Fear is used in the gothic genre to acknowledge the repressed within the societies in which it was

written. Using your three texts, discuss this notion.

The 'gothic' is a genre that has evolved with the societies around which it was created. By
examining the gothic novel in the context of society we can acknowledge certain recurring aspects
of the genre that directly and indirectly associate with the social and political developments of the
people around which it existed. Horror and terror are combined within this genre to produce an
experience for a potential reader that would induce fear. It is this emotion that writers of the gothic
genre use as a mask to explore certain topics of social and political interest that would be
unacceptable to discuss openly, such as attitudes towards various controversial topics. The classic
components of a gothic work have been repeated throughout the history of the genre, however the
minor details hidden within the texts are always relative to the social and political dynamics of the
time in which they were written.

Bram Stoker’s ‘Dracula’ has many of the classic components of a traditional gothic novel, which
are apparent from the outset and evoke reactions in the reader throughout the text that are
widespread throughout the genre. Common characteristics include foreign location and characters;
Jonathan Harker begins the story with a journey to Dracula’s castle in “one of the wildest and least
known portions of Europe”, immediately providing a sense of mystery and unease. The casual tone
in which Harker writes acts as a foreshadow of terror to come and also highlights his obvious
naivety and innocence; this is another common characteristic in the genre. (1) The use of location
allows the reader to be transported into an alternative situation, in which they can fully
acknowledge the perhaps unusual happenings occurring throughout the text as they read on. The
submersion of the reader into a totally different world also makes issues within the text that would
have been considered unacceptable more accessible, as the extreme difference in setting would
separate the reader from the subject, making it less personal and therefore less shocking. the
detailed imagery surrounding Harker’s journey to Dracula’s castle definitely achieves this and
prepares the reader for the typically gothic architecture that welcomes Harker to Dracula.
Architecture again provides a clear image for the reader to really grasp the full threat within the
novel, causing a variety of emotions to form; fear for the protagonist, and fear of the consequences
of the text. Descriptions of the architecture within a gothic text is often detailed, for example Harker
describes the “rattling chains” and the “clanking of massive bolts drawn back” which plays on the
senses of the reader and helps to set the scene. Similarly, descriptions of the physical surroundings
to affect the reader are used regularly by Edgar Allen Poe to again play upon the senses of the
reader. An example of this is in 'The Pit and the Pendulum' where the narrator describes his
surrounding through the use of touch as he is rendered blind in the early stages of the text, “I
reached out my hand, and it fell upon something damp and hard” “the atmosphere was intolerably
close”. These detailed portrayals of his surroundings set the scene for the reader in a way that
signifies an element of mystery and perhaps adumbrates an unseen threat, through the vulnerability
of the narrator. Furthermore, the use of architecture by Poe in 'The Fall of the House of Usher'
transcends the boundaries of architecture within the gothic as it forms the basis of the text; present
in the title, the house in question is highly symbolic within the text as a physical representation of
the state of Usher's health, implicating the decaying state of the house relates directly to and perhaps
causes the decaying state of Usher's mind. This is shown through the narrator's depiction of Usher,
“He was enchained by certain superstitious impressions in regard to the dwelling where he
tenanted” “there was a species of mad hilarity in his eyes” and through Poe's use of punctuation in
Usher's own speech, “you have not seen it? - but stay! You shall!”

In the 18th-19th century large scale developments were taking place globally, and Bram Stoker and
Edgar Allan Poe would have been directly immersed in the social and political responses to these
changes. Colonialism and invasion were becoming more discussed through the literature of the
era, however mixed views regarding these topics would not have been acceptable subjects for
public reading and so symbolism, metaphors and representation became major parts of the genre at
this time. From acknowledging this, we can see that the gothic genre was now being used as an
outlet for objectionable themes; Vijay Mishra, in “The Gothic Sublime” states the Gothic novel is a
“presentation of the unpresentable”. The idea of colonialism and invasion began to lead to a public
fear of the foreign, which is strongly expressed in Stoker’s ‘Dracula’ and Poe’s ‘The Fall of the
House of Usher’ through the use of setting, landscape and nationality. For example the narrator of
‘Usher’ comments on the owner of the house’ “Hebrew nose” and there is strong emphasis on the
foreign and mysterious location of Dracula’s castle, “leaving the West and entering the East” “there
are no maps of this country”. Perhaps one of the most major and horrifying aspects of ‘Dracula’ is
the villain’s consumption of blood. We can almost certainly associate the character of Dracula with
a negative representation of invasion, as he ‘invades’ humans that the reader can easily relate to,
such as Jonathan Harker and Lucy Westenra. In addition to this, Dracula comes to England,
bringing with him a storm, “One of the greatest and suddenest storms on record has just been
experienced here” again personifying the threat of an invasion of the readers' home.

The Gothic is a genre that explores the boundaries of humanity, and so the constant debate on
Dracula’s humanity becomes a common theme in Stoker’s novel. As Kelly Hurley ('The Cambridge
Companion to Gothic Fiction') states; “A psychoanalytic reading of the Gothic might identify the
genre’s monster as the ‘return of the repressed’: the embodiment of unbearable or unacceptable
fears, wishes and desires that are driven from consciousness and then transmuted into
representations of monstrosity.”
This interpretation could be argued to be the definition of the character of Dracula; his monstrous
appearance and actions can be identified with various ‘modern’ ideas and the doubt surrounding
them in the public eye. Throughout ‘Dracula’ there are not many physical descriptions of the
characters, however Dracula himself is described in some detail; this places emphasis on his
unusual and perhaps threatening appearance, and also allows us to compare him to the later
description of Lucy Westenra after she has been bitten. Harker comments on how Lucy “drew back
with an angry snarl” and how her “eyes were full of hell-fire”. Dracula's first impression on Harker
is definitely ‘monstrous’; Harker comments on “His mouth...was fixed and rather cruel looking”
and his “peculiarly sharp teeth” which provides an obvious threat and an image of a character to be
feared by the reader. The connection between reactions to obvious inhuman appearance, as in
'Dracula' with appearances of 'foreigners' can be used to observe the connection between the social
fears of invasion and the foreign as a parallel with the fear of the 'monstrous', a classic element of
the gothic. Descriptions of clearly inhuman characters that have an affinity to violence are closely
comparable with the narrator's description of Usher in 'The Fall of the House of Usher'; he is
portrayed as having “a cadaverous complexion” and the narrator “could not connect his expression
with any idea of simple humanity” In this way, the reader's first impression of Usher is that he is
very different to the narrator (with whom they can relate) and therefore very different to themselves.
Poe has therefore presented his first character (aside from the narrator) as a person of mystery and
this is highlighted by his 'foreign' and slightly odd presentation.
Dracula is a character who is presented as someone with a need for power; “none other should be
master of me”; and a desire for knowledge, “he laid his hand on some of the books – 'These friends
have been good friends to me'”. This need for power can be interpreted as a representation of
Britain's expanding international power as an empire, however presented in this negative way by
Stoker could show the reader Stoker's personal opinions regarding Britain's political state during his
era. The 'need' for power exhibited by Dracula provides a threat towards the characters most
relatable to the reader. The use of the sublime (2) within the gothic shows the reader the full extent
of power and the effects of its pursuit. The unimaginable lengths that characters within the gothic
genre will go to to attain power is shown most obviously in Browning's poetry through acts which
would have shocked the public, such as murder, as in 'The Laboratory', 'My Last Duchess' and
'Porphyria's Lover'. In addition to this, the shocking act of murder is made worse by the murderer's
lack of remorse. This concept is explored by Robert Browning through the use of mental illness. (3)
Through the use of the dramatic monologue, Browning provides the reader with the personal
thoughts of a male character that may have mental illnesses, including conditions such as
schizophrenia. The narrator of 'Porphyria's Lover' commits the act of murder yet appears to have no
remorse; the abrupt, blunt tone in which the reader is informed of Porphyria's murder, “three times
her little throat around, and strangled her” adds to the implication of a lack of conscience. Likewise,
in Browning's 'My Last Duchess', the narrator comments on his 'disposal' of his wife in relaxed
tones, “I gave commands; then all smiles stopped together”; even the title and story within the poem
suggest this attitude as the narrators is looking to replace his 'last Duchess' with a new one. These
lack of human qualities and emotions can definitely be viewed in the same way as Dracula's slightly
more obvious and physical inhumanity. The dehumanisation of characters that represent publicly
undesirable subjects such as invasion and murder separate them from the reader, allowing the reader
to access these difficult issues more easily. Therefore, the writers can expose their views on these
subjects in a more sensitive manner.

The gothic can definitely be argued as a means to discuss the role of women during the eras in
which it was used. The genre can be traced back to the mid 18th century to Horace Walpole's 'The
Castle of Otranto', which is considered to be the first gothic novel. Valdine Clemens, in her analysis
of the gothic, 'The Return of the Repressed', introduces 'The Castle of Otranto' as a “social
discussion of the repressive cultural conditions for women at the time”. Therefore the female
element within the gothic genre stems from its commencement, and evolves as women's role in
society develops and changes. At the time in which 'Dracula' was written, women's role in society
was changing from an almost invisible capacity to something with opinions, desires and ambitions.
The female characters in 'Dracula' reflect this in some ways; on it's publication, Stoker referred to
the character of Mina Harker as “a woman of character” and the male characters often show respect
for her. For example, Dr. Seward, a man of status, praises Mina for possessing “a brain that a man
should have were he much gifted”. This acknowledgement of intelligence and respect for a woman
appears to be subtle in the context of the novel however in the context of the Victorian society in
which it was stated would have been noted by the reader as an indication of the evolving status of
women. The 'modern' concept of female sexuality and desire is also apparent in 'Dracula'; Lucy
Westenra is the obvious characterization of this notion as she comments fairly early on in the novel,
“Why can't they let a girl marry three men, or as many as want her?”. She holds none of the
traditional Victorian values of her gender, citing her defiance of conventional roles such as mother
and housewife, however her fate as a character in the novel perhaps can be viewed as Stoker's
personal opinions regarding women of her nature. The female vampires that Jonathan Harker
encounters whilst imprisoned in Dracula's castle are described as the epitome of this modern idea of
female sexuality; “the ruby of their voluptuous lips” “her tongue licked her teeth and lips” “hot
breath” and these can be closely compared with the image of Lucy Westenra after her
transformation into a vampire; “her face became wreathed with a voluptuous smile”. Lucy's change
allows Stoker to examine the connections between sexual desire and death, as viewed by Victorian
society, and the potential dangers surrounding a lifestyle like Lucy's. As Dr. Seward observes the
“unclean creature” she has become he recalls her previously “pure beauty”, this also could be
interpreted as Stoker's opinions regarding the differences between the conventional and the modern
woman. This is a view that appears to be shared by Robert Browning; the female character in
'Porphyria's Lover' is, from the start of the poem, the archetype of the 'new woman'; she is described
as being confident, “when glided in Porphyria” and seductive, “she sat down by my side and call'd
me”. She is a conventionally beautiful woman, “smooth white shoulder” “yellow hair”, and the
scene set within the poem depicts Porphyria seducing the narrator, “she put her arm about my
waist” “stooping, made my cheek lie there”. In this way, Browning represents the idea of the
modern woman that has a sexual identity through the character of Porphyria. In a similar way to
Bram Stoker, Browning uses a tone that suggests it is as a result of this behaviour that Porphyria
dies; another parallel between Porphyria and Lucy Westenra is their lack of corpse-like appearance
after death. (4) The man in 'Porphyria's Lover' kills her with her “yellow hair”, a feature of her that
is part of her definition of a 'modern woman' that she uses as a means of seduction. This also
symbolically shows the connection between the modern woman and the inevitable downfall that
comes as a consequence from this lifestyle choice. With the modern concept of female
independence came the idea of the preservation of purity; not only does this view stem from
religious views of the era, it is an image that links closely with the possessive nature of Browning's
characters. For example, Porphyria's physical appearance is indicative of an innocent girl, and when
coupled with her seductive nature results in her death. The purity of her character as reflected
through her features, “her yellow hair” “laugh'd the blue eyes” is conserved by the narrator as by
killing her he freezes the moment, and therefore “she was mine, mine, fair, perfectly pure and
good”. His motives appear to place emphasis on the preservation of Porphyria's purity and also
upon his possessive nature; the repetition of “mine, mine” and his wishes that she “give
herself to me forever” reflect this notion. Browning's use of the dramatic monologue provides the
reader with the true feelings of the narrator, emphasising the importance of the reader's
acknowledgement of the male characters' possessive nature. The idea that male dominance over a
strong female character only occurs after the death of the female is something that is subtly injected
into many of Browning's dramatic monologues; the title of “Porphyria's Lover” does not mention
the name of the male and demeans his status as a character within the poem, and emphasis is placed
on her dismissal of him, “and, last, she sat down by my side”. After the death of Porphyria he
controls all of her movement, “I propp'd her head up as before” and therefore becomes the
dominating character.

The presence of strong female characters is a classic element of the gothic genre, however it is their
fate within the text that truly represents the writer's views on their attitudes. The fear surrounding
the consequences of being a 'modern woman' is used by Stoker and Browning to discuss whether
the concept of the 'new woman' is a positive development in society or not.

'Porphyria's Lover' was originally published “Porphyria” and this title could be taken literally, as if
the character of Porphyria were to embody a physical disease; this could also be interpreted as a
negative view of the 'new woman'. During the era in which Browning was writing, sickness and
disease would have been a great source of fear amongst the public, as medicine was not a
particularly advanced field, so implications of disease surrounding the concept of the modern
woman would have shone a very negative light around such areas. Porphyria's hair is described as
“yellow” rather than more typical hair colours such as 'blond' or 'golden'. The word yellow is
repeated throughout the poem, placing emphasis on it, and this adjective is more commonly
associated with disease than with hair colour, adding to the 'sickness' imagery within the text. The
use of the publics' fear of disease is also applied in this way by Stoker in 'Dracula', as Lucy's illness
stays undiagnosed even by the numerous characters around her, one a doctor, up until her death,
after which she is paralleled with Dracula, the monstrous inhuman villain of the novel. Similarly,
disease is used by Poe in 'The Fall of the House of Usher' as a means of foreshadowing threats the
the narrator; as he approaches the house at the beginning of the text he comments on the “extensive
decay” and the “pestilent and mystic vapour”. It is also suggested that Usher's sickness is the result
of the “dwelling where he tenanted” The idea of disease is also used in Poe's “The Masque of the
Red Death” as the fictional town in which the text is set is plagued by an unknown and therefore
mysterious disease. The rigidly separate coloured rooms within Prince Prospero's palace can be
interpreted as the barriers around certain social issues and taboo subjects, and the implication of
these rooms as being independent of the disease perhaps shows the reader Poe's attitudes towards
this. The separation of these barriers from disease shine a positive light upon the repression of taboo
subjects, however the outcome of “The Masque of the Red Death” may suggest that while barriers
around taboo may appear at first to be necessary, the final consequence shows that this may not
always be the case. This could be a representation of Poe's approval of the modernisation of society
paired with the end of repression of taboo.

Fear is defined as being 'a distressing negative emotion induced by a perceived threat', and this
emotion is used by writers of the gothic genre to explore these perceived threats, and to come to a
conclusion as to whether these threats are justified. At the time during which Browning, Poe and
Stoker were writing, common ideas that caused controversy amongst the general public were
political and social expansion and evolution, or female independence (otherwise referred to as the
'modern woman') and so these ideas form the basis of their work. By masking such 'taboo' subjects
under the fantasy world of the supernatural and the gothic, writers of the gothic genre make
previously inaccessible subjects available for discussion and debate, allowing the societies in which
they exist to change and evolve. The acknowledgement of these previously silent subjects would
change conventional repression of these ideas and lead to the modernisation of society, through the
use of the emotions of the public, namely fear, within the works of the gothic genre.

Footnotes
1. A character that possesses qualities of innocence and naivety is used throughout the
gothic genre to explore the common gothic theme of corruption. As the innocent
character is 'corrupted' by whatever threat is present as a part of the text, the reader
feels empathy to the character and can identify with their vulnerability, and therefore
understand the dangers of corruption in the real world; for example
2. The sublime is defined by Edmund Burke as “whatever is fitted in any sort to excite
the ideas of pain and danger...whatever is in any sort terrible, or is conversant about
terrible objects, or operates in a manner analogous to terror.” We can apply this to the
gothic genre by stating that the sublime is a means to exaggerate and develop the
concepts of terror and fear within gothic work, to fully recognize the aspects of
society that are being highlighted by the writers.

3.Mental illnesses as acknowledged medical conditions were very modern concepts; during
Browning's lifetime and previous influences, mental illness in literature was usually

4.Lucy's death is said by Dr. Seward to have “restored the beauty of life, till positively I
could not believe my eyes that I was looking at a corpse”. This image of life after death
occurs in 'Porphyria's Lover' as she “blush'd bright beneath my burning kiss” and “the
smiling rosy little head” shows.