ANCIENT NEPAL

Journal of the Department of Archaeology

Number 156
July 2004

Editorial Board
Chief Editor
Kosh Prasad Acharya
Editor
Chandra Prasad Tripathee
Shukra Sagar Shrestha
Bishnu Raj Karki

F6RT% Published by
* y * m His Majesty's Government
w,
d73 aV 7Tk5 +Ivillcl4
Ministry of Culture, Tourism & Civil Aviation
The Department of Archaeology
mfarrm Kathmandu, Nepal
 *awT
ANCIENT NEPAL
Nunlber 156
July 2004

Editorial Board
Chief Editor
Kosh Prasad Acharya
Editor
Chandra Prasad Tripathee
Shulcra Sagar Shrestha
Bishnu Raj Karki
 Contents

sivagala, canigala and vandigala

(Three Toponynis from Medieval Bhaktapur)
- Yogeslr Raj ................................................................... 1-10

mTl
.5
Nepali Section
 Contribution of original n: aling with pre-historic and field-archaeology, epigraphy,
manuscripts, numismatics, archives, ar L, ~111~hropology
and architecture of Nepal and museum and other
techniques connected with various aspects of art work are invited to "Ancient Nepal".
The contribution should be concise and well-documented and based on hitherto unpublished
data, if not new interpretation of already known evidence.
The opinions expressed are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the views of the
Editor or The Department of Archaeology. -
Photographs and illustrations (Line drawing) may be sent. The typescript should be in double
space and one side of the paper only sent to:

The Director General

Department of Archaeology
Ramshahpath
Kathmandu, Nepal
1 be had of :
ljha Prakashan ,
~lcl~ok,Lalitpur

.ice Rs. :
 givagala, canigala and vandigala
(Three Toponyms from Medieval Bhaktapur)
This paper attempts to find the origin and extent of
three place-names from medieval Bhaktapur.'" The
three place-names are sivagala, canigala and
~ a n i g a r aThough
.~ widespread in the official use in the
numerous medieval legal land grants or land sale palm-
leaf documents, these names are not in use anymore.
Canigala is a key place of action in the
Gopnlarajavamsavali.
'I'here have been some speculationsover identification
of these names before (Shrestha 200 1), but his manner
of approach was brisk and the conclusions were but
hasty.
The use of legal documents in toponymical studies has
been largely an unknown enterprise in Nepalese history
writings. Regmi (2051 VS), Tiwari (2000) and now
Shakya (2001) can be cited as exceptions. In this paper,
a corpus consisting nearly 2000 palm-leaf land sale
and land grant documentd has been scanned in order
to solve the problem of origin and extent of the three
place names. Out of this corpus, a total of 800
documents come from Bhaktapur or medieval khvapa.
The latter makes the raw material for our study.
Students of Nepalese history and culture are not
unfamiliar with these documents. However, it would
fit our purpose to mention a few characteristics of the
material : (1) all of these documents are necessarily
dated; (2) the documents had legal status, thus are quite
understandably,highly formal and (3) the language used
- YogeshRaj
is strictly s t y l i ~ e d These
.~ characteristics of ,our
materials make our study credible.
All of these documentshave a common way ofproviding
the address of the principal subjects: it begins with
reference to the largest dwelling unit followed by
references to three other units of decreasing size and
familiarity. Each of the preceding units is larger and
inclusiveofunits following it. The first units men1ioncd
are desa bruma, pur referring the city, an urban cosmos
for the medieval period. The other smaller units
following it could be sthana (for location of the city),
tola (for location of the sthana) and -che (a particular
yet generic suffix for a name of a house/residential unit)
or -ksetra (for a particular and often atypical name ol'a
plot of land).
We find that medieval Bhaktapur was divided illto tliree
sthanas: sivagala canigala and vandigala. It is but rarc
to find such consistent sthana divisions in lnedieval
Kathmandu and Patan? It is noteworthy to find a siliglc
sthana denoting whole of other Newar settlelnelits sue11
as Sanga (sremgirapura-sthana),Banepa (vanikapuri-
sthane), Nala (narampari-sthane), Thimi (tribliairava-
sthane), Yanauti (punyavati-sthane) to cite a few.
Here our methodology is first to identify tlie lola lialilc
following aparticular sthana, list ofall the tolas witlii~i
the same sthana, and then to guess the extent of thc
sthana. Lists of the tolas falling under the three sthaoas
are given in Appendix 1. A map is quite lielpful in
visualizing the boundaries of the three stlianas (map
1). It is clear from the map that the entire eastern part
of the medieval Bliaktapur was under vandigara -stliana
division. Rest of the city was axially divided in to two
stliana divisions: tlie upper (north) was under sivagala
-stliana and the lower (south) was under canigala -
stliana (refer to the map 1).
There are several complications. Firstly, we find that a
few tolas seem to belong to two of the sthanas such as
tiprakochem (> tibukchem) falling under both sivagala
(purnima 975, NS 480) and canigala (pasuka 4/1:8,
NS 740) as well as golamande (>gomarhi) falling under
both sivagala (BSTT 4:15, NS 765) and canigala
(pasuka 419:NS 727). The problem is solved if we
interpret the anomaly as a simple consequence of a fact:
tlie mutual boundaries of the sthanas ran through these
tolas. The uncommon -che and subjects of given
transactions in the tolas would make our interpretation
tenable.
While one cannot also rule out a possibility of time-
born changes in the size and shape of an administrative
sthana unit causing certain tola falling under one sthana
anytime transferred to other sthana later. Thus the
second complication in our method is temporal in nature.
It seems natural to assume a dynamic shift/organic
growth in the extent of the sthana divisions. Reliable
speculation on the origins of the sthana names at this
stage could augment our ability to understand how the
size and shape of a specific sthana changed over a
couple of centuries.
The common morpheme gala (or gara) in all three
toponyms, both as a free and a bound type, refers to an
architectural unit mostly used as residence for divinity
and for mortals. It is not difficult thus to interpret siva-
gala as 'abode of siva', cani-gala as 'abode of cani'
and vandi-gara as 'abode of vandi'. We may even
speculate that in the beginning these three names
referred to three temples or god-houses located at three
further points of the medieval Bhaktapur city (these
temples - following the classical Hindu settlement
pattern-could well have been at the hearts of three
distinct Lichhavi and post-Lichhavi semi-urban
settlement8) and that as time passed, the horizontal
expansion of each of the settlements9 resulted in tlic
formation of the first unified urban cityscape and tlie
three names came to denote three larger settlement parts
of the Interesting also is the fact that while in
the Lichhavi period the units were named (ma-kho-pr~n,
ma-kho-dulam and khr-pr-bru) after the cliarcteristics
of their natural landscapes, the toponyms undcr
discussion suggest that by medieval period, Bhaktapur
was already modeled after the classical Hindu urban
pattern.
cani-gala, in the period the Gopalarajavamsavali
(written around NS 509), hereafter GV, was being
compiled, was a strategically important fortress that
doyas and other invaders frequently attacked. Shrestlia
(2001) associates the name to the present day casukliya
located east of tibukchem (<tirpakochem), which still
serves as an entry point to the city from southeastcrli
direction. He links cani-gala to candi-gala or 'abodc of
candi'. casukhya does have a candesvari ten~plc.
Altough the inscriptional evidence from the site at tlic
present cannot be stretched earlier than NS 800, it does
appear to be a good first approximation ! canigala then
onwards appears to have spread to the south and to tlic
west. Refer to the map 2.
The earliest attested date for siva-gala is NS 125, much
older than cani-gala yet the former occurs only in tlic
GV. Unlike other religious sites, which also had security
functions and were often places for depositing precious
riches such as gold and grains, siva-gala in all
probability was purely a religious site. Shrestha (200 1)
identifies it with the virabhadresvara temple situated ill
present day gomarhi (<golamande). The basis for his
conclusion are :(a) virabhadresvara is principal deity
in vira-saiva cult that was in its zenith during 7th- 1 1th
century AD Nepal, (b) the site is historically important
as a sivadeva-amsuvarma inscription has been fou~id
there and (c) two of the legal documents link golamaiidc
with siva-gala. See Shrestha (200 1:30,3 In). Basis (a)
and (b) are conjectural and (c) is untenable. The 'prool's'
were not convincing to shrestha himself. Hc acccptcd
that a separate study was necessary. The growth ol'tlic
extent of siva-gala can be seen in map 3.
vandi-gara has been associated to the present vane layku
at Dattatreya Square of the eastern part of the tow11
(Sharma:2057 VS:66-68). He suggests an etymology
 for the latter as vane layku <vane rajakula <vanhi raja NS 836) Khauma (ASK: 150, NS 888)
(ya) kula or "ancestry of a certain Brahmin named > khauma
Vanhiraja". His interesting conclusion that there had 7. godamada (ASK:48, NS 744)
bee11a case of a parsing error (reading vanhi rajakula
godamamde (Pa 313:6, NS 755) godamamde
instcat1of vanhiraja kula) leading into a semantic shift,
(BSTT 4: 15, NS 765) golamanide (S-T: 190, NS
however, is inaccurate. The ritual phrase 'vanhi rajakula
771) golamandi (ASK:45, NS 780) golamamde
bliattaraka' reported in use during all the rituals may
(BSTT 4: 15, NS 785) godamamde (ASK:69, NS
simply mean" the deity at the vanhi rajakula. Instead,
-
ill all likelihood, vandiva-gala vandima-gala could
80 1) golamamde (S-T: 197, NS 8 10) golamamde
(P 10255, NS 819) gvalamamdhe (S-T:195, NS
be ~l~ealiingfully derived from vam deva-gala or "abode1
877) gvalamamde (S-T: 185, NS 878)
Sortress of the devas oflcoming from the east". vanhi
rajakula and its olderattested form vande rajakula could >gomarhi
be then "the royal ancestry of the devas of the east". 8. godasade (ASK :25, NS 806)
'fliese devas, known better in the chronicles of theNepal 9. cadvara (S-T: 185, NS 878)
Valley as doyas or dos were powerful people of the 10. cochem (P 79:42, NS 652)
medieval period. These doyas had entered the Valley cochem (BSTT 1:5, NS 702) cocham (Pa 3/3:6,
from the east. Vajracarya (202 1VS) found that the ruling NS 706) cochem (BSTT 1:6, NS 729) cochem
clited of the tirbhukti pradesa in the south was (BS'IT 1:10, NS 776) cocchem (Pa 3112:6, NS
genericallytermed as doyas by the people of the valley. 778) cochem (S-T:181, NS 801) coche (BSIT
IIe did not know why. Also, he wondered if this term 1:16, NS 857)
was in use in the historical materials of Mithila and/or
> cochem
'I'irhut. I have attempted to find answers to these
questions elsewhere (raj:2002). Also, I have shown that 11. tipurakoche (P 975, NS 480)
-
doyas devas are till today linked to the vanbi rajakula > tibukchem
> vane layku. It supports my etymology elicited above. 12. tupalache (P 99: 15, NS 534)
The evolution of the toponym could be visualized in tuparachhe (PA 4/9:9, NS 714) tupalacche (Pa31
tilap 4. 4:7, NS 764) tupalacche (BSTT 4:15, NS 785)
tupalaccha (Pa 314:6, NS 822) tupalacche (Pa 31
Appendix 1 (a) 4:6, NS 826)
A list oftolas that falls within sivagala sthana as attested > tulachem
in the medieval documents . 13. teche (S-T: 196, NS 871)
I . alaco (ASK:395, NS 853) 14. toclie (BSTT 4:23, NS 887)
> inaco 15. tyache (P 9957, NS 873)
2. ilacha (P102:58, NS 821) tyache (ASK:67, NS 873)
3. etaclle (BSTT 1: 12, NS 795) 16. thamkarachhe (BSTT 4:6, NS 710)
> itache thakarachee (Pa 419:9, NS 714) thamkalache
4. kupalaclie (Pa 419:9, NS 7 14) (ASK:379, NS 782) thamkarachhe (Pa 4/4:7, NS
5. kvathandu (S-T: 183, NS 876) 797) thamkalaclie (BSlT 1: 14, NS 832)
17. tharache (ASK : 168, NS 879)
kvathanabhu (BSTT 1:16, NS ......)
> thalachem
> kvathandau
18. thasache (ASK :25, NS 796)
6. khanima (P 84:28, NS 653)
19. dathu (ASK :352, NS 883)
klianimam (P 97:24, NS 680) khanimam (P102:57,
> dathu tvah
NS 820) khanimha (ASK: 16, NS 820) khanimam
(Pa 3/4:6, NS 822) klialama (Pa 4/2:8, NS 832) 20. duvu (ASK : 355, NS 8-)
kllanima (Pa 412:8, NS 833) khanima (P 102161, duvu (P 102: 6 1, NS 8-)
21. bilache(ASK: 61,NS719) gvalamamdo (Pa 4/39, NS 727) gvalamamdo (Pa
bilacha (S-T: 186, NS 728) biraclla (S-T : 140,18 1, 4/9:9, NS 727 golamamdhi (ASK :440, NS 747)
NS 777) bilacha (P 10259, NS 824) bilacha (P golamamdhi (P 99:62, NS 842-889)
99:50,NS 847) bilache (ASK: 44, NS 862) >gomarhi
> bilachem (in front of present day Padma High ghatakha (Pa 3/3:6, NS 702)
Sc1100l) > ghahkha
22. mulacha (ASK: 368, NS 57-) codulache (ASK : 5 19, NS 8 19)
> mulachem jolamamda (ASK: 356, NS 663)
23. yamcha (BS?T 1:4, NS 683) tekhaco (S-T: 190, NS 696)
yamclie (S-T:183, NS 700) yamche (BSTT 4:8, tekhaco (ASK: 410,NS 804) tekhaco (P 102:64,
NS 710) yamche (S-T: 186, NS 763) yamche NS 844) tekhaco (ASK: 126, NS 864)
(BSIT 1 :13, NS 820) > tekhaco
23. yamthalache (ASK : 52, NS 796) tacapala (S-T: 180, NS 805)
> yamthali
> tacapala
24. yampalacha (P 85:3 1, NS 666) talamande (Pa 3/9:6, NS 646)
yapalacha (P 97:40,NS 753) talamamdhe (S-T: 197, NS 663) talamamdi (Pa 31
25. yache (S-T: 189,NS 855) 10:6, NS 671) talamande (Pa 3/10:6, NS 671)
yache (ASK: 168, NS 879) talamande (Pa 4/4:9, NS 697) taramamda (ASK:
> yache 397, NS 781) talamande (S-T: 183, NS 791)
talamande (P 102:58, NS 821) talamande (Pa 41
26. yotache (ASK: 367, NS 674)
2:8, NS 832)
yotache (P 97: 23, NS 679)
> tamarhi
27. ramgaracha (S-T: 189, NS 855)
talamram (Pa 4/9:9, NS 747)
28, svache (ASK: 357, NS 866)
tasamate (ASK: 55, NS 875)
tiprakvachem (Pa 411 :8, NS 740)
Appendix 1 (b)
tiprakvachem (Pa 3/3:6, NS 755) tiprakvaclicm
(BSTT 2 5 , NS 759) tiprakvachem (P 102:55, NS
A list of tolas that falls withincanigala sthana as attested 8 19) tiprakvachem (BSTT 1:13,NS 820)
in the medieval documents. > tibukchem
tupalacha (P 97:23, NS 674)
1. ikhacho (BSTT 4:23, NS 887) > tulacllem
2. ichu (S-T: 191, NS 850) tebhuco (ASK : 519, NS 875)
> ichhu temuco (ASK: 414, NS 875)
3. itakhalacha (P 97: 3 1, NS 690) > tepco (?)
yitasaracha ( S-T: 183, NS 699) dalache (S-T: 194, NS 850)
4. kupalacha (BSIT 2:2, NS 696) biracha (ASK: 3 1, NS 793)
5. kvachhe (Pa 4/9:9, NS 727) > bilachem
kvacche (Pa 412: 1, NS 796) kvache (ASK : 69, bodoracha (P 84:28, NS 653)
NS 801)
borache (P 102: 64, NS 844)
> kvachem
> bolachem
6. gvalamamdo (Pa 4/39, NS 727)
2 1. magalachhe (ASK:27, NS 7 10) tavacapala (P 10256, NS 8 19) tavacapala (S-T:
mamgulacha (ASK: 64, NS 776) 193, NS 850)
>maingalachem > tacapala
22. malache (ASK : 368, NS 57-) 7. tavalacha (P 97: 18, NS 658)
marache (ASK : 505. NS 820) tavalacha (P 97:21, NS 671) tavalache (BS'IT
> malachem 1:9, NS 774) tavalache (ASK:126, NS 86
tavalache (S-T: 198, NS 874)
mamde (Pa 3/9:6, NS 538)
> taulachem
yibilacha (P 97: 17, NS 65 1)
8. thulam (ASK:358, NS 705)
racako (Pa 4/9:9, NS 695)
9, dyarhache (ASK: 2 17, NS 560)
lacako (PA 4/3:9, NS 697)
10. nu (?) parahe (P 99: 59, NS 884)
> layko
11. pola (ASK : 29, NS 550)
lamkolache (P 10254, NS 791)
12. bodeche (ASK:41, NS 603)
> lakolachem
13. magukva (S-T: 187, NS 883)
14. mulam (BS'TT 1:3, NS 679)
Appendix 1 (c)
15. yatache (S-T: 195, NS 878)
A list of tolas that falls within vandima sthana as attested
in the medieval documents. 16. yitiphusi tole (P 100:34, NS 573)
17. yilam (S-T: 184, NS 600)
1. kavacandra (Pa 4/2:9, NS 783) 18. yevalam (S-T: 194, NS 8 13)
2. kvathanadutn(P99:10,NS531) 19. yuvara (P 99:49, NS 845)
kvathanadu (P 101: 24, NS 59 1) kvathandum (P 20. yulam (P 995, NS 528)
97:27, NS 681) kvathandhu (S-T: 182, NS 813) yulam (P 97/35, NS 705) yula (ASK:338, NS 771)
kvathandu (P 102: 56, NS 8 19) kvathandu (S-T: yulam (BSTT 1:3, NS 771)
191, NS 850) kvathandu (S-T: 198, NS 874) 21. lamkooo (ASK:224, NS 642)
> kvathandau 22. sarana (ASK: 187, NS 883)
3. gharhache (P 100: 13,NS 560) > salam Ganedyo
gadachem (ASK:465, NS 599) gadache (S-T: 188, 23. salakvalama (S-T: 187, NS 851)
NS 678) gadache (S-T: 183, NS 717) gadache > sah kulam
. (S-T: 184, NS 8 13) galachem (P 9955, NS 867)

> gahchem ' I have adopted the term medieval period as spanning
4. gulam (ASK:23, NS 528) over 889 years with its starting points as the year of
5. jela (BSTT 1:3, NS 679) advent of the Nepal Era i.e. 879 AD.
jela (ASK : 92, NS 736) jela (P 10259, NS 829) I am thankhl to Dr Purushottam Lochan Shrestha for
jyara (P 102: 65, NS 844) jela (P 99:52, NS 851) his insightful suggestions.
When this article was being written, I came across an
>jelam
unpublished article by Sureshjyoti Shakya on the same.
6. tavacapada(P101:24,NS591) Apparently he was mulling over the same questions.
tavacapadu (ASK : 465, NS 599) tavacapada (P We worked independently. Our questiotls were same
97: 16, NS 639) tavacapada (S-T: 193, NS 717) but answer different. His was the first to be published. I
lavacapara (Pa 312: 7: NS 723) tavacapala (S-T: duly acknowledge his contribution. See Sl~akya(200 1).
190, NS 771) There are several orthographic variations to these names
such as
 sivagala-sivagara-sivagvala-sivagla-sivama le kasthamandapa-sthane in Kathmandu are attested in the
- - -
(I?)

canigala candigala -cunigra- canigla canigara
caddigara -
vandigara varnigala - vanditna-
- -
vandivagara vandima vamditna etc.
l'hese attested variations neither violate the accepted
free variants / 11-/r/ in Newari nor known rules of vowel
insertions.
5.
This corpus includes 1200 palm-leaf documents
collected preserved at The Asa Archives (abbreviated
hereafter a s ASK), Raktakali; nearly 350 such
documents in the four volumes of Bhumi Sambandhi
Tamasuk Tadapatra (abbreviated hereafter as BSTT)
published by theNationa1 archives; over 500 documents
published by Mahesh Raj Pant in various issues of
Purnima (abbreviated as P), the leading historical
quarterly; nearly 100 published in various issues of
Pasuka (abbreviated as Pa), a research journal on
Newaralogy published by sutham, Bhaktapur. I have
also used some palmleaf documents published by S.
Lienhard and Thakurlal Manandhar in their Catalogue
of the Nevari manuscripts (abbreviated here as S-T).
See Lienhard and Manandhar (1986).
Kolver and shakya (1985) introduce (3). See pp 31-5 1.
',
nogala sthane and tegvala-sthana in Patan and
medieval documents but they do not seem to encompass
whole of the city and we simply do not have other stllana
divisions to draw conclusions similar as above for either
of the city.
That king ananda Deva (NS 267-287) is commonly
attributed for the first urbanization of Bhaktapur (by
combining minor hamlets and circling the combination,
as it were, with the seats of the MotlierGoddesses in
eight cardinal directions) supports our speculation. The
locations of the Licchavi inscriptions found so far do
tend to sugest that in the post-Licchavi period, there
were indeed three principal fast growing hamlets. See
also Tiwari (2001), especially map on page 25 1 for the
tri-partite division of Bhaktapur in the Licchavi period.
9 Schreibler (1982) suggests that the horizontal growth
of Bhaktapur cityscape continued up to 15th century.
l o There was an opposite shrinking process going on at
the same time. Former tala denoting a larger arable
farming area shrank into tola, a mere couple of dwelling
units. Former seats of power lost their glories and
became insignificant market squares (asanimam > asan,
tripura rajahla> tibuk-chem). At times, the unbeatable
royal palace vanished into the thin air (yuthunin~am
rajakula). See Raj (2000).

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 ' Mark S.G. Dyczkowski-The Cult of the Goddcss Kuhjika,
Stuttgart, Franz Steiner Verlag, 200 1, 1-78.
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A Dictionary of Classical Newari [Katlimandu, Ncpal Bliasa
Dictionary Colntnittee Cwasa Pasa, A D 2000, pp. 621 E q
T
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m?
mast o f a god's chariot, Wf
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 A SOUT THE AUTHPDC

Mr. Yo,oe!sh Raj I\cscalul a ~ l ~ ~ l 'a r

Mr. Pursotam Lotchan Shrestha Reader-,Bhakti

Mr. Som Prasad Khatiwa~ Lecturer, Ma Morar~g Carr

B iratnagar

Mr. Bishnu Raj K - Chief1 Officer,

Departinerit ur ~rcnaeology

Mrs. Jayanr~3nre Technical r-iss~stant,

Depart ment of 'Archae