclusions Nevertheless, there is the possibility the normative tone of the dominant
that “reformism” for the sake of reform discourse have cast a shadow
As referred to in the study on change will lead to drastic changes in over more viable approaches and
teacher attitudes and perceptions, the profession and the way it is policies based on research and
Japanese teachers see themselves as viewed. Some political actors in empirical evidence. Policymakers, the
professionals who have a sense of Japan would seek to meddle in the mass media, and practitioners have
pride in their professions. Japanese field of education reform, putting become shortsighted and hasty in
teachers enjoy a career that provides political gain ahead of social progress. making changes and getting concrete
them with a handsome pay scale, job The teaching profession and results (Fujita 1997, 2000a, 2000b,
autonomy, high sense of educators stand at a crossroads where 2005, 2006, & others). Researchers
accomplishment, and a collaborative they must lead the field of education must keep the needs and expectations
community with their colleagues that in the direction they see fit resisting of practitioners in mind when
affords them chances to grow and the chaotic winds of reform that planning research which seeks to help
develop as educators. constantly change direction. improve the quality of teaching and
Because of the well-regulated Since the 1980s a tide of education, especially in the current
guidelines governing teacher education reform movements has climate where confidence and trust
certification, Japanese teachers are emerged in many countries including in teachers has been eroded by
well-trained in the appropriate the United States, the United reformers and critics who know little
subject matter and pedagogical Kingdom, and Japan and reframed of the realities of education in
courses. The data in Tables 4 and 5 the policy discourse on evaluating schools. Practitioners and researchers
attest to the fact that “out-of-field and organizing public education. must work in tandem to forge a new
teaching” is not a significant factor This new framework has placed more collaborative community bridging
affecting the quality of teaching in emphasis on freedom rather than the divisions between universities,
Japan. Furthermore, the data on equality, and quasi-public (or schools, and research institutes.
retirement suggests that job retention superficial) accountability rather than The ideologies behind reformism
in the teaching profession in fairly responsibility for our children and are wrought with irony and illogical.
stable. A further indication of job community. More confidence has The current reform initiatives and
retention is the statistic that only been vested in market efficiency proposals seek to address crises that
0.6% of teachers leave the profession rather than intrinsic educational do not exist and rather will give rise
after their first year of service. This is value, and direct managerial control to unforeseen educational crises.

Stakeholders must ask themselves if
there is a need for reform after close
examination of the realities of
education. This examination must be
a transparent process that is based in
the values of justice and trust. The
current reform trends will undermine
the ideal of equal schooling for all as
well as that of a collaborative
community of educators who create a
holistic learning and caring
educational space. Thus, by
infringing upon the autonomy of
teachers, these reforms have the
greater danger of lessening the
attractiveness of the teaching
profession and adversely affecting the
quality of teaching in Japan.
Time is of the essence for the
stakeholders in Japanese education to
avoid an educational crisis brought
on by the forces of reformist
dilettantism. Choices must be made
that will have a significant effect on
the quality of teaching for decades to
come. Is quality teaching assured by
control and inspection, or by
imbuing teachers with democratic
autonomy and professionalism? The
answers to these questions can only
come from an approach to policy
discussion and practice based in
methodologically rigorous research
that provides reliable results to lay at
the foundation of future policy-
building. Only thus can education
uphold the values of trust and
dignity to the benefit of all those
involved in the educational endeavor.

Fujita, H. (2005). Gimukyoiku o
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[Education Reform]. Tokyo:Iwanami- no Yukue [Where is education
Shoten. reform going?]. Iwanami-Shoten.
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Choice, quality and democracy in Teacher professionalism and the
education: A comparison of current culture of teaching in Japan: The
educational reforms in the United challenge and irony of educational
States, the United Kingdom and Japan, reform and social change. In H.
Paper presented at the international Fujita, (Ed.), A study on the culture of
symposium on The Public and the teaching and teacher professionalism.
Private in the United States Tokyo: Tokyo University Press.
sponsored by the Japanese
Association for American Studies and Fujita, H., & Wong, S-K. (1999).
the Japan Center for Area Studies of Postmodern restructuring of the
the National Museum of Ethnology, knowledge base in Japanese mass
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Fujita, H. (1999, February 26-28).
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Kyoiku [Civic society and
education]. Seori-Shobou.

CHAPTER 5
The Quality and Qualifications
of the Teaching Force
In the Republic of Korea
Ee-gyeong Kim
Korean Educational Development Institute
Introduction of the teaching career: When that national attention is being paid
attracting talented persons to to the system of teacher preparation
Korea has recently seen an teaching and preparing them for the and certification.
unprecedented interest in teachers as job; when employing and placing At this juncture, the definition of
the most important factor them; and in their early career and teacher quality should be examined.
influencing student achievement, the subsequent service period. That is In an Organization for Economic
which naturally yields a conclusion because teacher quality cannot be Cooperation and Development
that the quality of teachers ought to enhanced by focusing on only a OECD (1994) study reviewing the
be improved in order to raise the single career phase. concept of teacher quality
quality of education. The world- Nevertheless, the phases that comprehensively and systematically,
famous educational zeal of Korean receive particular attention in Korea teacher quality is defined in the
parents—expressed through excessive are teacher preparation and following five dimensions: first,
spending on private tutoring—has certification due to a unique attribute knowledge of curriculum and
given rise to distrust of public of Korea's teacher labor market. In content of education; second,
education and dissatisfaction with Korea, relatively competitive pedagogical skill including
public school teachers. Although the individuals in the labor market aspire attainment of diverse instructional
Korean government since the 1990s to enter teaching profession. strategies and the ability to utilize
has made policy efforts aimed at Teaching is considerably favored by them; third, self-reflection and self-
revitalizing public schooling and the Korean youth because of its criticism that ensure teacher
improving the quality of the teaching distinct merit of guaranteed tenure, professionalism; fourth, empathy and
force, a sense of crisis based on a particularly in the current age of commitment that recognize dignity
notion that qualified and dedicated employment instability, and its of other persons; and fifth, the
teachers are in short supply in traditionally upheld social status. management skills required to
schools is gaining even stronger Also, the teacher turnover rate is very manage the affairs in and out of
currency. low, so that most teachers remain in classroom.
To improve the quality of the profession until the point of Depending on what qualities of a
teachers, it takes a coherent policy retirement. Thus, for the goal of person should be viewed as
effort that integrates the entire having as many high quality teachers constituting an ideal teacher, the goal
teaching career—that is, from the as possible in schools, a crucial of teacher preparation as well as the
point at which aspiring teachers enter matter is how to prepare and certify design of teacher training may vary.
a teacher training institution until the competitive individuals who For example, the ratio between
they reach retirement. There should intend to enter the teaching subject-specific pedagogy and
be systematic and comprehensive profession in such a way that they training in subject matter content,
efforts to improve professionalism consequently form a high-quality the ratio between general pedagogy
and quality of teachers at each phase teaching force. Hence, it is natural and subject matter training, and the

period and method of practice schooling; therefore, it is very administrative structure has started to
teaching could vary. Although the important to design a flexible policy diminish the size of the central
state supervises teacher certification for teacher supply. When an administrative organs since the late
in Korea, there exists no agreed-upon oversupply of teachers occurs, both 1990s, under the banner of making a
national standard as to the the personal and social costs increase, small and efficient government.
educational curriculum of teacher since graduates of teacher-training Propelled by such an effort at
preparation. Thus, curricular institutions cannot find employment downsizing, the Ministry of
organization and required hours vary as teachers. In addition, an excess of Education and Human Resources
among different teacher training aspiring teachers in teacher training Development has also been reducing
institutions, thereby inhibiting institutions creates difficulties in its organization and personnel,
effective quality control of the providing specialized training to concurrently transferring its major
preparation phase. them and reduces their opportunities administrative decision-making
Another important issue at hand for practice teaching, so the authority including budget planning
in the discussion of securing a high- likelihood of lowering the quality of to intermediate level offices of
quality teaching force is that of the teacher preparation increases. When education. However, inertia within
balance between supply and demand an undersupply of teachers occurs, the traditional centralized governance
of teachers. At present, in Korea, teacher candidates who have not remains powerful, so that the
there is an undersupply of teachers undergone the regular processes of centralized practice is still prevalent
for elementary schools, so that the preparation, certification, and in such core dimensions as finance,
quality as well as suitability for a selection may be employed, or out- personnel management, and
school's needs of the candidates for of-field teachers may be employed, or organizational supervision.
teaching positions cannot be teacher shortages may be handled by Particularly, intermediate and local
reviewed at a satisfactory level. In the increasing the workload of the offices' reliance upon the central
case of secondary schools, oversupply existing teachers. Those outcomes government financially is too strong,
of teachers has resulted in a large increase the likelihood of as evinced by the fact that over 80%
excess of unemployed teaching deteriorations both in teacher quality of the local educational expenditure
certificate holders produced by and the work environment (Santiago, is provided by the central ministry.
teacher training institutions. Such 2002). The relationship between the
undersupply and oversupply are The governance structure of offices of education and individual
deeply related to the types of teacher Korea's education is very centralized. schools also is characterized by its
training institutions. While Like that of the general conspicuously top-down manner.
elementary school teachers are administration, educational Elementary schools and middle
trained nation-wide at designated administrative organization is based schools are supervised by Local
institutions designed for the purpose on three levels of structure--central, Offices of Education, while high
of supplying elementary school intermediate, and the local. There is schools by Metropolitan and
teachers, secondary schools teachers the Ministry of Education and Provincial Offices of Education. Such
are trained at both purpose-based Human Resources Development at supervision and control are not
teacher training institutions and the central level, and there are 16 restricted to a particular set of
other open tertiary institutions. The Metropolitan and Provincial Offices designated matters, but can be
Korean government has failed to of Education at the intermediate extended to other matters deemed
adjust the freshmen quota of those level, and 180 Regional Offices of necessary for normal management of
divergent teacher training institutions Education at the local level. Under educational institutions and
in a way that matches the demand those administrative jurisdictions, as realization of national education
for teachers, which has resulted in of 2005, there were a total of goals. Although school-based
the proliferation of the training 6,499,518 students and 304,097 management was adopted in the
institutions for secondary school teachers in 9,003 national/public mid-1990s for the purpose of giving
teachers, consequently creating the elementary and secondary schools; more autonomy of individual
problem of teacher oversupply. and 1,296,883 students and 76,292 schools, the decision-making
Both oversupply and undersupply teachers in 1,673 private schools. authority and scope of local school
of teachers can cause the lowering of The Korean government with its officials remains limited.
the quality of teachers and quality of traditionally centralized

The formulation and Figure 1
implementation of teacher policies Elementary Teacher Training Institutions with Freshmen Quota, 20051
also are under the jurisdiction of the 13 institutions (6,225 students)
central government; preparation,
certification, and employment of University Korea National Ewha Womans
teachers are administered by the of Education University of Education University
Ministry of Education and Human 11 universities (national)
Resources Development. Therefore, Seoul, Incheon, Busan,
the scope of influence that can be Daegu, Gwangju, Gongju, 1 university (national) 1 university (private)
exerted upon teacher policy by local Cheongju, Jeju, Jinju,
Cheongju, Chuncheon
offices of education and schools is
very limited.
6,015 students 160 students 50 students
1
Internal data from Ministry of Education and Human Resources Development
Teacher Preparation
Teacher Preparation System status to that of four-year 25,000 graduates every year. The
A person must acquire a teaching universities. In addition, there are freshmen quota in the teacher
certificate in order to teach at a two departments of elementary training programs and graduate
school, even as a part-time lecturer. school education in the Korea schools of education is bigger than
In Korea, regardless of the type of National University of Education that of teachers colleges. Table 1
teacher training institutions, i.e., and Ewha Womans University, which shows different types of training
either national/public or private, is a private institution. The following institutions of secondary school
completion of designated courses in Figure 1 shows the types of training teachers and the freshmen quota for
nationally accredited teacher training institutions of elementary school the year 2005.
institutions results in conferring of a teachers and the freshmen quota for In order to enter the teacher
standard teaching certificate. Those the year 2005. training institutions, applicants need
pre-service institutions for elementary Secondary school teachers are to have educational attainment at
and secondary school teachers are being trained through various routes, least equivalent to that of a high
separate with different tracks. with at least four major paths. They school diploma. The Ministry
Elementary school teachers are include 40 national and private encourages the applicants' aptitude
trained at 11 national universities of teachers colleges, 57 departments of for teaching and their personality be
education. These universities of education in general universities, 136 assessed in the entrance examination,
education had been two-year colleges teacher training programs in general though difficulty in developing an
until 1981, when the call for universities, and 135 graduate objective and valid assessment tool
improving the quality of elementary schools of education, totaling 368 has made actual implementation of
school education upgraded their institutions, which produces over such measures in student selection
Table 1
Secondary Teacher Training Institutions with Freshmen Quota, 2005 (unit: students)
Number of Institution Freshmen Quota Teaching
Types of National/ Private Total National/ Private Total Certificate,
Institution Public Public Recipients
Teachers College 13 27 40 4,030 6,748 10,778 14,120

Department
of Education 8 49 57 511 2,920 3,431 1,715
Teacher Training Program 32 104 136 6,032 16,216 22,248 9,536
Grad. School
of Education 36 99 135 7,397 13,090 20,487 4,759
Total 89 279 368 17,970 38,974 56,944 30,130

very limited. Table 2
Upon graduation, graduates of Number of Vacancies and Employment Rate (Elementary), 1999-2005. 2
teacher training institutions are (unit: persons)
entitled to receive the teaching Year Vacancy Employed Employment Rate (%)
certificate, and there exists no 1999 10,026 7,825 78
2000 8,133 5,729 70.4
graduation examination administered
2001 9,575 5,599 58.5
at national level. The path through 2002 6,925 6,187 89.3
which certified teachers get employed 2003 8,884 7,222 81.3
differs between the national/public 2004 9,395 8,897 98.2
and private institutions. The 2005 6,050 5,941 98.2
Ministry of Education is responsible 2
Internal data from Bureau of Teacher Training, Ministry of Education and Human Resources Development.
for the hiring of national and public
school teachers, and basic matters institutions determines teacher rate was a mere 16.2% in 2005. Such
such as procedures and methods of supply, it is closely related to the a serious imbalance between supply
the employment test are specified by issue of supply and demand of and demand of teachers goes beyond
law. However, superintendents of the teachers in the future. In Korea, both the simple issue of oversupply of
16 Metropolitan and Provincial phenomena—undersupply and teachers and gives rise to concerns
Offices of Education are delegated by oversupply—are apparent. At the about low-quality teacher education,
the Education Minster to exercise the elementary school level, teacher tending to lower public trust of the
authority to employ national and supply is restricted because there are teaching profession. Table 2 shows
public school teachers (Educational only 13 institutions nationwide. vacancies and employment rate for
Civil Servant Employment Act, There occurred a temporary shortage elementary school teachers, while
Article number 3). To be employed after 1999 due to a policy lowering Table 3 shows the numbers of
by national and public schools, a the retirement age for school teachers prepared and employed at the
certified teacher must pass the from 65 to 62. That resulted in a secondary level.
teacher employment test massive retirement of 22,000 The most serious problem facing
administered by the 16 Metropolitan elementary teachers by 2000, and it teacher-education institutions is their
and Provincial Offices of Education. took time to replenish the needed failure to convert excellent human
Since the teacher employment test teaching force. However, most resources into excellent teachers. It is
consists mainly of a paper-and-pencil vacancies had been filled by 2005, often pointed out that, while
test covering pedagogical and subject- which caused prospective elementary excellent students are admitted to
matter knowledge, critics often argue teachers to worry about teacher-training institutions, those
that it is of limited value in employability. Recent research on institutions fail to prepare them to be
evaluating the prospective teachers' teacher demand and supply revealed effective teachers. Bluntly, Korea's
teaching skills or their aptitude for there would be an oversupply of teacher-preparation process is
teaching (Ee-gyeong Kim, et al., elementary teachers starting the year problematic.
2004). 2011 due to a decrease of student Conspicuous problems in the
Meanwhile, in the case of private population caused by low fertility teacher preparation system are related
schools, the methods and procedures rates (Ee-gyeong Kim, et al., 2006). to the issue of supply and demand of
for teacher employment are It now is being argued among teachers, as well. A rational
determined by individual school scholars and practitioners whether to adjustment should be applied to the
foundations. According to continue efforts to increase the pool undersupply and oversupply of the
regulations for private school of elementary prospective teachers. teaching certificate holders.
teachers, acquisition of the teaching In contrast, an oversupply of the Particularly, there should be measures
certificate follows the same regulation secondary school teachers is evident to resolve the problem of oversupply
for the teachers of national and by the low employment rate of of secondary school teachers and to
public schools, but the matters certificate holders. In recent years, on give intensive, high-quality education
pertaining to teacher employment is average only about 30% of graduates to the trainees, whose number should
decided by individual schools. of the various training institutions of correspond to future demand for
Since the number of teachers secondary school teachers could find teachers.
produced by teacher education teaching posts; and the employment

Table 3
Ratio Between Preparation and Employment, Secondary School Teacher, 1999-2005.3 (unit: persons)
Year Preparation (A) Employment (B) Employment
Teachers Teacher Graduate Total National/ Private Total Rate
College training school of public school (B/A)
program education school
1999 11,297 11,731 1,737 24,765 4,277 1,268 5,545 22.30%
2000 10,745 12,576 2,264 25,585 5,457 2,298 7,755 30.30%
2001 10,762 11,428 3,263 25,453 2,675 1,770 4,445 17.50%
2002 12,931 10,448 1,887 25,266 7,388 1,235 8,628 34.10%
2003 16,171 10,394 4,604 31,169 7,155 1,914 9,609 30.80%
2004 17,346 9.953 4,888 32,187 5,867 1,797 7,664 23.80%
2005 17,273 10,483 5,417 33,173 3,980 1,384 5,364 16.20%
Total 96,525 77,013 24,060 197,598 36,799 11,666 48,465 24.50%
3
Internal data from Bureau of Teacher Training, Ministry of Education and Human Resources Development.
a. Figures in the “National/public school” column indicate the number of people who passed the employment test; Figures in the “Private school” column indicate the number
of people who are newly employed.
universities. Universities of education considered to have stronger

Teacher Preparation offer four-year programs like general uniformity than the training
Curriculum universities, and total credit hours institutions of secondary-school
required for graduation normally is teachers, there exist big differences in
Teacher preparation in Korea is 140~145, albeit with small the credit hours to be completed for
undertaken not only by institutions differences among different each domain and in the ratio
specializing in teacher training such universities of education. However, between the required and elective
as the universities of education for curricular variance is more courses. At the same time, variances
elementary school teachers and pronounced among different among universities are high in the
teachers colleges for secondary school universities of education: the period hours allocated to intensive courses,
teachers, but also by nonspecializing of practicum ranges from six to nine practicum, and subject matter
institutions including teacher- weeks, with three to five credit hours education.
education programs and graduate assigned to that work; 15 to 30 credit Among teachers colleges,
schools of education. Diversity in the hours given to intensive course; 43 to curriculum is supervised by each
institutions of teacher preparation 63 credit hours to courses dealing individual institution, resulting in
implies diversity in the educational with subject matters (see Table 4). diversity of curriculum among
curricula of teacher preparation. Differences also are apparent in different colleges. And in the cases of
However, the differences that the ratio between required courses the teacher-education programs in
exist among different universities give and electives. Credit hours allocated general universities and graduate
rise to differences in the quality of to pedagogical studies vary among schools of education, the curriculum
the teachers they produce. In fact, different institutions, such as six to is guided by the Enforcement
differences in the training process 14 credit hours when they are Regulation Number 12 of the
among different institutions are required and four to 12 credit hours Teacher Certification Authorization
substantial, and it is very difficult to when they are electives. Subject- Act, which specifies a certain number
seek adjustment of, and control over, matter education exhibits equal of subject matter and pedagogy
those differences. variance in allocated credit hours courses.
Whereas universities of education among different institutions—43 to Teachers colleges offer a four-year
that prepare elementary school 63 when it is required and zero to programs like general universities and
teachers retain relative uniformity eight when it is an elective. In the total credit hours required to
compared to the institutions that addition, courses in general acquire teaching certificate is
prepare secondary school teachers, education, arts, and physical normally 140, including over 40
there exist rather significant education also show high variance. credit hours of subject matter courses
differences in the educational Hence, even among the and over 20 credit hours of general
curriculum among different universities of education, which are pedagogy courses, with small

Table 4

Credit Hours Assigned to Curricular Domains in the Universities of Education
U. of U. of U. of U. of U. of U. of U. of U. of U. of U. of U. of U. ofKorea Range
Curricular domains Gyeongin Gongju Gwangju Daegu Busan Seoul Jeonju Jinju Jeju Cheongju Chuncheon Nat'l.
Univ.
of
Education
Required 6 28 25 31 20 26 26 4 22 22 6 0-31
(8) (29) (33) (21) (23)
Elective 29 12 10 13 16 7 12 26 35 18 12 15 7-35
Compo-
(14)
sition of
Courses
Sub-total 35 40 35 44 36 33 38 30 35 40 34 21 30-44
(37) (43) (46) (37) (41)
Required 14 13 16 6 16 14 12 8 14 14 15 6-16
Pedagogy
Elective 6 4 4 12 4 4 6 8 4 4 4 12 4-12
Sub-total 20 17 20 18 20 18 18 16 18 18 19 12 16-20
Required 49 53 50 50 43 50 46 63 46 48 49 28 43-63
Subject (51) (54) (60) (54) (54) (57) (48) (654) (56) (53)
Specific Elective 2 6 2 8 8 4 2 3 0-8
Subject
Pedagogy (4)
Specific
Sub-total 51 53 56 52 43-51 50 54 63 50 48 51
Pedagogy
(53) (54) (66) (56) (62) (57) (56) (65) (60) (53) (53) 31 43-63
&
Special
Arts Required 10 8 6 6 12 8 8 9 11 14 12 6-14
Activities
& (18) (16) (9) (12) (24) (15) (14) (15) (18) (20) (20)
physical Elective 2 3 2 2 2 1 2 20 0-3
education (4) (3) (4) (4) (2)
Sub-total 12 11 8 6 12 8 10 11 12 16 12 20 6-16
(22) (19) (12) (12) (24) (15) (18) (19) (20) (22) (20)
Intensive Course 21 15-21 21 21 22-30 20 21 21 21 20 21 21 15-30

(24) (21-25) (21-24) (20-23)
Practicum 5 3 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 3 3 4 3-5
Graduation Thesis P/F P/F P/F P/F P/F P/F P/F P/F P/F P/F P/F P/F
Social Service Activity P/F P/F P/F P/F P/F 31

(Free
elective )
Total 144 145 144 145 145 140 145 145 140 145 140 140 140-145
(158- (157) (158- (157) (169- (154) (155) (155) (154- (157- (150) (150-
161) 162) 174) 157) 160) 174)
differences among colleges. In the pedagogy within subject matter is 10 making it educationally meaningful.
case of the teacher education to 51%; hence, variance among Calls for improvement of the
program of general universities, colleges is clear. curricula of teacher preparation can
students are required to take over 42 Practice teaching is a very be narrowed down to the following
credit hours of subject matter and important curricular part of the two problems: first, the problem of
over 20 credit hours of pedagogy teacher-preparation process. lack of quality control among
courses, with the earned average However, it is difficult to seek to different institutions; and second, the
point of at least 80 credit hours for strengthen practice teaching when problem inherent in practice
both, to receive teaching certificate. there is a such an oversupply of teaching. There should be a
In the case of graduate schools of teachers to be found at the secondary minimum level of standardization to
education, students are required to level. It is impractical to impart help maintain uniformity among
take over 42 credit hours of major intensive practice teaching to the various curricula of the different
subject throughout their students, when only one in five teacher-training institutions, on the
undergraduate and graduate periods eventually will enter the profession, one hand, and to strengthen their
and 20 credit hours of pedagogy making the practice-teaching professional content, on the other.
courses. experience a waste of time and Such inter-institutional
In the preparation of secondary- money for the remaining four standardization could ensure that
school teachers, the differences students. first, a trainee can build his or her
among teachers colleges, teacher- Universities of education, which basic capacity to be an effective
training programs in general prepare elementary school teachers, teacher, regardless of the location and
universities, and graduate schools of run practice-teaching programs that type of the institution he or she
education are great. Particularly, it is are more diverse and systematic than enters, and second, qualitative
problematic, critics argue, that the those of the secondary-teacher- equalization of the teachers produced
teacher training programs of both education institutions. Elementary by different institutions can be
general universities and graduate teachers participate in practice achieved to a desirable degree. Also,
schools of education produce teaching programs that are offered there should be efforts to strengthen
secondary-school teachers repetitively over several academic practice teaching, including
mechanically, simply by meeting the years. They include diverse activities diversification of the period of
minimum standards specified by the such as observation, participation, practice teaching, lengthening its
Teacher Certification Authorization classroom teaching, practical duration, and adoption of a
Act. managerial work, and so on. probationary period.
Curricular variance among Duration of practice teaching ranges To resolve these problems, the
different colleges of education is from six to nine weeks with three to Korean government has pursued the
visible: in the case of the total credit five credit hours issued, depending following measures: revising the
hours for graduation, about 60% of on university. Both types and hours curricula of teacher preparation
the teachers colleges require 140 of practice teaching of major institutions; adopting an
credit hours, 30% require 150 credit universities of education are accreditation system of teacher
hours, and the rest require below 140 presented in the Table 5 below. preparation institutions; improving
credit hours down to 130. Under current circumstances in teacher preparation institution to the
Differences among colleges in which new teachers are required to level equivalent to graduate school;
curricular organization also are teach in the classroom immediately abolishing the teacher-preparation
evident: 6 to 60 credit hours of upon their employment without an function of graduate schools of
general education, 52 to 120 credit induction period, the minimum education; and integrating the
hours of subject matter, 6 to 21 amount of practice teaching offered departments of teachers colleges.
credit hours of general pedagogy, and cannot guarantee that the prospective
42 to 108 credit hours of subject- teachers receive sufficient training to
specific pedagogy and subject matter. face the reality of classroom teaching.
Also, the proportion of subject Therefore, it is necessary to
matter is 38 to 80%, that of general strengthen the management of
pedagogy, 10 to 23%, and the practice teaching by lengthening its
proportion of subject-specific period, diversifying its types, and

Table 5
Types and Required Credit Hours of Practice Teaching, University of Education
Types of Practice Hours Freshman Sophomore Junior Senior Total
Univ. Teaching 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Duration
Observation non-credit 1 week

Seoul
Nat’l. Participation 1 2 weeks 4
Univ. of Classroom Teaching 2 2 weeks 2 weeks (9 weeks)
Education
Practical Works 1 2 weeks
Gyeongin Observation 1 2 weeks

Nat’l.
Univ. of Subject Matter 1 1 5
Education (8 weeks)
Practical Works 3 6 weeks
Chuncheon Observation no-credit 1 week

Nat’l.
Practical Works 1 2 weeks 3
Univ. of
(7 weeks)
Education Classroom Teaching 2 4 weeks
Gwangju Observation pass/fail 1 week

Nat’l. 4
Univ. of Classroom Teaching 4 8 weeks (9 weeks)
& Practical Works
Education
Observation 1 1 week
Busan
Nat’l. Participation 1 2 weeks 4
Univ. of (8 weeks)
Classroom Teaching 2 5 weeks
Education & Practical Works
Teacher Certification System certificate acquisition. Teachers throughout their undergraduate and
colleges, which prepare secondary graduate periods and 20 hours of
Overview school teachers, require their students teacher training subjects.
Prospective teachers who to take a total of 140 credit hours Examinations are administered to
satisfactorily meet the graduation including over 42 credit hours of those wish to become teachers to
requirements specified by the Teacher major subject and over 20 credit confer the preliminary teaching
Certification Authorization Act hours of teacher training subjects, certificate when the problem of
receive a teaching certificate. The albeit with some differences among teacher undersupply occurs.
teaching certificate is conferred by colleges. In the teacher education An identical teaching certificate is
the Minister of Education through programs of general universities, conferred at different types of
an authorization procedure without students are required to take over 42 teacher-training institutions, whether
examination. It means that the credit hours of major subject and they be national/public or private.
certificates are conferred over 20 credit hours of teacher The certificate can be attained by
automatically upon graduation. They training subjects, with the average completing the specified number of
specify the school level for which the GPA of at least B for both, to receive teacher training courses in nationally
teacher is eligible to teach as well as a teaching certificate. In the case of approved teacher training
major and minor subjects he or she is graduate schools of education, institutions. However, employment
authorized to teach. students are required to take over 42 processes are different depending
There is no age restriction for credit hours in their major subject upon the types of schools. While the

Table 6
The Summary of Teacher Certification System
Type of Certificate Grade 2 Teacher Grade 1 Teacher
Certificate Acquisition
Method Authorization without examination Authorization without examination
Requirement for • Graduates of four-year training • Certification standard and evaluation

Certificate Acquisition institution result of in-service
• Those who acquired master's degree
from graduate school of education
Certificate Acquisition By submitting the non-examination • Completing over 15 credit hours of

Method and Procedure authorization application to the head of re-education courses administered by
university in-service training institutions
designated by the regulations of the
Educational Civil Servant Law, with the
earned average point of 60 or higher
• Re-education is imparted to all
grade 2 teachers.
Age Restriction — —
Relation to Open competition (age and qualifying Promotion based on qualifying process
Employment conditions)
Legal Base for Appendix 2 of the Item 2, Article No. 21, Article No. 18 & 21, Teacher
Certificate Acquisition Elementary and Secondary School Certification Authorization Act
Education Law
Supervisory Body for Certification • Committee for Teacher —

Certification Authorization is formed.
• Re-issuing of certificate follows the
pre-set regulation in the cases of
deprivation and loss of the certificate.
teachers of national and public higher level certificate attainable after a national certificate, which means
schools are selected via an open, the Grade 2 certificate is conferred, that the national government
competitive employment test can be acquired by completing over recognizes that the certificate holder
administered by each Metropolitan 15 credit hours of in-service has acquired the knowledge and skills
and Provincial Office of Education, education courses administered by needed to perform the duties of
private school teachers are employed in-service training institutions teaching. For the national
via an independent selection designated by the regulations of the government to recognize the
procedure of each individual school, Educational Civil Servant Law. The certificate holder's professional
since the head of the private school training for the Grade 1 teacher quality with certainty, it is necessary
reserves the right to employ teachers. certification is imparted to all grade 2 to control the quality of certificate
Recently, however, in consideration teachers who have over three years of acquisition process, and after the
of teacher professionalism, private teaching experience. On average, it certificate is conferred, to supervise in
schools have been advised by the takes five to six years for a teacher to a way that ensures continued
government to hire their teachers acquire the Grade 1 teaching professional development. However,
through open competitive measures. certificate after his or her entry into under the current system of teacher
Higher level certificates in the the teaching profession. Table 6 sums certification of Korea, prospective
profession are acquired based on the up the certification system for the teachers who lack the ability and
predetermined process and standards. Grades 2 and 1 teaching certificates. aptitude to be teachers can enter
The Grade 1 teaching certificate, a In Korea, a teaching certificate is teaching profession. Entering a

Table 7
Teachers’ Academic Qualification, by Location, School Level, and School Type, 2005
Classification Total No. No. of Teachers No. of Teachers No. of Teachers
of Teachers with Academic with Bachelor’s with Master’s Degree
Qualification Degree (or higher)
below Four-Year
University
Location Metropolis 166,120(100) 8,157(5) 117,741(71) 40,222(24)
S&M City 209,117(100) 16,184(8) 145,118(69) 47,815(23)
School Level Elementary 157,407(100) 22,513(14) 109,921(70) 24,973(16)
Secondary 217,830(100) 1828(0.5) 152,938(70) 63,064(29)
School Type Nat’l./Public 298,436(100) 23,442(8) 207,563(69) 67,431(23)
Private 76,801(100) 899(1) 55,296(72) 20,606(27)
Total 375,237(100%) 24,341(7%) 262,859(70%) 88,037(23%)
4
Data from KEDI and MOEHRD (2005). Annual Report on Educational Statistics.
Seoul: Korean Educational Development Institute.
teacher- training institution is rather propose the adoption of a in private schools than in
difficult compared with graduation. certification renewal system that national/public schools, and in
Researchers argue that the absence of would validate the teaching secondary schools than in elementary
national-level standards to manage certificate periodically. schools. Sixteen percent of teachers
the overall quality of certificate has in elementary schools hold a master’s
contributed to the current problem. Data on Teachers’ degree, compared with 28% at
The existing practice certainly lowers Qualifications secondary school level. The
public trust of the teaching certificate percentage of the certificate holders
(Kim, Ee-gyeong, et al., 2004). To Teaching certificates are conferred among the entire teachers was over
resolve such problems, many basically to those who graduate 99% in 2005 (see Table 8).
observers agree that it would be from four-year teacher-training
necessary to change the way the institutions and those who acquire
teaching certificate is acquired and to master's degrees from graduate Out-of-Field Teaching
toughen the acquisition criteria. It schools of education; the proportion
also has been advocated that a of the former is much higher among Even an excellent system of
national certification system be the entire pool of certificate holders. training and certification of teachers
adopted. Policy studies are underway According to statistical data, as of that produces high-quality teachers
to identify the performance standards 2005, about 70% of elementary does not guarantee optimal
of different types of teachers to come school teachers had a bachelor's placement in teaching posts, thereby
up with national level standards. degree, while about 23% had a heightening the quality of classroom
There is another problem that master's degree. Those pool of those teaching. Even an excellent teacher is
surfaces after the teaching certificate who graduated from institutions less likely to provide low-quality
is acquired: the fact that there is no than a four-year university dates instruction when he or she is
expiration date of the certificate from the 1970s, when the assigned to the subject about which
implies that once a person acquires universities of education offered he or she is not knowledgeable. The
the certificate, he or she need not only two-year programs; hence, problem of out-of-field teaching, one
seek further professional about 93% of those whose academic of the most direct causes of lowering
development. To counter this qualifications do not include a of instructional quality, is closely
problem, it has been advanced that bachelor's degree are elementary related to assignment of teachers.
teachers be required to take part in school teachers (see Table 7). Out-of-field teachers refer to those
periodic in-service training to renew The percentage of certificate who teach subjects for which they
their certificate for the purposes of holders whose academic have not attained specialized
enhancing public trust of the qualifications are at least a master's knowledge during their
teaching certificate and improving degree is higher in metropolitan areas undergraduate or graduate school
teacher professionalism. Researchers than in small and medium-size cities, period.

Table 8
Teaching Certificate Holders, 20055
Number of regular teachers
Category Sub-total Teacher Prelim. teacher Others Unqualified
Location Metropolis 166,120(100) 166,039(99.95) 41(0.02) 40(0.02) None
S&M City 209,117(100) 208,908(99,90) 164(0.08) 45(0.02)
School level Elementary 157,407(100) 157,248(99.90) 126(0.08) 33(0.02) None

Secondary 217,830(100) 217,699(99.94) 79(0.04) 52(0.02)
School type Nat’l./public 298,436 (100) 298,216(99.93) 168(0.06) 52(0.02) None

Private 76,801(100) 76,731(99.91) 37(0.05) 33(0.04)
Total 375,237(100%) 374,947(99.92%) 205(0.05%) 85(0.02%) None

5
Date from KEDI and MOEHRD (2005). Annual Report on Educational Statistics.
Seoul: Educational Development Institute.
schools according to the law, it is However, the preference of students

In Korea, the Elementary and sometimes not properly observed, so and schools for Japanese or Chinese
Secondary School Education Law that small-sized schools with small over French or German has left many
provides guidelines for determining number of classes cannot have all the French or German teachers
the number of teachers assigned to teachers needed for all subject unassigned. Because public school
each school. The number of matters. Under such a circumstance, teachers are national public servants
classrooms, which usually reflects the to supplement the insufficient unit and employment is guaranteed until
size of a school, becomes the hours for instruction of different the age of 62, there should be
yardstick for determining the subjects and for the sake of remedial measures to reassign these
number of teachers assigned to each administrative convenience, out-of- teachers. Granting a minor
school. According to the law, in the field teaching takes place. Out-of- qualification through in-service
case of middle school, three teachers field teachers cannot guarantee the training was initiated to address this
are to be assigned to a school with up quality of instruction, irrespective of problem.
to three classrooms, and if there are their academic qualifications. To acquire the minor
more than three classrooms in a In Korea, a teacher’s major and qualification, teachers go through
school, 1.5 more teachers are added minor subjects are specified on the short-term in-service training of 180
per additional class (Article Number teaching certificate, which is hours during vacation, and are
34). In the case of high school, three conferred to teachers upon permitted to teach new subjects for
teachers are to be assigned to a school completing authorized teacher- which they have prepared themselves.
up to three classes, the same numbers education programs. Recently, the Through this in-service, a number of
as middle school, while two teachers Korean government adopted a system teachers have become qualified to
are added with one additional class recognizing a “minor qualification” teach subjects different from the
increase (Article Number 35). The acquired through in-service training major or minor specified in their
number of students as well as in order to enhance the flexibility of teaching certificate. However, the
teachers’ teaching loads are not the teacher supply. This qualification short-term intensive training, which
considered in determining the is given to certified teachers who is offered during vacation
number of teachers supplied to each cannot otherwise be assigned to (approximately for three months),
school. This formulation tends to schools because the subject matters can be a tremendous burden on the
increase teacher and becomes the specified in their teaching certificate teacher, and further, the lack of in-
cause of out-of-field teaching in as a major or minor are no longer depth study is criticized for failing to
small-sized schools. offered at a school due to help teachers acquire specialized
Although the superintendent of unpopularity. knowledge and competency.
each intermediate-level office of For example, French and German Compared with the 20 credit hours
education is responsible for supplying language courses were offered at the required for acquiring a minor
appropriate numbers of teachers to upper-secondary level until 1980s. certificate at a university, the newly

initiated in-service training is hardly
Table 9
sufficient to prepare teachers for PERCENTAGE of Secondary Teachers in Korea in the Core Academic Fields
classroom teaching. Without a Teaching Certificate (Major) in the Field by Type of School, 2005. 6
In addition, the in-service Korean English Math Science Social
training programs and methods are Studies
under severe criticism. The vacation- Total 3.64 8.70 11.03 24.81 5.14
time courses consist of lectures Type of School
mainly by professors and lecturers National & Public 4.48 10.00 11.04 27.27 5.23
from teacher-training universities Private 1.98 6.45 11.01 20.29 5.00
Degree of Wealth
that are of limited effectiveness in
Rich 7.41 1.61 6.56 24.64 0.00
helping teachers apply their newly Poor 2.93 10.99 12.95 24.12 6.11
obtained knowledge in the classroom Community Type
setting. Due to the impractical nature Large Cities 3.57 6.67 11.59 27.47 4.44
of the training, teachers are forced to Medium and Small Cities 4.04 6.33 12.20 21.60 5.43
prepare for teaching though Rural 3.17 16.67 6.98 23.81 6.15
Grade Level
individual study of instructional Lower Secondary 4.47 12.17 10.26 32.47 8.04
material. As a result, the quality of Upper Secondary 2.44 5.80 11.64 17.26 3.33
classroom teaching suffers. Number of Classes
Nevertheless, teachers whose 1 ~ 12 6.06 17.24 12.00 24.53 7.14
subject matter has turned out to be 13 ~ 26 5.26 11.84 9.33 19.53 4.62
27 ~ 33 2.25 4.69 8.00 35.87 3.30
unpopular appear to have no other
34 ~ 55 2.35 5.95 14.77 22.03 6.38
choice but to acquire the minor
qualification through the training 6
Survey by author.
a. Private schools refer to schools whose ownership belongs to the private foundation.
course. And when the number of the b. Lower-secondary school level refers to those teaching grades 7~9th, and upper- secondary level refers to grades
applicants seeking the training is 10~12th.
c. Degree of wealth refers to the level of community wealth where the school is located. Since there was no accu-
greater than available seats, teachers rate data available regarding community wealth, it was drawn based on teachers’ perception.
with fewer years of service have to d. The number of classes refers to the total number of classes per school. It informs the size of schools.
defer the training to the future.

We need to understand the teaching certificates, while Table 12 through in-service training. Shown in
phenomenon of out-of-field teaching and 13 are based on undergraduate Table 11, Korean, English and social
more accurately to come up with or graduate majors/minors. studies do not reveal serious
effective policy alternatives. It is Table 9 shows the percentage of problems, as the percentage of
necessary to determine in what secondary teachers who teach teachers who teach those subjects
regions out-of-field teaching takes subjects other than the one specified without a certificate in the field is
place most frequently and to what as the major on his or her teaching relatively low. However, about 11%
extent, and in which school level and certificate. Table 10 shows the of math teachers and 25% of science
subject matter it is concentrated. For percentage of teachers who teach teachers teach a subject without a
the purpose of the investigation, a subjects other than the one specified proper in-field certificate.
survey questionnaire was developed as major or minor on his or her In general, as the definition of
and conducted based on stratified teaching certificate, while Table 11 out-of-field teachers becomes
sampling of 2,000 secondary-school shows the percentage of teachers who tougher, the percentage of out-of-
teachers nationwide. The survey was teach subjects other than the one field teachers becomes higher. As
administered from mid-November to specified as major, minor, or minor Tables 12 and 13 show, the
early December, 2005. A total of acquired through in-service training. percentage of out-of-field teachers
1,423 teachers returned the Among Tables 9, 10 and 11, who are defined as such based on
questionnaire marking 71.2% Table 9 applies the toughest standard undergraduate or graduate
response rate. requiring a teaching certificate with a major/minor is much lower than that
The data in Tables 9, 10, 11, 12 specific major on it. The comparison based on teaching certificate. When
and 13 show five different measures between Tables 10 and 11 shows that the undergraduate or graduate
of out-of-field teaching. Tables 9, 10 a small portion of teachers are major/minor definition is applied,
and 11 are prepared based on qualified to teach core subjects the percentage of out-of-field

teachers in most subjects drops
Table 10
PERCENTAGE of Secondary Teachers in Korea in the Core Academic Fields Without
significantly, though the percentage
a Teaching Certificate (Major or Minor) in the Field by Type of School, 2005.7 of out-of-field science teachers is still
Korean English Math Science Social
high enough to cause serious
Studies concerns.
Total 1.99 3.95 10.65 24.81 3.08 Considering the fact that there is
Type of School an oversupply of secondary teachers
National & Public 1.99 3.75 10.39 27.27 3.49 and almost 100% of secondary
Private 1.98 4.30 11.01 20.29 2.50 teachers hold teaching certificates,
Degree of Wealth the data concerning out-of-field
Rich 1.85 1.61 6.56 24.64 0.00
Poor 2.09 4.95 12.44 24.12 3.49
teachers raise the problem of quality
Community Type of teaching caused by mismatch
Large Cities 1.43 3.33 11.59 27.47 2.96 between professional expertise and
Medium and Small Cities 2.02 2.53 10.98 21.60 1.09 teaching subjects.
Rural 3.17 7.41 6.98 23.81 6.15 There also are large cross-school
Grade Level
differences in out-of-field teaching.
Lower Secondary 2.79 4.35 9.40 32.47 3.57
Upper Secondary 0.81 3.62 11.64 17.26 2.78 In most fields, teachers in national or
Number of Classes public schools are more likely to be
1 ~ 12 6.06 6.90 12.00 24.53 7.14 assigned to teach out of their field
13 ~ 26 3.16 5.26 9.33 19.53 3.08 than are those in private schools. For
27 ~ 33 1.12 1.56 8.00 35.87 0.00 example, according to Table 11, 25%
34 ~ 55 0.00 3.57 13.64 22.03 4.26
of teachers teaching science classes in
7
Survey by author. public schools are out of field,
compared with 18% of those in
private schools. In four of the five
Table 11
academic fields, there is higher
PERCENTAGE of Secondary Teachers in Korea in the Core Academic Fields
Without a Teaching Certificate (Major, Minor or Minor Acquired through In- percentage of out-of-field teachers in
service Training) in the Field by Type of School, 2005.8 national or public schools than in
Korean English Math Science Social private schools.
Studies Teachers at schools located in
Total 1.66 2.77 10.27 22.76 2.40 relatively poor communities are more
Type of School likely to be assigned to out-of-field
National & Public 1.99 3.13 9.74 25.30 2.91 classes—a tendency observed in four
Private 0.99 2.15 11.01 18.12 1.67 of the five subject areas. Korean is the
Degree of Wealth
only subject showing a different
Rich 1.85 1.61 6.56 23.19 0.00
Poor 1.67 3.30 11.92 22.51 2.62 tendency. Rural and remote areas are
Community Type characterized as much less affluent
Large Cities 1.43 2.50 11.59 26.37 2.22 and providing fewer opportunities
Medium and Small Cities 2.02 2.53 9.76 18.40 1.09 than urban areas. This causes the
Rural 1.59 3.70 6.98 21.43 4.62 problem young people abandoning
Grade Level
Lower Secondary 2.23 3.48 8.55 29.90 2.68
their hometown to look for better
Upper Secondary 0.81 2.17 11.64 15.74 2.22 educational or economic
Number of Classes opportunities. Korea is facing a
1 ~ 12 3.03 3.45 12.00 22.64 4.76 continuing population decrease in
13 ~ 26 3.16 3.95 9.33 17.97 3.08 rural areas due to economic, cultural,
27 ~ 33 1.12 1.56 8.00 34.78 0.00
and educational deprivation in the
34 ~ 55 0.00 2.38 12.50 18.64 3.19
agricultural and fishing regions. The
8
Survey by author.
effect is a continuous decrease in the
student population of rural areas and
smaller schools in those areas.
A logistical problem results. It is

In such cases, teachers feel burdened
Table 12
by out-of-field classes and tend to
PERCENTAGE of Secondary Teachers in Korea in the Core Academic Fields Without
an Undergraduate or Graduate Major in the Field by Type of School, 2005.9 harbor discontent about such
practices, which leads to providing
Korean English Math Science Social
Studies low-quality classroom instruction to
Total 2.98 6.72 2.28 26.09 3.08
students.
Type of School Another important reason why
National & Public 3.48 8.75 3.25 26.09 3.49 out-of-field teaching occurs can be
Private 1.98 3.23 0.92 26.09 2.50 found in the recent change in Korea's
Degree of Wealth educational policy adopting a new
Rich 3.70 1.61 0.00 24.64 0.00
national curriculum that emphasizes
Poor 2.93 8.24 3.11 25.72 3.49
Community Type school autonomy and student choice.
Large Cities 4.29 2.50 2.17 30.77 0.74 Some subjects have disappeared as
Medium and Small Cities 2.02 7.59 3.66 20.00 5.43 11th and 12th graders have chosen
Rural 1.59 14.81 0.00 25.00 4.62 not to enroll in some courses.
Grade Level Unpopular subjects include military
Lower Secondary 3.91 10.43 2.56 34.02 6.25
Upper Secondary 1.63 3.62 2.05 18.27 1.11
training and foreign languages like
Number of Classes French and German. Korean law
1 ~ 12 3.03 13.79 0.00 26.42 4.76 secures the employment status of
13 ~ 26 2.11 9.21 0.00 22.66 1.54 public school teachers, so they
27 ~ 33 2.25 3.13 2.67 38.04 4.40 cannot be dismissed, even when their
34 ~ 55 4.71 4.76 4.55 20.34 2.13
subjects are no longer taught.
9
Survey by author. The government's attempts to
not possible to place as many upper- secondary. According to Table resolve the problem of out-of-field
teachers in small schools as would be 13, lower-secondary teachers are teaching, including having some
needed to cover every academic more likely to be assigned to out-of- teachers circulate to other schools,
subject. If they were placed, they field classes. It is obvious in four of employment of part-time and
would not be able to fulfill their the five core subjects, except math. contract teachers, and an industry-
required hours of teaching. Hence, Science seems to be the most serious school co-teaching system, have not
the easiest solution to the problem is case. Approximately 30% of lower- proven successful. For instance, the
out-of-field teaching. The size of secondary teachers teaching science circulation plan calls on teachers who
schools expressed by the number of are out-of-field, while there are 16% cannot fulfill their required teaching
classes per schools is closely related to at the upper-secondary level. Teachers hours in their home school to teach
the percentage of out-of-field tend to be considered subject-matter in other schools, for bonus points, or
teachers as shown in Table 12. specialists in the upper grade levels, a stipend. But that plan has not been
Multiple-grade teaching, in which because more rigorous and welcomed by teachers because, first,
students of different grades gather in sophisticated knowledge and they find it is burdensome to
a single classroom to receive competencies are required. It is rather commute to several other schools,
instruction, often is utilized to solve easier for teachers to teach lower- teach there, and adapt to unfamiliar
the problem. That scenario, however, secondary classes than upper- school atmosphere; second, they are
places a burden on teachers and secondary classes. not exempt from administrative
represents an obstacle to instructional Out-of-field teaching occurs chores at their home school, though
effectiveness. because of inflexibility in supply and they work long hours elsewhere; and
While out-of-field teaching is demand of teachers. Small schools in third, bonuses for such work are not
most pronounced in small schools, rural areas experience difficulties in given evenly across different
metropolitan areas are not immune securing teachers to teach all subject metropolitan and provincial regions,
from it either. Teachers of unpopular matters due to a shortage of students, so there are teachers who do not
subjects get out-of-field assignments so teachers in those schools often receive benefits for such a
to fill up their work day. find themselves handling multiple burdensome teaching assignment.
More out-of-field teaching occurs subject matters beside the ones The practice of out-of-field teaching
at the lower-secondary level than specified in their teaching certificates. seems an unavoidable choice.

and certification, but they have failed
Table 13
PERCENTAGE of Secondary Teachers in Korea in the Core Academic Fields
to produce visible outcomes. For
Without an Undergraduate or Graduate Major or a Minor in the Field by Type of instance, policy measures to
School, 2005.10 undertake evaluations of education
Korean English Math Science Social institutions and to either shut down
Studies those institutions of poor quality or
Total 1.99 0.79 1.52 25.32 1.71 to upgrade teacher-education
Type of School institutions to the level of graduate
National & Public 2.49 0.63 1.95 24.90 1.74 schools were proposed several years
Private 0.99 1.08 0.92 26.09 1.67 ago, but have not been properly
Degree of Wealth
Rich 1.85 0.00 0.00 24.64 0.00
implemented; there is no prospect of
Poor 2.09 1.10 2.07 25.08 2.18 their easy implementation in the
Community Type foreseeable future, either. During the
Large Cities 3.57 0.83 1.45 30.22 0.74 last three decades, education reform
Medium and Small Cities 0.00 0.00 2.44 20.00 1.09 efforts pursued by the Korean
Rural 1.59 1.85 0.00 22.62 4.62
government did not give enough
Grade Level
Lower Secondary 3.35 0.87 1.71 32.47 2.68 attention to issues related to teacher
Upper Secondary 0.00 0.72 1.37 18.27 1.11 quality.
Number of Classes Many people question the view
1 ~ 12 3.03 0.00 0.00 24.53 4.76 that the teacher is a professional, on
13 ~ 26 2.11 1.32 0.00 21.88 1.54 the grounds that the teaching
27 ~ 33 2.25 0.00 1.33 36.96 0.00
34 ~ 55 1.18 1.19 3.41 20.34 2.13
profession does not seem to have a
lot in common with other
10
Survey by author.
professions. This is a fundamental
preparation institutions have failed to challenge facing Korea’s education
turn excellent human talent into system today. To meet that challenge,
Conclusions excellent teachers. Among other it is necessary to come up with a
deficiencies, the practicum period of systemic reform in which teacher
It is certain that measuring the six weeks for the elementary level and professionalism is fully developed
quality of teaching force is quite four weeks for the secondary level is through the phases of initial
complicated because many aspects the only opportunity for classroom education, certification, and
are mingled together. Viewed from experience available to a student assignment. At the secondary-school
outside the system, the quantity and teacher before he or she actually level, the oversupply of prospective
quality of teachers in Korea seems to starts work as a regular teacher. teachers has been exaggerated over
be all right. The profession is favored When new teachers are placed in time, which undermined recognition
by excellent students and there exists classrooms without proper of the problem of hidden shortages.
a plethora of teacher aspirants, so preparation, it is difficult to expect In order to guarantee that each and
teacher-education institutions do not them to adapt themselves successfully every school is equipped with fully
have to worry about attracting to the new organization and culture qualified teachers, more attention
qualified students. Nearly 100% of called classroom and the school. The should be paid to the problem of
prospective teachers acquire their processes and standards of out-of-field teaching. It is particularly
teaching certificates before entering a certification cannot be exempted important because education of good
school—an indication of a qualified from criticism, either. Despite the quality can never occur without
teaching force. fact that the teaching certificate is a teachers of good quality possessing
However, it is not certain that the national certificate, there have been appropriate skills and knowledge
quality and qualifications of the no efforts at quality control at the acquired through training in the
Korean teaching force are good national level to ensure the quality of areas they are supposed to teach.
enough considering all the problems prospective teachers.
associated with teacher preparation There are belated government
and certification. It is not an interventions designed to raise the
exaggeration to say that teacher- quality of initial teacher education

Ministry of Education and Human
References Resources Development. (2001).
Comprehensive measures for the
Hwang, G., et al. (1999). Measures to development of teaching profession to
improve the teacher training and face the twenty-first century. Seoul:
education system. Seoul: Korean MOEHRD.
Ministry of Education.
Park, A. (1997). The essence of
Kim, E. (2003). Policy research to general education in teacher training
analyze Korea's participation in the and the tasks for development, In
OECD Teacher Policy Review Project. Securing specialization in the teacher
Seoul: KEDI. training curriculum. Collection of the
papers for the conference of the
Kim, E., & Han, Y. (2003). Korean Society for the Study of
Attracting, developing and retaining Education.
effective teachers: A background report
for Korea. Seoul: KEDI. Park, Y. (2005). Revision of the
Teacher Certification System, In
Kim, E., et al. (2004). Research on the 2004 Discussion of Korea's education:
measures to revise the teacher Tasks of Korea's education seen through
certification and training system. the perspective of educational
(Committee for Revising the Teacher competitiveness. Seoul: KEDI.
Certification and Training System)
Seoul: KEDI. Santiago, P. (2003). Teacher demand
and supply: Improving teaching quality
Kim, E., et al. (2006). The supply and addressing teacher shortage. Paris:
and demand of elementary and OECD.
secondary teachers in the midst of
change of school education. Seoul:
KEDI.
Korean Educational Development

Institute. (2004). Analytical data on
the educational statistics. Seoul:
KEDI.
Korean Educational Development

Institute and Ministry of Education
and Human Resources Development.
(2005). Annual report on educational
statistics. Seoul: KEDI.
Lee, J., et al. (2004). A study on the

means to innovate teacher policy:
Teacher personnel management system.
CR 2004-25. Seoul: KEDI.

CHAPTER 6
Force: Data From Singapore
Steven K. S. Tan and Angela F. L. Wong with
S. Gopinathan, Kim Chuan Goh and Isabella Y. F. Wong
National Institute of Education
Nanyang Technological University
and
Kong Hong Ong
Ministry of Education
Introduction nations. Therefore, education in the MOE has regarded teachers as

Singapore must equip successive central to this whole change process
Education has been both the key generations to thrive in an intensely and as exemplary role models in
source of competitive strength and a competitive global marketplace, to seeking out new ideas, learning and
necessity for the economic growth imbue them with moral attitudes, practices, and continuously
and social viability of Singapore as a enterprising and innovative mindsets, innovating and refreshing their own
nation since self-government in and to ensure they are knowledge (Shanmugaratnam,
1959. In a process of continual technologically savvy, flexible and 2004).
development and ongoing willing to continually learn and The MOE’s goal of building up a
improvement, education policies and upgrade their skills. To succeed in qualified teaching force is achieved
practices have been reviewed and this endeavor, Singapore will be through a process of careful and
refined through the years. Since the dependent on a high-quality teaching detailed planning, aggressive teacher
mid 1990s, the world has been workforce with the values, instincts, recruitment, comprehensive training
constantly changing around us and life skills and competencies on which and effective teacher retention.
this fact has challenged the Ministry we entrust them with the heavy Quality is as important as numbers;
of Education (MOE) to make responsibilities of molding the lives nevertheless, numbers do count.
fundamental paradigm shifts in the of our young people. With better recruitment comes the
strategic direction of the education As in other Asian nations, opportunity to make an investment
system so that it is geared to meet the teachers generally are well respected in the future by adding more
needs of Singapore in the 21st in Singapore society, and the qualified teachers to every school.
century (Gopinathan, 1999; Sharpe Ministry of Education has been With more teachers per school, and
& Gopinathan, 2002). actively calling for the public and coupled with better job prospects,
First, globalization is rapidly parents to give respect, appreciation, retention rates of good-quality
recasting the economic landscape and and regard to the profession (Goh & teachers also will improve.
redefining the international Chang, 2002; Lee, 1996, 2006; The purpose of this paper is to
workplace in which nations have to Shanmugaratnam, 2004, 2006a; Teo, describe the qualifications of the
operate. Second, technological 1998). The MOE also is cognizant of teaching force in Singapore. The
change is proceeding at a rapid pace, the important role teachers play in paper will first provide a brief
resulting in changes in the ways educating new generations to break summary of the Singapore education
individuals live and work. Third, new ground and chart new directions system with a focus primarily on
intellectual capital increasingly will for Singapore. Since embarking on primary and secondary education.
become the basis for competitive the “Thinking School, Learning The next section will introduce
advantage among companies and Nation” vision in 1997 (Goh, 1997), qualification standards and

preparation requirements for 2003, 2004, 2006b; Teo, 1999, stream, Planning Division, Ministry
becoming a teacher. Specifically, it 2001). of Education, 2006).
will address the levels of qualification Every child in Singapore The Special and Express stream
of the current teaching force, both at undergoes at least 10 years of general pupils are of higher ability and study
the recruitment and certification education, comprising six years of the same curriculum except that the
stages. Finally, the paper will address primary (elementary) education and Special stream pupils learn their
teacher qualifications for teaching four years of secondary (high school) mother tongue as a first language
different subjects in secondary education (see Figure 1). The while their Express counterparts are
schools and how the education different educational courses available taught it at a second language level.
system as a whole manages the issues to pupils in post-secondary education These pupils complete their
of underqualified teachers and out- will not be discussed in this paper. secondary education in four years by
of-field teaching. sitting for the Singapore-Cambridge
Primary Education General Certificate of Education
At the primary level, pupils go Ordinary-Level Examination.
Overview of the Singapore through two stages: (a) a four-year Within the Normal-course track,
Education System foundation stage, from primary one pupils have the option of taking
to four (grades 1 – 4); and (b) a two- either the Normal/academic or
The mission of education is year orientation stage from primary Normal/technical curriculum, both
Singapore is to “mould the future of five to six (grades 5 and 6). The of which lead to the Singapore-
the nation”—that is, to shape the emphasis during the foundation stage Cambridge General Certificate of
learning of young people who will is on basic literacy in English and Education Normal Examination at
determine the future of the nation. their mother tongue (i.e., Chinese, the end of four years. Those who are
As a system, the key advantage of Malay and Tamil languages) and competent can proceed onto a fifth
Singapore education is that it is well mathematics. Arts and crafts, health year of study where they sit for the
structured and efficient in providing and physical education, moral Singapore-Cambridge General
educational pathways and differently education, music, science and social Certificate of Education Ordinary-
paced curricula to cater to the studies are included in the Level Examination similar to those
different needs, capabilities, aptitudes curriculum to ensure that students pupils from the Special and Express
and learning modalities of students. have a good grounding across courses.
To do so, the system identifies as different areas of study. Furthermore,
early as possible the different abilities primary education seeks to provide
and interests of students and then students with sound values and life Teacher Preparation,
“mass customizes” flexible skills, and to develop students’ Requirements and Standards
educational programs to cater to the thinking and communication skills.
varying requirements of each group The importance given to teachers
of students. Singapore’s education Secondary Education and the teaching profession in
system therefore is geared towards a At the end of primary six, pupils take Singapore has enabled the nation to
broad-based holistic education the Primary School Leaving maintain a dynamic education
allowing students to draw from a Examination (PSLE). According to system capable of delivering quality
diversity of knowledge, learning learning pace, aptitude and education to meet changing needs
experiences and opportunities so that inclination, pupils are placed in one and demands for more than four
they can pursue their passions and of three secondary-school streams: decades. It is therefore crucial for us
develop special talents. The goal also Special, Express, or Normal. These to be able to attract and retain the
is to nurture and prepare courses provide pupils with different people we need to educate our
Singaporeans to go forward with a curricular emphases that match their young. To this end, all the
strong social conscience and mindset abilities and interests. The majority interrelated processes pertaining to
so that they will be ready to compete (approximately 61%) of pupils takes recruitment, training, certification,
in the highly innovational, highly the Special or Express courses, while appointment, and deployment of
entrepreneurial economy of the the remaining 39% enter the Normal teachers for the Singapore schools are
future (Chen, 2000; Lee, 2006; course stream (see Statistics for the sole responsibility of the Ministry
MOE, 1999; Shanmugaratnam, Secondary Enrollment by age, level, of Education. This is not done in

Figure 1
Structure of Schooling in Singapore by Education Level, Typical Age and Years of Schooling, 2006.
1
Education Statistics Digest 2006, Planning Division, Ministry of Education, 2006

isolation, but in constant 2006a). The MOE seeks to recruit Once individuals meet the
consultation with schools, the teachers from the top one-third of academic qualifications, they are then
National Institute of Education each cohort of Singaporeans. This shortlisted for the interview process,
(NIE) (see below for elaboration on means the MOE attracts recruits from wherein each application is
the role of NIE in teacher training), university-degree holders and those considered in competition with that
and other stakeholders—for example, who have done well in the of other applicants. The interviewers
teachers, parents, other government polytechnical schools. Besides meeting seek to learn more about the
ministries, universities, and academic standards, aspiring teachers following qualities in an individual:
businesses. This is particularly also must have aptitude and interest, • passion for teaching
important as Singapore seeks to as revealed in interviews with • ability to communicate well with
maintain a high level of qualifications experienced principals and teachers others
among the teachers beyond those (Teo, 2000). The next section will • creative and innovative spirit
related to licensing standards that is describe the academic qualifications • confidence
common to many countries. required to become a teacher in detail. • leadership qualities
A structure that is basically • good role model
“closed” enables Singapore to manage Academic Qualifications Required Recruitment, training and
its teaching workforce both in terms for Teaching deployment of teachers in Singapore
of quantity and quality, and to Interested applicants are invited to is quite unlike that in other nations.
carefully monitor issues. Such a attend “Teaching as a Career” First, it is important to emphasize
centrally managed system helps recruitment seminars organized by that individuals who are hired as
Singapore prevent wastage in human the MOE and held regularly during trainee teachers are regarded as full
resources and minimize problems like the year. Individuals also can apply civil-servant employees (called
teacher shortages and high turnover, via the Internet on the MOE General Education Officers)3 of the
underqualified teachers and out-of- Website. Depending on an ministry. Therefore, all trainee
field teaching. individual’s academic qualifications, teachers are guaranteed teaching
one can apply to become either a positions and are automatically
Role of the Ministry of Education graduate or nongraduate teacher. deployed to schools upon completion
Responsibility for hiring teachers to To be considered a graduate of training at NIE (see below).
meet the needs of the Singapore teacher, individuals must possess a Second, as civil servants, all
school system lies primarily with the university (bachelor, undergraduate trainee teachers receive a full monthly
Ministry of Education. The MOE or college) degree, including salary, including Central Provident
uses feedback gathered annually coursework in requisite teaching Fund4 (CPF) contributions, year-end
from schools as well as its own data subjects. The section on “Secondary bonuses, NIE tuition grant, and
to plan for personnel needs and also Grade Level Teachers’ Subject other benefits due all civil service
attempts to do strategic forecasting Qualification and the Subject Taught employees even when they are
to resolve both short-term needs in Schools” provides an indication of undergoing NIE training (see below).
(such as vacancies resulting from majors (subjects) individuals must Depending on the individual’s
retirements and resignations) and have studied at the university level to qualifications, pedagogical training,
long-term system requirements such be qualified to teach that subject(s) working experience and gender5, a
as planning for new schools, in schools. teacher’s starting salary ranges from
initiatives and programs. The admission criteria for $1,020 to $2,0606 (U.S.) a month.
Since 2004, the profession has nongraduate teachers (i.e., those
been attracting a steady flow of about without any university degree) can
2 The General Certificate of Education or GCE is a
1,900 teachers per year, and will include any one of the following secondary-level academic qualification, and is
generally divided into two levels: Ordinary level
continue to recruit close to that academic qualifications: (a) the (O-level) and Advanced level (A-level). Students in
Singapore take the O-level examination at grade 10,
number every year over the next five General Certificate of Education and the A-level examination is taken at grade 12.
3 General Education Officers (GEO) is the civil
years (Shanmugaratnam, 2004). The (GCE) ‘Ordinary’ level (Grade 10)2; service terminology for teachers.
Singapore teaching force stands at (b) the General Certificate of 4 The Central Provident Fund (CPF) is a
comprehensive social security savings plan for the
28,500 today, up from 24,600 in Education (GCE) ‘Advanced’ level Singapore workforce.
5 Male Singaporeans who have completed compulsory
2001, and is on track to reaching (Grade 12); or (c) a Polytechnic National Service will receive additional increments
because of the time spent during the two years of
30,000 by 2010 (Shanmugaratnam, diploma. military training.
6 1 US$ = Singapore $1.60.

Third, all individuals hired but expected to enroll in NIE for one of enable him or her to teach in the
untrained will be sponsored to attend the teacher-education programs. Singapore school system. These
the NIE for their pedagogical Even though NIE is autonomous programs are:
training in the subject areas and (with its own council and director), it (a) Diploma in Education (Dip Ed)
grade levels that they have been hired shares a symbiotic relationship with (b) Postgraduate Diploma in
for. Finally, because of this huge the Ministry of Education. MOE Education (PGDE)
capital investment in them in terms hires the teachers, and NIE trains (c) Bachelor of Arts/Science
of salaries and tuition grants, trainee them. NIE works with MOE to (Education) (BA[Ed]/BSc[Ed])
teachers are required to serve a so- define academic qualification The diploma program is a
called teaching bond, ranging from standards for hiring different nondegree two-year program that
three to four years, after they categories of teachers and provides leads to the awarding of a diploma in
graduate from teacher training. input into the interview-selection education and is specifically designed
process. NIE faculty are invited to be for nongraduate teachers. Generally,
Role of the National Institute of involved in the numerous MOE those trainee teachers with
Education in Teacher Training curriculum-review committees, and polytechnic diplomas or the GCE A-
The provision of teacher education in help make recommendations for any level qualifications as well as those
Singapore on a long-term and curriculum changes and initiatives. degree holders who do not meet the
organized basis started with the Such curricular changes are reflected requirements for appointment as
establishment of the Teachers’ in timely revisions to NIE’s teacher graduate teachers (a minority) will be
Training College (TTC) in 1950, preparation programs, so that sponsored for this program.
which conducted certificate courses teachers are current in their University graduates (i.e., degree
in education for nongraduates. knowledge and qualified. This applies holders without teaching
Graduate teachers were trained at the both to the training of new teachers qualifications) are sponsored for the
School of Education established in and professional development for one-year post-graduate Diploma in
the same year at the then University over 26,000 practicing teachers in the Education program7. This program is
of Malaya (later the University of education system. akin to the fifth-year program in
Singapore). In 1973, the Institute of Due to this close relationship some teacher-education programs in
Education (IE) was established out of with the MOE, all teachers who have the United States where individuals
the TTC to train both graduate and completed any one of the teacher- have the opportunity to apply theory
nongraduate teachers on a full-time education programs offered by NIE (preservice content area) to practice
basis and including a part-time automatically are certified to teach in (internship, field experiences, or
teaching cadetship scheme. In 1980, the Singapore school system. NIE practicum) and obtain a teaching
a full-time teacher-in-training scheme maintains the professional teaching credential. However, these
was implemented for all aspects of standards that define what individuals in Singapore do not earn
teacher training. accomplished teachers should know a master’s degree in teaching.
In 1991, the Institute of and be able to do through its quality The four-year degree program is
Education and the College of programs and stated outcomes. open to all successful GCE A-level
Physical Education (set up in July Therefore, individuals completing an holders who qualify for university
1984 to train specialist teachers in NIE program do not have to take admission8. These trainee teachers
physical education) were merged to additional examinations and/or seek generally are appointed as graduate
form the present National Institute certification through a teaching teachers while undergoing NIE
of Education as an autonomous standards board. Technically, MOE training and upon completion of
institute of the Nanyang and NIE, in this interrelated system, training, similar to those in the
Technological University. Currently, act as the standards board. PGDE program (see above).
NIE is the sole teacher-training
institution in Singapore whose Programs Offered by NIE to Train
7
The Postgraduate Diploma in Education (PGDE) is a
professional qualification for undergraduate degree
primary role is the training of all Teachers holders and is synonymous to the Postgraduate
Certificate in Education (PGCE) found in England,
teachers for Singapore local schools. NIE offers three different initial Wales and Northern Ireland, or the PGDE in
Scotland.
All successful individuals who are teaching-preparation programs to 8
Those individuals who fail to qualify for the BA
hired by the MOE and do not have help individuals obtain a teaching [Ed]/BSc [Ed] program with their ‘A’ level
qualifications can still be hired by MOE as
the required pedagogical training are qualification (or certification) to nongraduate teachers and sponsored for the Diploma
in Education program at NIE.

All the teacher-education programs, and the curriculum studies teachers in schools, (c) teachers by
programs offered by NIE generally and practicum components account academic qualification, (d) vice-
offer several main components of for 75% of all coursework within the principals by academic qualification,
study with the following approximate curriculum structure. and (e) principals by academic
distribution: qualification.
(a) Education studies (20%)
(b) Curriculum studies (50%)9 Data and Measures
(c) Practicum (25%) The Qualifications of the
(d) Language enhancement and The data presented in this chapter Teaching Force
academic discourse skills (5%) are derived from the Education
In education studies, trainee Statistics Digest 2006, published by Table 1 shows the summary of
teachers learn the key concepts and the Ministry of Education. The statistics on teachers in schools by
principles of education that are purpose of the Education Statistics qualification. In 2005, there were
essential for effective teaching and Digest is to provide basic statistical 26,382 teachers (excluding vice-
reflective practice in schools. These information on education in principals and principals) comprising
courses also give the teachers the Singapore. The statistical 18,620 graduates (70.6%) and 7,762
opportunity for in-depth study of information—which includes data nongraduates (29.4%). The Ministry
some significant aspects of education. on schools, enrollment, teachers, of Education has been steadily
Curriculum studies modules are educational outcomes and finances— increasing the number of teachers in
designed to provide teachers with the gives a quantitative description of the the workforce, but more importantly
pedagogical skills to teach specific education scene. These data were is the rise in the number of top-
subjects in schools. The practicum is compiled by the Management quality scholar-teachers and graduate
the internship (or field experience, or Information and Research Branch, teachers as the ministry moves to
teaching practice) where trainee Planning Division, Ministry of upgrade the quality of the teaching
teachers spend a protracted amount Education and was published in July. profession (Lee, 2006;
of time in schools, ranging from one The specific statistics referred to Shanmugaratnam, 2006c). In 2004,
to 10 weeks in duration, depending in the 2005 and 2006 Education there were 25,716 teachers
on the program. During the Statistics Digests are: (a) secondary (excluding vice-principals and
practicum, trainee teachers are given enrollment statistics by age, level and principals), comprising only 17,267
opportunities to practice their craft course, (b) summary statistics of graduates (67.1%) and 8,449
under the guidance of one or more
cooperating teachers and university
faculty. Finally, language- Table 1
enhancement and academic-discourse Summary Statistics of Teachers in Schools, 2006.
skills provide teachers with the oral Level/Type of School Qualification Teacher
and written skills necessary for
effective communication as teachers Primary Graduate 5,827 (31.3%)
in both classroom teaching and in Nongraduate 6,516 (83.9%)
their professional interaction with
Secondary Graduate 10,262 (55.1%)
others.
Nongraduate 1,233 (15.9%)
Therefore, all those who enter the
teaching profession in Singapore as Junior College & Centralized Institutes Graduate 2,531 (13.6%)
qualified teachers will definitely Nongraduate 13 (0.2%)
possess a professional qualification. It
will either be the Bachelor of Arts
Overall Graduate 18,620 (70.6%)
(Education) or Bachelor of Science Nongraduate 7,762 (29.4%)
(Education) degree, Postgraduate
Diploma in Education or the Total 26,382
Diploma in Education. There is 9
In the diploma and degree programs, curriculum studies also include other courses that aim to cover and reinforce
integration and close links between the knowledge (concepts and principles) of different subject content in the school curriculum.
theory and practice in all NIE 10
Education Statistics Digest 2006, Planning Division, Ministry of Education, 2006.

Table 2
Percentage of Teachers in Singapore by Academic Qualification by Level of Schools, 2006.11
Grade Level/ Less than Bachelor’s Master’s Degree or Total no. of
Type of School Bachelor’s Degree Higher teachers by
Degree school type
Primary 52.8% (6,516) 45.5% (5,622) 1.7% (205) 12,343
Secondary 10.7% (1,233) 82.1% (9,441) 7.2% (821) 11,495
Junior College &

Centralized Institute 0.5% (13) 85.5% (2,175) 14.0% (356) 2,544
Total no. of teachers

by academic qualification 29.4% (7,762) 65.3% (17,238) 5.3% (1,382) 100.0% (26,382)
11
nongraduates (32.9%) (Planning 1, where the teachers’ qualifications workforce will no longer be
Division, Ministry of Education, are simply classified as either determined by the number of
2005). graduates or nongraduates, Table 2 graduate teachers (it is assumed that
The majority (55.1%) of provides a more detailed breakdown we will go almost completely to a
graduate teachers (N = 10,262) were of their academic qualifications, viz., graduate workforce) but by the
appointed to secondary schools, less than bachelor’s degree, bachelor’s number of graduates holding a
while 5,827 graduate teachers degree, master’s degree or higher. master’s degree or higher.
(31.3%) are in primary schools. Such a breakdown helps to better Despite the high percentage
However, another important point to understand the qualifications of the (83.9%) of teachers with less than a
note is that the percentage of teaching workforce in terms of bachelor’s degree (see Table 1) in the
graduate teachers in the primary graduate qualifications beyond the primary schools, it is important to
schools also has increased from 2004. undergraduate level. As Singapore’s mention that all these (nongraduate)
The Ministry of Education’s vision is teaching profession moves towards a teachers have both ample pedagogical
not only to increase the number of graduate workforce, there is a training and primary school
graduate teachers, but also to concomitant desire to encourage curriculum content mastery, in their
increasingly appoint more of them to graduate teachers to upgrade their teaching subjects, for example,
the primary schools. As a credentials with a master’s degree. English, Mathematics, Science and
comparison, in 2004 only 29.9% (N As shown in Tables 1 and 2, the Social Studies. The high mathematics
= 5,169) of graduate teachers were data indicate that in Singapore a and science achievements of
placed in the primary schools. By majority of teachers have completed Singapore fourth-grade students as
contrast, 83.9% of nongraduate a college education (N = 18,620). reported in the Trends in
teachers (N = 6516) taught in However, what is surprising is that Mathematics and Science Study
primary schools, while slightly over despite 70.6% of the teaching force (TIMMS) since 1995 (Mullis,
16% of nongraduate teachers were in being graduates, only 5.3% (N = Martin, Gonzalez, & Chrostowski,
secondary schools, junior colleges 1,382) of graduate teachers teaching 2003) is testimony to the high level
and centralized institutes. in primary, secondary and junior of teaching competency of their
colleges/centralized institutes hold at primary school teachers.
Levels of Qualifications of the least a master’s degree or higher (see In the secondary schools, most of
Current Teaching Force in Table 2). the teachers with less than a
Singapore Understandably, close to 60% of bachelor’s degree (N = 1,233) are
Table 2 shows the percentage of these teachers (N = 821) are in those who were certified to teach
teachers (excluding vice-principals secondary schools due to the higher curriculum areas like Home
and principals) in schools according proportion of graduate teachers in Economics, Mother Tongue
to academic qualification and level of these schools. In years to come, the Languages, Physical Education, Art
schooling in Singapore. Unlike Table quality of Singapore’s teaching and Music. It was only after 1985

Table 3
Percentage of Vice-Principals and Principals in Singapore by Academic Qualification by Level of Schools, 2006.12
Grade Level/ Less than Bachelor’s Master’s Degree or Total no.
Type of School Bachelor’s Degree Higher of principals/VPs
Degree by school type
Primary
Vice-Principal 21.3% (37) 56.9% (99) 21.8% (38) 174
Principal 38.9% (70) 35.6% (64) 25.5% (46) 180
Secondary
Vice-Principal 0.5% (1) 40.5% (77) 59.0% (112) 190
Principal - 57.1% (96) 42.9% (72) 168
Junior College & Centralized Institute

Vice-Principal - 72.0% (18) 28.0% (7) 25
Principal - 58.8% (10) 41.2% (7) 17
Total no. of principals/VPs

by academic qualification 14.3% (108) 48.3% (364) 37.4% (282) 754
12
that NIE began developing degree 101) who had such qualifications of fields of science, humanities and
programs in these areas. In fact, NIE at least a bachelor’s degree or higher. mathematics are strongly encouraged
will be offering for the first time, a In 2005, that number increased to to teach at the secondary-school
degree program to train Home 247 (vice-principals = 137; principals level. And trainee teachers
Economics teachers for secondary = 110), which is about a 13% specializing in secondary-school
schools, in 2007. increase. This increase is consistent teaching in the PGDE program at
Table 3 shows the percentages of with the MOE strategy to upgrade NIE will be assigned to study two
vice-principals and principals in the academic qualifications of the curriculum areas by the MOE. It is
schools according to academic overall teaching workforce, and preferable that students major in two
qualification and level of schooling in notably that of the school leadership. subject-matter areas in university. For
Singapore in 2004 and 2005 What is most telling is that the a subject matter to be considered as
respectively. number of vice-principals and the student’s main or first area of
From Table 3, every secondary principals with a master’s degree or instruction, it must have been read as
school’s principal (N = 168) has at higher also have increased from a a major up to the third year of the
least a bachelor’s degree. All vice- year ago, where there were only a student’s university-degree program.
principals (N = 37) and principals (N total of 115 (vice-principals = 40; For the second curriculum area, the
= 70) with less than a bachelor’s principals = 75) such individuals in student must have read the subject in
degree are found in the primary 2004 as compared with 184 (vice the first year or have taken at least
schools, except for one vice-principal principals = 112; principals = 72) in two relevant courses in any of the
in a secondary school. More 2005. The greater increment is in the three years at university.
importantly, the number of school vice-principal category. It would not Table 4 shows the various
leaders in primary schools with at be inconceivable in the near future secondary-school subject areas that
least a bachelor’s degree or higher (N for the Ministry of Education to correspond to the (training) subjects
= 247) have increased from 200413. expect all school leaders across all offered by the universities and the
This increase also is reflected in a school types to have at least a curriculum studies assigned to
concomitant decrease in the number master’s degree. teachers in NIE.
of school leaders with less than a
bachelor’s degree (N = 107). Secondary-Grade-Level Teachers’
In 2004, there were a total of Subject Qualifications and Subjects
13
The data from Education Statistics Digest 2004,
only 218 primary school leaders Taught in School Planning Division, Ministry of Education, 2005 has
(vice-principals = 117; principals = Degree holders with training in the since been updated with the current Education
Statistics Digest 2006 in the MOE website.

Table 4
Matching Teaching Subjects (Fields) with Subjects (Majors) offered by Universities and Curriculum Studies Assigned in NIE
Teaching Subjects (Fields) Subjects (Majors) offered by Universities Curriculum Studies at NIE
English Language Communication Studies English
English Language
English Literature
Geography
History
Law
Theatre Studies
Mathematics Applied Mathematics Mathematics

General Mathematics
Mathematics
Mathematics with Management Science
Chemical Engineering
Civil and Structural Engineering
Computer Engineering
Electrical & Electronic Engineering
Environment Engineering
Industrial and Systems Engineering
Materials Engineering
Mechanical & Production Engineering
Science
Biology Biology Biology

Biochemistry
Biological Science
Botany
Life Sciences
Medicine
Microbiology
Pharmacy
Physiology
Zoology
Chemistry Biochemistry Chemistry

Chemistry
Chemistry with Management
Medicine
Pharmacy
Chemical Engineering
Materials Engineering and/or Science
Physics Applied Physics Physics

Biological Science
Physics
Physics in Technology
Civil Engineering
Electrical & Electronic Engineering
Materials Engineering and/or Science
Mechanical & Production Engineering
Social Studies
Economics Economics Economics
Geography Geography Geography
History History History

Table 5 summarizes the number
Table 5
of secondary-school teachers who are Summary Statistics on Teaching Subjects of Secondary School Teachers, 2005.14
trained to teach the various subjects
Teaching Subjects (Fields) First teaching subject Second teaching subject
as their first or second teaching
subjects. It is to be noted that
English Language 1,745 1,675
teachers who graduate from NIE are
centrally deployed to schools by the Mathematics 1,618 2,068
MOE. In the deployment of teachers
to schools, the MOE takes into Science 1,115 762
account the subject vacancies in the
Social Studies 1,414 776
schools and deploys teachers who
have been trained in the relevant 14
Personnel Division, Ministry of Education, 2005.
subjects, be it their first or second
teaching subject, to match these teacher ratios, which already has Singapore school system are closely
vacancies. resulted in implementation of 20 interrelated and managed centrally by
students per class for Primary 1 the Ministry of Education. For this
schools since 2005 and for Primary 2 reason, out-of-field teaching is not
Issues of Out-of-Field classes beginning in 2006. Also, with considered a significant cause of
Teaching and Underqualified more teachers in every school, underqualified and poor-quality
Teachers teachers have expanded opportunities teaching by the authors of this paper.
to reflect on their teaching, to plan The next few sections of this paper
There generally is a call worldwide to and make lessons more interesting, to will briefly explain the reasons for
ensure that a nation’s school system is spend quality time with their this assertion.
staffed by talented and qualified students (both in and out of class), First, the Ministry of Education
teachers. In response, many countries and to participate in professional recruits teachers for the whole school
have implemented different strategies learning and sharing (Lee, 2006). system based on yearly estimates of
to recruit the best and train enough However, schools still have problems needs provided by principals and
teachers to meet their needs. These with underqualified teachers and MOE’s own forecasting and
different programs and initiatives poor-quality teaching even though planning. The planning is based on
include, but are not limited to, the there are numerous highly trained statistical trends as well as actual
following: (a) more stringent teachers in each school. The issue has information received from teachers,
licensing standards, (b) higher to do with out-of-field teaching. with the result that the ministry can
admission academic criteria for Out-of-field teaching is defined estimate the numbers of teachers
teacher-education programs, (c) as “teachers assigned to teach subjects who might resign after serving their
diverse alternative-certification for which they have little education teaching bond (see section on
programs, (d) challenging career or training” (Ingersoll, 2004, p. 46). “Academic Qualifications Required
prospects and financial incentives for Ingersoll (2004) argues that this to Become Teachers’ above) or who
midcareer professionals from other phenomenon is due to a complex might resign in the following year
fields to enter teaching, and (e) interplay of factors that affect how upon reaching retirement age. This
retention benefits to encourage schools are organized and how planning enables the MOE to hire
teachers to stay in the profession, or teachers are recruited and deployed teachers in its twice-yearly
return to teaching after retirement or in schools. His premise is that out-of- recruitment campaign to fill these
on a part-time basis (Ingersoll, 2003; field teaching is a viable strategy anticipated “shortages.”
Shanmugaratnam, 2006a). employed by school administrators to Furthermore, Singapore follows a
The challenge to recruiting more help balance between specific centrally defined, but locally
good teachers for every school is not organizational demands and resource implemented, curriculum within
just in terms of numbers. For constraints experienced by schools. each of the three secondary-school
Singapore the challenge is to support As mentioned earlier, various streams (or course of study). With
teachers already in the classroom and administrative practices and policies well-established curriculum
to inject more quality into education. of recruitment, training, and guidelines, student enrollment in
One strategy is to improve pupil- deployment of teachers in the specific subject classes are

predetermined and do not change enrollment and feedback provided by Conclusions and Implications
dramatically across academic principals at the end and middle of
semesters or grade levels15. This each year. Since NIE graduates two The purpose of this paper is to
predictability has implications for cohorts of teachers, in November and describe the process of recruitment
yearly staffing decisions by the MOE in May, the ministry can deploy these and training the teachers for the
and allows it to plan and coordinate teachers to schools by January and by Singapore education system. The
teacher recruitment and deployment. June17. So, if a school faces any candidates are recruited by the
Second, the issue of qualified shortage due to sudden resignations, Ministry of Education based on a set
teachers has been addressed by the anticipated maternity leave, approved of criteria developed in close
system in that the ministry hires both professional-development leave or consultation with the NIE, which is
graduate and nongraduate teachers unexpected out-of-field teaching, to date the sole teacher training
and sponsors their training at NIE. such situations can be corrected or institute in Singapore. Depending on
Graduate teachers with acceptable alleviated within six months. the entry qualifications of the
academic majors (or teaching Furthermore, teachers are allowed to candidate, one can be trained to each
subjects) will be provided with seek deployment to other schools at the primary or secondary level. To
pedagogical training. For where there are shortages and where teach at the primary level, one need
nongraduate teachers, both content their content and teaching expertise not have an undergraduate degree.
knowledge and pedagogy coursework are required. And schools can actively But to teach at the secondary level,
are addressed in their programs. As seek out appropriate staff to help fill one must have at least an
such, all teachers graduating from openings. Such yearly movement of undergraduate degree in a particular
NIE programs are qualified to teach, teachers helps the whole system to discipline. All candidates accepted by
both in core content areas and balance itself and reach a state of the Ministry will be sent to NIE for
pedagogical practices. Since NIE equilibrium in the levels of teacher training before they can be appointed
works closely with the MOE in supply and demand. to the education service. However, as
establishing the required standards, Schools in Singapore are funded discussed in this paper, the vision of
the qualifications of Singapore by the Ministry of Education and the Ministry of Education is to
teachers are seldom questioned. generally schools have their teachers increase the number of graduate
Third (though closely related to appointed by the ministry18. The teachers in its workforce, especially,
the second reason), all teachers, result is that there is only limited by increasingly appointing more of
regardless of what position they are competition for teachers across them to the primary schools. From
hired to fill, are trained to teach in schools and no real shortage of the figures quoted, with only less that
two curriculum areas16 in their teachers. If the ministry launches a 30% of the current teaching
respective NIE programs. This new curriculum or initiative, the workforce having less than a
strategy gives school administrators ministry will meet those new needs bachelor’s degree, this vision would
greater flexibility and capacity to by the allocation of sufficient funds, become a reality in the not too
deploy their teachers appropriately. resources and increased recruitment distant future.
Generally, administrators consult and appointment of teaching staff, as With regards to the issues of
with their teachers about the specific has been done in recent years. underqualified teachers and out-of-
subject they prefer to teach. This Furthermore, in its staffing plans and field teaching, they are not
allows a better fit between teacher decisions, the ministry takes into considered problems in the Singapore
preparation at NIE and the actual consideration such factors as
teaching assignments in schools. If a assignment guidelines (i.e., number
school has out-of-field teaching in of teaching periods per week), class 15
Student enrollment and teacher numbers remain
quite consistent within each school and do not fluctu-
one or more of the subjects, this size, student enrollment, teacher ate drastically from year to year because of the stan-
dardized national curriculum.
situation usually will last no longer resignations, etc. The result is that 16
Teachers in Singapore teach particular subjects, like
than six months, as will be explained out-of-field teaching is not mathematics, rather than courses such as algebra or
trigonometry. As such, mathematics teachers are quali-
in the next paragraph. considered a major cause of fied to teach all topics within the field of mathematics.
17
The Singapore school academic year runs from
Fourth, the ministry attempts to underqualified teacher placement in January to May (semester 1) and from July to
November (semester 2). Therefore, graduating teachers
make staffing decisions—both Singapore. from NIE are deployed to schools at the beginning
appointment and deployment— and middle of the year for each new semester.
18
Independent schools have the autonomy to “hire and
based on expected student fire” their own teachers, and to set their own school
fees.

context. This is because the various
administrative practices and policies
of recruitment, training, and
deployment of teachers in the
Singapore school system are closely
interrelated and managed centrally by
the Ministry of Education. For
example, NIE works closely with the
MOE in establishing the required
standards of subject content and
pedagogy expected of teachers
graduating from NIE. As a result the
issue of underqualified teachers does
not exist. And since MOE oversees
all the schools in Singapore, it has a
good overview of where the surpluses
and shortages are. This helps it to
efficiently redeploy teachers to
schools that need their expertise,
hence eliminating the issue of out-of-
field teaching effectively.
In conclusion, it would not be
incorrect to say that the Singapore
teaching force is a well qualified one
that serves the Singapore education
system well.

Lee, H. L. (2006). Speech by Lee Shanmugaratnam, T. (2004). Speech
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Teo, C. H. (2000). Speech by Radm

(NS) Teo Chee Hean, Minister for
Education & 2nd Minister for
Defense, at the 2nd Teaching
Scholarship Presentation Ceremony
on July 15, 2000. Retrieved
February 20, 2007, from
15072000a.htm
Teo, C. H. (2001). Making an ability

driven education happen, Ministry of
Education Committee of Supply
Debate Fiscal Year 2001, Minister’s
First Reply on Schools on March 15,
2001. Retrieved February 20, 2007,
from
15032001.htm

CHAPTER 7
Force in Thailand
Pruet Siribanpitak
Chulalongkorn University
And
Siriporn Boonyananta
Office of the Education Council
Introduction education, six years of primary, three Nonformal Education

years of lower secondary, and 3 years Nonformal education services are
The modern education system stems of upper secondary education. provided by both public and private
from the reforms established by the Over 74% of 3- to 6-year-old bodies. Services provided by the
1999 Education Act which put in children totaling just over 1.8 million Office of the Nonformal Education
place administrative structures, students receive early childhood Commission primarily target those
decentralization and a learner education. Whereas the majority of outside the school system, i.e. infants
centered focus around the reform services are provided as part of the and pre-school children, the school-
process (Figure 1). This system is government primary schools, the age population who have missed out
based on nine years of compulsory Ministry of Education has actively on formal schooling, and the over-
education (enacted in 2003) with 12 encouraged private schools and local school-age population. Currently,
years of free basic education governments to take a more active services have been expanded to cover
guaranteed by the constitution. All role. As a result, there has been a specific target groups, including
types of education can be provided— significant private-sector expansion, prison inmates, the labor force, the
by educational institutions and also particularly in metropolitan Bangkok disabled, conscripts, agriculturists,
by learning centers organized by where it comprises 59% of total the aged, hill tribe people, local
individuals, families, communities, provision, against the national leaders, slum dwellers, Thai Muslims,
private groups, local administration average of 28%. religious practitioners, those having
organizations, professional bodies, By 2005, gross enrollment rates no opportunity to further their
religious institutions, welfare for basic education reached 104% for studies in formal schooling after
institutes, and other social primary education (5.8 million compulsory education, Thai people
institutions (Ministry of Education, students), 95% for lower-secondary in foreign countries, and other
2006; Office of the Education education (2.7 million students), and special groups.
Council, 2006) 64% for upper-secondary education
(1.7 million students divided Informal Education
Formal Education between 1 million in general Informal education enables learners
Formal education services are education and 700,000 in vocational to learn independently in line with
provided mainly to those within the education). their interests, potential, readiness,
school system, and are divided into 2. Higher Education and the opportunities available from
basic and higher education. Higher education at the diploma, individuals, society, environment, the
1. Basic Education associate, and degree levels are media, and other sources of
Basic education is provided by provided in universities, institutes, knowledge.
early childhood development colleges and other types of
institutions, schools, and learning institutions.
centers, and covers pre-primary

Figure 1
The Thai Education System, 2006.1
1
Ministry of Education, 2006.
Educational Administration Education Council, 2006). into three categories (Office of the
and Management The Ministry of Education is Education Council, 2006):
Carried out in accordance with responsible for promoting and
the 1999 National Education Act overseeing all levels and types of Administration and Management
and the 2002 Bureaucratic Reform education under the administration of Education by the State
Bill, the major reform of educational of the state. However, local Education in Thailand is
administration and management has education administration is under the administered and managed by the
been the merging of three agencies – supervision of the Ministry of government through central agencies,
consisting of the Ministry of Interior. In addition, other ministries through educational service areas,
Education, the Ministry of undertake management of education and by educational institutions.
University Affairs and the Office in specialized fields or for specific In accordance with amendments
of the National Education purposes (Figure 2). of the National Education Act, the
Commission – into a single Ministry Education administration and Ministry of Education is responsible
of Education (Office of the management in Thailand is classified for promoting and overseeing all

Figure 2 moving toward transformation to
Educational Administration and Management Structure, 2006.2 state-supervised institutions or
autonomous universities that
function as legal entities. The new
structure will enable each institution
to develop its own administration
and management system with greater
flexibility and academic freedom
under the supervision of an
institutional council empowered by
its own Act.
Administration and Management of

Education by Local Administration
Organizations
In accordance with the National
Education Act, local administration
organizations can provide education
services at any or all levels
commensurate with their readiness,
suitability, and the requirements of
the local area. The Ministry of
Education prescribes criteria and
2
Office of the Education Council, 2006.
procedures for assessing readiness to
provide education services, and assists
in enhancing their capability in line
levels and types of education; Bangkok. Each educational service
with the policies and required
formulation of policies, plans and area comprises an Area Committee
standards. Additionally, the Ministry
standards; mobilization of resources for Education, with its office
advises on the budgetary allocations
for education; promotion and responsible for approximately 200
provided by local administration
coordination in religious affairs, arts, educational institutions and a student
organizations.
culture, and sports relating to population of 300,000 to 500,000.
education; as well as the monitoring, Educational administration and
Administration and Management of
inspection, and evaluation of management in educational
Education by the Private Sector
educational provisions. institutions can be divided into two
The state is responsible for
Administration and management at categories, basic education and
overseeing administration and
the central level is under the higher education.
management as well as for
responsibility of five main bodies: the Following the decentralization of
monitoring the quality and standards
Office of the Permanent Secretary; authority carried out by the Ministry
of private educational institutions,
the Office of the Education Council of Education, administration and
both those that provide general
(OEC); the Office of the Basic management relating to academic
education and those offering
Education Commission; the Office matters, budgets, personnel, and
vocational education. At present,
of the Vocational Education general administration are now the
most private institutions are for-
Commission; and the Office of the responsibility of the institutions
profit schools, with a few prestigious
Higher Education Commission. themselves. Oversight is through a
institutions managed by Christian
In conformity with a directive to 7-15 member board consisting of
denominations.
decentralize authority for educational representatives of parents, teachers,
administration, the Basic Education community groups, local
Commission has established 175 administration organizations, alumni,
educational service areas in 76 and academicians.
Teachers’ Salary Structure
When individuals join the teaching
provinces, with 172 areas in the To improve the quality of higher
service, they are placed on salary
provinces and the remaining three in education, state universities are

Table 1
New Teacher Classification Framework, 2004.3
Position Academic Status Monthly Salaries Extra Monthly
Beginning Highest Allowance
1. Assistant Teacher - |
8,360 B
(209 US$) - -
2. Teacher - 11,470 B|
(287 US$) - -
2.1 Experienced Teacher 14,810 B| 32,250 B| 3,500 B|
(370 US$) (806 US$) (88 US$)
2.2 Higher Experienced Teacher 18,180 B| 45,620 B| 5,600 B|

(455 US$) (1,141 US$) (140 US$)
2.3 Expert Teacher 22,230 B| 48,600 B| 9,900 B|

(556 US$) (1,215 US$) (248 US$)
2.4 Specialized Teacher 27, 450 B| 61,860 B| 13,000 B|

(686 US$) (1,547 US$) (325 US$)
3
The Ministry of Education, 2006; OBEC, 2004.
scales that correspond to their based on performance will get an attract talented graduates into the
qualifications and prior experience extra monthly allowance. The scales profession.
and the civil service salary structure. of the additional allowance are 3,500
The base level salary for teachers with baht (88 US$), 5,600 baht (140
a four-year bachelor’s degree is 7,630 US$), 9,900 baht (248 US$), and Teacher Preparation
baht (190 US$) and for those with a 13,000 baht (325 US$) for Requirements and Standards
master’s degree is 9,320 baht (233 experienced teachers, higher
US$) whereas other professionals experienced teachers, expert teachers, Teacher preparation in Thailand has
such as doctors and engineers earn and specialized teachers respectively. always been the responsibility of
about 30,000-50,000 baht (750- (See Table 1) government teacher-training
1,250 US$). By this new framework the institutes. In 2006, there were 56
According to the Teachers and teacher will earn a higher monthly faculties of education in 56 state
Educational Personnel Act of B.E. salary when compared with the universities throughout the country,
2546 (2003) there is a six-scale previous one. (See Table 2) The aim 40 of them at Rajabhat universities.
teacher classification framework is not only to attract talented high An entrance examination is required
based on academic status for a new school students into pre-service for all pre-service teacher education
salary structure. The classification teacher training programs but also to programs. Prior to 2005, entrants to
ranges from assistant teachers,
teachers, experienced teachers, higher Table 2
experienced teachers, and expert Previous Teacher Classification Framework4
teachers, to specialized teachers. The Position Salary Scales Monthly Salaries
entry requirement for assistant (Baht)
teachers is either a five-year or 4+1 1. Teacher (Level 1) 1-3 4,230-13,550
year of post secondary pre-service 2. Teacher (Level 2) 2-4 5,050-16,650
teacher training. An assistant teacher 3. Instructor (Level 1) 3-5 6,210-20,340
salary is 8,360 baht (209 US$), and a 4. Instructor (Level 2) 5-6 (7)* 9,320-25,180 (30,710)*
5. Instructor (Level 3) 6-8 (9)* 11,450-43,440 (46,280)*
teacher’s salary is 11,470 baht (287
US$). Teachers who get promoted to 4
The Ministry of Education, 2006; OBEC, 2004.
a. *The salary scale and monthly salary will be upgraded to a higher scale according to the teacher’s academic per-
a higher level of academic status formance.

teaching jobs had to complete a four- programs must meet the standards of Data and Measures
year baccalaureate-degree program. professional knowledge and
Since 2005, all teachers must obtain experience set by the Teachers’ The data presented in this chapter
a teaching license(1) signifying Council (2006). The minimum is 30 are divided into two parts, the first
professional training (Teacher and credits in general education courses, part comes from the Office of Basic
Educational Personnel Act, 2003). 50 credits in pedagogy courses, 74 Education Commission, academic
This requires completion of a five- credits in subject-matter courses, and year 2004 (See Table 3), and the
year bachelor’s degree in teacher six credits of elective courses plus one second part of data comes from the
education. College graduates who year of student teaching(2) or school survey conducted by the
complete a bachelor’s degree in fields professional practice for the five-year Office of the Education Council
other than education must complete bachelor’s degree program. The (OEC), Ministry of Education (See
a one-year post-baccalaureate minimum is 24 credits in pedagogy Table 4-5).
diploma in teacher training to obtain course plus one year of student Note
a teaching license. However, both the teaching for the one-year graduate (1)
According to the regulations of the Teachers’
Council, teachers shall be required to renew their
five-year undergraduate-degree and diploma program. license every five years with certain evaluation criteria.
one-year post-graduate diploma (2)
Prior to 2005, the requirement was one semester of
student teaching.
Table 3
PERCENTAGE and NUMBER of Elementary and Secondary School Teachers in Thailand by Highest Degree Earned, and
Types of School, ( Academic Year) 2004.5
Type of School Highest Degree Earned
Less than Bachelor’s Master’s Degree Total
Bachelor’s Degree Degree or Higher
Total 5 91 4 100
(23,827) (427,037) (19,632) (470,496)
Public Schools 4 92 4 100

(16,843) (384,358) (17,679) (418,880)
• Poverty Enrollment
Low - - - -
High - - - -
• Community Type
Urban 4 92 4 100
(6,260) (147,112) (6,942) (160,314)
Suburban & Rural 4 92 4 100
(9,246) (204,754) (9,455) (223,445)
Other 4 92 4 100
(1,337) (32,492) (1,292) (35,121)
• Grade Level
Elementary* 8 88 4 100
(24,890) (285,992) (12,606) (323,488)
Secondary 2 65 33 100
(2,579) (80,248) (40,802) (123,629)
Private Schools 13 83 4 100

(6,984) (42,679) (1,935) (51,598)
• Grade Level
Elementary 16 81 3 100
(6,253) (31,985) (1,935) (39,289)
Secondary 6 87 7 100
(731) (10,694) (884) (12,309)
5
Definitions:
a. Elementary grade level refers to kindergarten to grade 6.
b. Secondary grade level refers to grades 7-12.
c. Private schools refer to those that are neither primarily funded nor administered by the local or central government.
d. Other community type refers to the whole province in those small provinces with only one school district.
* Includes those teachers who teach lower secondary school classes in elementary schools.

Table 4
The Qualifications of the
PERCENTAGE of Secondary Grade Level Teachers in Thailand in the Core Teaching Force
Academic Fields Without an Undergraduate or Graduate Major or Minor in the
Field, by Types of School, (Academic Year) 2004.6 The data in Table 3 showed that in
Type of School Native the year 2004 most Thai elementary
Language Math Science Social Foreign and secondary school teachers had
studies/ Language completed undergraduate study.
(Thai) Religion/ ( English)
Ninety-one percent completed a
Culture
bachelor’s degree, 5% held less than a
Total 21 24 13 24 16
bachelor’s degree and 4% held a
Public Schools 22 24 14 25 16 master’s degree or higher. There were
Community Type
pronounced differences among
Urban 21 23 13 24 16
Suburban & Rural 22 23 14 25 17 public schools and private schools.
Other 27 28 16 26 15 The data also showed that students
Grade Level in private schools had less access to
Lower Secondary 27 31 19 31 23 qualified teachers. For example, 92%
Upper Secondary 7 6 5 10 4 of public school teachers completed a
Private Schools 16 24 8 16 16 bachelors’ degree as opposed to 83%
Grade Level of private school teachers while 4%
Lower Secondary 17 28 10 19 18
Upper Secondary 12 13 4 8 11
of public school teachers held less
than bachelor’s degree as opposed to
6
Definitions: 13% of private school teachers.
a. The data of public schools were collected from 64 percent of the Educational Service Area Office (175
offices). Moreover, about 33% of public
b. “Other” community type refers to the whole province in those small provinces with only one school district.
c. The data of private schools were collected from 37 percent of the Educational Service Area Office (98
secondary school teachers held a
offices). master’s degree or higher compared
with 7% of private secondary-school
teachers.
Table 5 The data also revealed similar
PERCENTAGE of Secondary Grade Level Teachers in Thailand in the Core
qualifications of teachers among
Academic Fields Without an Undergraduate or Graduate Major in the Field, by
Types of School, (Academic Year) 2004.7 community types. On the other
hand, there is no difference between
Type of School Native
Language Math Science Social Foreign suburban and urban schools in the
studies/ Language percentage of teachers with degrees.
(Thai) Religion/ ( English) For example, about 92% of teachers
Culture in urban, suburban and rural areas
Total 24 26 15 26 20 held a bachelor’s degree and about
Public Schools 24 26 15 26 20 4% held a master’s degree or higher.
Community Type These phenomena represent equality
Urban 24 26 14 26 19
Suburban & Rural 24 26 15 27 20
in the qualifications of teachers
Other 29 31 16 28 18 among 176 educational service areas
Grade Level in Thailand.
Lower Secondary 30 34 20 33 26 Furthermore, there are differences
Upper Secondary 9 8 7 13 7 in the qualifications of teachers
Private Schools 20 26 10 18 17
between grade levels in public
Grade Level
Lower Secondary 21 31 11 21 19 schools. For example, about 33% of
Upper Secondary 15 15 8 11 11 secondary school teachers have
completed a master’s degree or higher
7
Definitions:
a. The data of public schools were collected from 64 percent of the Educational Service Area Office (175 as opposed to 4% of elementary
offices). school teachers.
b. “Other” community type refers to the whole province in those small provinces with only one school district.
c. The data of private schools were collected from 37 percent of the Educational Service Area Office (98
offices).

Out-of-Field Teaching assigned to teach classes in fields that teachers who teach mathematics at
do not match their educational the lower-secondary level without an
The critical problem facing education background more than those who undergraduate or graduate major in
and teachers in Thailand is twofold: teach at the upper-secondary level. mathematics, or related disciplines,
the lack of fit between teacher For example, in public schools, 31% compared with 8% in upper-
preparation and class assignments, of teachers who teach mathematics secondary. Finally, in private schools,
and the lack of teachers in core areas. classes at the lower- secondary level 31% of teachers who teach
This is the result of the practice of have neither a major nor a minor in mathematics classes at lower-
out-of-field teaching – where teachers mathematics or related disciplines, as secondary level as opposed to 15% of
educated and trained in one field of opposed to 10% of teachers who those who teach at upper- secondary
study are assigned by school teach at the upper-secondary level. level are without an undergraduate or
administrators to teach classes in Finally, in private schools, 28% of graduate major in mathematics, or
another field of study. teachers who teach mathematics related disciplines.
As mentioned earlier, the data in classes at the upper-secondary level
Table 4 and 5 show the measurement have neither a major nor a minor in
of the out-of-field teaching at mathematics, or related disciplines as Implications and Conclusions
secondary level among the different opposed to 13% of teachers who
types of school; school sectors, teach at the upper-secondary level. The implementation of educational
community types, and grade levels. Concerning teachers who teach reform to promote quality involves
Table 4 shows the percentage of without an undergraduate or all sectors of society. In moving
teachers without an undergraduate or graduate major in the field, there are towards the success of the reform
graduate major or minor in the field. increasing percentages of teachers along the lines stipulated by the 1999
Table 5 shows percentage of teachers who teach without an undergraduate National Education Act, the most
without an undergraduate or or graduate major in the field. This effective strategies involve building
graduate major in the field. means that many teachers in partnerships and networks and
Each table indicates that there are Thailand are assigned to teach out of encouraging people’s participation.
many teachers assigned to teach their major. For example, 26% of Through a lifelong process, the new
classes in fields that do not match teachers teach social studies classes culture of learning will lead to the
their educational background. The and mathematics classes without an development of learners in all
data in Table 4 show that 24% of undergraduate or graduate major in aspects—physical, mental or
teacher who teach mathematics and the field.. emotional, social and intellectual,
social studies classes have neither a One source of variation in out- thus paving the way for the
major nor a minor in mathematics or of-field teaching is school type. transformation of Thai society into a
social studies, or related disciplines. Public schools have higher levels of learning one. Qualified teachers are
These problems extend to other out-of-field teaching than do private meaningful and necessary for the
classes even Thai language classes, schools in the subjects of social educational reform to be successful.
where about 21% of all those studies, Thai language, sciences, and There are a lot of reasons why
teaching Thai language classes have English language, but there are not underqualified teachers pose the most
neither a major nor a minor in Thai. differences in mathematics. important problem needing a
The data reveal less difference Out-of-field teaching also varies solution.
between community types. For by grade level, with both public and One possible source of the
example, 24% of secondary teachers private schools having great problem is the standards themselves.
who teach social studies classes in differences in out-of-field teaching The depth, breadth and rigor of
urban schools have neither a major between lower-secondary and upper- college or university teacher
nor a minor in social studies opposed secondary levels. The percentages of preparation programs and
to 25% of those who teach social teachers who teach without an certification standards have long been
studies classes in suburban and rural undergraduate or graduate major in the target of critics. In this case,
schools. In a piece of controversy, the field at lower-secondary level is remedies include reformation of state
there is more difference among grade higher than those at the upper- licensing requirements and
levels, teachers who teach at the secondary level. For example, in institutional preparation programs.
lower-secondary level have been public schools, the data show 34% of Another source of the problem is

the failure of teachers to meet the
standards because of deficits in their
preparation or education. Falling
into this category are those without
college degrees and those without
any teaching license.
Even another source of
underqualified teaching arises in how
teachers are utilized once on the
job—the problem of out-of-field
teaching. Remedies to these
mismatches should include reforming
the way teachers are managed and
assigned in schools.
Most researchers and
commentators assume that the source
of the problem of underqualified
teachers lies primarily in the first two
inadequacies, either in the standards
or in the credentials of the teaching
candidates. Consistent with this
perspective, the dominant policy
responses have been in attempting to
upgrade the quality of teachers
through more rigorous training and
testing and licensing requirements.
In contrast, the data indicate that of
equal or greater importance is out-of-
field teaching—a common practice
whereby qualified teachers are
assigned by school administrators to
teach classes in subjects that do not
match their fields of training or
certification. The data show that this
is widespread in Thailand, especially
in those schools serving
disadvantaged communities.

The Teachers’ Council of Thailand.
References (2003). Teacher and Educational
Personnel Act B.E. 2546 (2003).
Ministry of Education. (2006). http://www.ksp.or.th/mainpage_en/inde
Toward a learning society in Thailand: x.php
The education system in Thailand.
http://www.bic.moe.go.th/fileadmin/BI
C_Document/book/MOEleaflet/Thai-
ed-system.pdf
Office of the Basic Education

Commission. (2004). Statistical data
of basic education in Thailand 2004.
Bangkok: Donmuang Printing.
Office of the National Education

Commission. (1999). National
Education Act of B.E. 2542 (1999).
Bangkok: Seven Printing Group Co.,
Ltd.
Office of the Education Council.

(2004). Education in Thailand 2004.
Bangkok: Office of the Education
Council.
Office of the Education Council.

(2006). Education in Thailand
2005/2006. Bangkok: Office of the
Education Council.
Professional Standards Bureau

Secretariat Office of the Teacher’s
Council of Thailand. (2005).
Educational professional standards.
Bangkok: The Teacher’s Council of
Thailand.
Secretariat Office of the Teacher’s

Council of Thailand. (2006). Laws
on teaching Profession (2). Bangkok:
The Teacher’s Council of Thailand.
Siribanpitak, P. (2005). Challenges of

and opportunities for secondary school
teachers in Thailand. Bangkok:
Chulalongkorn University.


CHAPTER 8
The Preparation and Qualifications
of the Teaching Force in the
United States
Richard M. Ingersoll
Introduction societal ills—the erosion of American The first view holds that a major
economic competitiveness and source of low-quality teachers and
Few educational issues have received productivity; teenage pregnancy; teaching is inadequate and
more attention in recent times in the juvenile delinquency and crime; the insufficient pre-employment
United States than the problem of coarsening of everyday discourse and preparation. Critics and reformers
ensuring that the nation’s elementary culture; a decline in morals; gender subscribing to this view have
and secondary classrooms are all and racial discrimination, and so on. advocated for more rigor in the
staffed with quality teachers. This In response, the federal coursework requirements and entry
concern with the caliber of teachers is government in 2002 enacted the standards for the teaching
neither unique nor surprising. most significant educational reform occupation. From this viewpoint, the
Elementary and secondary schooling in the United States in recent years— way to upgrade the quality of
is mandatory in the United States the No Child Left Behind Act. In teaching is to alter the preparation
and children are legally placed in the addition to new standards for student required of new teachers.
care of teachers for a significant achievement, this legislation set a There is, however, much debate
portion of their lives. The quality of new and unprecedented goal—to over how to best define a “qualified
teachers and teaching are ensure that the nation’s public teacher” and what adequate teaching
undoubtedly among the most elementary and secondary students qualifications entail. Although there
important factors shaping the all are taught by highly qualified is almost universal agreement in the
learning and growth of students. teachers. The No Child Left Behind United States that teachers do matter,
Moreover, the largest single Act also introduced a new and that student learning is affected by
component of the cost of education unprecedented means to achieve this the quality of teaching, and that
is teacher compensation. Especially goal–accountability—to assess how teachers ought to be qualified, there
since the publication over two well public schools are doing in is a great deal of controversy and
decades ago of the seminal report A regard to the new standards and to much skepticism concerning which
Nation at Risk (National sanction schools that do not meet kinds of courses, preparation and
Commission on Excellence in them. Behind this legislation, and qualifications teachers ought to have
Education, 1983), a seemingly contemporary educational thought in to be considered adequately qualified.
endless stream of studies, the United States, lie two popular One of the key areas of difference
commissions and national reports has views as to the source of the staffing in this debate concerns the relative
targeted teacher quality as one of the and teacher-quality problems value of teachers’ educational
central problems facing schools in plaguing schools. The first focuses on preparation and of their professional
the United States. Such critics have inadequacies in the qualifications of preparation. The former refers to the
blamed teacher performance not only teachers; the second focuses on level of post-secondary education in a
for the decline in student academic inadequacies in the quantity, or field—the degrees—required of
achievement but for numerous supply, of teachers. teaching candidates. The latter refers
to the occupation-specific training

required of those entering teaching. decades, devoted to assessing the United States is teacher shortages. In
On one end of this continuum are effects of various teacher this view, the main problem is that
those who argue that academic qualifications on teacher and student the supply of new teachers is
content or subject knowledge— performance. For measures of insufficient to keep up with the
knowing what to teach—is of qualifications, researchers typically demand. The root of this gap, it is
primary importance for one to be a examine teachers’ test scores or widely believed, is a dramatic increase
qualified teacher. Advocates of this teachers’ credentials, such as degrees, in the demand for new teachers
view often hold that professional reflecting a variety of types of primarily resulting from two
degrees in education are overloaded education and training. A substantial converging demographic trends—
with required courses in pedagogy to number of studies have found increasing student enrollments and
the neglect of coursework in teacher education, preparation or increasing teacher retirements due to
academic subjects. Such critics also training, of one sort or another, to be a “graying” teaching force. Shortfalls
tend to question the value of significantly related to increases in of teachers, this argument continues,
government-based entry regulations student achievement (e.g., have meant that many school systems
such as teaching certificates. At its Greenwald, et al., 1996). For have not been able to find qualified
extreme, this viewpoint assumes that example, two recent analyses of candidates to fill their openings,
training in teaching methods is national data found that eighth-grade inevitably resulting in the hiring of
unnecessary and that having an students of mathematics whose underqualified teachers and,
academic degree in a subject is teachers had a regular teaching ultimately, lowering school
sufficient to be a qualified teacher in certificate in mathematics or had a performance.
that subject. college degree in mathematics or in The prevailing policy prescription
On the other end of this mathematics education scored and response has been to attempt to
continuum are those who argue that significantly higher on eighth-grade increase the supply of teachers
professional, pedagogical and math tests (Raudenbush, et al., 1999; through a wide range of recruitment
methodological knowledge— Greenberg, et al., 2004). initiatives. There are programs that
knowing how to teach—is of These are telling findings given aim to entice mid-career professionals
primary importance to be a qualified the widespread criticism from both to become teachers. Some schools
teacher. In this view, in-depth insiders and outsiders that teacher have instituted initiatives to recruit
knowledge of a subject is less education is of low quality in the teaching candidates from overseas
important than in-depth skill at United States. But, the results from and from other nations. Financial
teaching. At its extreme, this this empirical literature also are at incentives, such as signing bonuses,
viewpoint holds that “a good teacher times contradictory, and there are housing assistance, and college
can teach anything.” also some studies showing no positive tuition reimbursement, have all been
For most occupations and effects of various measures of teacher used to aid teacher recruitment
professions in the United States, it qualifications. Moreover, there also (Hirsch, Koppich, & Knapp, 2001).
typically is taken as a given that are large gaps in this research (for a But there is growing criticism
particular credentials are necessary to recent review, see Allen, 2003). over the accuracy of this
practice particular kinds of work. Given the inherent difficulties in conventional view of teacher
However, for most occupations and accurately isolating and capturing the shortages and the effectiveness of the
professions there has been little, if effects of teacher’s qualifications on new teacher recruitment reforms.
any, empirical research done assessing their students’ achievement and the Recent data analyses have
the value added by practitioners weaknesses of much of the extant documented that the main source of
having a particular credential, license data and empirical research, this is school staffing problems is not one of
or certification (Kane, 1994; not surprising. However, these data shortages, in the sense of too few
American Educational Research and research limitations and new teachers being produced
Association/American Psychological inconsistencies also fuel the ongoing (Ingersoll, 2001; 2003a). Rather the
Association/National Council on debate over how best to define a data show the source of the problem
Measurement in Education, 1999). qualified teacher. lies in too many teachers departing
In this respect, teaching is unusual; A second popular explanation for their teaching jobs long before
there is an extensive body of the staffing and teacher-quality retirement. Most of the demand for
empirical research, going back problems plaguing schools in the new teachers is driven not by student

enrollment or teacher retirement elementary and secondary schooling government and by a wide array of
increases but by pre-retirement developed in an unusual manner in nongovernmental groups and
teacher turnover. The data portray a the United States. In contrast to most organizations. The 50 states
“revolving door” occupation in which nations, publicly funded mass themselves have increased their
there are relatively large flows of schooling in the United States was scrutiny and regulation over a wide
teachers in, through and out of originally begun on a highly localized range of aspects of schooling.
schools each year. Teaching also is an and decentralized basis (Tyack, Especially in the past half century,
occupation that loses many of its 1974). The framers of the U.S. the role of the national government
newly trained members very early in Constitution did not include also also increased. As a result of this
their careers. The data indicate that education or schooling among the growth in centralized and external
as many as half of those trained to be functions of the national/federal influence, schools and local school
teachers never enter teaching, and government and, hence, the districts in the United States clearly
another 40-50% of those who do provision of schooling began as the are not the autonomous bodies they
enter leave teaching altogether in the responsibility of the 50 individual once were. But, despite these
first five years. Moreover, the data states. The states, in turn, delegated changes, the U.S. educational system
indicate that the overall volume of substantial control to local, remains to a large extent far more
turnover accounted for by retirement community-based educational decentralized than in many other
is relatively minor when compared authorities. From the early nations (OECD, 1995, 1998). That
with that resulting from other causes, development of public schooling in is, far more educational decisions are
such as teacher job dissatisfaction and the 19th century, the accepted made by districts and states than by
teachers seeking better jobs or other operating principle was that the the national government. In
careers. schooling of children should largely particular, it is the responsibility of
Such findings raise serious doubts be the responsibility of the the 50 states to regulate entry into
about the ultimate success of current communities and towns in which the the teaching occupation in their
teacher recruitment initiatives in the students and their families resided. respective school systems. Entry,
United States. In short, the data This doctrine of local control of training, testing and licensing
indicate that recruiting more teachers schooling continues to be a requirements for teachers are largely
will not solve school staffing dominant value in the United States. set and controlled by the 50
problems if large numbers of such The resulting legacy is a current individual states. The result is an
teachers then leave in a few years. As system of about 14,500 individual occupation with a diversity of entry
a result, an increasing number of public school districts, governed by routes, requirements and standards.
leading education-reform groups, school boards who hold legal In the United States, teaching as
such as the National Commission on responsibility for 45 million students an occupation has an unusually
Teaching and America’s Future in 84,000 publicly funded ambivalent character. Compared to
(2003), have argued that the solution elementary and secondary schools other occupations and to professions,
to staffing and teacher-quality employing almost 3 million teachers. teaching is relatively complex work,
problems plaguing schools in the Another 5 million students are but it also is an occupation with
United States lies in improved enrolled in about 27,000 private relatively low pre-employment entry
teacher retention. schools that are not operated, or requirements.
primarily funded, by local or other Among those who study work,
government. These private schools organizations and occupations in
Teacher Preparation employ about 450,000 teachers. general, teaching traditionally has
Requirements and Standards The history of public schooling been classified as a relatively complex
in the United States also has been a form of work, characterized by
These competing views as to the story of the chronic erosion of this uncertainty, intangibility and
sources of, and solutions to, teacher- foundation of local and decentralized ambiguity and requiring a high a
quality problems in the United States control. Particularly since the mid degree of initiative, thought,
have been shaped by the way the 20th century, there has been a judgment and skill to do well (e.g.,
educational system in the United dramatic increase in the control and Bidwell, 1965; Lortie, 1975; see also
States is organized. Historically, the influence over districts and schools Cohen, Raudenbush, & Ball, 2003).
control and governance of exerted by higher levels of For example, in a classic comparative

study of a number of occupations, As mentioned earlier, the federal establish “competency” in a particular
Kohn and Schooler (p. 68, 1983) government in 2002 enacted a new subject or field. The states vary as to
concluded that secondary teaching and unprecedented mandate in the whether they require tests, as to the
involved greater substantive No Child Left Behind Act to ensure content of the tests, and where they
complexity than the work of that all public elementary and set the minimum cutoff scores
accountants, salespersons, machinists, secondary students are taught by required of candidates to pass the
managers and officials in service highly qualified teachers. In general, test.
industries and in the retail trade. the No Child Left Behind Act There also are a growing number
Despite its complexity, from a defines a “highly qualified” teacher as of different routes for entering
cross-occupational perspective, someone who has completed a four- teaching. Traditionally, most of those
teaching has long been characterized year baccalaureate degree, who holds entering teaching did so after the
as an easy-entry occupation. a state-issued teaching certificate or completion of a four-year bachelor’s
Compared with other work and license, and who has established degree in education, which included
occupations and, in particular competency in the academic subjects certification. A smaller number of
compared to high-status traditional he or she teaches. By design, college graduates, who completed a
professionals, such as physicians, however, it is the responsibility of bachelor’s degree in a field other than
professors, attorneys, engineers, each of the 50 states to interpret and education, entered teaching by
architects, accountants, and dentists, implement these general standards. enrolling in what is called a “fifth-
teaching has a relatively low entry Teaching certificates usually are year program”—a post-baccalaureate
“bar,” and a relatively wide entry issued for a particular field, such as one-year teacher preparation program
“gate” (Etzioni, 1969; Lortie, 1975; mathematics or English. Obtaining leading to a teaching certificate. But,
Ingersoll, 2001). Historically, teaching certification usually requires there are increasing numbers of
teaching had a number of completion of undergraduate-level alternative entry routes whereby
mechanisms that facilitated ease of coursework in the subject matter of a college graduates can postpone
entry into the occupation. First, particular field, and also in formal education preparation, obtain
teacher training was made relatively professional knowledge, such as a less-than-full (e.g., temporary or
accessible. Beginning in the early part pedagogy and teaching methods. alternative) teaching certificate, and
of the 20th century, the states created Certification also usually entails begin teaching immediately.
large numbers of low-cost, dispersed, passage of written examinations in The next sections present data on
and noncompetitive teacher-training both pedagogy and content the proportions of the U.S.
institutions. Currently there are knowledge. Finally, certification also elementary and secondary teaching
1,206 teacher training schools or usually requires completion of a force that has completed various
programs in colleges and universities program of practice or student above-described education, training
in the United States. Teaching also teaching and preparation requirements.
has a relatively wide “decision But, the depth, breadth and rigor
range”–individuals can decide to of teacher certification requirements
become teachers at any number of vary dramatically among the states. Data and Measures
points in their life span. Finally, In addition, in some states
most who desire to enter the teaching certification expires after a set The data presented in this chapter
occupation are free to do number of years and renewal requires come from the nationally
so–individuals choose the the completion of additional college- representative Schools and Staffing
occupation, not vice versa. In level coursework; in other states, Survey (SASS) conducted by the
contrast, the opposite prevails in certification is permanent. Moreover, National Center for Education
many occupations and in most not all of those who enter the Statistics, the statistical arm of the
traditional professions. Especially in teaching occupation are required to U.S. Department of Education. This
the latter, entry standards are very hold a certificate. For instance, in is the largest and most
selective and occupational many states teachers in private comprehensive source of information
“gatekeepers” have a large say in schools are not required to be and data on teachers in the United
choosing new members and not all certified. The same lack of States. The SASS data are collected
who desire to enter are allowed to do uniformity applies to the means by from random samples stratified by
so. which candidates are allowed to state, sector, and school level. To

date, five independent cycles of SASS descriptive statistics on percentages of teachers without an undergraduate or
have been completed and released: teachers according to their highest graduate major in the field; and 3)
1987-1988, 1990-1991, 1993-1994, college degree and according to their percent teachers without a full
1999-2000 and 2003-2004. Each type of teaching certificate and the teaching certificate or license in the
cycle of SASS includes several sets of extent to which these levels vary field.
separate, but linked, questionnaires among different kinds of schools, As defined here, the first two
for school administrators and for a according to their urbanicity, poverty, measures count as in-field both
random sample of teachers within and grade level. academic and education majors and
each school. The response rate has A second, and far less minors (e.g., a mathematics teacher
been relatively high—about 85% for understood, source of underqualified with a minor or major in either
teachers and 95% for administrators. teaching is the problem of out-of- mathematics or in mathematics
SASS is a large survey; in each field teaching—teachers assigned to education). For all three measures I
cycle the sample sizes are about 5,000 teach subjects that do not match focus only on the four core academic
school districts, 11,000 schools and their fields of preparation. This is a fields: Mathematics; Science, Social
52,000 teachers. The teacher sample crucial factor because highly qualified Science/Social Studies and English.
includes full-time, part-time and teachers may actually become highly Chart 1 shows which secondary-level
long-term substitute teachers from unqualified if they are assigned to courses are included in each of the
pre-kindergarten to the 12th -grade teach subjects for which they have four fields, and which major/minor
level. The sample does not include little background. Teachers trained, and certification fields count as in-
short-term substitutes, teacher aides, for example, in social studies may be field for each. Science and social
practice or student teachers. SASS unlikely to have a solid science are both defined broadly
also is a comprehensive survey; it understanding of math or how to here. In other words, anyone who
provides accurate data for all 50 teach it. Hence, this chapter also teaches any science course is defined
states (and Washington, DC) and all presents data on levels of out-of-field as qualified or in-field if he or she
types of schools. Relevant to this teaching, and the extent to which holds a credential, such as a major, in
analysis, SASS collects extensive these levels vary among different science education or in any of the
information on the education, kinds of schools. sciences, including chemistry,
training and certification and also the Previous studies have used a physics, geology, space science, and
daily course schedules from its very number of different measures of out- biology. Likewise, anyone teaching
large nationally representative sample of-field teaching, representing a range any courses in social studies is
of teachers. SASS does not collect of standards (Ingersoll, 1999; defined as qualified if he or she holds
data on teachers’ exam or test scores. 2003b). Some measures focus on a credential in any of the social
The data presented in the tables whether teachers have a teaching sciences or in social studies
below are from the two most recent certificate in the fields they teach; education. This is different from a
cycles of SASS—the 1999-2000 and others focus on whether teachers narrow discipline-based definition of
the 2003-2004. have an undergraduate or graduate fields, such as used in the Hong
The data in the tables provide a degree. Measures of out-of-field Kong chapter. In the latter case,
national portrait of teachers’ teaching also vary according to someone with a major in chemistry is
qualifications in the United States whether they choose to focus on the not considered in-field or qualified in
just prior to the enactment of the numbers of teachers doing it, or the physics or biology, and vice versa.
federal No Child Left Behind Act. numbers of students exposed to it,
There are a variety of reasons why according to which fields and Each measure focuses solely on
elementary and secondary classrooms subjects are examined and also teachers at the secondary grade level
are sometimes not staffed by according to which grade levels are (grades 7-12). Each measure only
qualified teachers. Some causes can investigated. includes departmentalized teachers—
be traced to how candidates are This chapter presents three those who teach subject-matter
prepared and licensed prior to different measures of out-of-field courses to several classes of different
teaching and some to how teachers teaching, drawn from this previous students for all or most of the day.
are utilized once on the job. This work: 1) percent teachers without an Excluded are those teaching self-
chapter presents data for several undergraduate or graduate major or contained classes, in other words,
different measures. First, it presents minor in the field; 2) percent those teaching multiple subjects to

Chart 1
Matching Teaching Fields With Preparation Fields
I. II. III. IV.
Fields Teachers’ Course Assignment Fields Teachers’ Major or Minor Fields Teachers’ Certification Fields
English literature communications or journalism English or language arts
composition/journalism/creative writing English Journalism
reading English education/language arts education Reading
other English/language arts courses literature
reading education
Mathematics general mathematics engineering Mathematics

business math mathematics
algebra, elementary mathematics education
algebra, intermediate physics
algebra, advanced statistics
geometry, plane/solid
trigonometry
analytical geometry
probability/statistics
calculus
other mathematics
Social Studies social studies psychology social studies or social sciences

history public administration history
world civilization social studies/social sciences education
political science/government economics
geography history
economics political science
civics sociology
sociology/social organization other social sciences
other social science other area or ethnic studies
psychology American Indian studies
Science general science science education general science

biology/life science biology/life science biology/life science
chemistry chemistry chemistry
physics earth science/geology earth science/geology
geology/earth physics physics
science/space science other natural sciences other natural sciences
other physical science emgineering physical science
other natural science
the same students for all or most of (see Table 1). Ninety-nine percent of These latter data conflict with
the day, as is the norm in elementary elementary and secondary school conventional wisdom in the United
schools. teachers in public schools hold at States. In recent years, much
least a bachelors’ degree and almost attention has been focused on the
half hold a master’s degree or higher. plight of school districts—especially
The Qualifications of the Moreover, about 91% of public those serving low-income, urban
Teaching Force school teachers hold a regular or full communities—that have been forced,
teaching certificate in one field or because of shortages, to hire
The data indicate that most teachers another. Another 7% hold a less- significant numbers of uncertified
in the United States have completed than-full certificate (e.g., temporary, teachers to fill vacancies. The data
an undergraduate college education emergency or provisional). Less than suggest, however, that the numbers
and most also hold 2% of public school teachers hold no of teachers without a full certificate
regular or full teaching certificates teaching certificate of any type. actually represent only a small

Table 1
PERCENTAGE of Elementary and Secondary School Teachers in the United States, by Highest Degree Earned, and by Highest
Type of Teaching Certification or License, by Type of School, 2003-2004.1
Educational Qualifications Professional Qualifications Both Bachelor’s
Less than Bachelor’s Master’s No Less-than Full Degree and Full
Bachelor’s Degree Degree or Cerifiication Full Certification Certification
Degree Higher Certification
Total 2. 1 52. 9 45. 0 6. 5 6. 8 86. 6 85. 8
Elementary 1. 3 54. 4 44. 4 4. 4 6. 4 89. 3 88. 8
Secondary 2. 5 48. 7 48. 8 5. 0 8. 1 86. 9 85. 4
Public Schools 1. 1 52. 3 46. 6 1. 5 7. 2 91. 3 90. 6
Poverty Level
Low 1. 0 44. 4 54. 6 1. 0 6. 3 92. 7 92. 2
High 1. 7 57. 6 40. 7 2. 0 10. 1 88. 0 87. 3
Community Type
Rural 1. 4 58. 0 40. 6 1. 0 5. 4 93. 5 92. 6
Suburban 0. 9 50. 2 48. 9 1. 4 6. 6 92. 0 91. 4
Urban 1. 3 52. 3 46. 4 2. 0 9. 5 88. 5 87. 7
Grade Level
Elementary 0. 4 58. 0 40. 6 1. 3 6. 5 92. 2 91. 9
Secondary 2. 6 48. 7 48. 7 1. 7 8. 4 89. 9 88. 3
Private Schools 9. 4 57. 1 33. 4 41. 6 4. 0 54. 3 52. 9

1
Definitions:
a. Less-than-Regular Certification - includes all those with emergency, temporary, alternative or provisional certification.
b. Regular Certification - includes all those with probationary, regular, standard, full or advanced certification.
(Probationary - refers to initial license issued after satisfying all requirements except completion of an initial probationary period of teaching)
c. Low poverty refers to schools where 10% or less of the students enrolled are from families below the official governmental poverty line. High poverty refers to schools where
over 80% are below the poverty line.
d. Elementary grade levels refers to kindergarten to sixth grade; elementary does not include pre-kindergarten
e. Secondary grade levels refers to seventh to 12th grades
f. Private Schools refer to those that are not primarily funded or administered by local, state or federal government.
proportion of the teachers in public schools are far less likely to hold a Out-of-Field Teaching
schools. Of the 3,250,000 teachers in certificate because, as mentioned,
public schools in the 2003-04 school many states do not require teachers The most glaring and prominent
year, about 235,000 had only a less- in private schools to be certified. source of inadequate access to
than-full certificate, and another While providing a useful portrait qualified teachers in the United
48,000 teachers had no certificate at of the basic education and training of States is not a lack of basic education
all. the teaching force in the United or training of teachers, but rather a
The data in Table 1 also reveal States, it also is important to lack of fit between teachers’
some distinct cross-school differences acknowledge that these measures of preparation and teachers’ class
in the qualifications of teachers. degrees and certificates tell us little of assignments. This is a result of the
Students in schools with a high the quality or these qualifications. practice of out-of-field teaching—
poverty enrollment sometimes have We do not have analogous national where teachers educated and trained
less access to qualified teachers. For data on teachers’ exam or test scores. in one field are assigned by school
example, teachers in high-poverty Hence, there may be inadequacies or administrators to teach classes in
schools are less likely to have inequities not revealed here. another field.
graduate-level degrees and slightly As mentioned earlier, the data in
less likely to hold a full teaching Tables 2, 3 and 4 show three
certificate than teachers in low- different measures of out-of-field
poverty schools. Teachers in private teaching. Table 2 shows percent

teachers without an undergraduate or
Table 2
graduate major or minor in the field. PERCENTAGE of Secondary Grade Level Teachers in the United States in the
Table 3 shows percent teachers Core Academic Fields Without an Undergraduate or Graduate Major or a Minor
without an undergraduate or in the Field, by Type of School, 1999-2000
graduate major in the field. Table 4 Native Math Science Social
shows percent teachers without a full Language Science
teaching certificate or license in the (English)
field taught. Total 28 32 22 22
Each table reveals that there are
many teachers assigned to teach Public Schools 27 30 21 22
classes in fields that do not match Poverty Enrollment
their educational background. For Low 21 26 19 16
example, as shown in Table 2 about High 41. 7 51. 4 32 24
one third of all those who teach
secondary-school mathematics classes Community Type
Rural 28 32 24 25
have neither a major nor a minor in
Suburban 26 29 20 20
mathematics, mathematics education, Urban 29 32 22 20
or in related disciplines like
engineering, statistics or physics. Grade Level
About 28% of all those teaching Lower Secondary (7-8th grades) 42 47 32 28
secondary-school English classes have Upper Secondary (9-12th grades) 24 28 20 21
neither a major nor a minor in Private Schools 33 40 26 21
English or related subjects such as
literature, communications, speech, 2
Definitions:
a. Secondary school grade levels refer to those teaching grades 7-12th. It excludes those teaching subject-matter
journalism, English education, or courses at the 7-8th grade levels who are employed in middle and elementary schools.
reading education. In science, which b. Low poverty refers to schools where 10% or less of the students enrolled are from families below the official
federal government poverty line. High poverty refers to schools where over 80% are below the poverty line.
is defined as a broad field, slightly c. Private Schools refer to those that are neither primarily funded nor administered by local, state or federal gov-
lower levels—about 22% of all those ernment.
teaching secondary-school classes—

do not have at least a college minor
free of out-of-field teaching. Many fields than do public schools. In
in any one of the sciences or in
teachers in these kinds of schools also other analyses (not shown here), the
science education. Finally, about
teach out of their fields. But data also show large differences
22% of those teaching social studies
misassignment is clearly a major among private schools, according to
are without at least a minor in any of
factor behind lack of access to their size. Private schools appear to
the social sciences, in public affairs,
qualified teachers in high-poverty have both the highest and lowest
in social studies education, or in
schools. The poverty gaps for out-of- levels of out-of-field teaching. On the
history. The data also show that levels
field teaching (in Table 2) are one hand, large private schools have
of out-of-field teaching are higher in
distinctly wider than the poverty gaps unusually low overall levels of out-of-
the seventh and eighth grades than in
for teacher qualifications (in Table 1). field teaching. On the other hand,
ninth to 12th grades.
In other words, although teachers in small private schools have among the
There are large cross-school
high-poverty schools are slightly highest overall levels of out-of-field
differences in out-of-field teaching.
more likely to have fewer teaching. This suggests there is a
In most fields, teachers in high-
qualifications, they are far more likely large degree of diversity, at least in
poverty schools are more likely to be
to be misassigned than are those in regard to teacher qualifications, in
assigned to teach out of their field
low-poverty schools. the private sector—something often
than are those in more affluent
Another important source of overlooked in the ongoing debate
schools. For example, 39% of those
variation for out-of-field teaching is over public versus private schooling
teaching math classes in high-poverty
school sector. Private schools have in the United States.
schools, as opposed to 26% in low-
higher levels of out-of-field teaching Finally, levels of out-of-field
poverty schools, are out of field. To
in three of the four core academic teaching depend upon how this
be sure, more affluent schools are not

misassignment, but the data reveal
Table 3
PERCENTAGE of Secondary Grade Level Teachers in the United States in the two important shortcomings with
Core Academic Fields Without an Undergraduate or Graduate Major in the Field, this explanation. First, it cannot
by Type of School, 1999-20003 explain high levels of out-of-field
Native Math Science Social teaching in fields such as English and
Language Science social studies, where there are
(English) surpluses of qualified teachers.
Total 35 38 29 30 Second, the data show that about
half of all misassigned teachers work
Public Schools 35 37 29 30 in schools that reported no
Poverty Enrollment
difficulties finding qualified
Low 28 31 23 23 candidates for job openings that year
High 43 44 37 36 (Ingersoll, 2003b).
The data point toward another
Community Type explanation: the manner in which
Rural 38 39 35 37
schools are organized and teachers are
Urban 35 37 29 27 managed. School staffing decisions
usually follow a top-down command
Grade Level model: these decisions are the
Lower Secondary (7-8th grades) 51 57 43 40 prerogative of school administrators
Upper Secondary (9-12th grades) 31 34 26 28 and teachers typically have little say
over their assignments. School
administrators face the difficult task
3
Definitions: of providing an increasingly broad
courses at the 7-8th grade levels who are employed in middle and elementary schools. array of programs with limited
b. Low poverty refers to schools where 10% or less of the students enrolled are from families below the official resources, time, budgets, and
c. Private Schools refer to those that are neither primarily funded nor administered by local, state or federal gov- teaching staff. But, within those
ernment.
constraints, administrators have an
unusual degree of discretion, and
there is little centralized regulation of
phenomenon is defined and This is a widespread and chronic
how teachers are utilized once they
measured. For example, as shown in phenomenon in the United States.
are hired. In this context,
Table 3, when the definition of an The data show that each year some
administrators report that, from a
in-field teacher is raised to include out-of-field teaching takes place in
managerial perspective, they find that
only those with a full major in the well over half of all U.S. secondary
assigning teachers to teach out of
field, in contrast to a major or a schools and each year over one fifth
their fields is often more convenient,
minor as in Table 2, levels of out-of- of the public 7-12th grade teaching
less expensive, and less time-
field teaching increase dramatically. force does some out-of-field teaching.
consuming than the alternatives.
Background analyses of the data The key question thus becomes:
For example, rather than hire a
also show that those teaching out of why are so many teachers
new part-time science teacher for two
field are typically veterans with an misassigned? In answer, many
sections of a newly state-mandated
average of 14 years of teaching commentators assume that teacher
science curriculum, an administrator
experience, and about 45% of out- shortages are the source of the
may find it simpler to assign two
of-field teachers hold graduate problem. Shortfalls in numbers of
English or social-studies teachers to
degrees, but in disciplines other than available teachers, this argument
cover the science sections. When
the subjects in which they have been holds, have forced many schools to
faced with a tough choice between
assigned to teach. Hence, out-of-field assign teachers out of their fields
hiring an unqualified candidate for a
teachers typically are experienced and (National Commission on Teaching
mathematics teacher position or
qualified individuals who have been and America’s Future, 1997).
doubling the class size of one of the
assigned to teach in fields that do not School hiring difficulties are a
fully qualified mathematics teachers,
match their training or education. factor in the degree of teacher
an administrator might opt for the

field, but not have gotten a
Table 4
PERCENTAGE of Secondary Grade Level Teachers in the United States in the
credential.
Core Academic Fields Without a Teaching Certificate or License in the Field, by Moreover, out-of-field teaching is
Type of School, 1999-20004 not the norm for most teachers and
Native Math Science Social the data show that almost none are
Language Science teaching out of their fields for their
(English) entire course load. Misassignments
Total 29 32 29 30 typically involve one or two classes
out of a normal daily schedule of five
Public Schools 24 27 23 25 classes. Most 7-12th grade subject-
area teachers have a main field or a
Poverty Enrollment
Low 18 27 23 23 primary department in which they
High 32 30 38 28 teach, and the data show that most
do have either a certificate or a
Community Type degree in this main field. But many
Rural 24 27 23 23 of these teachers also are assigned to
Urban 28 32 26 28
teach some classes each day in other
fields or departments. Mathematics
Grade Level teachers, for example, may not
Lower Secondary (7-8th grades) 29 32 27 26 simply teach math; they also may be
Upper Secondary (9-12th grades) 23 27 22 25 assigned to teach biology for part of
the day. It is in these other
assignments that teachers most often
4
Definitions: have little background.
courses at the 7-8th grade levels who are employed in middle and elementary schools.
b. Low poverty refers to schools where 10% or less of the students enrolled are from families below the official
c. Private Schools refer to those that are neither primarily funded nor administered by local, state or federal gov- Implications
ernment.
If educational reform is to succeed in

solving the problem of
former. If a full-time music teacher is From a managerial perspective, underqualified teachers, it must
under contract, but student these choices may save time and address the major sources of the
enrollment is sufficient to fill only money for the school, and ultimately problem. There are a variety of
three music classes, the principal may for the taxpayer. From an educational possible reasons why elementary and
find it both necessary and cost- perspective, they are not cost-free, as secondary classrooms may sometimes
effective in a given semester to assign they comprise one of the largest not be staffed by qualified teachers
the music teacher to teach two classes sources of underqualified teachers in and these are sometimes confused
in English, in addition to the three schools in the United States. and confounded.
classes in music, in order to employ Several points and limitations One possible source is the
the teacher for a regular full-time must be stressed concerning these standards themselves. The depth,
complement of five classes per measures and data. First, there is no breadth, and rigor of college or
semester. If a school has three full- doubt some of these out-of-field university teacher-preparation
time social-studies teachers, but teachers may actually have been programs and state certification
needs to offer the equivalent of 3? qualified, despite not having a minor, standards in the United States. have
full-time positions, and also has more major or certificate in the subject. long been the target of critics. One
than enough full-time English Some might have been qualified by criticism is that in some states
teachers, one solution would be to virtue of knowledge gained through prospective teachers have not been
assign one of the English teachers to previous jobs, through life required to have completed sufficient
teach both English courses and some experiences or through informal coursework in the subject matter of
social-studies courses. training. Others may have completed their field. In this case, remedies
substantial college coursework in a must look to reform of state licensing

requirements and institutional and to provide incentives to recruit
preparation programs. more candidates into teaching. In
Another source is the failure of contrast, the data indicate that of
some teachers to meet the standards equal or greater importance is the
because of deficits in their out-of-field teaching—a common
preparation or education. Falling into practice whereby otherwise qualified
this category are those without a teachers are assigned by school
four-year college degree, those administrators to teach classes in
without any teaching certificate, and subjects which do not match their
those who hold one of the many fields of training or certification. The
types of less-than-full teacher data show this is widespread in the
certificates issued by states— United States, especially in those
emergency, temporary, alternative, schools serving disadvantaged
provisional, etc. The latter are issued communities.
to those who need to complete Understanding the reasons
additional coursework or student behind out-of-field teaching
practice teaching in order to obtain a assignments is important because of
full certificate, or to those who are the implications for solving the
participating in, but have not yet problem. In focusing on teacher-
completed, an alternative training training requirements and teacher
program. Typically, it is assumed that recruitment, most contemporary
shortages are a major factor behind teacher-reform initiatives in the
these inadequacies in teachers’ United States have overlooked the
qualifications. From this viewpoint, impact of the organizational and
shortfalls in the numbers of available occupational contexts within which
qualified teachers have forced many teachers work. The data, however,
schools to hire teachers who are not indicate that solutions to the
qualified. problem of underqualified teachers
Even another source of also must look to how schools are
underqualified teaching arises in how managed and how teachers are
teachers are utilized once on the utilized once they are on the job. In
job—the problem of out-of-field short, recruiting thousands of new
teaching. Remedies to these candidates and providing them with
mismatches must look to reform of rigorous preparation will not solve
the way teachers are managed and the problem if large numbers of
assigned in schools. teachers receive assignments for
In the United States, most which they are not prepared.
researchers and commentators
assume the problem of
underqualified teachers lies primarily
in the first two sources—
inadequacies in either the standards
or the qualifications of the available
supply of teaching candidates.
Consistent with this perspective, the
dominant policy responses, as
discussed in the introduction of this
chapter, have been to upgrade the
qualifications of teachers through
more rigorous education, training,
testing and licensing requirements,

Ingersoll, R. (1999). The problem of National Commission on Teaching
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

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Richard M. Ingersoll, United States

Ding Gang and Sun Meilu, People’s Republic of China (PRC)

University of Pennsylvania / Teachers College - Columbia University

Chapter 2. The Qualifications of the Teaching Force in China..................................................................................19

Chapter 6. The Qualifications of the Teaching Force: Data from Singapore..............................................................71

Chapter 7. The Qualifications of the Teaching Force in Thailand ............................................................................85

List of Figures (by chapter)

Isabella Y. F. Wong is an Assistant

Kong Hong Ong is a Vice Principal in

Pruet Siribanpitak is an Associate

Introduction a general consensus among many within a massive new piece of

Educational Qualifications Professional Qualifications

 * Test or exam not required for license,

designated as public. With the

strict control of the central and local

mandatory. In the category of senior-

institutions educate students to be

 Educational statistic yearbook of China 2004.

China statistics yearbook 2004.

Department of Development and

Li Peilin & Li Qiang Sun Liping.

Project Team of China’s Education

Zhang Shiya & Wu Xiaorong.

Introduction prescribed curriculum. In addition, stream students usually study physics,

 Statistics on primary and secondary school

In collaboration with Walter Putnam Dawson

Introduction conducted cross-cultural research on a whole has been characterized as a

Upper secondary school teacher Advanced certificate 1st class certificate

Principal & Deputy Principal Training Course

Teachers’ Overseas Assignment Project

Training for Student Guidance Supervisors, etc.

Training Held by a Municipal Board of Education

Training at the School

Trainings held by the Body or Group for Educational Studies

Training on Planning & Trainings on Specialized Trainings held by the Government

Fujita, H. (1997). Kyoiku-Kaikaku Fujita, H. (2006). Kyoiku-kaikaku

Fujita, H. (2000a). Education reform

Fujita, H. (2000b). Shimin-Shakai to

Teachers College 13 27 40 4,030 6,748 10,778 14,120

universities. Universities of education considered to have stronger

Intensive Course 21 15-21 21 21 22-30 20 21 21 21 20 21 21 15-30

Social Service Activity P/F P/F P/F P/F P/F 31

Observation non-credit 1 week

Gyeongin Observation 1 2 weeks

Chuncheon Observation no-credit 1 week

Gwangju Observation pass/fail 1 week

Requirement for • Graduates of four-year training • Certification standard and evaluation

Certificate Acquisition By submitting the non-examination • Completing over 15 credit hours of

Supervisory Body for Certification • Committee for Teacher —

School level Elementary 157,407(100) 157,248(99.90) 126(0.08) 33(0.02) None

School type Nat’l./public 298,436 (100) 298,216(99.93) 168(0.06) 52(0.02) None

Total 375,237(100%) 374,947(99.92%) 205(0.05%) 85(0.02%) None

schools according to the law, it is However, the preference of students