Module 1 Merged

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What is a C ontrol S ystem?

• S ystem- a combination of components that act
together and perform a certain objective
• C ontrol S ystem- a system in which the
objective is to control a process or a device or
environment
• Process- a progressively continuing
operations/development marked by a series of
gradual changes that succeed one another in
a relatively fixed way and lead towards
a particular result or end.
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Definition
A control system consists of subsystems and
processes assembled for the purpose of
controlling the outputs of the processes
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C ontrol Theory
• Branch of systems theory (study of
interactions and behavior of a complex
assemblage)
Control Open L oop
Manipulated System Control C ontrol System
Variable(s) Variable(s)
Control C losed L oop

Manipulated
System Control C ontrol System
Variable(s) Variable(s)
Feedback
function
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E xample C ontrol S ystems

 Mechanical and E lectro-mechanical (e.g. T urntable)
C ontrol S ystems
 T hermal (e.g. T emperature) C ontrol S ys tem
 Pneumatic C ontrol S ystem
 F luid (Hydraulic) C ontrol S ys tems
 C omplex C ontrol S ystems
 Industrial C ontrollers
 On-off C ontrollers
 Proportional C ontrollers
 Integral C ontrollers
 Proportional-plus-Integral C ontrollers
 Proportional-plus-Derivative C ontrollers
 Proportional-plus-Integral-plus-Derivative C ontrollers
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E xample
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Different types of C ontrol S ystem

• Open loop system
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Different types of C ontrol S ystem

• C losed loop system
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C omparison of OL and C L system

Open-L oop S ys tems
• S imple
• Inexpensive
• C annot correct for disturbances or variations in plant
C los ed loop s ys tems
• C omplex & expensive
• Less sensitive to noise,
• Better control of transient and steady state response
• Better accuracy
• S elf-sustained oscillations possible
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Technological Studies Control Systems
Control Systems
1 Different types of systems
All our tools and machines need appropriate control to work, otherwise it will be difficult to
finish their designated tasks accurately. Therefore, we need control systems to guide, instruct and
regulate our tools and machines. Common control systems include mechanical, electronic,
pneumatic and computer aided. A system usually contains three main parts: input, process and
output.
(a) Mechanical system

A mechanical system is a device made up of various mechanical parts. Its input is provided by
an effort. Once the effort and is applied, it can set off a motion to move a load. The force applied
to the load is the output of the mechanical system. Examples of mechanical systems include levers,
gears and shafts. Fig. 1 shows some examples of mechanical systems.
(a) Can opener (b) Corkscrew

Fig. 1 Examples of mechanical systems
(b) Electronic system

An electronic system is a system that employs electronic signals to control devices, such as
radios, calculators, video game machines, mobile phones, portable computers, etc (Fig. 2). The input
of an electronic system is provided by electronic signals. After they are processed, they can generate
output signals, which control the operation of various devices, such as amplifiers and LCD.
Electronic systems can carry out many different tasks, such as generating sound, transmitting
information, displaying video, measuring, memorising, calculating, etc. Common examples of
electronic devices include semi-conducting diode, transistors, capacitors that they are usually welded
onto electronic circuit boards (Fig. 3).
2
(a) Mobile phone (b) Portable computer

Fig. 2 Examples of electronic systems Fig. 3 Electronic circuit board
(c) Computer control system

A computer control system uses a computer to control its output devices according to different
input signals. Its function is similar to that of an electronic system. Yet a computer control system
can use high speed calculation to process large volume of input signals within a very short time, and
then generates appropriate outputs with the help of preset programs. Examples of computer control
systems include computer numerical control press brakes, computer controlled home appliances,
computer controlled underground railway systems, etc (Fig. 4).
(a) CNC press brake (b) A proposed computer controlled

home appliances
Fig. 4 Examples of computer control systems
(d) Pneumatic system

A pneumatic system is a system that uses compressed air to transport and control energy. Air is
first pressurized to give energy in the cylinder. Then signals are input into the system through the
use of switches. Next, air is transferred through sealed pipes to the pneumatic parts for processing.
Finally, the force produced by the pneumatic parts is utilized to finish the designated task. The use
of pneumatic systems is very extensive, for example, in controlling the movement of train doors, the
operation of automatic production lines and mechanical clamps, etc (Fig. 5).
3
(a) Production line of CD-ROM (b) Mechanical clamp

Fig. 5 Examples of pneumatic systems
(e) Other systems

There exist many other control systems apart from the ones mentioned above, for example,
mail processing systems, commercial operation systems, etc. The input, process and output of
different systems have different properties. In this chapter, we will discuss some of the most
common control systems.
2 Sub-systems
A system can be very simple, for example, a switch is only needed in controlling a light bulb to
work. However, with the advancement of technology, most of the control systems gradually become
complicated that various parts are involved. Take a lift as an example. It needs a number of parts to be
cooperative in operation, so as to transport passengers to different storeys safely and rapidly (Fig. 6).
Fig. 6 (a) A sightseeing lift in a shopping arcade (b) A lift in a hospital
A system may comprise some relatively small parts. They are known as sub-systems. For
instance, a lift system includes driving system, door opening system, control system, safety
system, lighting system, ventilation system and security system (Fig. 7). Fig. 8 shows a
diagram to illustrate those sub-systems in a lift.
4
Fig. 7 (a) Control system (b) Driving system
Fig. 8 Sub-systems in a lift
In fact, each sub-system can be considered as an independent system that includes input,
process and output. While there exist relationships between the sub-systems that an output of one
sub-system may become the input of another. Take the lift as an example. The output generated
from the control system may affect the driving and door opening systems (Fig. 9). However,
attention should be paid in the complexity of relationships of some sub-systems.
Fig. 9 Relationships between sub-systems
Therefore, when analyzing a complicated control system, that system can be divided into
several comparatively simple sub-systems so as to familiar with the operation of the whole system
easily. Besides, based on the sub-system concept, we could understand the relationships of the parts
of the whole system much easier.
3 Different types of control systems

(a) Open loop and closed loop control systems
There are basically two types of control system: the open loop system and the closed loop
system. They can both be represented by block diagrams. A block diagram uses blocks to represent
processes, while arrows are used to connect different input, process and output parts.
5
(i) Open loop control system
Fig. 10 Block diagram of an open loop control system
Fig. 10 shows a simple open loop control system. Its operation is very simple, when an input
signal directs the control element to respond, an output will be produced. Examples of the open
loop control systems include washing machines, light switches, gas ovens, etc.
(a) Washing machine (b) light switches

Fig. 11 Examples of open loop control system
A washing machine is an example of an open loop control system. Fig. 12 shows its block
diagram. The input and output of an open loop system are unrelated. An example is that the
operation of a washing machine does not depend on the cleanness of the clothes, but rather on the
preset time. Both the structure and the control process of an open loop control system are very
simple, but the result of the output depends on whether the input signal is appropriate or not.
Fig. 12 Block diagram of an open loop control system (washing machine)
More sophisticated example of an open loop control system is the burglar alarm system (Fig.
13). The function of the sensor is to collect data regarding the concerned house. When the
electronic sensor is triggered off (for example, by the entry of an unauthorized person), it will send
a signal to the receiver. The receiver will then activate the alarm, which will in turn generate an
alarm signal. The alarm signal will not cease until the alarm is stopped manually.
Fig. 13 Block diagram of an open loop control system (burglar alarm)
6
The drawback of an open loop control system is that it is incapable of making automatic
adjustments. Even when the magnitude of the output is too big or too small, the system will not
make the appropriate adjustments. For this reason, an open loop control system is not suitable for
use as a complex control system. Sometimes it may even require monitoring and response from the
user. For example, when a washing machine finishes cleaning the clothes, the user will need to
check whether the clothes are clean or not; if they are not, they have to be put back into the machine
and washed again.
(ii) Closed loop control system

Sometimes, we may use the output of the control system to adjust the input signal. This is
called feedback. Feedback is a special feature of a closed loop control system. A closed loop
control system compares the output with the expected result or command status, then it takes
appropriate control actions to adjust the input signal. Therefore, a closed loop system is always
equipped with a sensor, which is used to monitor the output and compare it with the expected result.
Fig. 14 shows a simple closed loop system. The output signal is fed back to the input to produce a
new output. A well-designed feedback system can often increase the accuracy of the output.
Fig. 14 Block diagram of a closed loop control system

Feedback can be divided into positive feedback and negative feedback. Positive feedback
causes the new output to deviate from the present command status. For example, an amplifier is put
next to a microphone, so the input volume will keep increasing, resulting in a very high output
volume. Negative feedback directs the new output towards the present command status, so as to
allow more sophisticated control. For example, a driver has to steer continuously to keep his car on
the right track.
Most modern appliances and machinery are equipped with closed loop control systems.
Examples include air conditioners, refrigerators, automatic rice cookers, automatic ticketing
machines, etc. An air conditioner, for example, uses a thermostat to detect the temperature and
control the operation of its electrical parts to keep the room temperature at a preset constant. Fig.
15 shows the block diagram of the control system of an air conditioner.
Fig. 15 Block diagram of the control system of an air conditioner
One advantage of using the closed loop control system is that it is able to adjust its output
automatically by feeding the output signal back to the input. When the load changes, the error
signals generated by the system will adjust the output. However, closed loop control systems are
generally more complicated and thus more expensive to make.
7
(b) Manual and automatic control systems

There were several stages in the history of development of technology. After the invention of
steam engine and other machinery, the efficiency and the speed of production was improved in the
era of Industrial Revolution. However, so many machines claimed to be automatic were those non-
stop machines indeed. Owing to the lack of sensitive sensors and processors, those machines were
not equipped with good control systems, thus they were only categorized as open loop control
system.
To improve the precision of the control systems, operators were engaged to control the
machines. They played an important role as sensors and decision-makers. They compared the
inputs with the status needed, then provided feedback and made decision (their brains). Afterwards,
they adopted some procedures to stabilize the systems and minimized the errors. Lastly, the outputs
were close to the requirements. Therefore, manual operation in the system is a kind of closed loop
control system.
After the trustable sensors, processors and driving devices were well developed, automatic
machinery gradually replaced those manual ones. Under the conditions of clear and repeated
procedures, and those procedures which are operated by automatic adjustment system instead,
automatic control machinery is more suitable for use. Therefore, those automatic controlled
machines are suitable for boring and repeated works. For example, it is better for a temperature
sensor involved in the control of the switching on or off the compressor of the air conditioner.
After the emergence of processors and new models of sensors, manual control systems were
gradually and easily replaced by computer control systems. Therefore, machinery becomes
automatically controlled. For example, a newly developed "internet refrigerator" can automatically
order food through internet when it is empty.
(c) Applications of the control systems

There are many household and industrial application examples of the control systems, such as
washing machine, air conditioner, security alarm system and automatic ticket selling machine, etc.
(i) Washing machine

Nowadays, many families use fully automatic washing machines. There are numerous preset
washing procedures available for the users. When we have chosen the suitable washing procedures,
the machine automatically starts to pour water, add washing powder, spin and wash clothes,
discharge wastewater, etc. After the completion of all the procedures, the washing machine will
stop the operation.
Fully automatic washing machine only requires the user to input a suitable procedure to
complete the whole washing process, thus this saves much time for the users. However, this kind of
machine only operates according to the preset time to complete the whole washing process. It
ignores the cleanness of the clothes and does not generate feedback. Therefore, this kind of
washing machine is of open loop control system indeed, and their block diagram of control system
of the washing machine as shown in Fig. 16.
8
Fig. 16 Block diagram of the open loop control system of the washing machine
(ii) Air conditioner

Nowadays, there are many families using automatic control system for the temperature of the
air conditioner. Fig. 17 shows the interior structure of an air conditioner. The coolant circulated in
the machine will absorb heat indoor, then it will be transported from the vaporization device to
cooling device. The hot air is then blown to outdoor by a fan. There is an adjustable temperature
device equipped in the air conditioner for the users to adjust the extent of cooling. When the
temperature of the cool air is lower than the preset one, the controller of the air conditioner will stop
the operation of the compressor to cease the circulation of the coolant. The temperature sensor
installed near the vaporization device will continuously measure the indoor temperature, and send
the results to the controller for further processing.
Fig. 17 Internal structure of an air conditioner
Since the output of cool air by the air conditioner will affect its working, thus the control
system of the machine is a closed loop. Its block diagram of the control system is as shown in Fig.
18.
Fig. 18 Block diagram of the closed loop control system of the washing machine
9
4 Simple systems analysis

To analyse a simple control system, we must first understand its operation, and the control
procedure of each part.
(a) Operation block diagram

The operation of a control system may consist of many steps. For example, the operation of a
washing machine can be represented by the following text:
1. Dirty clothes and an appropriate amount of detergent are put into the washing drum before the
machine is turned on.
2. The washing drum is filled with water.
3. If the water temperature deviates from the preset value, more hot water will be added.
4. The internal program causes the washing drum to rotate, so the detergent and water inside can
remove the dirt on the clothes.
5. The drum rotates at high speed controlled by the machine, so as to drain the excess water and
dry the clothes.
6. Finally, the machine stops.
As it would take much time to explain the process in words, in order to save time, we can use
an operation block diagram instead. Fig. 19 shows the operation block diagram of a washing
machine. It is hoped that the diagram can help you understand quickly the sequence and relation of
the main operational steps.
 10 
BLOCK DIAGRAM
Fig. 19 Operation block diagram Fig. 20 Sequential control block diagram
(b) Sequential control block diagram

Although an operation block diagram can show clearly the operation of a control system, it
cannot show the decisive relations between the main controlling steps. For example, which step
requires a sensor? In order to show more clearly the decisive relations between controlling steps,
we can use a sequential control block diagram. Sequential control means to carry out the
controlling steps sequentially following a preset order. Fig. 20 shows the sequential control block
diagram of a washing machine. It shows clearly that a washing machine should have at least three
sensors and feedback for filling the drum with water, testing the water temperature and draining of
the drum, respectively.
 11 
5 Simple systems design

In designing a control system, one should consider factors such as its modes of input, process
and output. Sometimes, a single control system may contain a number of systems, such as electrical
driving systems, electronic control systems, mechanical systems, computer control programs, etc.
They are all known as sub-systems. Before designing the system, one must first study the relations
between each sub-system and how they can be coordinated.
For example, when designing an electric toothbrush, one should study its functions and
properties to determine factors such as input, process and output. Apparently, an electric toothbrush
should consist of two sub-systems: an electronic control system and a mechanical system. The
relations between the factors can be represented using two operation block diagrams, as shown in
Fig. 21 and Fig. 22.
Fig. 21 Block diagram of an electronic control system
Fig. 22 Block diagram of a mechanical system
The structure of the electric toothbrush can be designed according to its operation block
diagram. Fig. 23 shows the cross section of a typical electric toothbrush, the operation of which
should correspond with the block diagrams shown above.
Fig. 23 Cross section of an electric toothbrush
 12 
Exercise
1. Which three parts are commonly involved in a control system? How to categorize this control
system?
2. State the differences between a mechanical system and a pneumatic system.
3. What is the main difference between an open loop control system and a closed control system?
Use block diagram to elaborate.
4. Explain the positive and negative feedback in a closed loop control system. What are the
differences between them and how they affect the control system?
5. Draw the control block diagram for a household constant-temperature type (with double
metallic sheets) electric iron.
6. The following diagram shows the structure of a refrigerator.
(a) Briefly describe the working principles of using refrigerant to absorb the heat in the
refrigerator.
(b) Draw the block diagram of the cooling system of the refrigerator, and clearly mark
the flow of the refrigerant.
(c) There is a temperature controller for the adjustment of the inner temperature of the
refrigerator.
(i) Draw the block diagram of the control system of the refrigerator.
(ii) Is the control system of the refrigerator classified as open loop or close loop
control system?
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Idealized Modeling Elements

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Inductive storage
Electrical inductance
Translational spring
Rotational spring
Fluid inertia
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Capacitive Storage
Electrical capacitance
Translational mass
Rotational mass
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Energy dissipators
Electrical resistance
Translational damper
Rotational damper
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Springs
- Stiffness Element
- Stores potential energy
x
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Actual Spring Behavior

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Spring Connections
• Spring in series: KEQ=K1K2/(K1+K2)
• Spring in parallel: KEQ=K1+K2

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Dampers and Mass

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Dampers Connections
• Dampers in series: BEQ=B1B2/(B1+B2)
• Dampers in parallel: BEQ=B1+B2

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Modeling Mechanical Systems

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Modeling Methods
• State assumptions and their rationales
• Establish inertial coordinate system
• Identify and isolate discrete system elements (springs,
dampers, masses)
• Determine the minimum number of variables needed to
uniquely define the configuration of system (subtract
constraints from number of equations)
• Free body diagram for each element
• Write equations relating loading to deformation in system
elements
• Apply Newton’s 2nd Law:
– F = ma for translation motion
– T = Iα for rotational motion
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Example 1: Automobile Shock Absorber
Spring-mass-damper Free-body diagram
d 2 y(t ) dy(t )
M 2
b  ky(t )  r(t )
dt dt
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Example 2: Mechanical System
• Draw a free body diagram, showing all

forces and their directions
• Write equation of motion and derive
transfer function of response x to input u
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Example 2: Mechanical System

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Example 3: Two-Mass System
• Derive the equation of motion for x2 as a

function of Fa. The indicated damping is
viscous.
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Example 3: Two-Mass System
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Example 4: Three-Mass System
• Draw the free-body-diagram for each

mass and write the differential equations
describing the system
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Example 4: Three-Mass System

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Example 5: Pair-Share Exercise
• All springs are identical with

constant K
• Spring forces are zero when
x1=x2=x3=0
• Draw FBDs and write equations
of motion
• Determine the constant
elongation of each spring caused
by gravitational forces when the
masses are stationary in a
position of static equilibrium and
when fa(t) = 0.
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Example 5: Pair-Share Exercise:

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• Assume that the pulley is

ideal
– No mass and no friction
– No slippage between
cable and surface of
cylinder (i.e., both move
with same velocity)
– Cable is in tension but
does not stretch
• Draw FBDs and write
equations of motion
• If pulley is not ideal,
discuss modeling
modifications
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• Pulley is not ideal

– Add rotation mass and friction
– Model the slippage behaviors
– Add spring to model cable
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Example 7: Electric Motor
• An electric motor is attached to a load inertia through a

flexible shaft as shown. Develop a model and
associated differential equations (in classical and state
space forms) describing the motion of the two disks J1
and J2.
• Torsional stiffness is given in Appendix B
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Example 8: Pair-Share Exercise: Copy Machine
• The device from a copying machine is shown. It moves in a

horizontal plane. Develop the dynamic model, assuming that mass
of bar is negligible compared to attached mass m2 and angular
motions are small. The mass is subjected to a step input F, find an
expression for the displacement of point B after the transient
motions have died out.
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Example 8: Pair-Share Exercise: Copy Machine

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Example 9: Mass-Pulley System

• A mechanical system with a rotating
wheel of mass mw (uniform mass
distribution). Springs and dampers are
connected to wheel using a flexible cable
without skip on wheel.
• Write all the modeling equations for
translational and rotational motion, and
derive the translational motion of x as a
function of input motion u
• Find expression for natural frequency
and damping ratio
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Double Pendulum
• The disk shown in the figure

rolls without slipping on a
horizontal plane. Attached to
the disk through a frictionless
hinge is a massless pendulum
of length L that carries another
disk. The disk at the bottom of
the pendulum cannot rotation
relative to the pendulum arm.
• Draw free-body diagrams and
derive equations of motion for
this system.
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Double Pendulum
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Double Pendulum
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Double Pendulum
Appendix W 3
Block Diagram Reduction
W.3 4Mason’s Rule and the Signal-Flow Graph

A compact alternative notation to the block diagram is given by the signal-‡ow graph introduced Signal-‡ow
by S. J. Mason (1953, 1956). As with the block diagram, the signal-‡ow graph o¤ers a visual tool for graph
representing the causal relationships between the components of the system. The method consists of
characterizing the system by a network of directed branches and associated gains (transfer functions)
connected at nodes. Several block diagrams and their corresponding signal-‡ow graphs are shown
in Fig. W.1. The two ways of depicting a system are equivalent, and you can use either diagram to
apply Mason’s rule (to be de…ned shortly).
In a signal-‡ow graph the internal signals in the diagram, such as the common input to several
blocks or the output of a summing junction, are called nodes. The system input point and the
system output point are also nodes; the input node has outgoing branches only, and the output
node has incoming branches only. Mason de…ned a path through a block diagram as a sequence of
connected blocks, the route passing from one node to another in the direction of signal ‡ow of the
blocks without including any block more than once. A forward path is a path from the input to
output such that no node is included more than once. If the nodes are numbered in a convenient
order, then a forward path can be identi…ed by the numbers that are included. Any closed path that
returns to its starting node without passing through any node more than once is a loop, and a path
that leads from a given variable back to the same variable is a loop path. The path gain is the
product of component gains (transfer functions) making up the path. Similarly, the loop gain is
the path gain associated with a loop—that is, the product of gains in a loop. If two paths have a
common component, they are said to touch. Notice particularly in this connection that the input
and the output of a summing junction are not the same and that the summing junction is a one-way
device from its inputs to its output.
Mason’s rule relates the graph to the algebra of the simultaneous equations it represents.1 Con-
sider Fig. W.1(c), where the signal at each node has been given a name and the gains are marked.
Then the block diagram (or the signal-‡ow graph) represents the following system of equations:
X1 (s) = X3 (s) + U (s);

X2 (s) = G1 (s)X1 (s) + G2 (s)X2 (s) + G4 (s)X3 (s);
Y (s) = 1X3 (s):
Mason’s rule states that the input–output transfer function associated with a signal-‡ow graph is
given by Mason’s rule
Y (s) 1 X
G(s) = = Gi i ;
U (s) i
1 The derivation is based on Cramer’s rule for solving linear equations by determinants and is described in Mason’s
papers.
1
2 APPENDIX W. BLOCK DIAGRAM REDUCTION
Figure W.1: Block diagrams and corresponding signal ‡ow graphs

W.3. 4MASON’S RULE AND THE SIGNAL-FLOW GRAPH 3
where
Gi = path gain of the ith forward path,

= the system determinant
P P
1 (all individual loop gains) P
+ (gain products of all possible
= two loops that do not touch) (gain products of all possible
three loops that do not touch) + : : : ,
i = ith forward path determinant
= value of for that part of the block diagram that does not touch
the ith forward path.
We will now illustrate the use of Mason’s rule by several examples.
Example W.1 Mason’s Rule in a Simple System Find the transfer function for the block diagram
in Fig. W.2.
SOLUTION From the block diagram shown in Fig. W.2 we have
Forward Path Path Gain
1236 G1 = 1 1s (b1 )(1)
12346 G2 = 1 1s 1 (b )(1)
s 2
123456 G3 = 1 s1 1 1
s s (b3 )(1)
Loop Path Gain
232 l1 = a1 =s
2342 l2 = a2 =s2
23452 l3 = a3 =s3
and the determinants are
a1 a2 a3
= 1 +0
s s2 s3
1 = 1 0
2 = 1 0
3 = 1 0:
Applying Mason’s rule, we …nd the transfer function to be
Y (s) (b1 =s) + (b2 =s2 ) + (b3 =s3 )

G(s) = =
U (s) 1 + (a1 =s) + (a2 =s2 ) + (a3 =s3 )
2
b1 s + b2 s + b3
= :
s3 + a1 s2 + a2 s + a3
Mason’s rule is particularly useful for more complex systems where there are several loops, some
of which do not sum into the same point.
Example W.2 Mason’s Rule in a Complex System Find the transfer function for the system shown
in Fig. W.3.
SOLUTION From the block diagram, we …nd that
Forward Path Path Gain
12456 G 1 = H 1 H2 H3
1236 G2 = H4
Loop Path Gain
242 l1 = H1 H5 (does not touch l3 )
4 APPENDIX W. BLOCK DIAGRAM REDUCTION
Figure W.2: Block diagram for Example W.1
Figure W.3: Block diagram for Example W.2
454 l 2 = H2 H 6
565 l3 = H3 H7 (does not touch l1 )
236542 l 4 = H4 H 7 H 6 H 5
and the determinants are
= 1 (H1 H5 + H2 H6 + H3 H7 + H4 H7 H6 H5 ) + (H1 H5 H3 H7 )
1 = 1 0
2 = 1 H2 H6 :
Therefore,
Y (s) H 1 H2 H3 + H4 H 4 H 2 H6
G(s) = = :
U (s) 1 H1 H 5 H 2 H 6 H3 H 7 H 4 H 7 H 6 H 5 + H 1 H 5 H 3 H 7
Mason’s rule is useful for solving relatively complicated block diagrams by hand. It yields the
solution in the sense that it provides an explicit input–output relationship for the system represented
by the diagram. The advantage compared with path-by-path block-diagram reduction is that it is
systematic and algorithmic rather than problem dependent. MATLAB and other control systems
computer-aided software allow you to specify a system in terms of individual blocks in an overall
W.3. 4MASON’S RULE AND THE SIGNAL-FLOW GRAPH 5
Figure W.4: Block diagram for Problem 2
system, and the software algorithms perform the required block-diagram reduction; therefore, Ma-
son’s rule is less important today than in the past. However, there are some derivations that rely on
the concepts embodied by the rule, so it still has a role in the control designer’s toolbox.
Problems: Mason’s Rule and the Signal-Flow Graph
1. 4 Find the transfer functions for the block diagrams in Fig. 3.53, using Mason’s rule.
2. 4 Use block-diagram algebra or Mason’s rule to determine the transfer function between R(s)
and Y(s) in Fig. W.4.
Block Diagram Reduction
Figure 1: Single block diagram representation
Figure 2: Components of Linear Time Invariant Systems (LTIS)

Figure 3: Block diagram components
Figure 4: Block diagram of a closed-loop system with a feedback element

BLOCK DIAGRAM SIMPLIFICATIONS
Figure 5: Cascade (Series) Connections
Figure 6: Parallel Connections

Block Diagram Algebra for Summing Junctions
Figure 7: Summing Junctions
Block Diagram Algebra for Branch Point
Figure 8: Branch Points

Block Diagram Reduction Rules
Table 1: Block Diagram Reduction Rules
Table 2: Basic rules with block diagram transformation

Example 1:
Example 2:
Example 3:
Example 4:
Example5:
/ /
C o e ti g C as aded N l
okDiag a i to
a2 ig alFlo G aph:
C o e ti g P a al
lel2 ste Nl
okDiag a i toa2 ig al
Flo G aph:
/ /
C o e ti g Feed a k2 ste N l
okDiag a i toa
2 ig alFl
o G aph:
E a pl
e-:
C o e t the l
okdiag a i toasig alfl
o g aph:
/ /
e )fd esqred ,
sqm plqfy the sqgnal-
flow graph to the one show n qn Fqgu re c by
elqm qnatqng sqgnals that have a sqngle flow qn and a sqngle flow ou t,
su c h asV s ,
V s, V s, and V s .
E a pl e-: C o side the sig alfl

o g aph el
o ad
ide tif the fol
lo i g;
a )npu t nod e
b C u tpu t nod e
c Forw ard paths
d Feed bac k paths
e Selfloop
f D eterm qne the loop gaqnsofthe feed bac k loops
g D eterm qne the path gaqnsofthe forw ard paths
/ /
E a pl
e-:
A s es
E a pl
e-:C o side the sig alfl
o g aph el
o a d ide tif the fol
lo i g;
e There are fou rloop gaqns;
e There are tw o forw ard path gaqns; e N ontou c hqng loop gaqns;
e N ontou c hqng loops;

.
/ /
M aso ’
s Rul
e:
e The transferfu nc tqon,T =C s /
R s ,ofa system represented by a sqgnal-
flow graph
qs;
W here
E a ple-: C o st ut the sig alfl

o g aphofthe lokdiag a ofthe
a o i alfeed a k o t ols ste a d fi d the o t olatioC /
R.
The c harac terqstqc fu nc tqon
Sqnc e the loop tou c h the forw ard path

/ /
E a pl
e-: Dete i e the o t ol atioC /R a d the a o i al
lokdiag a ofthe feed a k o t ols ste .
E a pl
e-:
C o ti ue.fi di g the o t ol atioC /
R
/ /
E a pl
e-:
C o ti ue.fi di g the a o i al l
okdiag a
E a pl e-:Dete i e the t a sfe fu tio C /

Rfo the l
okdiag a el
o
sig alfl
o g aphte h i ues.
e The sqgnalflow graph ofthe above bloc k d qagram qs show n below .
e There are tw o forw ard paths.The path gaqns are
e The three feed bac k loop gaqns are
e N o loops are non-

tou c hqng,henc e
e B ec au se the loops tou c h the nod es of P , e ( enc e the c ontrolratqo T =C/

R qs
henc e
e Sqnc e no loops tou c h the nod es ofP ,

therefore
System Compensation
• Given the control plant, the procedure of controller
design to satisfy the requirement is called system
compensation.
• Why to compensate?
– The closed-loop system has the function of self-
tunning. By selecting a particular value of the gain K,
some single performance requirement may be met.
• Is it possible to meet more than one performance
requirement?
– Sometimes, it is not possible.
• Something new has to be done to the system in
order to make it perform as required.
Control System Design and
Compensation
• Design: Need to design the whole controller to satisfy the
system requirement.
• Compensation: Only need to design part of the controller
with known structure.
• A compensator is an additional component or circuit that
is inserted into a control system to equalize or
compensate for a deficient performance.
• Three elements for compensation
– Original part of the system
– Performance requirement
– Compensation device
Necessities of Compensation
• A system may be unsatisfactory in：
• Stability.
• Speed of response.
• Steady-state error.
• Thus the design of a system is concerned with
the alteration of the frequency response or the
root locus of the system in order to obtain a
suitable system performance.
Performance Requirement
1. Time domain criteria (step response)
– Overshoot, settling time, rising time, steady-state
error
2. Frequency domain criteria
– Open-loop frequency domain criteria:
Crossover frequency, phase margin, gain margin
– Closed-loop frequency domain criteria:
Resonant Peak Mr , resonant frequency, bandwidth
Structure of Compensator
• According to the way of compensation, the
compensator can be classified into
following categories:
– Cascade Compensation
– Feedback Compensation
– Cascade and Feedback Compensation
– Feed-forward Compensation
– Disturbance Compensation
Compensators
+ + C(s)
Original Part
- -
Compensator
(b) Feedback compensation

Compensators
Disturbance Compensation
Commonly Used Compensators
• Lead compensators
– If a sinusoidal input is applied to the input of a network,
and the steady-state output (which is also sinusoidal) has a
phase lead, then the network is called a lead network.
• Lag compensators
– If the steady-state output has a phase lag, then the
network is called a lag network.
• Lag–lead compensators
– In a lag–lead network, both phase lag and phase lead
occur in the output but in different frequency regions.
– Phase lag occurs in the low-frequency region and phase
lead occurs in the high-frequency region.
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Introduction
• We have already discussed the affect of location of poles and zeros
on the transient response of 1st order systems.
• Compared to the simplicity of a first-order system, a second-order

system exhibits a wide range of responses that must be analyzed
and described.
• Varying a first-order system's parameter (T, K) simply changes the

speed and offset of the response
• Whereas, changes in the parameters of a second-order system can
change the form of the response.
• A second-order system can display characteristics much like a first-

order system or, depending on component values, display damped
or pure oscillations for its transient response.
First Order System
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Introduction
• A general second-order system is characterized by
the following transfer function.
C( s )  n2

R( s ) s 2  2 n s   n2
Introduction
C( s )  n2

R( s ) s 2  2 n s   n2
n un-damped natural frequency of the second order system,
which is the frequency of oscillation of the system without
damping.
 damping ratio of the second order system, which is a measure

of the degree of resistance to change in the system output.
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Example#1
• Determine the un-damped natural frequency and damping ratio
of the following second order system.
C( s ) 4
 2
R( s ) s  2 s  4
• Compare the numerator and denominator of the given transfer

function with the general 2nd order transfer function.
C( s )  n2
 2
R( s ) s  2 n s   n2
 n2  4   n  2 rad / sec
 2 n s  2 s
  n  1
s 2  2 n s   n2  s 2  2 s  4
   0.5
Introduction
C( s )  n2

R( s ) s 2  2 n s   n2
• Two poles of the system are
  n   n  2  1
  n   n  2  1
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Introduction
  n   n  2  1
  n   n  2  1
• According the value of  , a second-order system can be set into
one of the four categories:
1. Overdamped - when the system has two real distinct poles (  >1).
jω
δ
-c -b -a
Introduction
  n   n  2  1
  n   n  2  1
2. Underdamped - when the system has two complex conjugate poles (0 < <1)
jω
δ
-c -b -a
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Introduction
  n   n  2  1
  n   n  2  1
3. Undamped - when the system has two imaginary poles (  = 0).

jω
δ
-c -b -a
Introduction
  n   n  2  1
  n   n  2  1
4. Critically damped - when the system has two real but equal poles ( = 1).
jω
δ
-c -b -a
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Time-Domain Specification
For 0< <1 and ωn > 0, the 2nd order system’s response due to a
unit step input looks like
15
• The delay (td) time is the time required for the response to
reach half the final value the very first time.
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• The rise time is the time required for the response to rise from 10%
to 90%, 5% to 95%, or 0% to 100% of its final value.
• For underdamped second order systems, the 0% to 100% rise time is
normally used. For overdamped systems, the 10% to 90% rise time is
commonly used.
• The peak time is the time required for the response to reach
the first peak of the overshoot.
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18
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The maximum overshoot is the maximum peak value of the
response curve measured from unity. If the final steady-state
value of the response differs from unity, then it is common to
use the maximum percent overshoot. It is defined by
The amount of the maximum (percent) overshoot directly

indicates the relative stability of the system.
19
• The settling time is the time required for the response curve
to reach and stay within a range about the final value of size
specified by absolute percentage of the final value (usually 2%
or 5%).
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Step Response of underdamped System

C( s )  n2 Step Response  n2
 2 C( s ) 
R( s ) s  2 n s   n2 
s s 2  2 n s   n2 
• The partial fraction expansion of above equation is given as
1 s  2 n
C( s )   2
s s  2 n s   n2

 n2 1   2 
1 s  2 n
C( s )   2
s  2 n 
2 s s  2 n s   2 n2   n2   2 n2
1 s  2 n
C( s )  

s s   n 2   n2 1   2 

1 s  2 n
C( s )  

s s   n 2   n2 1   2 
• Above equation can be written as
1 s  2 n
C( s )  
s s   n 2   d2
• Where  d   n 1   2 , is the frequency of transient oscillations
and is called damped natural frequency.
• The inverse Laplace transform of above equation can be obtained
easily if C(s) is written in the following form:
1 s   n  n
C( s )   
s s   n    d s   n 2   d2
2 2
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1 s   n  n
C( s )   
s s   n    d s   n 2   d2
2 2

n 1   2
1 s   n 1 2
C( s )   
s s   n 2   d2 s   n 2  d2
1 s   n  d
C( s )   
s s   n    d
2 2
1   2 s   n    d
2 2

c( t )  1  e n t cos  d t  e n t sin  d t
2
1
Step Response of undamped System


c( t )  1  e n t cos  d t  e n t sin  d t
1 2
  
c( t )  1  e  nt cos  d t  sin  d t 
 1 2 
 
• When   0
d  n 1   2
 n
c(t )  1  cos  n t
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  
 n t 
c( t )  1  e cos  d t  sin  d t 
 1 2 
 
if   0.1 and  n  3 rad / sec
1.8
1.6
1.4
1.2
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
0 2 4 6 8 10

  
c( t )  1  e  nt cos  d t  sin  d t 
 1 2 
 
if   0.5 and  n  3 rad / sec
1.4
1.2
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
0 2 4 6 8 10
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  
 n t 
c( t )  1  e cos  d t  sin  d t 
 1 2 
 
if   0.9 and  n  3 rad / sec
1.4
1.2
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
0 2 4 6 8 10

2
b=0
1.8 b=0.2
b=0.4
1.6
b=0.6
b=0.9
1.4
1.2
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
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1.4
1.2
0.8
wn=0.5
0.6 wn=1
wn=1.5
wn=2
0.4 wn=2.5
0.2
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Second – Order System

Describe the nature of the second-order system response via the
value of the damping ratio for the systems with transfer function
12
1. G ( s ) 
s  8 s  12
2
16
2. G ( s ) 
s  8s  16
2
20
3. G ( s ) 
s  8 s  20
2
30
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Summary of Time Domain Specifications

Rise Time Peak Time
     
tr   tp  
d d  1   2
n 1   2 n
Settling Time (2%)
4
t s  4T  Maximum Overshoot
 n


3 Mp e
1 2
 100
t s  3T 
 n
Settling Time (4%)
Example
• Consider the system shown in following figure, where
damping ratio is 0.6 and natural undamped frequency is 5
rad/sec. Obtain the rise time tr, peak time tp, maximum
overshoot Mp, and settling time 2% and 5% criterion ts when
the system is subjected to a unit-step input.
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Example
Rise Time Peak Time
  
tr  tp 
d d
Settling Time (2%) Maximum Overshoot
4 
t s  4T  
 n Mp e
1 2
 100
3
t s  3T 
 n
Settling Time (4%)
Example
Rise Time
 
tr 
d
3.141  
tr  
n 1   2
n 1   2
  tan1( )  0.93 rad
n
3.141  0.93
tr   0.55s
5 1  0. 6 2
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Example
Peak Time
Settling Time (2%)
 4
tp  ts 
d  n
4
3.141 ts   1.33s
tp   0.785s 0.6  5
4
Settling Time (4%)
3
ts 
 n
3
ts   1s
0. 6  5
Example
Maximum Overshoot


1 2
Mp e  100
3.1410.6

1 0.6 2
Mp e  100
M p  0.095  100
M p  9.5%
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Example
Step Response
1.4
1.2 Mp
0.8
Amplitude
0.6
0.4
Rise Time
0.2
0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6
Time (sec)
Example
• For the system shown in Figure, determine the values of gain K and
velocity-feedback constant Kh so that the maximum overshoot in
the unit-step response is 0.2 and the peak time is 1 sec. With these
values of K and Kh, obtain the rise time and settling time. Assume
that J=1 kg-m2 and B=1 N-m/rad/sec.
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Example
Example
Since J  1 kgm 2 and B  1 Nm/rad/sec

C( s ) K
 2
R( s ) s  (1  KK h )s  K
• Comparing above T.F with general 2nd order T.F
C( s )  n2
 2
R( s ) s  2 n s   n2
(1  KK h )
n  K  
2 K
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Example
(1  KK h )
n  K  
2 K
• Maximum overshoot is 0.2. • The peak time is 1 sec

tp 
d
3.141
1

 n 1   2
)  ln 0.2 
1 2
ln( e
3.141
n 
1  0.456 2
 n  3.53
Example
 n  3.96
(1  KK h )
n  K  
2 K
3.53  K 0.456  2 12.5  (1  12.5 K h )
3.53 2  K K h  0.178
K  12.5
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Example
 n  3.96
  4
tr  ts 
n 1   2  n
t r  0.65s t s  2.48s
3
ts 
 n
t s  1.86s
Example
• Find the time domain specifications of a
control system having the closed loop transfer
( )
function = when the unit step
( )
signal is applied as an input to this control
system.
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Solution
Solution
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Introduction
• Steady-state error, ess: The difference between the input and the
output for a prescribed test input as time, t approaches ∞.
Step Input
Introduction
• Steady-state error, ess: The difference between the input and the
output for a prescribed test input as time, t approaches ∞.
Ramp Input
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Error and steady-state error

Open-loop control system Closed-loop control system
R(s) E(s) Y (s)
R(s) Y (s) G(s)
G(s)
r (t ) y(t ) r(t ) e(t ) y(t )
Error: e(t )  r (t )  y (t )
Steady-state error: ess  lim e(t )
t 
Utilizing the final value theorem: lim f (t )  lim sF ( s )

t  s 0
ess  lim e(t )  lim sE ( s )

t  s 0
Assuming r(t)=1(t) is a unit-step input, according to the above

definition, could you calculate the steady-state error of the open-
loop and closed-loop control systems?
Open-loop control system Closed-loop control system

R(s) E(s) Y (s)
R(s) Y (s) G(s)
G(s) r (t ) e(t ) y(t )
r(t ) y(t )
1
Unit-step input r(t)=1(t), R ( s ) 
s E ( s)  R(s )  Y (s)
E ( s)  R(s)  Y ( s )
G (s)
 R( s)  G (s) R( s)  R( s)  R( s)
1  G( s)
 [1  G ( s )]R ( s )
1
e ss  lim sE ( s )  R( s)
s0 1  G( s)
1 1 1
 lim s[1  G ( s )] ess  lim sE ( s)  lim s
s0 s s 0 s 0 1  G(s) s
 lim[1  G ( s )] 1 1
s0
 lim 
s 0 1  G ( s ) 1  G (0)
 1  G (0)
Feedback has the effect to reduce steady-state error.
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Test Inputs
• Test Inputs: Used for steady-state error analysis and design.
• Step Input:
– Represent a constant position.
– Useful in determining the ability of the control system to position itself
with respect to a stationary target.
• Ramp Input:
– Represent constant velocity input to a position control system by their
linearly increasing amplitude.
• Parabolic Input:
– Represent constant acceleration inputs to position control.
– Used to represent accelerating targets.
Test Inputs
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Unity Feedback Systems

• To determine the steady-state error, we apply the Final Value Theorem:
f ()  lim sF ( s )
• The following system has an open-loop
s 0 gain, G(s) and a unity feedback
since H(s) is 1. Thus to find E(s),
E ( s)  R( s)  C ( s) …(1)
C ( s )  R ( s )G ( s ) …(2)
• Substituting the (2) into (1) yields,
R(s )
E ( s) 
1  G (s)

• By applying the Final Value Theorem, we have:
e()  lim sE ( s)
s 0
sR ( s )
 lim
s 0 1  G(s)
• This allows the steady-state error to be determined for a given

test input, R(s) and the transfer function, G(s) of the system.
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• For a unit step input: s (1 / s )
estep ()  lim
1  G ( s)
s 0
1

1  lim G ( s )
s 0
• The term:
lim G ( s )
s 0
– The dc gain of the forward transfer function, as the frequency

variable, s approaches zero.
• To have zero steady-state error,
lim G ( s )  
s0

• For a unit ramp input: s (1 / s 2 )
eramp ()  lim
s0 1  G( s)
1

s  lim sG ( s )
s 0
1

lim sG ( s )
s 0

lim sG ( s )  
s 0
• If there are no integration in the forward path:

lim sG ( s )  0
s0
Then, the steady state error will be infinite.
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• For a unit parabolic input: s (1 / s 3 )
e parabola ()  lim
s 0 1  G ( s )
1
 2
s  lim s 2G ( s )
s 0
1

lim s 2G ( s )
s 0

lim s 2G ( s )  
s 0
• If there are one or no integration in the forward path:

lim s 2 G ( s )  0
s0
Then, the steady state error will be infinite.

• Example: Find the steady-state errors for inputs of 5u(t), 5tu(t), and
5t2u(t).
5 5 5
estep ()   eramp ()  
1  lim G ( s ) 21 lim sG ( s )
s 0 s 0
5
e para ()  
lim s 2G ( s )
s 0
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System Type
• System Type: The value of n in the denominator or, the number of
pure integrations in the forward path.
• Therefore,
i. If n = 0, system is Type 0
ii. If n = 1, system is Type 1
iii. If n = 2, system is Type 2
System Type
• Example:
i. K s  2 
G s   Type 0
s  1s  3
ii. K 0.5s  1
 
s s  12 s  1 s 2  s  1
iii. K 2 s  1
s3
• Problem: Determine the system type.
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Static Error Constant

• Static Error Constants: Limits that determine the steady-state
errors.
• Position constant:
K p  lim G ( s )
s0
• Velocity constant:
K v  lim sG ( s )
s 0
• Acceleration constant:
K a  lim s 2G ( s )
s 0
Position Error Constant, Kp

 Steady-state error for step function input, R(s):
 sRs   R
R s   R s ess  lim 
s 0 1  G s  

  1  lim
s 0
G(s)
 Position error constant: K p  lim G ( s )

s 0
 Thus,
R
ess 
1 K p
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Velocity Error Constant, Kv

 sRs   R
R s   R s ess  lim  
2
s 0 1  G s  
  lim sG ( s )
s 0
 Position error constant: K v  lim sG ( s )

s 0
 Thus,
R
ess 
Kv
Acceleration Error Constant, Ka

 sRs   R
R s   R s ess  lim  
3
s 0 1  G s   2
  lim s G ( s )
s 0
 Position error constant: K a  lim s 2G ( s )

s 0
 Thus,
R
ess 
Ka
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Static Error Constant & System Type

• Relationships between input, system type, static error constants,
and steady-state errors:
Analysis via static error constant

• Example: Find the steady-state errors for inputs of 5u(t), 5tu(t), and
5t2u(t) by first evaluating the static error constants.
K p  20, K v  0, K a  0
R 5 R
estep ()   eramp ()  
1  K p 21 Kv
R
e para ()  
Ka
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Non-Unity Feedback Systems

• Example: Calculate the error constants and determine ess for a
unit step, ramp and parabolic functions response of the following
system.
1 5s  1
G s   ; H s  
s s  12 s5

system.
• For step input,

 sR s  
K p  limG ( s ) H ( s) ess  lim 
s 0 1  G s H s  
s 0  
 5s  1   
 lim 
s 0 s s  12 s  5  s1 s 
 
   lim  
s 0
1  5 s  1 

 s s  12 s  5 
 1 
 lim  0
s 0 1   
 
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system.
• For ramp input,
K v  limsG s H ( s)  sRs  

ess  lim 
s  0 1  G s H s  
s 0
 
 5s  1 
 lim   
s 0 s  12s  5  
 
 lim 
  
s 1 s2 


1 s 0
1  5s  1 
12  s s  12 s  5 
 12

system.
• For parabolic input,

sRs  

K a  lim s 2G s H s   
ess  lim 
s 0 1  G s H s  
s 0
 
 5ss  1   
 lim
s 0 s  12 s  5 
   lim 
  
s 1 s3 

0 s 0
1  5s  1 
 s s  12 s  5 

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• Problem: Calculate the error constants and determine ess for a
system.
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Concept of Stability Stable System

• Stability of a Cone
• Natural (transient) response → 0 as t →∞
Unstable System Marginally Stable System

• Natural (transient) response → neither decays nor
• Natural (transient) response → ∞ as t →∞ grows
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Stability Definition Stability Definition

(1) Asymptotic Stability (3) S-domain Stability
Stable system if the transient response decays to System Transfer Function : T(s)
zero y (n ) ( t )  a y (n 1) ( t )        a y( t )  0 Stable system if the poles of T(s) all lies in the left-
n1 0
half s-plane. j
I.C. y(0) , y (1) (0 ) ,       , y (n1) (0)
Unstable
lim y( t )  0 stable
t poles
poles
(2) BIBO Stability 
Stable system if the response is bounded for
bounded input signal y( t )  t g( t  ) u( ) d
 0
u( t )  M  y( t )  N
Marginally stable/unstable
The impulse response of a system is absolutely
The definitions of (1), (2), and (3) are equivalent
integrable.
for LTI system.
Location of Poles Stability Analysis

• Time Response vs. Pole Location  BIBO: Bounded Input Bounded Output
systems.
 For LTI systems this requires that all poles
of the closed-loop transfer function lie in
the left half of the complex plane.
 Determine if the transfer function has any
poles either on the imaginary axis or in the
right half of the s-plane.
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Examples Routh-Hurwitz Criterion

20
M (s)  BIBO stable or a.s.
( s  1)( s  2)( s  3)  Any pole of system lies on the right hand side of
the origin of s plane, it makes system unstable.
20( s  1)
M (s)  unstable  On basis of this condition A. Hurwitz and E.J.
( s  1)( s 2  2 s  2) Routh started investigating necessary and
20( s  1)
sufficient conditions of stability of a system.
M (s)  marginally stable and NOT a.s.  Routh-Hurwitz criterion: determine if any roots of
( s  2)( s 2  4)
a polynomial lie outside left half of complex
10 plane.
M (s)  unstable
( s 2  4)2 ( s  10)
 Routh-Hurwitz criterion allow us to determine
M (s) 
10 stability without finding roots of characteristic
NOT a.s.
s ( s 3  30 s 2  s  10) equation.
 It does not find the exact locations of the roots.
Routh-Hurwitz Criterion Routh-Hurwitz Criterion

• Routh Tabulation (array)
• Characteristic Polynomial of Closed-loop System sn an a n 2 a n  4 
sn1 an1 an 3 an 5 
D( s)  ansn  an1sn1        a1s  a0 , an  0   1  a n an  2   1  an a n  4
s n2
b1 b2 b3  b1    , b 2    
 an1  an1 an 3  an1  an1 an 5
Hurwitz polynomial sn  3 c 1 c2 c3 
All roots of D(s) have negative real parts. stable system   1 a an  3   1 a a n 5
c 1    n1 , c 2    n1 
Hurwitz’s necessary conditions: All coefficients (ai) are to be positive.  b1  b1 b2  b1  b1 b3
1
s g1 0 
Define
s0 h1 0
D0 (s)  an sn  an 2sn 2   
• Routh-Hurwitz Stability Criterion
D1(s)  an 1sn 1  an3 sn 3    (1) The polynomial D(s) is a stable polynomial if  i are all positive, i.e.
an , an1, b1, c1,    h1 are all positive.
D (s) 1 a a b (2) The number of sign changes in an , an 1, b1, c 1,    h1 is equal to the
 0  1s  , 1  n ,  2  n1 ,  3  1 ,   
D1(s) 1 an 1 b1 c1 number of roots in the RH s-plane.
 2s 
(3) If the first element in a row is zero, it is replaced by a small ε, ε>0,
 3s  and the sign changes when   0 are counted after completing the

array.
Note: Any zero root has been removed in D(s). (4) If all elements in a row are zero, the system has poles in the RH plane
or on the imaginary axis.
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Routh-Hurwitz Criterion Completed Routh table

T(s)
Equivalent
closed-loop
transfer function
Initial layout for

Routh table
Case - 1 Case - 2
No zero appear First element of a row is zero
Example: Q(s) = s3 + s2 +2s+ 8 Q(s) = s5 + 2s4 + 2s3 + 4s2 +11s+ 10

s3
1 2 s5 1 2 11
s2 1 8 s4 2 4 10
s1 – 6 s3 0/  6  is a small number
s0 8 s2 –12/ 10
2 sign change  2 roots lie in RHP s1 6
s1 10
2 sign change  2 roots lie in RHP
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Case - 3 Case - 3
All elements of a row is zero Method 1
First factorized the polynomial and analyze each factor
Q(s)= s5 + s4 + s3 + s2 +2s +2 individually
s5 1 1 2 For the above polynomial we have
s4 1 1 2 s5 + s4 + s3 + s2 +2 s +2 = (s+1)(s4 +s2 +2)
s3 0 0 We then create Routh array for s+1 and for s4+s2+2
• A case 3 polynomial contains even polynomials, Method 2
called auxiliary polynomial, as a factor. Differentiate the aux polynomial
• Row above zero row indicates auxiliary polynomial Coefficient of the result replaces the zero row
• Auxiliary polynomial of s5 + s4 + s3 + s2 +2 s +2 is
Coefficient of 4s3 + 2s replaces the zero
Qa = s4 +s2 +2
s3 4 2
• Two method available to solve this problem.
Example Routh-Hurwitz Criterion

Ex: For a closed-loop system with characteristic polynomial
Q(s) = s4 +4 D(s)  s 5  2s 4  3s3  6s 2  5s  3
s4 1 0 4 Determine if the system is stable
s3 0 0 Sol: Routh Table Sign of first column for   0,   0
We have zero row here. Aux-polynomial is s5 1 3 5 s5 
s4 2 6 3 s4 
Qa(s) = s4 +4 s 3
0ε
7
s 3 
2
Qa’(s) = 4s3 j s2
6ε - 7
3 s 2 
two sign changes  two poles in RHP
ε
s1 
 unstable system
42ε - 49 - 6ε 2
The array becomes s 1
12ε -14 s0 
s4 1 0 4 s0 3
1 Ex: For D(s)  s3  2s2  4s  8, determine if the system is stable

s3 4 0
Sol: Routh Table 1 j
s2  4 D( s)  ( 2s2  8)( s  1)
2 2
s3 1 4
s1 -16/ 2
 (s2  4)(s  2)
s 2 8  Auxiliary eq. : D(s)  2s  8
2

s0 4  (s  2j)(s  2j)(s  2)  2
s1 poles : s  -2j, 2j, - 2
2 sign change  2 roots lie in RHP
0
 2
s0  stable system
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Exercise Solution
Unstable System
Exercise Exercise
s3  3408.3s2 1204000s 1.5 107 K  0 K  273.57  A(s)  3408.3s2  4.1036 109  0
s3 1 1204000 s   j1097 roots when K  273.57
s2 3408.3 1.5 107 K
410.36 107 1.5 107 K
s1 0
3408.3
s 0
1.5107 K
410.36 107 1.5 107 K
a.s.  0 & 1.5 107 K  0
3408.3
For the system to be stable
0  K  273.57
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Exercise Example
We have control system as follow
compensator plant
2
K
s  4 s 2  5s  2
3
Suppose that, for constant input, we want ess<2%.
The position error constant Kp is
 2 
K p  lim  K 3   K
s 0
 s  4s2  5s  2 
Steady state error is ess =1/(1+K) < 2%, thus K > 49.
Example Example
However we have to check the stability, and we will use To overcome the previous problem we have to
Routh-Hurwitz criterion
The CE is found to be
use PI controller
compensator plant
s3 + 4s2 +5s+ 2+2K = 0 2
KP+ KI /s
The array becomes s  4 s 2  5s  2
3
s3 1 5
s2 4 2+2K
s1 (18-2K)/4  K<9
• Using this controller ess= 0
s0 2 + 2K  K>-1
Here for stability requirement we must have • We will find values of KP and KI to assure the
-1<K<9 stability
We conclude that, using proportional compensator, our • Characteristic equation is found to be
requirement to have ess<2% cannot be satisfied. s4 +4s3 + 5s2 +(2+2KP)5s+ 2KI = 0
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Example Root Locus Technique

The array becomes
s4 1 5 2KI Investigation of the paths of the roots of the
s3 4 2+2KP characteristic equation or simply the Root Locus
s2 (18-2KP)/4 2KI  KP<9
s1 c Root locus is a powerful tool for designing and
s0 2KI  KI > 0 analyzing feedback control systems
where Locus of roots in the s-plane can be determined by
4  ( 2  2 K p )(18  2 K p ) 
c 8K I  a graphical method
18  2 K p  4 

In general, root locus may be sketched by

4
18  2 K p

(1  K P )(9  K p )  8 K I  following some simple rules and properties
For plotting the root locus accurately the MATLAB
If we choose KP = 3<9 then c = (24-8KI)/3)>0
root locus tool in the Control System Toolbox
Thus 0< KI <30
can be used
Definition of Root Locus Definition of Root Locus

Roots of this equation are the closed-loop poles of Set of all points in the s-plane that satisfy
the feedback system the equation 1 + kG(s) = 0 for some value
Locus - set of all points whose location is of k
determined by stated conditions
Root locus is a graphical presentation of the
Stated conditions here are that 1 + kG(s) = 0 for
closed-loop poles as a system parameter
some value of k, and the “points” whose
locations matter to us are points in the s-plane is varied
Path taken by the root of the characteristic Root locus is a powerful method of analysis
equation when open loop gain k is varied from 0 and design for stability and transient
to ∞ are called root locus response
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Root Locus Technique Root Locus Technique

Let's say we have a closed-loop transfer function In other words, the locations of the poles of a
for a particular system specific equation must satisfy the following
relationship
Where N is the numerator polynomial and D is the And from the above equation we can manipulate
denominator polynomial of the transfer functions, an equation such as
respectively.
Now, we know that to find the poles of the
equation, we must set the denominator to 0, and And finally by converting to polar coordinates, we
solve the characteristic equation get
Root Locus Technique Example

Now we have 2 equations that govern the Camera control system
locations of the poles of a system for all
gain values
Magnitude Equation
Angle Equation
How the dynamics of the camera changes as K is

varied ?
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Effect of K on Pole Locations Pole Plots from the Table
From Root Locus Root Locus Technique

Technique which shows how changes in one
of a system’s parameter (usually the
controller gain, K) will modify the location
of the closed-loop poles in the s-domain
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Root Locus Construction Rules Root Locus Construction Rules

Rule 1: Starting Point (K=0) Rule 4: Symmetry of the Root Loci
The root locus starts at open loop poles. Or The root loci are symmetrical with respect to the
there is one branch of the root-locus for every real axis and all complex roots are conjugate.
root of b(s). Rule 5: Angle of Asymptotes
Rule 2: Terminating Point (K=infinity) The root loci are asymptotic to straight lines at
The root locus terminates at open loop zeros large values and the angle of asymptotes is
which include those at infinity. given by
Rule 3: Number of Distinct Root Loci
There will be as many root loci as the highest
number of finite open loop poles or zeros.
Root Locus Construction Rules Root Locus Construction Rules

Rule 6: Asymptotic Intersection Rule 8: Locus Breakaway Point
The asymptotes intersects the real axis at the The points at which the root locus break away
point given by can be calculated by the following:
Rule 7: Root Locus Location on the Real Rule 9: Angle of Departure and Arrival
Axis Rule 10: Point of Intersection with the
The root loci may be found on portions of the Imaginary Axis
real axis to the left of an old number of open
loop poles and zeros.
Rule 11: Determination of K
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Angle of Departure Example
Sketch the root locus of the following

system
Determine the value of K such that the

damping ratio ζ of a pair of dominant
complex conjugate closed-loop is 0.5
Angle of departure =180°- (ϴ1+ϴ2 )+Φ
Step #1 Step #2
Draw the n poles and m zeros Determine the loci on the
of G(s)H(s) using x and o real axis:
respectively
Choose a arbitrary test
1 point.
G s  
ss  1s  2  If the TOTAL number of
both real poles and zeros
3 poles:
is to the RIGHT of this
p1 = 0; p2 = -1; p3 = -2
point is ODD, then this
No zeros point is on the root locus
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Step #3 Step #4
Determine the n - m
asymptotes: Find the breakpoints.
Locate s = α on the real Express K such as:
axis: 1
K   ss  1s  2 
q  0, 1, 2, 
G( s )H ( s )
K   s 3  3s 2  2 s
Compute and draw
angles: Set dK/ds = 0 and solve
  1800 2  0  1 for the
   600 2 poles.
 0 3 0  3s  6 s  2  0

   180 2  1  1  1800 s1  1.5774, s2  0.4226
0

1
3 0
Exercise
Step #5
Points on imaginary axis
satisfy:
s  j jω?
Points on root locus
satisfy:
1  KG s H s   0
- jω
Substitute s=jω into the
characteristic equation (-0.784,0)
and solve for ω.   0 or    2
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Exercise Exercise
Exercise Solution
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Exercise Exercise
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F requenc y R esponse Method

F requency R esponse
1. Introduction C oncept

2. F requency R esponse of the typical elements of
the linear systems Graphics
3. Bode, Polar diagram of the open loop system mode
4. Nyquistcriterion
5. System analysis based on the frequency
response  A nalysis
6. F requency response of the closed loop systems
7. F requency domain specifications and its time
correlation
Process E xposed to a S inusoidal Key C omponents of F requency

Input R esponse Analysis
D tp ac
ay
c ys
T ime
ay  Dt p
Ar  f  360º
ac 2p
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Introduction Approaches to get the frequency characteris tics

Generalize above discussion, e have: the steadystate output:
Definition : frequency response (or characteristic) — the ratio of c s ( t )  A G ( j  ) sin( t   G ( j  ))
the complex vector of the steadystate output versus sinusoid input C ompare ith the sinusoid input r ( t)  A sint, e have:
for a linear system, that is:
C ( j ) T he amplitude ratio of the steadystate output cs(t) versus
G ( j )  sinusoid input r(t):
R ( j )
Here: R ( j )  the complex vector representation of the sinusoid input A G ( j ) C ( j )
C ( j  )  the complex vector representa tion of the output
 G(jω)   magnitude characteristic
A R ( j )
G ( j  )  frequency response(or characteristic) T he phase difference beteen the steadystate output and
A nd e name: sinusoid input:
C ( j )
A ( )  G ( j  )   magnitude response( characteristic ) [t   G ( j  )]  t   G ( j  )   C ( j  )   R ( j  )
R ( j )
 phase char acteristic
(amplitude ratio of the steadystate output versus sinusoid input) T hen e have :
j ( )   G ( j )   C ( j )   R ( j )  phase response( characteristic ) C ( j )
G ( j )   G ( s)
R ( j ) s j 
(phase difference beteen steadystate output and sinusoid input )
Introduction Introduction
E xamples
The frequency characteristic :
a unity feedback control system, the openloop transfer function: 1 1
f ( j )  s j  
1 0.5s  2 0.5 j  2
G ( s) 
0.5s  1 T he magnitude and phase T he output response:
If : r ( t)  10sin(4t  60o )  20cos(4t  45o )
response :
1) Determine the steadystate response c(t) of the system.

2) Determine the steadystate error e(t) of the system.
Solution:
1) Determine the steadystate response c(t) of the system.
So e have the steadystate response c(t) :
T he closedloop transfer function is:
5
1 c( t )  2 sin(4t  60o  45o )  5 2cos(4t  45o  45o )
C ( s) G ( s) 0.5s  1  1 2
f ( s)   
R ( s) 1  G ( s) 1  1 0.5s  2 5
0.5s  1  2 sin(4t  15o )  5 2 cos 4t
2
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Introduction Bode Plot: A C onvenient Means of Presenting A r

and f versus 
2) Determine the steadystate error e(t) of the system.
10
T he error transfer function is :
0.5 j   1
E ( s) R ( s)  C ( s) C ( s) E ( j )  R ( j ) 1
  1 0.5 j  2
R ( s) R ( s) R ( s)  5
Ar
j 0.5  1  10
1  4 0.1
 1  f ( s)  1  E ( j)  R ( j) 
j 0.5  2 5
0.5s  2  4  20
0.5s  1 
 4 0.01
 0
0.5s  2  j 0.5  1  0.01 0.1 1 10 100
 E ( j )     R ( j)  90

T he error frequency response:  j 0.5  2  4
( 63.4o  45o )  ( 4t  60o )  4t  78.4o

 180

 o o o o
T he steady state error e(t) is: ( 63.4  45 )  ( 4t  45 )  4t  63.4 270
e( t )  2.5 5 sin(4t  78.4o )  5 5 cos( 4t  63.4o ) 360

0.01 0.1 1 10 100

Developing a Bode Plot from the Derivation of the Bode Plot for a
T ransfer F unction F irst Order Process
Kp Kp
G p ( s)  G p ( i ) 
G p ( i  )  R ( )  i I ( ) t ps  1 it p  1
A fter rationalization
Kp K p t p
Ar ( )  R 2 ( )  I 2 () G p ( i )  2 2  i 2 2
 tp 1  tp 1
K p2  K p2 2t 2p Kp
Ar ( )  
 I ( )   t 1
2 2
 t 1
2 2
f ()  tan 1  
p p
R ( )  f ( )  tan (  t p )
1
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Properties of Bode Plots Bode S tability C riterion

• A system is stable if A r is less than 1.0 at
G a ( s) Gb ( s) the critical frequency (i.e.,  that
Consider : G p ( s)  corresponds to f 180º )
Gc ( s) G d ( s)
Ga ( s) Gb ( s) • C losed loop stability of a system can be
Ar  or analyzed by applying the Bode S tability
Gc ( s) G d ( s)
ln[ Ar ( )]  ln G a ( i )  ln Gb ( i )  ln Gc (i  )  ln G d (i  )
C riterion to the product of the transfer
functions of the controller and the process,
i.e., G c(s)G p(s).
f ( )   G a ( i )   Gb ( i )   Gc (i )   G d (i )
Gain Margin Gain Margin

10
• Gain Margin  1/A r*

1
– W here A r* is the amplitude ratio at the critical M
Ar
frequency. 0.1
– C ontrollers are typically designed ith gain

0.01
margins in the range of 1.4 to 1.8 hich 00.01 0.1 1 10 100
implies that A r at the critical frequency varies 90

beteen 0.7 and 0.55, respectively.

180
270
360
c
0.01 0.1 1 10 100

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Phase Margin Phase Margin

10
1
• PM  f *  ( 180) 0.1
– W here f * is f at the crossover frequency.
Ar
0.01
– C ontrollers are typically designed ith a PM 0.001
beteen 30º to 45º . 0.0001

 co
0.01 0.1 1 10 100
0 
45
90
135
PM
180
0.01 0.1 1 10 100

T hree advantages: Uc ( j  ) 1
Make: G ( j )  
* F requency response(mathematical modeling) can be obtained Ur ( j  ) j RC  1
directly by experimental approaches. then: U c ( j  )  G ( j  )U r ( j  )
* easy to analyze the effects of the system ith sinusoidal voices.
* easy to analyze the stability of the systems ith a delay We have: uc ( t )  U cm sin( t  j c )
element
R Here: U cm  U c ( j  )  G ( j ) U r ( j ) j c   Uc ( j)   G( j)   U r ( j)
frequency response
1   tg1( RC)  j 0
F or a R C circuit:  A
C uc ( RC  ) 2  1
If : u r  A sin(  t  j 0 ) ur
We call: U c ( j ) 1
We have the steadystate response: G ( j )  
U r ( j ) j  RC  1
1
jC 1
U c ( j )  U r ( j )  U r ( j )
1 jRC  1 F requency Response(or frequency characteristic) of the electric
R
jC
circuit.
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Introduction Graphic expres sion of the frequency respons e

Graphic expres sion of the frequency res pons e 2. Polar plot
Graphic expression — — for intuition T he polar plot is easily useful for investigating system stability.
1. R ectangular coordinates plot
E xample 5.1.3 K K
G ( s)   G ( j  )  G ( s) 
E xample 5.1.2 G ( s)  10  G ( j ) 
10

10
  tg  1( 2 ) s( Ts  1) s j  j  ( jT  1)
2s  1 j 2  1 T he magnitude and phase response:
1  ( 2 ) 2
G ( j  )  G ( j ) K
 G ( j )  G ( j ) 10
A()  G( j)  ; j ()   G ( j)   [90o  tg 1(T )]
0 10 0o  1  (T ) 2
 45o
5
0.5 7.07 Im
C alculate A(ω) and j ( ) for different ω: KT 
1 4.47  63.435o 1 2
0 
1 1 Re
2 2.4  75.964o 0. 5 1 2 3 4 5  0
2T T

  1T
3 1.64  80.538o A()   4K T KT 0 4KT
5 2 5 135o
4 1.24  82.875o 1
j ()   90o  117o  135o  180o 2T
 0
5 0.995  84.29o  90 o 117o
Graphic expres sion of the frequency respons e

The shortage of the polar plot and the rectangular Bode Plots
coordinates plot: to synchronously investigate the cases
of the loer and higher frequency band is difficult.
• Plot the frequency characteristic in a semilog
Idea: Ho to enlarge the loer frequency band and shrink
(shorten) the higher frequency band？ coordinate:
3. Bode diagram(logarithmic plots) • Magnitude response
Plot the frequency characteristic in a semilog coordinate: – Y coordinate in decibels: 20 log G ( j)
Magnitude response — Y coordinate in decibels: 20log G ( j ) – X coordinate in logarithm of ω: logω
X coordinate in logarithm of ω: logω • Phase response
Phase response — Y coordinate in radian:  G ( j )
– Y coordinate in radian:  G ( j)
X coordinate in logarithm of ω: logω
– X coordinate in logarithm of ω: logω
F irst e discuss the Bode diagram in detail ith the frequency
response of the typical elements.
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r ( t)  A sin t y ( t)  B sin( t  f ) Y ( s) k ( s  z1 )( s  z2 ) 3
LT I system 
R ( s) ( s  p1 )( s  p2 )( s2  as  b) 3
B
Magnitude: Phase: f C ase I : k
GH (dB)
A
Magnitude:
r (t ) y (t ) 
G(s) 0.1 1 10
＋
－ k dB  20 log k ( dB)
H(s)
 GH
Y ( s) G ( s) Phase: 1800

R ( s) 1 G ( s) H ( s)
s  s  j  s  j
0 o 900
,k  0
k  o 
Magnitude:
G ( j ) Phase:  G ( j ) 180 , k B 0
1 G ( j ) H ( j  )  [1  G ( j ) H ( j)] The gain term, 20logK B, is just so many dB and this is a straight line on
Bode paper, independent of omega (radian frequency).
C ase II : 1 C ase III :

sp
sp
p 2
GH (dB) GH (dB) p 1
Magnitude: p 2 Magnitude:
1 p 1
( j ) p
  20 p log  ( dB)  ( j ) p
dB
 20 p log  ( dB) 
dB 0.1 1 10 0.1 1 10
 GH  GH
Phase: Phase: p 2
1800
p 1
1 900 900

( j) p
 (  90o )  p
p 1
  ( j  ) p  (90o )  p 
 900  900
p 2
 1800  1800
The term,  20log|j|  20log, hen plotted on semilog paper is a
straight line sloping at 20dB/decade
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a 1
C ase IV : or ( s  1)  1 C ase V : ( s  a) 1
( s  a) a or ( s  1)
a 1 a a a 1
Magnitude: Magnitude:
GH (dB) GH (dB)
   
(1 j )1   20 log 1 ( ) 2 (1 j )  20 log 1 ( ) 2
a dB a a dB a
  10 log[1 ( ) 2 ]
   10 log[1 ( ) 2 ]
 
a 0.1 1 10 a 0.1 1 10
 
 BB a   0  dB   10 log 1  0  BB a   0  dB  10 log 1  0
a a
     
  a  1 j   dB   20 log  GH   a  1 j   dB  20 log  GH
a a a
0
  a   45 0
a a a   a  450
dB   [ 20 log   20 log a] 180 dB  20 log   20 log a 1800
  a  1  j1  dB   10 log 2   3.01 900   a  1  j1  dB  10 log 2  3.01 900
Phase:  Phase: 
   900    900
 (1  j )  00  tan 1  (1  j )  tan 1
a a 180 0 a a  1800
 
 BB a   0   GH  tan 1 0  0o  BB a   0   GH  tan 1 0  0o
a a
 
  a      GH   tan 1    90o   a      GH  tan 1   90o
a a
n2
C ase V I : T ( s) 
s  2x ns  n2
2
 n2 2x n
T ( j )  2
 T ( j  )   tan  1 2
( n   2 )  2 j x n ( n   2 )

2x
1 n
T ( j )   T ( j  )   tan  1
 2  
(1  ( ) )  j 2x 1 ( ) 2   n
n n n
  
0 , BB 1 , BB 1
 
 n  0 0
n
   
 1  T ( j )    90 ,
0
T ( j )    20 log( 2x ) , 1
 n  180o n
    
 40 log(  ) ,   1 ,  1
 n n n
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Matlab
Procedure E xample
• C onsider the folloing transfer function
t 1  100 ns
10 5 j(1 jt 2 )
H ( j )  t 2  10 ns
(1 jt 1 )(1 jt 3 )
t 3  100 ps
• Break frequencies: invert time constants
1  10 Mrad/s 2  100 Mrad/s 3  10 Grad/s
j 
(1 j )
105 2
H ( j ) 
 
(1 j )(1 j )
1 3
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Breaking Don the Magnitude Breaking Don the Phase

• R ecall log of products is sum of logs • S ince  a b   a   b
j 
(1 j )
105 2 10 5 j(1  j t 2 )
H ( j) dB  20 log  H ( j)  
  (1  j t 1 )(1  j t 3 )
(1  j )(1 j )
1 3
j 
j   H ( j)     1 j
 20 log  20 log 1 j 105 2
105 2
 
  1 j   1 j
  1 3
 20 log 1 j  20 log 1  j
1 3 • Let’s plot each factor separately and add them
• Let’s plot each factor separately and add them graphically
graphically
Magnitude Bode Plot: DC Zero Magnitude Bode Plot: Add F irst P ole
80
j 80 1  10 Mrad/s
j
60
105 60
105 dB
40 40
20 0 dB 20
 
104 105 106 107 108 109 1010 1011 104 105 106 107 108 109 1010 1011
20 20
40 40
60 60
1
80 80 
1 j
107 dB
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Magnitude Bode Plot: Add 2nd Magnitude Bode Plot: Add 2nd
80   100 Mrad/s
2
Zero  80 Pole
1 j 3  10 Grad/s
60 108 dB
60
40 40
20 20
 
104 105 106 107 108 109 1010 1011 104 105 106 107 108 109 1010 1011
20 20
1
40 40

1 j
60 60 1010 dB
80 80
C omparison to “Actual” Mag

Phase Bode Plot: DC Zero
Plot j
180

135 105
90
45

104 105 106 107 108 109 1010 1011
45
90
135
180
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Phase Bode Plot: Add F irst Pole Phase Bode Plot: Add 2nd Zero
180 180
j
135  5 135
 1 j

10 108
90 90
45 45
 
104 105 106 107 108 109 1010 1011 104 105 106 107 108 109 1010 1011
45 45
90 90
1

135  135
1 j
180
107 180
Phase Bode Plot: Add 2nd Pole C omparison to “Actual” Phase P lot
180
135
90
45

104 105 106 107 108 109 1010 1011
45
90 
  1 j
135
1010
180
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E xample : 50( s  2)
T ( s) 
s( s  10)
1 s  2 10
T ( s)  10( )( )( )
s 2 s  10
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 0dB
Gain and Phase Margin GH (dB) (  1,0)  
 180
0
 Gain crossover frequency: g

g
G.M.>0 phase crossover frequency: p
 GH
1800
S table system
900

 900
P.M.>0 p
 1800
GH (dB)
G.M.<0
E xercise
Unstable system
g  • S ketch Bode plot for the folloing transfer
function
 GH • Determine the system gain K for the gain
1800 S table system cross over frequency to be 5 rad/sec
900

 900
p
 1800
P.M.<0
Unstable system
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S olution S olution
Magnitude Plot
Phase Plot
• Let ωl  0.5 rad/sec and ωh  100 rad/sec
• Let A  |G(jω)|in db
• Let us calculate A at ωl, ωc1, ωc2 and ωh
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Determination of K
• At  5 rad/sec the gain is 28 db
– T he polar plot of sinusoidal transfer function G(jω) – In the polar plot the magnitude of G(jω) is
is a plot of the magnitude of G(jω) verses the plotted as the distance from the origin hile
phase angle of G(jω) on polar coordinates as ωis phase angle is measured from positive real
varied from zero to infinity. G ( j )  G ( j )
axis.
– T herefore it is the locus of as ωis – + angle is taken for anticlockise direction.
varied
G( j)from
 G( j)zero
 Mejf (to
) infinity.
– Polar plot is also knon as Nyquist Plot.
– As Mejf ()
– So it is the plot of vector as ωis varied
from zero to infinity
22
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Polar Graph Steps to dra Polar Plot

• The plot is usually plotted on a polar graph
• Step 1: Determine the T.F G(s)
sheet • Step 2: Put sjωin the G(s)
• Polar graph sheet has concentric circles • Step 3: A t ω0 & ω∞ findG( j) byG( j)
lim lim G ( j&)  
and radial lines

 0
• Step 4: A t ω0 & ω∞ find G( j) by G ( j) lim G (&
lim j )
• Step 5: Rationalize the function G(jω) and separate

 0  
• C ircles represent the magnitude and the

the real and imaginary parts
radial lines represent the phase angles
• Step 6: Put Re [G(jω) ]0, determine the frequency
• E ach point on the polar graph has the at hich plot intersects the Im axis and calculate
magnitude and phase angle intersection value by putting the above calculated
frequency in G(jω)
Steps to dra Polar Plot conti… Polar Plot for Type 0 System
• S tep 7: Put Im [G(jω) ]0, determine the • L et K
G ( s) 
frequency at hich plot intersects the real axis (1 + sT1 )(1 + sT2 )
and calculate intersection value by putting the • Step 1: Put sjω

above calculated frequency in G(jω)
K
• S tep 8: S ketch the Polar P lot ith the help G ( j) 
(1 + jT1 )(1 + jT2 )
K
of above information 
1+ (T1 )
2
1 + (T2 )
2
  tan 1 T1  tan 1 T2
• Step 2: Taking the limit for magnitude of

G(jω)
23
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Type 0 system conti… Type 0 system conti…
K
• S tep 4: S eparate the real and Im part of
lim G ( j ) 
1+ (T1 )
2
1 + j (T2 )
2
K
G(jω ) K (1  T T ) K  (T + T )
2
 0
G ( j )   j 1 2 1 2
K 1+  2T12 +  2T22 +  4T1T2 1+  2T12 +  2T22 +  4T1T2

limG ( j) 
  1+ (T1 )
2
1 + j (T2 )
2
0
K (1   2T1T 2 ) 1
• Step 3: Taking the limit of the Phase A ngle of  0   & 
• Step 5: 1Put
 +  2Re
T 22 +[G(jω
 4T1T2 )]0
2 2
1 + T T1T 2
G(jω
lim)G ( j)    tan T  tan T  0
1
1
1
2 So (hen
 0
lim G ( j)    tan T1  tan 1 T2   180 K T1T 2

1
1
    G ( j )    900
T1T 2 T1 + T 2
&   G ( j)  0  1800
Type 0 system conti… Type 0 system conti…

• S tep 6: Put Im [G(jω)]0
K (T1 + T2 )
 0   0 & 0 
1 +  2T12 +  2T22 +  4T1T2
So (hen
  0  G ( j)  K  00
    G ( j)  0 1800
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Polar Plot for Type 1 System

Type 1 system conti…
• L et K
• Step 2: Taking the limit for magnitude of
G ( s) 
s(1 + sT1 )(1 + sT2 ) G(jωG)( j)  K
lim

 0

 1 + (T1 ) 2 1 + j (T2 )2
• Step 1: Put sjω K
lim G ( j )  0
K

   1 + (T1 ) 2 1 + j (T2 )2
G ( j ) 
j(1 + jT1 )(1+ jT 2 )
K
   900  tan 1 T1  tan  1 T2
 1+ (T1 ) 1+ j (T 2 )
2 2
• Step
lim3:
G ( jTaking
)    90 the
 tan limit
0
of the
T  tan
1
T  Phase
1 90 A ngle of
1
2
0
G(jω )
 0
lim G ( j)    90  tan T  tan T   270

0 1 1 0
1 2
 
Type 1 system conti… T ype 1 system conti…

• S tep 4: S eparate the real and Im part of
j ( K  2T1T2  K )
G(jω )
G ( j ) 
 K (T + T )
+j
j( K  T T  K )
1 2
2
1 2  0  
1
& 0 
 +  3 (T12 + T 22 +  2T12T 22 )  +  3 (T12 + T 22 +  2T12T 22 )  +  3 (T12 + T 22 +  2T12T22 ) T1T 2
So (hen
1 K T1T 2
 K (T1 + T 2 )   G ( j )    00
 0    T1T 2 T1 + T 2
• Step 5:Put
+  3 (Re
T12 +[G(jω
T 22 +  2)]0
T12T22 )
  G ( j  )    00
So at
  G ( j)  0  2700
25
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Polar Plot for Type 2 System

Type 1 system conti…
• Let K
G ( s) 
s2 (1 + sT1 )(1 + sT2 )
• F ollo similar steps
Note E xercise
• Introduction of additional pole in denominator • S ketch the polar plot for
contributes a constant 1800 to the angle of G(s)20/s(s+1)(s+2)
G(jω) for all frequencies. See the Figure 1, 2 & • S olution:
3 • S tep 1: Put 20sjω
Figure 1+(1800 Rotation)Figure 2 G ( j) 
j( j + 1)( j + 2)
20
Figure 2+(1800 Rotation)Figure 3 
 2 +1  2 + 4
  900  tan  1   tan  1  / 2
26
5/12/2020
E xercise E xercise
• Step 2: Taking the limit for magnitude of • S tep 4: S eparate the real and Im part of
G(jω) G(jω)
20  60 2 j 20( 3  2)
lim G ( j )   G ( j )  +j 4

 0  2 + 1 2 + 4 ( 4 +  2 )( 4 +  2 ) ( +  2 )( 4 +  2 )
20
lim

 
G ( j ) 
 2 + 1 2 + 4
0
 60 2
 0   
( +  2 )( 4 +  2 )
4
lim G ( j)    90  tan 1   tan 1  / 2   900

0
• Step 3: Taking the limit of the Phase A ngle of

 0 So at
G(jω) lim
 G ( j)    90  tan   tan  / 2   270
0 1 1 0
    G ( j)  0  2700
E xercise E xercise
j 20( 3  2)
 0   0 2 & 0 
( 4 +  2 )( 4 +  2 )
So for positivevalueof 
10 0
  2 G ( j )   0
3
  G ( j)  0 00
27
5/12/2020
Gain Margin, Phase Margin &

C rossover F requencies
Stability
– Phas e C ros s over F requency (ωp) : T he
frequency here a polar plot intersects the –ve
real axis is called phase crossover frequency
• Gain C ros s over F requency (ωg ) : The
frequency here a polar plot intersects the
unit circle is called gain crossover
frequencyG ( j)  Unity
S o at ωg
Phas e Margin (PM) Gain Margin (GM)

• Phase margin is that amount of additional • The gain margin is the reciprocal of
G( j)
phase lag at the gain crossover frequency magnitude at the frequency at
required to bring the system to the verge hich the phase
1 angle
1 is 180 .
0
GM  
of instability (marginally stabile) |G ( jc ) | x
Φ m1800+Φ
( here In terms of dB 1
GM in dB  20 log10   20 log10 |G ( jc) |  20 log10 ( x)
Φ ∠G jωg |G ( jc) |
if Φ m>0 > +PM (S table S ystem)
if Φ m<0 > PM (Unstable
S ystem)
28
5/12/2020
Stability A nalysis Stability A nalysis

• S table: If critical point (1+j0) is ithin the • Uns table: If critical point (1+j0) is outside
plot as shon, Both GM & PM are +ve the plot as shon, Both GM & P M are ve
GM20log10(1 GM20log10(1
/x) dB /x) dB
Stability A nalysis S tability Analysis

• Marginally S table S ys tem: If critical point
(1+j0) is on the plot as shon, Both GM &
PM are ZE R O
GM20log10(1
/1)0 dB
S table S ystem Unstable S ystem
29
5/12/2020
Determination of K for S pecified Determination of K for S pecified

GM PM
• Dra G(jω) locus ith K 1
• Let it cut the 180° axis at point B corresponding to a gain of G B • Dra G(jω) locus ith K 1
• Let the specified gain margin be ‘x’db
• Let it cut the unity circle at point B corresponding to a gain of G B and equal to
• F or this gain margin, the G(jω) locus ill cut 180° at point A hose magnitude unity
is G A
• Let the specified phase margin be ‘x°’
No, �
�� =x • F or this phase margin, let ϕgc be the phase angle of G(jω) at gain crossover
frequency
�
�� = No, x°  180° + ϕgc
= / Φ gc  x°  180°
�= /
In the polar plot, the radial line corresponding to
ϕgc ill cut the locus of ith K  1 at point A and
No the value of K is given by, K  magnitude corresponding to that point be G A
No the value of K is given by, K  =
E xercise S olution
• The open loop transfer function of a unity • Put s  jω
feedback system is given by
� =
��
�� =
� +� + �
• S ketch the polar plot ��
� =
• Determine the gain margin and phase � + � + �
margin
∠��
� =−9 °−t°n � −t°n �
30
5/12/2020
S olution
• Magnitude and Phase of G(jω) at various
frequencies
S olution
• R eal and imaginary part of G(jω) at
various frequencies
31
5/12/2020
S olution E xercise
• Gain Margin, K g  1.4286 • C onsider a unity feedback system having
• Phase Margin, γ +12° an open loop transfer function
�
�� =
� + .� + . �
• S ketch the polar plot
• Determine the value of K so that
– Gain margin is 18db
– Phase margin is 60°
Inverse Polar Plot

• The inverse polar plot of G(jω) is a graph
MA TL A B Margin
of 1/G(jω) as a function of ω.
• E x: if G(jω) 1/jωthen 1/G(jω)jω
lim G ( j ) 1
0

 0
lim G ( j ) 1


 
32
5/12/2020
E xercise
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4/28/2020

What is a C ontrol S ystem?

Control C losed L oop

E xample C ontrol S ystems

Different types of C ontrol S ystem

Different types of C ontrol S ystem

C omparison of OL and C L system

(a) Mechanical system

(a) Can opener (b) Corkscrew

(b) Electronic system

(a) Mobile phone (b) Portable computer

(c) Computer control system

(a) CNC press brake (b) A proposed computer controlled

(d) Pneumatic system

(a) Production line of CD-ROM (b) Mechanical clamp

(e) Other systems

Fig. 6 (a) A sightseeing lift in a shopping arcade (b) A lift in a hospital

Fig. 7 (a) Control system (b) Driving system

Fig. 8 Sub-systems in a lift

Fig. 9 Relationships between sub-systems

3 Different types of control systems

(i) Open loop control system

Fig. 10 Block diagram of an open loop control system

(a) Washing machine (b) light switches

Fig. 12 Block diagram of an open loop control system (washing machine)

Fig. 13 Block diagram of an open loop control system (burglar alarm)

(ii) Closed loop control system

Fig. 14 Block diagram of a closed loop control system

Fig. 15 Block diagram of the control system of an air conditioner

(b) Manual and automatic control systems

(c) Applications of the control systems

(i) Washing machine

(ii) Air conditioner

Fig. 17 Internal structure of an air conditioner

4 Simple systems analysis

(a) Operation block diagram

Fig. 19 Operation block diagram Fig. 20 Sequential control block diagram

(b) Sequential control block diagram

5 Simple systems design

Fig. 21 Block diagram of an electronic control system

Fig. 22 Block diagram of a mechanical system

Fig. 23 Cross section of an electric toothbrush

2. State the differences between a mechanical system and a pneumatic system.

6. The following diagram shows the structure of a refrigerator.

Idealized Modeling Elements

Actual Spring Behavior

• Spring in parallel: KEQ=K1+K2

Dampers and Mass

• Dampers in parallel: BEQ=B1+B2

Modeling Mechanical Systems

Example 1: Automobile Shock Absorber

Spring-mass-damper Free-body diagram

Example 2: Mechanical System

• Draw a free body diagram, showing all

Example 2: Mechanical System

Example 3: Two-Mass System

• Derive the equation of motion for x2 as a

Example 4: Three-Mass System

• Draw the free-body-diagram for each

Example 4: Three-Mass System

Example 5: Pair-Share Exercise

• All springs are identical with

Example 5: Pair-Share Exercise: