In addition to the two basic laws of tautology (P   P) and contradiction (P   P), there are

numerous other significant generalizations of truth-functional regularities, known as LAWS OF

LOGICAL EQUIVALENCE. Some of them are presented in Table 16 (with the symbol  standing for
logical equivalence).

Description Formula /
Example
Double negation law: ( P)  P
The negation of negation of P
equals (always has the same It is not the case that it is not the case that Bill is a teacher
truth-value as) P equals
Bill is a teacher
De Morgan’s laws:
1) 1)  (P  Q)   P   Q
The negation of a conjunction It is not the case that John is a soldier and a poet
equals equals
the disjunction of the negations It is not the case that John is a soldier or
it is not the case that John is a poet

2) 2)  (P  Q)   P   Q
The negation of a disjunction It is not the case that Tim speaks French or German
equals equals
the conjunction of the negations It is not the case that Tim speaks French and
it is not the case that Tim speaks German

Material implication P→ Q   P  Q
equals If John is a soldier, Bill is proud
the disjunction of equals
the negated antecedent It is not the case that John is a soldier or
and the consequent it is the case that Bill is proud

Material equivalence P ↔ Q  (P→ Q)  (Q→ P)

equals If and only if John is breathing, John is alive
the conjunction of the material equals
implications with reverse order If John is breathing, John is alive and
of the antecedent if John is alive, John is breathing
and the consequent

Table 16: Some important laws of logical equivalence