PRG.

174-35 (N)
© 750

CENSUS OF IN D I A, 196 1

VOLUMEXI

MYSORE

PA R T VI

VILLAGE SURVEY MONOGRAPHS

NO. 35. THE BYLAKUPPE SETTLE:rVIENT, MYSORE

Editor
K. BALASUBRAMANYAM
of the Indian Administrative Service,
Superintendent of Census Operations, Mysore

PRINTED BY THE MANAGER GOVERNMENT OF INDIA PRESS COIMBATORE

AND PUBLISHED BY Till! CONTROLLER 01' PUBLICATIONS NEW DELHI· 110001
1976
 MAP OF
MYSORE

11'

15'

,.."
ARABIAN
SEA

tate boundary
;strict ..
a/uk
'.
 FOREWORD
Apart from laying the foundations of demography
in this subcontinent, a hundred years of the Indian
Census has also produced 'elaborate and scholarly
accounts of the variegated phenomena of Indian life-
sometimes with no statistics attached, but usually
with just enough statistics to give empirical under-
pinning to their conclusions'. In a country, largely
illiterate, where statistical or numerical comprehen-
sion of even such a simple thing as age was liable to
be inaccurate, an understanding of the social structure
was essential. It was more necessary to attain a broad
understanding of what was happening around oneself
than to wrap oneself up in 'statistical ingenuity' or
'mathematical manipulation'. This explains why the
Indian Census came to be interested in 'many by-
paths' and 'nearly every branch of scholarship from
anthropology and sociology to geography and
religion'.
in the last few decades the Census has increas~
ingly turned its efforts to the presentation of village
statistics. This suits the temper of the times as well
as our political and economic structure. For even as
we have a great deal of centralization on the one hand
and decentralisation on the other, my colleagues
thought it would be a welcome continuation of the
Census tradition to try to invest the dry bones of
village statistics with flesh-and-blood accounts of social
structure and social change. It was accordingly deci-
ded 10 select a few villages in every State for special
study, where personal observation would be brought
to bear on the interpretation of statistics to find out
how much of a village was static and yet changing
and how fast the winds of change were blowing and
from where,
Randomness of sslection was, therefore, eschewed.
There was no intention to build up a picture for the
whole State in quantitative terms on the basis of
villages selected statistically at random. The selection
was avowedly purposive: the object being as much
to find out what was happening and how fast to
those villages which had fewer reasons to choose
change and more to remain lodged in the past as
to discover how the more 'normal' types of villages
were changing. They were to be primarily type stu-
dies which, by virtue of their number and distribu-
tion, would also give the reader a 'feel' of what was
going on and some kind of a map of the country.
A brief account of the tests of selection will help
to explain. A minimum of thirty-five villages was to
(iii)
be chosen with great care to represent adequately
geographical, occupational and even ethnic diversity.
Of this minimum of thirty-five, the distribution was
to be as follows:
u. At least eight villages were to be so selected
that each of them would contain one dominant
c,ommunity with one predominating occupa-
tIOn, e,g. fishermen, forest workers, jhum culti-
vators, potters, weavers, salt-makers, quarry
workers, etc. A village should have a minimum
. population of 400, the optimum being between
500 and 700.
b. At least seven villages were to be of numeri-
cally prominent Scheduled Tribes of the State.
Each village could represent a particular tribe.
The minimum popUlation should be 400,
the optimum being between 500 and 700.
c. The third group of villages should each be
of fair size, of an old and settled character and
contain variegated occupations and be. if
possible, multi-ethnic in composition, By fair
size was meant a population of 500-700 persons
or more. The village should mainly depend
on agriculture and be sufficiently away from
the major sources of modern communication
such as the district administrative headquar-
ters and business centres, It should be roughly
a day's journey from the above places. The
villages were to be selected with an eye to
variation in terms of size, proximity to city and
other means of modern communication, near-
ness to hills, jungles and major rivers. Thus
there was to be a regional distribution through-
out the State of this category of villages. If,
however, a particular district contained signi-
ficant ecological variations within its area,
more than one village in the district might be
selected to study the special adjustments to
them,
It is a unique feature of these village surveys that
they rapidly outgrew their original terms of reference,
as my colleagues warmed up to their work. This pro-
ved for them an absorbing voyage of discovery and
their infectious enthusiasm compelled me to enlarge
the inquiry's scope again and again, It was just as
well cautiously to feel one's way about at first and
then venture further afield, and although it account~
to some extent for a certain unevenness in the quality
 (iv)
and coverage of the monographs. it served to compen-
sate the purely honorary and extramural rigours of
the task. For. the Survey. along with its many ancil-
laries like the survey of fairs and festivals, of small
and rural industry and others, was an 'extra', over
and above the crushing load of the 1961 Census.
It might be of interest to recount briefly the stage
by which the Survey enlarged its scope. At the first
Census Conference in September 1959 the Survey
set itself the ta~k of what might be culled a record
in situ of material traits, like ~;ettlemcnt patterns of the
village; house types; diet; dress; ornaments and foot-
wear; furniture and storing vessels, common means
of transport of goods and passengers; domestication
of animals and birds; markets attended; worship of
deities, festivals and fairs. There were to be record-
ings, of course, of cultural and social traits and occu-
pational mobility. This was followed up in March
1960 by two specimen schedules, one for each house-
hold, the other for the village as a whole, which,
apart from spelling out the mode of inquiry sugges-
ted in the September 1959 conference, introduced
groups of questions aimed at sensing changes in atti-
tude and behaviour in such fields as marriage, inheri-
tance, moveable and immoveable property, industry,
indebtedness, education, community life and collec-
tive activity, social disabilities forums of appeal over
disputes, village leadership. and organisation of cul-
tural life. It was now plainly the intention to provide
adequate statistical support to empirical 'feel', to app-
roach qualitative change through statistical quantities.
It had been difficult to give thought to the importance
of 'just enough statistics to give empirical underpin-
ning to conclusion', at a time when my colleagues
were straining themselves to the utmost for the suc-
cess of the main Census operations, but once the
census count ltseli: was left behind in March. 1961,
a series of three regional seminars in Trivandrum
(May 1961), Darjeeling and Srinagar (June 1961) res-
tored their attention to this field and the importance
of tracing social change through a number of well-
devised statistical tables was once again recognised.
NEW DELHI
July 30, 1964
This itself presupposed a fresh survey of villages
already done; but it was worth the trouble in view
of the possibilities that a close analysis of statistics
offered, and also because the 'consanguinity' schedule
remained to be canvassed. By November 1961, how-
ever, 1110re was expected of these surveys than ever
before. There was dissatisfaction on the one hand
with too many general statements and a growing
desire on the other to draw conclusions from statistics,
to regard social and economic data as interrelated
processes, and finally to examine the social and eco-
nomic processes sel in motion through land reforms
and other laws, legislative and administrative mea-
~ures, technologi(;ul and cultural change. Finally, a
study camp was organised in the last week of Decem-
ber, 1961 when the whole field was carefully gone
through over again and a programme worked out
closely knitting the various aims of the Survey to-
gether. The Social Studies Section of the Census
Commission rendered assistance to State Superinten-
dents by way of scrutiny and technical comment on
the frame of Survey and presentation of results.
This gradual unfolding of the alms of the Survey
prevented my colleagues from adopting as many vil-
lages as lhey had originally intended to. But I believe
that what may have been lost in quantity has been
more than made up for in quality. This is, perhaps,
for the first time that such a Survey has been conduc-
ted in any country, and that purely as a labour of
love, It has succeeded in attaining what it set out to
achieve: to construct a map of village India's social
structure. One hopes that the volumes of this Survey
will help to retain ror the Indian Census its title to
'the most fruitful single source of information about
the country'. A part from other features, it will
perhaps be conceded that the Survey has set up a new
Census standard in pictorial and graphic documen-
lation. The schedules finally adopted for Village
Surveys have been printed in Appendices I and II to
the monograph No. 1 011 village Iggalur, 13angalore
District.
ASOK MITRA
REGISTRAR GENERAL, INDIA
 PREFACE
The Census organisation envisaged to bring out, as part of the 1961 Census, a :,cric~ of Village
Survey Monographs ill each State with a view to study the dYll<!lnics of change in economic, social
and cultural spheres of rural ljfe in India. But the Sun ey of Tibetan Refugee Scttkmcl.t, Bylahippe
in Mysore district and the consequent presentation of nti~ nWl10grzph i ~ orly incidentaL In pursu-
ance of a proposal by the Government of Mysore in January_ 196.5, and my sub~equcnt discussions
\\'ith the Registrar General, India, in February 1965, I agrc(d to take up the propcscd imcstigatioll
at Bylakuppe. The study bas becn carried out in two i:tages. Ao the G<Hernmclli ofMywre requircd
certain statistics ~uch as per capita inccme, at fIrst only 20/:" of the homeholds were covered and the
results were furnished in the form of a brief report. The ;en;<d:iJ~g gO~, of the households were
covered subsequently. The pre~ent monograph difters iT' 0],(' cSotnti,l] aspect from the other
village survey monographs of this organisation. In the other Jl1<iHogmphs the village communities
are studied in their natural milieu while in this a di~pJaccd community ,\hich has beel! planted in the
current oflile away frol11 its abode due to a political upheavd forms the ~ubjcct matter.

A glimpse into the Tibetan ways of life, their culture, their country, their history, religion ctc.
becomes essential in a monograph of this nature. The reason is not far to seek; for the picture in
the foreground would become rather vague and incomplete without a proper delineation of the
background. The first two chapters of this report havc therefore been devoted to the narration of
the Tibetan background while the remaining ehaptcrs deal with the actual socio-economic condi-
tio11:> of the settlers at Bylakuppe. The information contained in the first two chapters, thus largely
depends on the works of eminent scholars (the \vorks have been shown in the bibliography at the
end of the report). I may also add that the history portion published in this monograph has been
examined by the Ministry of External Affairs.

The monograph traces how the Tibetan refugees have, since their advent to this colony, success-
fully adjusted themselves to their new homes in our country. They have pulled on creditably and
have won the sympathy of the local people during their short sojoml1 in the settlement. Behil)d
the narrative and statistical details presented, the discerning reader call see glimpses of the tragic
human drama of a people cast away from the haven of their homes and were, as it were, cast off
on the current of life in a distant place.

The field study was ably made by Sri M. S. Ramachandra, Im'estigator, and Sri G. Nanjundc
Gowda, Investigator. Sri M.S. Ramachandra has also prepared the 1irst draft. The photographs for
this monograph were taken by ~ri S. Ramachandran, Senior Technical Assistant (Handi craft Survey).
Sri C. M. Chandawarkar, Dcputy Superintendent, has supenised the field work. The final report
is the outcome of the painstClking and sincere efforts of all these officers.

I Jllust acknowledge here the assistance which I received from various quarters but for which
it would have been difficult to present a factual picture of the social and economic life of the Tibetan
Refugees.
My acknowledgements are due to the Special Officer, T.R.S. Scheme and his assistants as
also to the Representative of His Holiness the Dalai Lama at the Settlem(:nt and the Tibetan inter-
preters who wholeheartedly co-operated with us during the field study. The heads of other voluntary
agencies like the Y.M.C.A., Swiss Aid Abroad etc., have also made their contribution by supplying
relevant information.

K. BALASUBRAMANYAM,
Superintendent of Census Operations
in Mysore

v
 CONTENTS
Pages
CHAPTER-I-THE TIBETAN BACKGROUND
Introduction-Race-Climate, Vegetation etc.,-History 1-13

CHAPTER II-THE PEOPLE, THEIR RELIGION, CULTURE AND SOCIAL LIFE

Government and General Administration-Economic conditions of the people

-How Tibetans live-language-Education-Beliefs and Practices regarding
Birth, Marriage and Death-Social Organisation, law and Punishment. 14-22
CHAPTER III-THE SETTLEMENT AT BYLAKUPPE

The Scheme-location-Physical Aspects-Flora and Fauna-Area, Houses

and Population-Sources of water-Transport and Communications-Residential
pattern-Houses and Home Types-Household goods- Dress and Ornaments-
Food and Drinks 23--32

CHAPTER IV -ECONOMY
Economic Resources-Reclamation of Forest Land-Soil Conservation-
Allotment of Lands-Cultivation holdings-Cultivation-FaTllling practices-
Tools and Equipments-Organisation of Manpower-Disposal of product-
Animal Husbandry-Industries-Other Occupations-labour force, Workers
and Employment opportunities-Activities of Non-workers-Income and Expendi-
ture 33--49
CHAPTER V-SOCIAL AND CULTURAL LIFE
Statistics relating to Population, Births, Deaths, Sex Ratio, Age, Education
etc.-Population-Births and Deaths-Sex ratio-Age distribution-Marital status
-Education-Education in Tibet-Size and composition of Households-Beliefs
and practices connected with Birth, Marriage and Death-Religious institutiom-
Family Deity-Festivals-Chenga Chhuba-Sakatha-Birthday of Dalai Lama-
Drukpa tse shi-Gan Den Nga Chu-leisure and Recreation-Village Organi-
sation-Co-operative Society-Other Aspects of Social and Cultural Life 50-65
CHAPTER VI-CONCLUSION 66-69
Appendix I Questionnaire 70
Appendix II Statement shoWIng the value of rations issuable. 71-72
Appendix III Gift articles received from Central Relief Committee (India) New-
Delhi: Period January 1961-Mmch 1965 73
Appendix IV Expenditure incurred under different Head of Accounts, T. R. R.
Scheme 74
BIBLIOGRAPHY AND REFERENCES. 75
ERRATA 76

vii
 LIST OF TABLES
Sl. No. Table No Description of Tables Pages
1 I Possession of Furniture 28
2 II Possession of Consumer Goods 29
3 III Land Holding 35
4 IV Households and Cultivation 36
5 V Agricultural Produce 36-37
6 VI Live,tock Statistics 40
7 VII Workers and Non-Workers 43
8 VIII Workers and Occupations 44
9 IX Activities of Non-v,"orkers 45
10 X Homeholds and Occupation by Income-Grollps 45
11 XI Percentage Distribution of Houscl"olds by Occupations and
Income level 46
12 XII Average Annual Income per Household by Occupation 46
13 XIU Average monthly Expenditure of Households by Occllp<"1tion
and Level of Income 47-48
14 XIV Pattern of Expenditure by Occupations 48
15 XV Sex Ratio by Age-Groups 50
16 XVI Population by Sex and Age-Grollp (Periyapatna TallJk Rural) 5]
17 XVII Population by Age, Sex and Marital Status 51
]8 xvm Literacy by Sex and Age-Groups 52
19 XIX Distribution of Households by Size 55

LIST OF MAPS
Sl. No facing Page
1. District Map of Mysore showing the Location of Bylakuppe . 23
2. Physical Features around Bylakuppe 24

viii
 LIST OF PHOTOGRAPHS
Pages
I. View of Gulledahalla from elevated spot XI

2. Street (Gollarahosahalli) xi
3. Mumbling prayers and Counting rosary xii
4. Twirling the prayer wheel and counting the rosary-He and the onlooker
smile at being photographed . Xli

5. Enjoying his mllg of Chang-beer prepand out of ragi to which Tilxt<:ns

have an extrcn:e weakness. xiii
6. Woman in l:er trr.dition:.l attire (GoIlarahosb:JlJ) xiii
7. Patu-head ornament . xiii
8. Carrying water home xiii
9. A Tibetan family (Kailaspur) xiv
10. Peep into Creche-porridge served xiv
11. Tibetan Tea-Chadong and Gyalo are the instruments used xv
12. Loma xv
13. Cups and lids xv
14. Cups and lids XVI

15. Chasa (Strainer) xvi

16. Kyo (Ladle) xvii
17. Household articles xvii
18. Unfurling the flags on the New Year Day. They bear printed on them
religious hymns x'Vii

19. Th0 altar, with the picture of His Holiness the Dalai Lama in the background,
on which scarves are offered respectfully on the occasion oft1:e New Year Day
Celebrations xviii
20. Table by the side of altar . xviii
21. A group of Lamas xviii
22. Kitchen arrangements of a small family xix
23. Mendel, a decorative and ritual object xix
24. Men and Women seen offering prayers at the Phalden Lhamo's Sl1rine,
Gulledahalla Camp . xix
25. Visitors being helped to fried wheat ata and grains from a large wooden bowl.
While repeating thashi dile the grains and the ata are thrown thrice into the
w~ ~

ix
 xi

I-View of Gulledahalla from elevated 1SpOt

2-Street (GollarahosahalU)
xu

3- Mumbling prayers and counting rosary

4--Twirling the prayer wheel and counting the rosary-

He fInd the Onlooker smile at being photographed.
 Xlll

.";, *,.,' ;
I

5-Enjoying his mug of chang-beer 0 - W cman in her traditional attire

prepared out of' ragi to which Tibetans have an (Go/larahosaha/ Ii)
extreme weakness.

7- Patu head ornament 8- Carrying water home

xiv

9-A Tibetanfamily (Kai/aspur)

lO-Peep into creche-porridge served

 xv

12-Loma

ll-Tibetan Tea-Chadong & Gyalo

are the instruments used.

13-Cups and /ids

XVI

14-Cups & lids

15-Chasa (Strainer)
 xvii

16--Kyo (ladle)

17-Household articles I8-Unfurling the flag on the New Year Day.

They hearprinted on them religious hymns.
xviii

19--The altar with the picture of his Holiness the

Dalai Lama in the background. on which scarves are offered
respectfUlly on the occasion of the New Year Day celebrations.

20-Table by the side of altar

21-A group of Lamas
 xix

22-Kitchen arrangements of a small family. 23-Mendel, a decorative and ritual

objecl.

24-Men and women seen offering prayers at 25-Visitors being helped to fried wheat ata
the Phalden Lhamo's shrine, Gulledahalla camp. and grains from a large wooden bowl. While repeating
thashi dUe the grains a'nd the ata are thrown thrice in-
to the wind.
 CHAPTER J
THE TIBETAN BACKGROUND
Introduction.
The Census Department undertook a survey of the
Tibetan Refugees at Bylakuppe Settlements Primarily
at the instance of the Government of Mysore, the
immediate purpose being to collect and present cer-
tain statistics regarding the sources of income, per
capita income, pattern of expenditure etc. As pre-
paration of monographs on selected villages has been
a special feature of the 1961 census, this task of con-
ducting a survey of the Tibetan refugees presented in
itself a welcome opportunity to study both their
economic and social life in an environment and under
circumstances entirely different from those in their
motherland. Generally social surveys are conducted
on a set of people in their natural surroundings but
here is an instance of a set of people who have had
to relinquish their homes and hearths in the wake of
the harsh treatment meted out to them by indoctri-
nated reformists for whom God and religion are
almost non-entities. Tibet has been a traditional
society based upon religion with an emphasis on the
principle of monasticism and simple, ordinary human
happiness as divorced from the pursuits of worldly
success. For the Tibetans, Tibet is a holy place dedi-
cated to the pursuit of truth and every Tibetan how-
soever worldly he may appear, has been so brought
up as to assume, as a matter of course, that in the
pursuit of truth alone lies the justification for his
existence as well as that of the very social order to
which he belongs. Such social and religious conser-
vatism added t; geographical barriers to the entry of
foreigners, has helped the Tibetans to preserve their
colourful, vigorous, archaic and somewhat isolated
culture until iecent times. The exodus of the Tibetans
as refugees is now recognised to have started soon
after the initiation of the Chinese process of "liberating
Tibet from Western imperialists". The Government of
India granted asylum to his Holiness the Dalai Lama
and undertook the problem of rehabilitation and of
extending help to the Tibetans in the preservation of
their distinctive culture. Mysore State agreed to receive
some 3000 refugees for settling them on land in 1960.
It hardly needs to be said, that a glimpse into the
Tibetan way of life, their culture, their country, their
history and religion becomes inevitable in this mono-
graph. As, for this purpose, the enquiry of the cross
section of the settler~ will be insufficient, available works
on Tibet and the Tibetans have been referre<1 to pro-
fusely and the information is presented in the following
paragraphs.
GeQgraphically Tibet has been described as co ... a
mass of mountains, all running from north west to
south east, with deep or shallow valleys forming in-
numerable furrows betvveen them. This mass of moun-
tain is, in turn, ringed by some of the highest ranges
in the world. A traveller coming from any direction
invariably starts by climbing these outward ramparts-
which vary greatly in depth and in he:ght-tiIl he
gains a windy pass. The pass is often a water divide.
Here he leaves behind the valleys and precipices, some
of which are covered with vegetation, and looks ahead
to a different topography of nearly horizontal expanses
and low hills, all in a repulsive nudity. This is the
Tihetan table land" (Tsung- Lien Shen 3',d Shen-chi-
Liu, 1953, P.9). According to the geologists Tibet was
once the hottom of the Thetys sea. A systematic survey
of Tibet has never heen attempted and there is 110 con-
sensus about the territorial limits of Tibet. Sir Charles
Bell the best known British authority has ditIerentiated
between 'Political' and 'Ethnographic' Tihet. The for-
mer, being lesser in extent. lies roughly between the
28th and the 36th parallels of North latitude and the
79th and the 99th parallels of East longitUde. In this
part of the country Tibetan Governments have ruled
continuously from the earliest times down to 1951.
Ethnographic Tibet envelopes a larger extent and in
whatever hands the actual polit~cal power might lie,
the religious influence of Lhasa, the capital of Tibet.
was a longstanding and all pervading force and loyalty
to the spiritual supremacy of the Dalai Lama united
the monasteries in these outskirts with those of the
central Tibet and enhanced the feeling of kinship
among the people of Tibetan stock. Tibet is enclosed
on three sides by mo~mtain ranges: on the North are
the Kuenlun and Tang La ranges; on the West the
massif of the Kara Koram and Ladakh mountains,
and on the south the majestic sweep of the Himalaya.
Only to the East in there a gap :n the mountain ram-
parts and according to geographers. a straight line pro-
jected from the Tsingling mountains in Kansu south-
ward along the Min Kiang (Min river) to the towering
peaks of Minya Konka, SDu!l1 of Kangting the capital
of Sikiang, marks the eastern boundary of Tibet. The
land falls from West to East and from North to South
 2 BYLAKUPPE
The area of Tibet is about 500,000 square miles and of
that about three quarters is a high tangled wilderness
of mountain ranges and plains all of 16,000 feet .or
over. The population being sparse consists mostly of
nomads. The valleys of the great rivers and their tri-
butaries are located in the southern quarter where the
elevation ranges from 9000 feet to 16,000 feet and the
main cultivated land of Tibet is found. Tibet bears the
poetic name of 'The Land of Snow'. In the South
Western part of Tibet the great rivers, the Indus and
Brahmaputra rise and ta ke their divergent courses west-
ward and east-ward. Sutlej and Karanali which also
break through the Himalayas also have their sources
close to those of the Indus and the Brahmaputra.
There are many more rivers which rise in Tibet and
penetrate the Himalayas-the Kali, .. Gandaki Trisuli,
Arun, Manas and Suban Siri-but the gorges which
these rivers carve through the mountains are so sheer
that they do not give easy access to the Indian side.
Yangtse, Mekong and Salween are the great rivers
which rise in the North-East. The approach to Tibet
is easy from the north east corner but once in. there
is no easy way out of the encircling mountains.
Therefore Tibet has never been a route for migra-
tory peoples or world conquering armies and the ab-
sence of easy communications has tended to preserve
intact the seclusion, conservatism, national hom0-
!eneity and the independence of Tibetans.
Though the first authentic record of Tibet and its
geography is from the seventh century A.D. the earliest
allusion dates back to 2255 B.C. when the Chinese
Emperor Shun banished the tribes of San Miao to
San Wei-identified by Chinese historians and geo-
graphers with the Tibetan highland (P. 3; Tsunghein
Shen and Shen Chi Liu, 1953). In Sanskrit manu-
scripts of about the seventh century, Tibet has been
called Bhota and the Hindu tradition reveals the legend
of gold digging ants in the cloud-land. north of India.
These ants have been identified as marmots-burrow-
ing animals. that throw up heads of earth which may
contain some gold dust or as human gold diggers crou-
ching under cover of animal skins. Both the animals
and the men are said to be found in the northern plain
of Tibet even to-day. China under the Tang dynasty
came into collision with the To Fan (or, according to
a variation in the old pronounciation of the second
word To Eo) empire. To is a phonetic rendering of a
Tibetan word for highland. while Eo is the name the
Tibetans give to themselves. The English word Tibet,
of Turkish origin, is a corruption 'Tv Bo' and 'Eho/iI·.
_Race
According to physical anthropologists such as Turner,
"Morant. Risley and Buxton the Tihetam are a different
race. The Tibetan crania have been carefully studied by
Turner and subsequently by Morant; and Risley made
_ measurements in the living. According to Turner there
is a dolichocephalic race in Tibet. This race type is
found mainly among the nomads of the North and
East and also in the aristocratic families and consists
of men who are tall, long-limbed and often with aqui-
line features and long headed. The ancient Turkic
race and the ture Mongols may also be traced to this
stock. The second type, found predominantly in the
cultivated valleys of central and western Tibet, consists
people of a much shorter stature, with high cheek-
bones, flat noses and rounq heads. It is quite probable
that these 'round heads' donstituted the original !ltra-
tum of popUlation and were later invaded and domi-
nated by the 'long-heads' or the 'warrior' types. Thi~
race of round heads is also held to be an offshoot in
the remote past, of the parent stock known as Pare-
oean from which the modern Chinese, Burmese and the
Thais are also descended.
The Tibetans have their own legends to explain their
ongm. One of the myths reveals that in the very
beginning there was born from the void a most won-
derful cosmic egg. "After five months it burst open.
Space, heat, fire, oceans and mountains came from it;
and from its interior came a man. This being, though
a man, was also a snake or dragon. In some accounts
it was a female snake or dragon. while in others it
was male. She or he was the first of human creatures
and hence the ancestor of the Tibetan race". (p. 1~.
Tsung lien Lien and Shen-Chi Liu. [953).
Another popular legend traces the Tibetans' ongm
to a monkey and a mountain ogress. According to this_
once upon a time the Lord of Mercy (Chen-Re-Zi) des-
cended from the celestial realms in the form of a
monkey and dwelt in a cave in the centre of the· world
which later came to be known as Tibet. This saintly
monkey was tormented and then seduced by the moun-
tain ogress who took the form of a beautiful female
and threatened to marry a demon and breed genera-
tion after generation of ogres and Ogresses who would
extinguish every living creature in the land of snow,
if he, the monkey God declined to marry her. Succum-
bing to compassion fa r greater than a mere desire for
his own salvation, the monkey solicited his patron
God's advice and obtained His blessings. Thus the
monkey married the mountain Ogress, who bore him
1Iix children. These children inherited all the virtues
of their father and all the vices of their mother and
iIi due course they multiplied exceedingly and in the
land of Tibet there was not enough to eat. So, father
monkey once more sought the help of his patmn deity
and begged for succor and the God in turn plud:_ed
tHE TIBETAN BACKGROUND
from mOllnt Sumeru tlve kinds or grains, which he
caused to be sown in a field. The seeds took root
and grew and when the apes fed on these sacred grains
[0 their astonishment. their tails fell off and the hair
on their bodies grew shorter and shorter. They began
to speak, they made barley and wheat their daily food
and they covered their bodies with leaves. This story
is said to have had its origin in Yar-Lung and this
was how the principal town there came to bear the
name Tse-Thang. When once the material needs of his
progeny had been provided for. the father monkey
taught them to play games on the plain and Tse-
Thang is a combination of Tse (to play) and Thang
(a plain). This Lord. Chen-Re-Zi, the Tibets' patron
divinity and the father of the Tibetan people, is that
great Bodhisatva of Mahayana Buddhism who is
known as Avalokiteswara in Sanskrit (one of the five
Dyani Bodhisatvas emanating from the five Buddhas
of meditation who exist in the celestial realms as as-
pe,',s of the supreme Buddhahood).
Climate, vegetation etc.
Tibet, being a country lying between the dry plains
of Turkestan and the moisture laden Himalayas and
ranging in altitude from 2000 feet to 29,000 feet, has
aptly been described as a country of contrasts. The
climate, rainfall. vegetation and even human civiliza-
tion are found in varied forms. A traveller entering
from the nothern plains first notices the barrenness,
th~n proceeding interior in turn encounters the hunter
and trappers living in caves, the nomads with their
moving tents and cattle, the ploughmen near their
solitary settlements and finally the modern man amidst
a thriving community. It is said that if Tibet were
shifted some fifteen degrees to the north almost the
entire country would be under ice and that if it were
at the sea level, it would be scorched by a summer
heat like that of Egypt or Persia. Thus latitude and alti-
tude compensate each other to some degree. Though the
climate is generally rigorous and changes radically in
the North and North-West, which lie beyond the moder-
ating influence of the Indian monsoon, the weather in
the lower valleys of Tsangpa basin as well as in
Eastern part of Tibet during a greater part of the year
is said to be very pleasant. Lhasa in the Kyi Chu
valley is at an altitude of 12,000 feet and here the
temperature rises upto 80°F in summer and rarely falls
below 5°F in winter. The rainfall is about 18 inches.
But on the upland plateau at elevations of 17,000 feet
and more the maximum temperature varies from 45°F
to .65 c F and the minimum sinks down to -2rF to-
gether with strong cold winds. Rainfall in these parts
being about 6 or 8 inches the vegetation is little except
for the grasses. In the river valleys, crops of barley,
3
wheat, peas, beans etc., are grown abundantly. The
chief soil of Tibet is light brown or greyish. according
to the humus content, which is very poor. It is allu-
vial soil and barley is the most suitable crop for tho
entire country. At lower and warmer places rice
and wheat are grown to a little extent. There are in-
numerable sheep and goats as also the yaks-a hairy
version of the buffalo. Throughout the highland an-
other animal-a cross between the ass and the horse-
called the Kyang is numerous. Musk deer which lives
in the jungles of the Himalayas as well as in tho
barren uplands is another animal of economic impor-
tance. Wool. fur and hides aro tho important items
of export for Tibet. Other animals found in the country
are lynx, snow leopard. fox, otter weasel. antolope.
hare, wolf, marmot, eagles, vulture, hawk. owl. yellow
duck etc. A rare animal which goes by the namo
Panda is found in eastern Tibet. The mineral content
of the land is said to be relatively unexplored and in
the absence of systematic prospecting its mineral riches
remain a mystery. However. Tibet is believed to be
rich in gold and to contain iron, lead and coal mines.
This vast expanse of land has been historically
divided into four main districts viz. U, Tsang (Central
Tibet), Kham (Eastern Tibet) and Nga-Ri (Western
Tibet) containing in all thirteen administrative units.
U, the district of which Lhasa is the capital means
'the centre'. Tsang, the district of which Shigatso is
ihe capital means 'cleanliness'. Chamdo which is situ-
ated on the upper course of the Mekong. and located in
the Kham district is considered to be the third im-
portant city of Tibet ranking after Lhasa and Shigatse.
It is the seat of a Governor of ministerial rank and an
important place where many routes converge. Tho
capital of Nga-Ri is Gartok or more simply Gar. Nga-
Ri is the vast but sparsely populated highland in the
West. .
Tho estimates regarding the population of Tibet arc
varied, ranging between 2,000,000 and 5,000,000 accord-
ing to the recent Western .writers. In 1951, tho official
Chinese estimate was three and three quarter millions
and a few years later the Chinese communists published
the figure of 1,274,969 as Tibet's population.
HiMtory
Tibet's first and the legendary King named Nya-
Khri Tsanpo is believed to have come from India to
Yarlung and he is identified with Kama. son of Pandu
in the Indian epic tradition. Some others identify thit
prince with King Rupati who. during tho war bet-
ween Kauravas and the Pandavas, fled to Tibet, or
with the son of King Prasenajit of Kosala, or with a
 4 BYLAKUPPE
descendant of the Lachchavi branch of the Sakya
family. Tibetan tradition lists twenty-seven. or more
Kings following ?-.lya-Khri Tsanpo but nothmg much
is known about them. the Chinese knew of a western
tribe called 'Kyang' with which they had close deal-
ings from t:"te first century A.D. The old a~d new
chronicles of the Tang Dynasty (618-907) prOVIde the
first reliable information about the Tibetans and re-
cord that Tibet was founded by a certain Shi-pu-ye.
The Tibetan rendering of the name being Pu-Gye it
means "the hairy king" and supports the myth of the
father monkey. Tibet bore the nickname Pu-Gye-Bo
(Hairy King Tibet) for a long time and the Tibetans
were called Dong-Mar (Red faced) by their neigh-
bours. The discovery of the principal metals, the
introduction of agriculture and irrigation, building of
the first capital of Tibet and spreading of Bon Po the
first native faith are all attributed to Pu Gye. If the
records in Tibet from 7th to 9th century relate only
to Pu Gye. the later chronicles of the 14th and 15th
centuri~~ depict Nya-Khri Tsanpo in his stead. The
history of Tibet i~ supposed to have experience~ .a
dark age during the whole of tenth century and It IS
opined that during this period. Buddhism ousted or
assimilated the Bon Po and that the Lamaist hierarchy
replaced the feudal lords and chieftains as the r~lers ?f
Tibet. As the Tibetan chronicles were 'Complied III
the latter period. it is very probable that· in order to
gain prestige. efforts were on to trace everything to
Sakya Muni, the Buddha or the Land of Buddha and
thus a royal lineage claiming direct lineage f:o~
Sakya family came to be fabricated. Therefore. ~t IS
perhaos in the name of Pu-Gye \vhich the chromcles
of T~ng Dynasty ,place near the end of the fourth
century A.D. that one can get the first glimmer about
the remotest past of the Tibetan people. The Tibetan
chronicles, glorify Lha-Tho- Tho-Ri-Nyen-Shey, an-
other King of the pr..::historic era. According to the
legend, one day while he was seated in his palace
there fell from the sky in his presence a casket con·
taining two books of Buddhist canon, an alms bowl,
the six syllables of eternal truth (Om Ma Ni Pa Me-
Hum). a golden pagoda and a clay image of chinta-
Jnr::ni (the treasure). None knew the meaning of this
God-gift and hence it came to be known as "the mys-
ter~ous." The legend further states that a few years
later some five strangers presented themselves to the
Kinrr and volunteered to explain the meaning of the
o b'
mvst,-~t'ious God-gifts Hnd the power of the 0 ]ects.
They had to depart as mysteriously as they h~d 3F-
pearoo because the King did not appreciate their mis-
sion. The legend seems to have been spun around some
facts about the earliest Buddhist missionaries to Tibet
hailing from Nepal or China.
Tibetan history proper begins with the King 5on-
Tsan Gampo who ascended the throne in about 620
A.D. and reigned for 30 years. His father, King Nam-
Ri-Son- Tsan, a powerful ruler reigned over Tibet for
fifty years beginning from 570 A.D. and during his
regime: --"'The people were crude and given to war
and plundering, and lived on the simplest diet, whkh
they ate with their hands. They smeared their faces
with red earth; although they had built houses and
cities, they preferred to live in tents. Each year the
Tsan-Po (King) and his courtiers took a small oath
where they sacrijiced horses, oxen, asses and men.
They had no system of writing. but for recording im-
portant facts they used notched pieces of wood and
knotted cords. Having no calendar, they oounted
the beginning of each year from the time of harvest.
Their religion was sorcery, and even high matters
of policy were decided by their priests (Tsung-Li~n
Shea and Shen-chi-Liu 1953, page 22).
Such were the conditions when Son Tsan Gampo took
over the administration of Tibet and the changes he
brought about in all the spheres of life are such that
now everything of account in Tibet may be traced back
to him. He married Bhrikuti Devi, daughter of King
Amsurvarman of Nepal and a devout Buddhist. He
also requested for the hand of a Chinese princess but
was at first declined. A show of force whkh resulted
in a year-long stalemate between the Chinese and
Tibetans, and the subsequent mission headed by the
statesman Gar-Don-Tsan won the hand of Priocess
Wen-Chen. She was a devout Buddhist and brought
with her an image of Sakya Muni which has been,
since then, the chief object of worship in Tsu-La-
Khang. the central cathedral of Lhasa. This King is
said to have moved his capital from YaT Lung to
Lhasa. These two princesses are held to be responsible
for the conversion of the King to Bu<i<l.hist faith and
they are believed, by the Tibetans to be the iru::arna-
tions of the white and the green aspects of Dolma the
Mother Goddess. who is venerated together with Chen-
Re-Zi under the symbol of pure lotus, the perfect
flower. The King sent a mission to India, headed
by certain Tho-Mi Sam-Bho-Ta to study and work out
an alphabet for the Tibetan language and he himself
became one of the most successful pioneers in the new
writing. Even to this day, the famous code he wrote
continues to be the moral basis for both the ecceles-
tial and the secular communities in Tibet. His Chinese
contemporary was the Emperor Tai Tsung, the founder
of the Tang dynasty and a renowned, energetic and
able ruler.
According to the Tibetan chronicles Chinese in-
vaded Lhasa after the death of Son-Tsan Gampo. War
tHe TIBEtAN BACKGROUND
seemed to be frequent between these two emperors
until a royal alliance between Me-Ah- Tshom (704-755
A.D.) the great-great-grand son of Son- TS~lll Gampo
and Chin-Chen a Tang princess which occurred in 710
AD. Th~ princess Chin-Chen gave birth to Khri-Son
De-Tsan 055-797 AD.) a devout Buddhist and the
second as well as the last great King of Tibet. He
laid real foundation for the introduction of Buddhism
by inviting Shanta Rakshita, a great theologian from
India at whose instance he subseq uently invited the
great occultist. Padma Sambhava the 'Lotus Born' from
the Buddhist University of Nalanda. Padma Samb-
have earned for himself the title 'Guru Rimpoche' (pre-
cious teacher) and by his singular personality exerted
extnlOrdinary influence upon the form of monasti-
cism which dominates Tibetan life in economic, cul-
tural and religious spheres from that time even to this
day. He is the central figure of many myths and his
image and portrait are to be found wherever Lamaism
is practised. Sam-Ye Monastery on the North bank
of the Tsang Po, opposite to Tse Thang was built in
787 AD. at the instance of this great master who,
it is said, chastised many demons and demonesses of
this 'Land of snow' and won them over to the new
faith. Thus the subjugated 'Gods' of the old Bon Po
religion became the servants of Buddhism and the
old rites could continue within the frame work of the
new. Soon after the founding of Sam Ye a theological
debate was held between Ta Chen, a Chinese Budd-
hist monk and Kamalashila an Indian scholar. Tn
Chen lost this debate and had to quit the land with
his books and the followers. By then, Shanta Rakshita
had initiated seven Tibetans into his order. Military
adventures of this king carried the fame of Tibet far
and wide. He, after contracting an alliance with the
Arabs, effectively cut off the western army of Chinese
at its base, in modem Kansu province. The Tibetans
consider the kings Lha-Tho- Tho-Ri-Nyen Shey, Son-
Tsan Campo and Khri-Son De-Tsan as the respective
incarnations of Samantha Bhadra. Avalokiteswara and
Manjusri of the Buddhist pantheon.
With the death of this great king the decline of the
Tibetan empire set in. H:s two sons reigned over Tibet
for 20 years with no significant events. One of his
grand sons-eldest son of Se-Na-La became a Buddhist
while another Re-Po-Gyen (son of Sc-Na-La) ascended
the throne in 817 A.D. and reigned for 19 years. He
was a firm supporter of the Buddhist faith and raised
the rank and file of the monks, appointed a few Budd-
hists to important Government seats in place of nobles
Who were holding fast to the Bon Po faith. He bore
the nick-name 'Long-Haired-One' and showed utmost
IIespect to the clergy. In 836, A.D. this pious king was
assassinated in a coup d'ctat' led by a few noblemen
and his another brother lang-Dar-Ma known to Tibetan
chronicles as the 'most wicked man ever born in the
world' --was enthroned. He and his supporters are des-
cribed by the pious Tibetans as the very incarnation of
demons. He, being the last of son Tsan Gampo's line
to rule over all Tibet. reigned for five years during
which period he persecuted 'Buddhism almost to ex-
tinction and destroyed all temples including Tus-La-
Khag and Ra-Mo-Che' in Lhasa. A monk named Pei-
Gyi-Dorji had a vision and disguising himself killed
the king and escaped with his holy books to Kham
where he started numerous religious communities.
Later, from one such community emerged La-Chen
(Great Teacher) who was responsible for the wide
spread popularity of Buddhism in the eastern and
central Tibet.
Subsequent to the death of Lang-Dar-Ma there was
a split in the royal family and the nobility took sides
and put up two children Yum-Ten and Er-Sone as
claimants for the throne. Civil war ensued and petty
pri.ncedoms and dynasties sprang up in place of •
unified Tibetan Kingdom. The history of Tibet, from
this period {i.e. middle of ninth century) for about two
("'enturies, is obscure as confusion seems to have pre-
yailed about the chronology of events. Except for
two strings of names descending from these quarrelling
brothers, no other facts have been recorded by the
Tibetan Chroniclers. Nevertheless, it may be observed
that during these two centuries of intermission tre-
mendous ~hanges occurred in Tibet and when Budd-
hism staged its comeback in the middle of the eleventh
century there was little bitterness between Bon Po and
the new faith. This revival of Buddhism in Tibet was
a veritable rebirth of the Tibetan spiritual life in all
its manifokl aspects. Tibetan history of the subse-
quent period consists of little apart from a record of
the growth and fortunes of different sects of religion
against a dimmed political background. In 1042,
A.D. the great Indian teacher Atisha (Dip ankara Sri-
jnana) was invited to Gu-Gc by its king, a descendant
of Er-Sone. The teacher earned for himself the name
Jo-Wo-Je (Venerable Master) and secured a place
second in importance only to Padma Sambhava. He
and his main disciple Drom-Ton founded the Ka-Dam-
Pa sect. Around 1240 A.D. when the Mongols mar-
ched into Tibet there were four dominant sects of
Lamaism. The Generals wanted to send one of the
greatest Lamas to their King Godan, nephew of Chen-
gis Khan and accordingly the Sa-Kya Pandit, being
the most learned in law, was sent. In 1247 A.D. the
Sa-Kya Pandita saw Godan the King. On his return
he became the vice-regent of Tibet. In 1251 A.D.
 6 BYLAKUPPE
Sakya Pandila as well as Klllg Godan died. Phas-Pa
(saint), a nephew 01 Sa-Kya Pandlta had meanwhile
influenced Kublai Khan, who was soon to become
Emperor of China. so mudl that the Khan got him-
self initiated and made Lamaism the national religion
of his empire. Phas-Pa became the vice-regent. with
the title of Tisri, for the whole of Tibet. At the ins-
tance of the emperor, he also invented a writing
system for the Mongols. Tsun-Lien Shen and Shen-
Chi Lin (1953), state as follows about Phas-Pa and
the Emperor Kublai Khan:
"History has seldom recorded such a pair, patron
and chaplain, in action. The Mongols embraced Lam-
aism with such whole-heartedness that within a cen-
tury they had discarded all their martial characteri-
stics. Besides their own conversion, they drove
the whole of China along by making a spiritual tem-
poral alliance with Tibet which has lasted ever since."
When Phas-Pa died in 1274, another Lama of the Sa-
Kya monastery became Tisri.
In the meanwhile, the power of the Sa-Kya-Pa with
its base at Sa-Kya monastery had been greatly enfee-
bled and the actual administration of the country had
once again passed on into the hands of kings. In about
1338 A.D. Gyan Chu Gye Tshen, a most remarkable
Tibetan belonging to the noble Pha-Mo-Dru-Pa family
and owing allegiance to the Dri-Kung-Pa sect, won a
battle against the 5a-Kya and became Tai-5i Tu and
by 1350 A.D. he had established himself as actual
master of all Tibet. He began deliberately fostering
a feeling of national unity and reviving the glorious
tradition of the early kings. Though the office of the
Tisri ceased to exist in about 1358 AD. Tibet main-
tained a diplomatic connection with the Mongols even
after the fall of the Yuan dynasty and its eviction
from China. The establishment of a new dynasty in
China seems to have had little effect on the Tibetan
people. The Ming dynasty also maintained co~nec­
tions with Tibet by extending invitation to promment
Lamas to visit China. Though the influence of the
Lamas was considerable in Tibet, the country was
being ruled first by the lady princes of Pha-Mo-Dru-
Pa family and then, from about 1481 AD., those of
Rim Pung and after that, from about 1565 AD., the
princes or Kings of Tsang dynasty. Both the Rimpung
and the Tsang Kings were patrons of the Ka-Ma-Pa
sect with its base at the Tshu-phu monastery. In
1409 AD. Tson-Kha-Pa founded the Gan-Dan monas-
tery and a new sect known as the Ge-Lu-Pa. This
sect had to wait until 1642 A.D. for fortune to tum
in its favour. When the Manchus became the rulers
of China, they chose the Ge-Lu-Pa sect for patronage.
The rise of the Ching (Manchu) dynasty synchronised
with that 01 the Gelupa sect. The Dalai Lamas owe
their appearance to their great religious teacher Tson-
Kha-Pa, a monk of exceptional intellectual attainment
and the founder of the Gelupa sect. One of the Tson-
Kha-Pa's leading disciples was his nephew called Gen-
Tun-Dru-Pa, who founded the Tra-shi Lum-po monas-
tery near Shigatse. He Was the abbot of this monastery
at the time of his death in 1475 A.D. Some years later
it was held that his spirit had undergone reincarnation
in a young monk named Gen- Tun Gham-Tsho, who
often shuttled between the Tra-Shi Lumpo and Rre-
pung monasteries. So-Nam Gyam- Tshe was recognised
as the third incarnation of Gen-Tun Dru-Pa and he
made Dro-pung his permanent seat. It was So-Nam
Gyam Tsha who first laid the foundation of the secu-
lar power of the Gelupa sect. He was a brilliant scho-
lar and a zealous missionary. During his first visit to
Mongolia in 1578 he converted King Altan Khan to the
Ge-Lu-Pa sect and in return obtained from the king
the title 'Vajradhara Dalai Lama' (Holder of Thunder-
bolt, Ocean Lama). This title was later applied retros-
pectively to his two predecessors. For the first time
an incarnation of this series came to bear the title
Dalai, a Mongolian translation of Gyam Tsho, which
was soon to gain popularity in China and throughout
the world. At the time of So-Nam Gyam Tsho, the
Gelupas had no temporal power in Tibet but the
austerity, the discipline and the spiritual qualities of
its Lamas attracteq numerous followers including some
influential nobles. The fourth Dalai incarnation came
from the Altan Khan's family and the tie between the
Mongoh and the largest monastery of the Ge-Lu-Pa
sect. added to the growing popularity of the Dalai
Lama caused concern to the Tsang-Pa Kings. One
of them even resolved to ban the Dalai incarnatiom
but was disuaded by Lo-Zang Chor-Gyan of the Ge-Lu-
Pa sect who has since been recognised as the first
Panchen Lama. In 1642 A.D. Kushi or Cusri Khan,
a Mongol prince from Kohonar, supported by other
Monaol followers of the Ge-Lu-Pa sect invaded Tibet,
'" and killed the king and set up the Dalai
defeated
Lama of the day as religious head of the country, in
place of the Kar-ma-pa Lamas. This fifth Dalai Lama
named Nga-Wang Lo-Zang Kyam-Tsho is another
epoch marking figure in the history of Tibet. The
Dalai authority was at the beginning under the protec-
tion of Cusri Khan who assumed the title of 'King of
Tibet' and transmitted the same to his descend2lnts.
But gradually the fifth Dalai Lama who was a man
of great determination drew all power into his own
hands. In 1644, AD. the Manchus succeeded in cap-
turing Peking and secured Chinese acceptance of their.
neW dynasty. The death of Cusri Khan in 1655 A.D.
resulted in the Dalai Lama becoming the iole arbiter
THE TIBETAN BACKGROUND
of the Tibetan affairs. By his skill in managing foreign
affairs, forceful measures and conciliation by which
he brought aoout peace and unity in Tibet, combining
fm the first time temporal and spiritual rule in one
person and by his strict adherence to religious disci-
pline he earned for himself the name "Great Fifth."
During the reign of the VI Dalai Lama, however, a
serious dissension came over Tibet. In 1705 A.D., La-
Tsang Khan a descendant of Cusri-Khan planning to
restore his real influence of kingship took control of
Tibet and deposed the VI Dalai Lama and in his place
appointed a 25 year old monk as the true incarnation.
I n the meanwhile, the VI Dalai Lama who was being
e5corted to China died near Litang. In 1713, A.D.
the Emperor Kang Hsi invited Lo-Zang Ye-sha, the
fifth (or the second) Panchen Lama the Successor of
Lo-Zang Chor-Gyen of Tra-shi Lumpo monastery and
proclaimed him 'Panchen Ratna' (Great Pandit and
the Gem) thus extending his patronage to another pillar
::>f the Ge-Lu-Pa sect. In 1716 A.D. a Junkar army
::onquered the whole of Tibet from La Tsang Khan
declaring their intention to restore the rightful Dalai
Lama, recognised in the form of a child born soon
after the death of the VI incarnation in Litang. In
1717 A.D. a Chinese army entered to support the La
Tsang Khan but was trapped and destroyed totally.
By then the emperor had out-manouvered the Junkars
and secured the possession of the child recognised as
the VII Dalai Lama. In 1720, A.D. the emperor sent
p greater army which fought its way to Lhasa, wiped
out the Junkars and escorted the VII Dalai Lama.
At Lhasa, the army was welcomed as the saviour of
the Tibetans the restorer of peace and bringer of the
Dalai Lama. In 1717 A.D. and 1728 A.D. a Civil
War broke out in the country and both the contesting
parties appealed for help to the emperor but even
before the emperor's army reached its destination one
of the contestants Phola Teji, had established supre-
macy. Under the leadership of Phola Teji the victor,
the emperor reconstituted the Tibetan Council and
stationed two Ambans with an armed Garrison under a
military commander. Phola was a capable ruler and
in 1740 A.D. earned the title 'King of Tibet' from the
emperor. After his death in 1747 he was succeeded
by Gurmya Namagya1 his younger son. The Chinese
Ambans in Tibet themselves murdered this King in
1750 AD. Consequently the enraged mob in turn set
fire to the residence of the Ambans and both the Am-
bans responsible for the assassination were killed. Then
the Dalai Lama assumed the temporal power also
and by his able and firm measures restored order.
He appointed a senior minister to carryon the Govern-
ment. The Manchu troops once again arrived in
Lhasa and as there was no scope for milit;lrY activity
7
the Government was once again reorganised. This
time kingship was totally abolished and the Council
of Ministers was restored to the position of importance
which it had lost during the ascendancy of Phola. The
reforms of 1750 put the temporal supremacy of the
religious hierarchy on a lasting basis which was never
afterwards challenged. Soon after the death of the
VII Dalai Lama in 1757, A.D. a Government by the
regent-also a Lama-took: over the administration.
From the death of the VII Dalai Lama until the acces-
sion of the XIII Dalai Lama for a period of about 120
years the ambition and greed for power of the Re-
gents was so great that the Dalai Lama himself could
exercise power only for seven years. The VIII Dalai
Lama who was content to let his Regent conduct the
administration was succeeded by the IX and X incar-
nations. But both of them died even before attaining
majority. Though the XI and XII Dalai Lamas were
enthroned they died soon after they were invested with
power. Thus for 113 years, the supreme authority
was heJd by the Lama Regents.
In 1780 A.D. the sixth (or third) Panchen Lama
was invited to Peking by the Emperor Chien Lung and
was given a royal reception comparable to that ac-
corded to the Great Fifth Dalai by Emperor Kang Hsi.
This incident caused anxiety over the position of· the
Dalai as the unquestioned leader of the sect. One of
the brothers of the VI Panchen Lama is alleged to
have conspired with the Gurkhas and instigated a
Nepalese invasion of Tsang in 1788 A.D. Provoked
by the Tibet's failure to keep up the terms agreed
upon, the Gurkhas invaded once more in 1791 A.D.
The Emperor sent his ablest generals with a vast
army which threw the Gurkhas out of Tibet and
reached the very neighbourhood of Khatmandu the
capital of Nepal. The Gurkhas had to bind themselves
to offer tribute in allegiance to the emperor and to
abstain from any breach of peace with Tibet in the
fujure. During this period sweeping changes were
ordered in the country. A countrywide census was
taken, taxation system was regulated, Tibetan money
was coined in Tibet for the first time and the Tibetans
were prevented totally from having relations or com·
munications with foreigners or foreign countries. The
political status of the Ambans was enhanced and in case
of disputes over candidates for the Dalai and Panchen
incarnations they were empowered to supervise the
drawing of lots from a golden urn which the emperor
presented for that very purpose. Examining the effects
of the imposition of the decrees it may be observed
that the political powers granted to the Amb:!ns were
not properly made use of and within a few years the
influence of the Tihetan Re~ents rose to even greater

heights than before: the formality of choosing Dalai
Lama by lots using the golden urn was disregarded on
the very first occasion in 1808 A.D. but went through
in 1818 A.D. while selecting the X Dalai Lama and
Tibet deliberately closed its doors to all foreigners.
From the middle of the nineteenth century, the
Russians and the 'British evinced keener interest
in exploring Tibet. If Russia having established her
dominance along the whole area from Manchuria,
Mongolia and Sinkiang wanted to penetrate into China's
Southwest through Tibet, the British, who had estab-
lished themselves in the States along the Southern
slopes of the Himalayas from Burma to Ladakh with
the aim of securing the defence for their Indian
empire, probed further northwards.
From 1846 onwards, there was a ceaseless quest for
information about Tibet and the pioneer journeys of
the Strachey and Cunningham in West Tibet were fol-
lowed by a series of explorations by British, Russian,
Scandinavian and American travellers. A special con·
tribution was made by the Indian and Sikkimese
Pundits of the Survey of India. In 1876, by an annexe
to the treaty (Chefoo Convention), the British secured
a right for an exploration across Tibet from India to
China or in the reverse direction. But as such ex-
peditions had become too frequent the Tibetans flatly
refused to accept the proposed Mission headed by
Colman Macaulay in 1885. In 1887 Tibet moved into
Sikkim and tried to reassert her authority but the
Tibetans were driven back in 1889 by the British. In
1890 China signed a treaty which demarcated the
boundary between Tibet and Sikkim and also con-
lirmed the British Protectorate over Sikkim. In 1893,
a set of Tibetan Trade Regulations were signed but as
no Tibetan representative was a party either to this
agreement or that of the 1890 both the agreements were
not honoured by the Tibetans. A sort of civil disobe-
dience movement was undertaken by the Tibetans, and
this paralysed all trade. In 1895, the XIII Dalai Lama
assumed power in Tibet. Soon after Lord Curzon as-
sumed the Viceroyalty of India in 1889. he exerted
efforts for assuaging the feelings of Tibetans. In 1904.
the famous Younghusband expedition was launched
and it culminated in the Lhasa Convention of 1904.
'The principal clauses of this Lhasa Convention of
1904, concerned the settlement of the Sikkim-Tibet
border, the opening of trade marts with resident
British agents at Gyantse and Gangtok, as well as
Yatung, provision for negotiating tre"h trade regula·
tions and clauses excluding any other foreign power
political influence in Tibet. The fact that the Chinese
Amban assisted the British Government in concluding
direct agreement with Tibet, provides a clear proof
RYLAKUPP:E
that Tibet at that time was not subject to Chinese
authority. The Convention of 1906 between China
and British Government acknowledged that Tibet had
refused to recognise the provisions of 1890 Conven-
tions and 1893 Regulations and so a separate agree-
ment had to be signed in 1904 with Tibet. In fact in
1906 the Chinese Government not only extended full
recognition to this treaty of 1904 but undertook "to
secure the due fulfilment of the terms specified therein".
Even in the past Tibet had entered into a number of
treaties whi<;h were not only considered valid by the
parties concerned, but were in actual operation for
decades, and in some instances for centuries. In 1684
and 1842, Tibet had signed treaties with Ladakh and
Kashmir under which not only her traditional boun-
daries in the west had been confirmed but also her
trade relations with Kashmir regulated. Similarly the
Nepal-Tibet treaty of 1856 was in operation for a full
century till it was abrogated by the Sino-Nepalese
treaty of 1956. In this treaty of 1956 there was de-
finite mention of abrogating the earlier treaty of 1856
and this clearly proved that China admitted that Tibet
had a right to sign treaties with other countries inde-
pendently.
The British expedition to Lhasa and the demolition
of the barrier for Britain's direct relations with the
Tibetan Government proved that in the period under
discussion Tibet had had independent and direct re-
lations", ith her neighbours as far as her interests along
the border were concerned, without the exercise of
any control by China. Even such nominal suzerainty
over Tibet and other connections which China claimed
would seem in fact to have been virtually ex,tinguished.
However in order to gain authority over Tibet, the
Chinese, in the meanwhile had begun to take military
measures. In 1907, Britain signed with Russia, the
St. Petersberg Convention, wherein all the interests
gained by the British in Tibet were recognised by
Russia and both the powers committed themselves to
keep away from the affairs of Tibet. But the Great
XIII Dalai Lama had reasons to be alarmed at the
Chinese activities particularly in the Eastern Tibet,
where Chao-Er-Feng having reduced to SUbjection seve-
ral border States. announced his intention of proceed·
ing to Lhasa. The plan to convert Tibet into an obe-
dient province of China became evident and when
Cll,w's troops headed by General Chung Ying reached
Lhasa in 1910, the Dalai Lama and his leading minis-
ters escaped and fled to seek refuge in India. Imme-
diately a Chinese proclamation depo~cd the Dalai Lama
and directions were issued to find out a new inca rna -
tion to o,'cupY his place while the General and the
Ambans took over the Government of Tibet. The Pan-
chen Lama refused to head the Government and the
THE TIBETAN BACKGROUND
obstructive Tihetan National Council kept in touch
w;th the Dalai Lama and sent messages to the Govern-
men~ of India through him denouncing Chinese action.
But the British professed themseives unable to inter-
vene "between the Dalai Lama and China".
In 1911. revo:ut:on broke out in China and within
a short period. when the news of abdicat:on of the
emperor reached Lhasa, a mufny started in the gar-
risons. The demoralised bands subjected Lhasa to a
reign of terror. Within a short time Tibetan leaders in
alliance with disillusioned Chinese took the situation
in hand al:d but for the intervention of the Dalal
Lama himself the Chinese troops in Tibet would have
been ann hilated. The troops were packed off to China
via India. The Dalai Lama re;urned to Tibet in 1912
and once again declared Tibet as an independent
country.
In August 1912. the British Government sent a
memorandum to the Chine~e GClVernment for a triparA
tite conference among China. Tibet and the Br:tish
"for the C'onclus:on 0" a convention to remove all such
caw:e3 of d fference and to regulate the relat:ons bet-
ween the several Governments" and on 30th January
1913. the Chine,e Government accepted the British
memorandum of 17th August 1912 as the basis of ne-
gotiat!o:ls. The Chinese Government by its subse-
quent act:ons and commun'cations accepted the tri-
partite negotations and recognised the treaty making
powers of Tibet. and the plenipotentiary and equal
status of the Tibetan representative. Either during or
after the conference Ch'na never disputed the equal
status of the Tibetan plenirotentiary. The discussions
took place in Delhi between 15th and 31st of January
]914 and the agreement was signed in March 1914.
In the course of these discussions. Mr. McMahon
tabled a staterrent on the limite; of Tibet and in a mar
attached to the statement the "T!betan frontiers were
shown for accep~ance". What later came to be known
as the McMahon line was shown in this map as
part of historic Tibet's historic frontiers. The Indo-
T betan boundary formally co:tfirmed in March 1914
was also shown. On 27th April 1914 all the three re-
presentatives initialled the map and the convention.
The XIII Dalai Lama intended to assume full
power and responsibility and he concentrated on re-
organising the Government. Relations with China
continued to be hostile and sporadic fighting had gone
on in the border. When the rumours of a Chinese
offensive reached the Dalai Lama he urged the British
to exert diplomatic pressure on Peking. The Chinese
were counselled to refrain from the offensive. When
the Governor of Szechwan intensified his hostilities,
2--3 Cen9us/~Ylore/73
9
the Tbetans reached swift'y and re::aptured Chamdo
and drove the Chinese baC'k to the verv heart of
Siking. An armisfsce was concluded through the nego-
tiatons of Mr. (later Sir Eric) Teichman of the China
Consular Serv!ce. A rough line passing along the
upper Yangtze-alrr:ost the historic frontier of the
Manchu-period-was accepted as the provisional fron-
tier and the Tibetans withdrew ~o Derge while the
Chinese under ook not to advance beyond Kanze. In
1919 the Chinese Government made overtures for
settlement but the exchanges were broken oJ abruptly.
The British Government out to co;wince the Tibetans
of their goodwill and to prove the:r determination to
bring about a tripart:te a?reement mstltuted a Mission
headed by Sir Charles Bell who arr:ved in Tibet during
1920. In the year 1924, the old rivalry between the
provinces of U and Tsang as perso:lified by the Dalai
Lama and the n:n:h Panchen Larra came to a sho\\,-
d0Wll and as a remit the Panchen Lama fled to China
where he lived in c;de tm his de'lb in 1937. Soon
after the rupture. Panchen Lama had appealed to the
Br:tish Gover:rnent f0r rr:e:iiatioI1 t1erween himself
and t:le Dalai Lama but th's rt:C'ue<:;t T(1f mea',etion was
refused on the ground that it wou'cl n~e:Hl i,lterference
in Ti:;et'lTl ir;tert')3j affairs. The Da'ai r"1T'a himself
did not Wee the fl:ght of the Panchen Lsma whom he
rebuked for not having bro:.lght personally h;s troubles
to his Fa'her and teacher and warned him of the
dangers of visit:ng China or Mongo;ia. .AI1 over Tibet
the event cam:ed great sorrow and di~quiet. During
1930 and 1933 there were frequent blttles 0:1 the Tibet-
S:k:ng borders and in 1933 once again an armistice
was signed. In 19 ;3, at the age of 58, the Great
Thirteenth Dalai Lama died and he beque3thed Tibet
a prophetic me::sage which reads:
"It may happen that here in the centre of Tibet the
religion and the secular administration may be attacked
both from the outside and from the inside. Unless we
can guard our country, it may now happen that the
Dalai Lama and Panchen Lamas. the Father and the
Son. the Holders of the faith, the glorious rebirths,
will be broken down and left without a name. As
regards the monasteries and the pr:esthoo::l, their lands
and other properties would be destroyed. . . . . . ... All
beings will be sunk in great hardship and in overpower-
ing fear. the days and nights will drag on slowly in
suffering". (Lois Lang-Sims 1963).
In face of these dangers which he declared would
arise from 'the way of working of the red pC'ople (com-
munist)', the Dalai Lama exhorted t1:e Tibetans:
"Do not be traitors to Church and State by working
for another country against your own" High officials,
00 • •
10
low officials and peasants must all act in harmony to
bring happiness to Tibet; one person alone cannot lift
a heavy carpet; several must unite to do so". Soon
after his death an interim Government was formed and
this lasted for seventeen years without any break.
During this period the National Council relied for
guidance on the testament of the Great Thirteenth and
while awaiting the return of the Dalai incarnation no
substantial changes were effected. In 1934, the
National Government of China sent a mission to Tibet
to convey condo1ences at the death of the Dalai Lama
and also restored official relations with Tibet by esta-
blishing an office later to be designated "Tibet Office of
Commission on Mon~olian and Tibetan Affairs", This
gave a lead to the Britishers to open a British mission
at Lhasa. This British Mission outlasted without any
break, the transfer of power to the Independent Govern-
ment of India in 1947 and was eventually converted
into an Indian Consulate General in 1950-52.
The next i.e. XIV incarnation of Dalai Lama was
recognised in a boy from a Chinese speaking family of
the Am-Do tribe in Ching-hai province. This province
was being governed by the Muslim General Mapu-
Feng whose administration was practically independent
of Nanking. Soon after the choice was made known
the General insisted on the boy being declared as the
Dalai incarnation and then escorted to Lhasa and
in this he was supported by the Kum-Bum moaastery.
The Tibetan Government appealed to Nanking to
instruct the General to let the child go but as there was
no effective control of China over the General the
Tibetans negotiated directly and paid a heavy ransom.
In July 1939, the child set out for Tibet with an escort
of only twenty soldiers deputed by the General. The
child not even five years of age, by its incomparable
self possession and charming behaviour won the devo-
tion of the Tibetans almost instantaneously. The
ceremonies of installation of the Dalai Lama were held
in 1940 and these were attended by a Eritish as well
as a Chinese representative. In 1941, Regent Ra-
Dreng Rimpoche, whose excessive devotion to money
making had made him increasingly unpopular, resigTleo
and in his place an ultra-conservative Lama-the
Taktra Rimpoche was appo:nted Regent. In 1942,
the Tibetan Government set up a new Bureau of
Foreign Affairs headed by two officers of a very high
rank. While the British Missi')n readily accepted the
new arrangements, the Chinesi! declined to do so 'With
lliterior motive~. During the second World ivar the
Tibetans remnined neutral in spite of the new link
created between Britain and China as a result of Japan's
entry into war. At the end of the War, the Tibetans
scm goodwill missions to both India and China to
BYLAKUPPE
offer congratulations at the allied victory. In the
meanwhile the selection of the reincarnation of Pan-
chen Lama had been carried out by the Chinese
Government without the- consent of the Dalai Lnm:l Ijf
the Regent and the Tibet:m Council. The boy selec-
ted was in Ching-hai province and W:1S SUNi\)rtcd by a
Lama staff member of the former Panchen Lama--a
member of the Chinese Centr.11 Executive Committe-c.
The unpreceden:ed way of his sele..:tbn, added to pro-
Chinese support, led the Tibetan Government to dec-
line this enthronement. The Tibetan AS3e'11bly refu-
sed to accept the child and resolved to fight if he were
to be forced upon them. During 1947, the ex-Regent
Ra-Dreng Rimpoche attemnted a coun d'et::t suppor-
ted mainly by the Che College of SeRa Monastery
which had ]('Ing been SllSflected of collusion with
China. Ra-Dreng was arrested and the episode led
to a few days bomb3fdment ()f the Se-Ra mona5tery,
Many of his Supp0Ttcrs were either killed or captured
and many more f.ed to China.
Tibet was informed in 1947 by the British Govern-
ment and Government of India that after a transfer of
power in India, the rights and r:bIigations under the
existing treaties with Tibet would devolve upon the
successor Government of India and alsl) eApresEed the
hope that the Tibetan Government wculd cO:J.tinue with
the new Government the same amicable relations as
had formerly existed with the Bri[i;h. On 15 August
1947, the British Mission at Lhasa formally became
the Indian Mission.
The Chinese revolution which culminated in the
founding of th~ P(:'oples Republic of China in place of
the Nationalist Government under lmpreceden'ed unity
and authority had its repercussions in Tibet as well.
In July 1949, Tibetan Council decided the immed:ate
expulsion of all officers of the Chinese and a few
Chinese traders. Their action was based on the appre-
hension that the Ch:nese Mission would transfer alle-
giance to Mao Tse-Tung and the Tibetan Government
would thus be faced with an established cl.lmmunist
foothold in Lhasa.
The voice o~ China however maintained Tibet as
part of China and in their pronouncemen.ts about the
'liberation' of Tibet, the communists were cla iming that
the new Panchen Lama was supporting their aims. In
1950 January, the Indian Government formally recog-
nised the communist Government of China. Bv then
the victory of the communists had carried th~m so
fast and so far that the only barriers between them
and Tibet were the frontier areas of Sikang and Chin-
ghat. A move against Tibet was only a question of
 r Hg T t B'e tAN BACK GR0 U N D
time and by the spring of 1950 the last barriers collap-
sed. At Lhasa. military training was tarried on to
an unheard of extent. Young otficiais. including
monks were given arms and some rudimentary instruc-
tions from Tibetan army officers. in their use and in
elementary tactics. Meanwhile Tibetan rvlissions were
sent to India. Nepal. United Kingdom and United States
to explain the Tibetan case and ask for help. In the
middle of October 1950 Chinese troops marched into
Chamdo. 370 miles east of Lhasa and met with very
Idle resistance as the people there were not well equip-
ped to stop the onslaught. At the same time a
;;maH force of the Chinese troops crossed the Kuen Len
mountains and entered the uplands 0: the North West
Tibet and took the undefended Western part of Tibet
by surprise. On October 26. after official reports of
invasion had appeared in the Chinese press. an Indian
nole was sent to the Chinese informing them of the
deep regret of the Government of India that their re-
pea .cd promises to employ peaceful methllds towards
Tibet got beLed by the use of force. The Government
of China brusquely and almost rudely declared that
Tib;:t was an integral part of China and that Dt) inter-
krence by any foreign country would be tole-
rated. It was announced that the communist army
'would enter Tibet, to liberate the people and protect
China's frontiers. On November 7. the Tibetan
Government appealed to the United Nauons putting
forth their case as "Chinese claims that Tibet is a
part of China conflict radically with the facts and with
the Tibe:an feelings. Even if the Chinese wanted to
press thdr claim against Tibet opposition, there were
other methods than the resort to force." The Tibetans
described the Chinese attack as clear aggression (Tibet
and its history-page 185). Only the Republic of El
Salvador moved the condemnation of the unprovoked
aggression by the Chinese communists. At the sugges-
tion of United Kingdom and India, the debate was
adjourned and the matter was not heard for nine years.
The Tibetans sent agonised telegrams to the United
Nations and even asked for a fact-finding commission
but received no reply. As Regent Ta-Dra resigned,
the founcenth Dalai Lama still only sixteen, had to be
invested with ruling powers and was advised to move
the Lha:,a Government South to Dro:Mo. The first
official act of the Dalai Lama was to grant general
amnesty to all political prisoners in Tibet. After a
few exchange of messages between the Chinese and the
Tibetans in which the captured Governor Ngabo, a
cumrnunist puppet, took active part, a Tibetan dele-
gation headed by Ngabo and a few high officials from
Lhasa, began negotiations in Peking and this ended
in the 'Sino-Tibetan Agreement of 1951 for peaceful
liberation of Tibet.' The salient features of the agree-
ment are:
"First, Tibet is to retain her au~onomy with no
change in the Dalai Lama's political system or in his
status, function and power. Its religion. monastic
institutions and customs will be respected. Second,
the old position of the Panchen Lama that was enjoyed
in the friendly times between the thirteenth Dabi
Lama and the ninth Panchen Lama is to be restored.
Third. the Central People's Government is to set up a
military and administrative committee with reg'o:1al
military headquarters in Tibet. The Tibetan army
will be reorganised step by step into the People's Lib~­
ration Army. Fourth, Tibet's external rela-
tions are to be handled by the Central People's Govern-
ment. While "imperialist aggre.Ssive forc.es" in Tibet
must be eliminated. its commercial and trading rela-
tions with neighbouring countries shall be regularised
"on the basis of equality, mutual benefit, and mu1ual
respect for territory and sovereignty." (Tsung-Lien Shen
and Shen-Chi Liu 1953),
In 1952, a Chinese Officer met the Dalai Lama in
Chumbi valley and persuaded him to return to Lhasa
with his court. Chinese military occupation was
simultaneouly carried out smoothly and a party (;om-
prising of administrative and technical staff arrived
there via India. The work of construction of roads
was undertaken with impressive efficiency and construc-
tion of air fields were also undertaken. Since then plans
were made about afforestation. mining, and improve-
ment of irrigation and cattle raising. In 1952. the
Chinese began to assert their political power as well
and demanded the dismissal of two Chief N;inisters
jlnd also insisted that no new appointments be made
without their consent. Later, the Chinese sought to
appoint the Dalai Lama and their puppet, the Pan-
chen Lama, as members of a Consultative Committee
thereby putting Dalai Lama on par with the other
committee members. In an attempt to reduce the
extent of Dalai Lama's authority the Chinese divided
Tibet into three administrative divisions and also pro-
posed to remove from Dalai Lama's personal control
the monastic branch of the administratiun and to com-
bine its officials with those of the lay civil service. As
a counter weight to the Dalai Lama, the position of
the Panchen Lama was enhanced and he was em-
powered to maintain an army also. Many innovating
and improving activities were undertab~n by th~
Chinese but with the aim of winning popuhrity and
winning the minds of the Tibetans. Shortly the
Chinese discovered that they were being treated with
suspicion as intruding foreigners. The great influx
12
of outsiders resulled in scarcity of supplies and spiral-
ling of prices. There was an increase of discontent-
ment among and hostility from the monks which were
rouscd mainly on account of the circulafon of a
draft constitu ion in which relig:on was given a very
small place. AlrEady there were signs of some sort
of an org:~nised re.sistan~e movement. Between] 954
and 1956 the conditions in Tibet were comparatively
peaceful. n'le Chi.!lese, while trying to re'rain from
the use o~ rorce, continued to extend their own influence
and ideas and to denounce the existing system. rn
1954, the C'ulai Lnma and the Panchen Lama visited
Peking. Soon a'ter his return in 1955 arrangements for
inauguration of a "Unified Preparatory Committee for
the Autonorr.ous Region of Tibet," which had been
announced while the Dalai Lama was in Pek'ng, Wl:re
set afoot. This proposal was re:ented in Tibet as a
further inroad on the Dalai Lama s authority. Toe
further course of events, which resulted in the breaking
out of open war 'are, were concealed for the time being
by the Chinese cemors but were described in detail by
Tibetan Refugees who reached India in 1959. Active
Guerilla force carre into being in almost all parts of
the country and by 1956 extensive destruct:on o· roads
and bridges and widespread raiding of supply columns
and outposts compelled the communists to take large-
scale military action. Monasteries Were singled out as
centres of resistance and were destroyed by shelling or
aerial bombing. Further details of the Chinese atrocities
in their treatment of the Khamnas can be had in the
second report of the International Commiss:on of
Justice. Published on 8 Aug. 1960.
The Dalai Lama and the Panchen Lama visited
India in 1956 to attend the 2500th anniversary of Lord
Buddha. A visit of Chou En Lai the Chinese Pre-
mier was arranged so as to coincide with that of the
Dalai Lama. In the course of these discussions bet-
ween himself and Chou En Lai. the Dalai Lama put
forward his requests for the removal of Chinese troops
from Tibet, for restoration of the sta'us existing at
the death of the XIII Dalai Lama; the abandonment
of the communist programme of reforming Tibet and
the reinstatement of the two Tibetan Ministers dismis·
sed in 1952 at the instigation of the Chinese. The
unfavourable reception D· these requests discouraged
the Dalai LalT'a and it is said, he even contemplated
seeking political asylum in India. But the Chinese
Premier's assurance through Pandit Nehru that China
would respect Tibetan autonomy as guaranteed by the
1951 Agreement and would not force the 'reforms' on
the Tibetans, persuaded the Dalai Lama to re'urn to
Tibet. In early 1957. Mao Tse-Tung anno"nced that
Tibet was not yet re:ldy for reforms and these 'reform!)'
BYLAKUPPE
would be implemented later. The Chinese Govern-
ment. in order to create confidence. even withdrew
certain 'political cadres' entrusted with the principal
work of introducing reforms and works on new schools.
barracks. etc .• were stopped.
Early in 1958. large numbers of guerilla bands from
the east as well as hundreds of refugees from Kham
and Amdo flocked into Lhasa. The feelings at Lhasa
were deeply roused by their sufferings and their devo-
ted bravery for the cause of freedom and religion. By
autumn 1958 the guerillas had grown very strong and
were able to secure control of all the dis.riets 0: Tibet,
South of Tsang-po river. Fighting continued inter-
mittently in the East inspite of the steady inflow of
fresh Chinese troops. Political resistance began to
stiffen and the Tibetans National Assembly was re-
arranged on a broader basis in order to protect the
Dalai Lama from direct dealings with the Ch:nese,
The invitation extended to the Dalai Lama to attend
the Chinese National Council in January 1959 was
declined by the Tibetans on religious grounds and a
few days later a fresh and urgent invitation to visit
Peking was received. By then. suspicion and anxiety
over Dalai Lama's safety had reached a high pitch
of intensity. On 9 March. the Dalai Lama was invited
by the commander at Lhasa. to attend a display at the
Chinese barracks. But as the Dalai Lama was asked
not to bring either his usual escort or his ministers it
gave a sinister meaning and as soon as the news broke
out the people crowded to the Norbu-Lingka. the sum-
mer palace and begged Dalai Lama not to entrust him-
self to the Chinese. Measures to defend the palace were
immediately undertaken by the guerillas and the Tibe-
tan troops were also brought by their commanders to
join the defenders. Meanwhile. the Dalai Lama sent
forth l-:tters to the Chinese Commander seeking a
peaceful solution. The tension. however. grew day by
day and on 17 lh March the Chinese fired two sheJIs
into the grounds of the palace. This was reckoned
by the Dalai Lama as failure of his efforts at a settle-
ment and he decided to escape immediately. Under
the protection o~ the Tibetan Guerillas. the Dalai Lama
with some eighty companions sought permission to
enter India. Permission was immediately granted and
after a few days rest in the great monastery at Tawang
the Dalai Lama reached Tezpur in Assam on April 18_
There he issued a statement describing the causes for
his departure from Lhasa and also made it clear that
he had left his country of his own wilL
At Lhasa, as the escape had been kept a secret from
both the Tibttan crowds guarding the p'1Iace 3TJd !he
Chinese troops encamped around the palace, the ten.
THE TIBETAN BACKGROUND
sian continued for two more days. Then the bombard-
ment began and subsequently the Chinese announced
about the abduction of the Dalai Lama. The Tibetans
turned on the Chinese and severe fighting began. But
the Chinese fire inflicted very heavy losses and cap-
tured innumerable prisoners and weapons. Immediately
after the fighting ceased. the execution of the ring-
leaders began and simultaneously thousands of men
and boys were deported to unknown destinations.
Thousands left their hearths and homes instantaneously
and succeeded in reaching India by hazardous rou!es
and sought refuge. The Chinese military action was
carried on extensively and the opposition was suppres-
sed. Many refugees from this fighting swelled the
number of re~ugees seeking shelter in India. The
Government was reconstituted immediately by mak:ng
use of the Panchen Lama and a few Tibetan nobles and
monastic officials who were willing to colloborate
with the new regime. Tibet was once more promised
au~onomy and it was made known that the reforms
would be rapidly introduced.
Richardson (1962) States that.
"By the end of 1959 at least 17.000 Tibetans had
been received in camps organised by the Govern-
ment of India and the number was steadily growing.
After the first great influx in March to May. which
followed the rising and the suppression of the armed
resistance. a steady trickle of refugees continued to
find a way across the border. The initial administra-
tive difficulties were overcome gradually and the
refugees were progressively classified and distributed
into different camps. At Dalhousie and Buxa Duar
about 2000 learned monks were settled in quiet. cool
surroundings where they could resume, so far as possi-
ble, their life of prayer, study and contemplation.
13
Laymen and monk novices were given training in
various Tibetan crafts and also instruction in Hindi
and English to enable them eventually to learn other
skills. In Sikkim and other places large number of
men were given employment on road-making by
which they were able to earn a small amount of
money. Those who could not readily be fitted into
any of the special camps remained in the transit
centre into which the new arrivals were also received
...... ...... By the end of 1960, Chinese retaliation
against the fighters. continued expropriation of small
farmers. and the desparate shortage of food combined
to swell the number of refugees to about 60.000 ...... "
The Ministry of External Affairs took upon itself the
responsibility of rehabilitat:'on of the Tibetan refugees
in India. As many of these refugees depended on
land, livestock and handicrafts in Tibet. it was pro-
posed to establish agricultural settlements and also.
to introduce small-scale industries. Apart from the
settlement at Bylakuppe in Mysore State, the other
settlements are (1) Chandragiri settlement in Orissa
(2) Manipet Se_tlement in Madhya Pradesh (3) Agri-
cultural Settlement in the North East Frontier Agency
and the settlements in Sikkim and Bhutan. Various
other schemes to cater for diverse aptitudes and talents
of the community have also been formulated. Young
Tibetan children are prosecuting studies in the varIOUS
schools set up for them by the Tibetan Schools Soc:ety
and also in other Grant-in-aid Schools in the country.
Various voluntary agencies are assisting the GOvern-
ment of India in the task of rehabilitation and this
help is being received through the co-ordinating agency
of a non-official organisation-the Central Relief Com-
mittee (India).
 CHAPTER n
THE PEOPLE, THEIR RELIGION) CULTURE AND SOCIAL LIFE
In the paragraphs to follow some of th~ s::lic~m
aspects of the Tibetan \vay of life in tlleir home
country have been outlined. The western twvdlefs
who have visited Tibet so far, have all described
the Tibetans as "kind, gentle. honest. open and cheer-
ful. They are humorous. able to enjoy lei.'lure.
intelligent and self reliant; and they accord a high
position to women. They have inborn good m::n-
ners, servants and peasants behave with a defer-'nce
and politeness which does not exclude the expre~siofl
of an independeni: opinion; among the nobles and
gentry one finds easy courtesy from which the panache
and flattery of some other Asian countries are absent
The good treatm;;nt by the Tibetans of their domestic
animals has imprcs."ed many travellers". (Tibet :lnd
its History By Richardson 1962). These are but
generalisations ,mti n:lturally :n a country so vast a~
Tibet and with such variegated features one tinds per-
sons possessing the above chara::teristics in varying
proportions.
The Tibetans are intensely religi0us and their life,
which is simple, is dedicated to religion. In fact their
customs and traditions are all spun around religion.
They have accepted their long established way of me
and also, the apparent social inequalities, not only with
passivity but also with active contentment. The;r
devotion to the Dalai Lama-the incarnation of
Avalokiteswara the Compasionate-the spiritual as
well as the secular head of Tibet is unbounded.
According to Tibetan belief the spiritual world
consists of innumerable destructive forces. malicious
elements. witches etc., which are always, either inten·
tionally or unintentionally. harming the human beings
on the one hand and the Gods, saints etc., who are
always ready to help the human beings in their efforts
for emancipation on the other. They hold fast to
the benign power of the Three Gems-the Buddha.
the Law (Dharma), and the Priesthood (Sangha). Tibe-
tqns could hardly exist even for a short period ",ilh·
out the protection of these Three Gems. They carry
~mlilets and portablt~ shrines about their bodies. They
:l:iVe altars in their hOllses to guard their rooms and
they build Pagodas, temples and monasteries to gll~lrd
~helr towns and villages. They write endless scriptures,
make endless offerings and gifts, consult numerous
oracles, make pilgrimages to holy places. hold ser-
vices to appease their Gods, do charity and penance
14
to accumulate good deeds. They erect flagpoles
around their houses for lifting up to the winds the
tattered prayer flags so that the prayers imprinted
thereon may biow away and be carried to the Gods.
They believe in transmigration which is called the
Wh\:;:l o~ Birth and Death and consider life to be a
perIJetual circumambulation around this wheel. As
symbolic ot this conception they turn the prayer
wheels and also tum rosaries around their fingers
while repeating the sacred formula. In Tibet. it is
said (Tsung Lien SheD & Shen Chi Liu 1953) there
are Lble wheels turned by fingers, portable wheels
turned by hand, tiny wheels turned by the winds,
larger wheels propened by manpo\':er and still larger
i',lheds driven by hydraulic power. wheels within
wheels and all whirling round and round. The
power of religion has been so great in Tibet since
centuries that it has created in its population an eager
and unquestioning acceptance of not only the prac-
tice of their faith but also of the philosophy of life
it inculcated. It is not certain whether the Tibetans
chose a religion well suited to their national character
or whether they \vere deliberately tamed by the intro-
duction of Buddhism. It is true that the rule of
religion and its dominance in every sphere of life
led to conservatism and a strong dislike for changes
of any sort.
The Tibetan religion, popularly termed Lamaism-
a name originally given by the British and other Wes-
~ern travellers and writers-is a form of Buddhism
incorporating the Hinayana. Mahayana and Tantra-
yana. Outside Tibet the term Lama implies a Tibetan
monk but in Tibet itself, Lama refers to monks or
even laymen who are recognised teachers and have
pupils or disciples. Getsul. Ge1ong, Lobma. Tulka
are oth~r the orders among Monks. In Tibet till
about· the early seventh century- when the seeds of
Buddhism were first planted, the entire populace was
foHowing Bon Po-an animistic (Shamanism) religion.
Bon Po is considered to be a later decadent phase of
Chinese Taoism which lacks depth as well as a philo-
sophic base. The belie ~s and practices were a mix-
ture of primitive worship and exorcism. The struggle
for existence between this old faith and the newly
found Buddhism in Tibet continued for three to four
centuries and resulted in the entire country embracing
Buddhism in which many beliefs and practices of Bon
Po were also assimilated and formed important parts,
r H E P BOP L E. THE I R R ELI G ION. C U L T U R!
The Tibetans believe in the doctrine of Karma and
that of reincarnation which are mutually dependent.
The working out of Karma is held to be a natural
law and not as punishments administered by angry
Gods for one's sin. The basic concept of Buddhism
vi?:. the existence of the Wheel of Birth and Death.
the hub of which is made up of greed. ignorance ,1'10
hatred is accepted by all the Tibetans. They hold that
ignorance or lack 0: proper knowledge about t~le im-
portance of things in the ultimate scheme of thi1j;:_':~,
as the chief cause of the incessant round of hir'~ls :iDe'
deaths that all human beings undergo-~H11eos f'e:;
attain Bud::lhahood. The nm of the wheel is com·
p(Jsed oj twelve NidallGs or interdependencies such as
ignorance--karma formatjon~con:>c;ousness~m!nd·
body-sense organs--contact-sens1;tion-cravin:'--~
.lttachment coming-to-be<-birth-suffering, old a.ge
and death, These causes <,_re inextric(1bly mixed up
and being circular one can start at any point of tht'
wheel. These are all relative and there:ore unreal
[he reality is an unsupported identity-The Ab'loluie
-and the aim of Buddhism is to deliver every being
including mankind from this wheel of incarnation
and help realise the Absolute, Thus when a man
attains Buddhahood and gains enlightenment hi"
realises the ultimate truth and casts off the sUbject-
object relationship and understands that 'J and the
rest' is a wrong basis for thinking. Lord Buddha
maintained that 'I' was no more permanent or un-
changing than a river and founded the Doctrine 01
Void or the non-existence of the soul. The aim 0'
life is to achieve this goal viz. the attainment of nir-
vana and they believe human life hRS been given to
them only as a means to this end and tha: the physi-
cal bodies are vehicles for this purpose alonc.
Women have to be born again as men, in the cycle
of reincarnation. to be eligible for the realisation of
the Absolute. The Buddhist cosmos consists (if six
realms of time-ridden existence the lowest form being
the hell and the top most the fairy land_ The
human beings are in the fourth realm from the bot~
tom. It is only by an accumulation of merits tb.l
any mind-possessor can raise to the higher realms
and even beyond the sixth and hence escape from th",
current of transmigration. This final state is call~d
Nirvana. Tibetans helieve that there are numerous
men who have attained Nirvana and Budrlhahood
and some of them descend upon the earth in order
to render aSSIstance to other beings in achlevi'1z the
goal. Thus the Tibetans not only humani::e tlJ(Cu
Gods and late saints but also deiry the human h('in~~:,
They worship both men who have come down to
save the worldly people and also the men Wb0 ,re
goi:ng up to the Kin,:Jdom of Gods
"N D SOC I A L 1. I f r: 15
As a means to this end, Lorfl Buddha in his first
iermon preached wrIst are now termed as thi? four
Koble or Aryan TTllths. These are (i) su'Tering is a
character:stic of life on earth Oi) the cause of suffer-
ing is desire (iii) ce"";:,tion of desire would pro'2uTc
cessation of suffering and (iv) the means to that cessa-
tion is by the noble eight fold path of right living, The
eight fold p~Hh CO!1S;sts of right v:ew point. right aim_
right speech, rizTht conduct, right livelihood, right
effort, right mindfulness and right concenlration. The
right view point is the reali,~,tion of th(C \\orthk~~ne,s
of all the worldly things ~nd that of the need for self-
evolut:on. Th(' aim is tte rea1isation of the Absolute
and on this everything: else dencnds. Wben this is
achieved the self seeking, the pride, the hetred and
a wrong Sen~e of value will naturally be obliterated.
The following of the ei,f'htfold path ::l11d m~ditr.t~nn
open the path o~ enlightenment. Even to set foot on
the great path, refuge in the triple gem (Buddha
Dharma and Sar:gha) and a Guru are e3sential. Thu,
the religiol1s hectds 3nd teacher..; occupy a very h:gh
place in Tibet and Lama:; or Tibetan monks form ;)
sizeable portion of its population. The custom of
"ending at least 'J!'le to the 'monk order' prevailed jn
almost every h0usehold, The laymen observe five
precept~ viz. those agninst killing, stealing. adul~ery.
lying and intoxicating drinks while the ordained monb
observe ten and the Buddhas take the Bodhisattva
vow. As these men are after salvati0n not only of
themselves but also of all the beinp, their wants are
of a primary concern and those of the laymen are of
secondary importance. Thus all the Tibetans exte:1d
charity and all possible mat",r1al help to i' ~onks rnd
religious institutions and thereby acc'lrrm 13te good
deeds. Thus the religion of the lay con~:sts soleJy
in good living and accumulating good dF.":,ds more
than material wealth
Hinayana (lesser vehicle) is the path oren to one
who seeks salvation of himself (Arah3!1t) alone and
after enlightenment prefers to depart to Nirvana leav-
ing the rest of the mankiqd to fend for itself. Thi~
form has not found much favour in Tibet. 1\1ahayam
(great vehicle) stres',es the idea of Bodh;~attva \\+0
seeks enlightenment not only for himself hut also for
others in order to be able to teach the masses 5tH!
left in the darkness of ingorance. For this purpose
he postpones hi·; own final emancipation and returns
again and again 10 the world of mortals. Dalai Lmra
<lnd Panchen Lama aft: cOl1s[d;:;red to be the im:arn3ti,)11
{)f Chen-Re-Zi (Dodhisatva Ava1okiteswarD) and Ei-
Pa-Me (Amithaba Buddha of boundless rght) res-
pectively. Tantrayana grew out of Mahayana and
emphasises the use of the human bodv for the dev;;:,
1(i
lopment of the mind and also recognises occult means
as valuable aids. Exoteric form of Mahayanism is
based on Sutra while the esoteric is based on Tantra.
It is said that it is possible for one to achieve Buddha-
hood in one's life time alone by the esoteric course
and the Tibetans in general favour this esoteric
or Tantra course. There are two schools of Lamaism
--the old school which adheres to texts on Buddhist
occultism translated before the ninth century or before
the persecution by Lang-Dar Ma; and the new
school which adopts later revised translations. There
are numerous sects in the Tibetan Religion each pro-
fessing to have. preserved the essence of truth from a
distinct line of masters. Of these the main sects
are: the Ka-Dam-Pa, the Sa-Kya-Pa. the Ka-Gyur-pa
and the Ge-Lu-Pa. The Dalai and the Panchen in-
carnations belong to the Ge-Lu-Pa (also called the
yellow hat) sect. The political as well as the reli-
gious leadership of Tibet is being enjoyed by the
Oe-lu-pa sect since the early seventeenth century. Ahout
this sect Tsung-Lien Shen and Shen-Chi-Liu (1953)
write:
"At the apex is the Dalai Lama, the religious-
political head of Tibet in the Potala. Immediately
below him is the triumvirate of the Dre-pung, Se-Ra.
and Gan-Dan monastedes. The triumvirate not
only forms the economic and cultural backbone of
the Ge-Lu-pa sect, but also wields. through its wide
ramifications throughout the country, a determining
influence on the political and religious life of Tihet.
Politically, only the three monasteries of Dre-pung.
Se-Ra and Gan-Dan are entitled to represent the clergy
in the national conferences summoned on important
occasions. They own a large amount of real estate.
which in feudal Tibet. amounts to almost regional
Government; they run a few magistracies with full
administrative authority; and they supply the rank and
file of the clerical staff, who together with the Jay
nobility, are join~ly responsible for the Tibetan
Government. Religiously. they have innumerahle
affiliated monasteries of varying sizes all over Tibet.
and they offer degrees w~ch are recognised and res-
pected wherever Lamaism is practiced. With few
exceptions, all the Lama dignitaries, including the so
. called incarnations of Gods, must belong to one of the
three monasteries in order to win public recognition.
Even the Dalai Lama himself belongs to them all.
Whenever a young Dalai Lama comes Of age, a most
important function before he assumes reUgio-political
authority is his visit to the three monasteries. to be
enrolled as a member of each congregation. starting
always from his alma-mater, Dre-pung. ' ............ .
BYLAKUPPE
"The Dalai Lama with h:s private Church. the trium-
virate of Dre-pung, Se-Ra and Gan-Dan. the two
esoteric academies of Gyu-Me and Gyu-To. and the
oracle of Nai-Chung form the nucleus of the Gf!-Lu ·Pa
organization. Tibetans reft::r to them as the seven
great symbols".
The Panchen Lama, with his base at Tra-Shi-Lunro
monastery in Shigatse. who maintains an organization
similar but smaller to that maintained by the Dalai
Lama happens to be another pillar of the Ge-Iu-pa.
Government and General Administration
Tibet is a land dedicated to law and religion
and its head is Dalai Lama the incarnation of the
Compass:onate. Its capital is caned Lhasa which
means the land of God. Here the secular communities
exist for the religious community and the State is
contained within the Church. Dalai Lama's posses-
sions are ch:e<"y his land and his people and both
these are divided into two dominions viz. the reli-
gious and the secular. He is the Ahso!ute and has
an aura of divinity. The entire administration of
Tibet fell into the hands of the Dalai incarnations in
the seventeenth century and the present Dalai Lam2
is the fourteenth. His office being non-hereditary.
soon after his per:odical departure from the human
abode to the heavenly fields he returns again to deli-
ver all the mind-possessors and to keep up his vow.
By divinations and oracles the Tibetans locate the
new incarnation in his early childhood whereafter he
is brought up exclusively by learned monks and in-
fluential Lamas till he assumes supreme charge of
the temporal as well as spiritual powers at the age of
18 years. The strong monastic basis naturally in-
fluences him greatly in directing his rule. During the
period of infancy and also in his absence. the chief of
Tibet will be a Regent and he is also expected to be
an incarnation Lama of the highest order. being
either a Gan-Dan Khripa or one of the preceptors of
the Dalai Lama.
The Dalai Lama conducts his administration
through a civil service composed partly of the most
experienced hereditary nobles and partly of specially
trained monks. To look after the personal affairs and
the private property of the Dalai Lama there is Tse
or peak headed by a Chi Chub Khenpo who is assis-
ted by three Khenpos of a lesser order. Together they
are called the Khen-pos of the Rear. Under the
charge of the Chi Chub Khenpo there is a private
secretariat staffed with only the best talents chosen
from the Se-Ra, Gan-Dan and Dre-Pung monasteries.
As the Dalai Lama is not expected to have any direct

r H R P E 0 P L B, T H FIR R ELI G ION. C U L T U REA N D
contact with the outside world, including his own
(j('vemment, he maint3 i m Tse-Ga (front of the peak)
3 liaison office.
From Shor or the Lower which is the starring poinT
of the Governnh'nt proper diverges two 1.:1<11':111('1 sys-
t ..·rn'~ '_',),,~ ro~ed (li the clerical and secular officials.
The main duty of this Government is concern?d with
rIce by and all the members of the ho:;: o[(.:(r ~:or:1e
within the dire~t control of the Church ll::der the
«;:::;-'! L~!p~a~ p>- council ca~l·<;d K{! . . t}!,'(;~ CO'ls~st~ng
0n;; ;ro~~k o1i.ic~.J a~~d 3 I:~y fJr1T!S t:~e ch~t~f exe ..
(':'~!ve cC:4y_ ;-\H tl:e four are jO:!1tly re:~T""Jt:·.;jble
;"c" D.1i n~::_tL:rs :-lnd rortfo!:er; arc not dI:~~;~~)::'~ed
;~----C":" L"tea1. rr>:1S cou~.cil cO~ls:dcrs all the
(: 1~ ~~ ;':1nlerta 1 bU.<rc·ss 2nd slrbmits its view to
j':- Dahl L am:'! or his Regent for ihn] decision.
L> ;·lcr this cOL·.n:.::~~ are ti~e se .~re·Jr~ . .~t the re='rd~t:ng
ol~~.:~~ of the c~:r!::aJ [!fi11 , j0>lt~y h~::_j::d ~:y fOl!r
;;r;:::1d ~ecretaries, all rr:o::k o:f..ci"Is. :wd t;;e sc,u!ar
\':(;~lnt!::,r p3rt, the ~n3nce offi\..~e \\t~ich Is joinCy head~d
", f0l1" lay fi:1:L1ce offcers. T!le"e v:ere about 100
ct· trHs in Tibet prior to the cOmri!UDi'~ do:nin"tion
:mct ~hese were being admin>.:cred by t,,/o ollie..:iab
kr:OWl as Dzong-p.:m of whom on',; was to be monk
and 1 ne other a layrmn. This durlicaticn 7rednt D
~heck upon eacD other and the Church ('QuId ~ll',;,;)ys
ki.'~'i'l 1 watch on the secular hr211ch. Ti:ese oJti·~ial"
.,'.~. ~ directly res~o:1sible to the council and led a
;\~;np:,ratlvely in:!ependent ex's':e:1ce having \yide
P()i'I'(~lS and being f,Hided by a general and trnditional
sec of rules rather than by frequent instruction~ from
chelr r;api tals in points of detail.
Ise-Kor the cI.desia.':tical court is composed of
!i[();lk offi.;ials cr~ lled T<e Drung or the courtiers of
!'c rccik. They live i ~ celcbacy and tilough they
en:<.'y every privilege ot a monk their calling is mo"t
pr;:1l1mlllc(Cdly of this w('rld. They undergo :~;J;:,'i'd
iXt,rse of tndning thoUii.:1 they enrol! th(;m"~+' e..; 'It
cl. mc:;as ery. The courtiers attend a coun Ie:} be'ore
1he Deliai Lama every morning. All appointments.
promo [ions.. transfers and punishments are an::o'.i~,~·e:l
during this morning co~:n and the Dalai Lama :::-ra::t"
!llXn~n:e to the visitors if any. This morning court
is held under all circurmtances and even during the
period be ween the passiflZ away of the Dalai LJ1!171
and the d:scovery of his successor, before his empty
throne on which his garIT'ent is arranged in a fashion
sUp:ge':ting hi~ presrncec Generally all Tse DT~!!1~¥ ri<;c
fro 11 q1'~ lower social. ('reer and are all self-made men
whl) Irsplay greater enterprise and strength of charac-
ter thrill the ordinary lay officials. The secldar
cn];iL Lall~d Shor-KOl, is t}!e. monopoly of th(;, Tib'cVm
r.-~O'
3-3 ·"""'u.•1.S;'M
'. ysore(17
I.
17
SOC I ALL! F E
nobility. Each noble family has ~t least one official
fief ani has the duty of keeping one legitimate heir
in service with the Dalai Lama at his secular court.
If an heir is not available or too young for service,
the family must pay the Government an exemption
fee until the vacancy is filled. The full strength of
the court is a1so one hundred seventy five and corres-
r::nds to th? :.t"en?-t~l Of the ecclesiastical court. For
these sec"!ar officials there exists a separate training
scbooi which is attached to the finance office. This
is under the joint ch:Hge of four finance officers and
has a pel rely lay Sl~l.ff. Thrice a yenr the finance
officers su~mit to Dalai Lama or his regent through
the C'ahinet a hst of qualified students. who have
received requisite training for Government service.
Once approved, the candidate curls his hair into two
knots on the crown o~· his head ;md this is an un-
mistakable sign of Tibe:an nobk1'an in Government
service, The~e KII-Dr:is are cons'dered to be adepts
in ~H-:t!';il"2tic whik the Ts('-Drungs {TP supposed to
be wdl versed in literature. Both literature and
arithmetic are considered to be the two fundamentals
for a puhlic servant. These public servants are
c;dled P'y/·Po. a term which the Tibetms use to
,'.!,ldre'~ member:;; of th~ ruling c!ass. A Pon po as
well as all high ranking officials have everything
induding dress, the number of attendants, height and
quality of seat etc., prescribed for them and any
deviation brings them official censure. For the
Government officials there seems to have been no
fix~d scale of pay, increase or fun!1er advancement.
To the high posts like those of Councillors, estates
were attached and the general salary of all others
was incredibly low. All clerical and lay officers were
endow~d with either monastic alms or Government
subsidies and the family estates granted in favour of
th~ noblemen. Thus once apcointed the official
could earn money by way of bribes and presents
from tho~e seek'ng his favour and the district adminis-
tration was being aimost carried out on a oontract
basis with a certain fixed sum to be paid to the
treasury from each district. These exactions were
0: course limited by the dictates of custom and by
public opinion in addition to the fear of being called
upon to account by the Dalai Lama himse:f. There
are roughly three class~s of local governments in
Tibet: the village undt'f a headman. the magistracy
(l)',(ll:g) 1 nder a ma~istrate and the regional Govern-
ment under a Governor. Apart from Lhasa and its
sllb"rb" which are under the jurisd:ction of two local
administrations, in Tibet there are eight other regional
Governments each headed by a Governor most COID-
munly called Chi-Ch"ub. The Governor of Chamdo
in Kham has in his charge a vast territory and is of
18
a ministerial rank, his authority being reckoned next
to that of the cabinet.
The Dalai Lama allots his land and people to (I)
the estate of ihe Church which includes all the pro-
perties granted to the individual Lama dignitaries and
the incarnations (2) the estate of the State which
consists of (:Ill public property and (3) the family
estates which fall into two groups viz. one group
made up of feudal estates of the nobility conferred W1
lieu of Gave nment service and the second which
includes the rrivatc holdings of the nobility «.nd the
small percent[ige owned by commoners who are suh·
jects of the church, the State or the nobility. Thu"
the entire Lu:d should belong to one of the thref:
groups and aU the people are also grouped according
to the land from which a family derives its subsis-
tence. As Lord of Tibet the DaJai Lama is to give
his people protection and a good Government v,hi!e
the subjects awe him Khrai which includes taxation
and service. This Khrai may be in cash or kind or
service of a contingent nature.
The National Assembly occupies an indefinite
place in the Tibetan Government though it has been
in existence since the earliest days. This being not
a permanent body meets occasionally as desired by
the council to debate and give its opinion to the
council, for submission to the Dalai Lama or the
Regent. Members of the council are never permit-
ted by custom to participate in the Assembly. In
times of great crisis it was customary to summon a
full Assembly which includes representatives of every
_ldSS and occupation of Tibetan Society. The
National Assembly has always been the mouth piece
of Tibetan conservatism and independence. Public
opinion plays a very important role in the administra-
tion. If any official transgressed the bounds of what
was usual, by deeds of injustice or capacity or even
by foolishness and eccentricity, criticism was voiced
by the women whose daily task it was to carry water
from the river to their master's houses. They loudly
and merrily sing lampoons on acts of their rulers.
Women in Tibet enjoyed complete immunity and
would not hesitate to sing these allusive and pointed
songs in the presence of the objects of their attacks.
Sometimes posters struck in prominent places in the
towns used to express criticism. These publications
of grievances usually had their immediate effect.
Traditional and ancient civil and religious rites were
just as much part of the husiness of the Government
as the regular duties of administration. Whole days
were devoted to such ceremoaies, attendance at which
was a duty, They were far from being mere page-an-
RYLAKUPP
tty and were considered a vital necessity for the wel-
fare of the State. Official holidays were also the occa-
sions of some ceremony but without so much for-
mality. For a week or more in the autumn all
Government business was interrupted and the popu-
lation of Lhasa repaired to parks surrounding the
city where each department of the Government in
turn gave an all-day party, while the ordinary folk
held their own merry making under the' trees. "The
Tibetan Government appears to the outside ';,\odd as
a 'repository of curiously slow moving and archaic
customs".
Economic conditions of the people
Commenting on the economy of Tibet. Richardson
(1962) writes as follows:
"Although the Tibe~an peasant or herdsman, with
his thick homespun clothes and usually unkempt
appearance, may not have given art impression of
material prosperity, want, destitution or stHvation
were very rare in Tibet. The people were notably
sturdy and enduring; and the standard of living of a
Tibetan peasant, although stern and comfortless.
could reasonably be claimed to be higher than L~at in
many other parts of Asia.
"On a wider scale, Tibet as a whole llved in econo-
mic balance with its neighbours. Tibetans produced
their staple food and wove woolIen cloth to wear.
Requirements from outside were principally brick-
tea, porcelain and silk from China; iron, copper, cot-
ton textiles, broad cloth, rice, sugar and miscellaneous
household goods mainly from India. Tibetan ex-
ports of wool, skins, borax, etc., to the value of per-
haps £ 250,000 brought more than enough foreign
exchange to pay for the imports."
A description of the typical classes of Tibetans as
contained in the book 'Tibet and Tibetans' which gives·
a vivid picture of the people in the late forties reads.
"The first Tibetan you come across is inevitably a
muleteer. Dressed in a voluminous greyish coarse
woollen gown tucked up knee high and dark thick
woollen boots, he is all good humour and obsequious-
ness. From under the brim of his weather beaten.
hat. he peers at you with genuine or simulated fear
and puts out his tongue in deference every time his
eyes meet yours. A metal ring about three inches
in diameter dangles below his left ear, and the thin.
threadbare lash of a whip protrudes liideways from
his waistband.
"A half brother to the muleteer is the shepherd. to
be met on the slopes, besides running brooks, or where-
ever there are small patcneg of green to give a tfcat.
 THE P E 0 P L Ii, T H I! I R. R. Ii L I G ION,
to the eyes. While the flocks are grazing, he squats
on the ground with his family before a black yak-
hair fabric tent, preparing his tea and barley meal.
He throws two or three handfulls of ~heep dUC1g or a
few cakes of yak dung between two stones, strikes up
a fire and fans it with roundish bellows made of
sheep skin. A little blue smoke curls up from the
tea pot, spreading a sense of homeliness in the wild.
The family pass around a T5am-pa bag, from which
~lley pour out a rortiaD of the barley meal into the
wvoden bowls which they carry and begin their meal in
silence .......
"A small cluster of stone huts boasts the name 01
a village. The huts are only stone and mortar ver·
",ions of tents. Looking inside, you will see nothing
but a few cooking utensils, a water pitcher, a plow.
and a spade. You no\v meet the cultivator of the
bnd. He shares the home with tbe animals he
keeps. A rich family may have a few cushions on
wooden frames and a tabl~ like foot stool. The very
ril.."n have an altar behind a row of copper cups with
plain water. The inmates-men, women and child-
ren--look dirty, especially the women, whose faces
are smeared with catechu. Some say this is to pro-
tect their complexion, but others think it is to pre-
vent them from seducing the monks.
"These women with blackened faces, goggling eyes
and white teeth, are always busy. They work at the
loom. or they are busy making tea or churning milk
in a tub. They sing as they work. They fetch
water in (1 wooden pitcher which they carryon their
backs, or they help their mates at the plow in the
field. Wherever they go, they bring their tiny chubby
children, many of whom are partially or entirely nude.
no matter how cold the weather."
The Tibetans may be broadly classed into three
cla%es viz. the nomads, the settled rural folk and the
towns people. An insight into their mode of living
may be had from the following paragraphs:
(Extract from Tibet and Tibetans)
<'How Tibetans Live
1'iOMADS; Clad in bulky, raw sheepskins, they
roam about the northern plateau of Tibet with their
<l()cks. and many die without seeing what a Tibetan
Village is like. They have bronze complexion, a
sturdy figure, and noble bearing that reminds many
travellers of American Indians. Their women plait
their hair into many tiny queues, which are then
bundled into a big one below the nape and adorned
<lrtistically with red and yellow stones. Some women
C U L T U R :E AND SOC I ALL I F E 19
drape over their hair a large cloth sewn all over with
silver and brass coins and shells, which jingle at every
step they take. To procure such necessities as tea
and barley, the nomads move south to the Tsangpo
valley in the coldest months. Stalking about the few
market towns, they are full of curiosity and admira-
tion, some with nude babies protruding from the
front opening of their sheepskins like Kangaroo:,.
They marvel at how so many people can live so close
together without moving about. At the first sign of
spring, they hurriedly depart towards the north, lest
the weather should become too hot for them.
"A more settled and less fortunate people are the
farmers. Ticd down to the land they cultivate, and
living in bondage to the nobility and landowners, the
farmers are physically shorter and smaller than the
nomads and lead a more cramped spiritual life. Des-
pite a prevailing notion that Tibet is a non-agricultural
country, some travellers estimate That no less than
five-sixths of the people are occupied with the culti-
vation of the soil. Tl~e soil is alluvi:ll, often com-
posed of sand blown by the wind to form a layer
over gravel and shingle. The color of the soil is
light brown or greyish, according to its humus con-
tem, which in any case is poor enough. For fertili-
zer, human dung, ashes of cow dung, and sometimes
the fine silt from flood waters are u~,ed. The farmer
knows some of the rudiments of crop rotation and
(aHow, but he does not apply them systematically.
Irrigation is poor, and the rain sets in too llite. On
his improverishcd land, the Tibetan farmer grows,
with the crudest implements, Tsam-pa or barley (the
'laple food of Tibet); turnips; far too few potatoes.
for Wilich many soils are well suited; some peas as
wintcr fodder for horses; and in lower altitudes wheat.
buck wheat, and millet. Raising of beef and dairy
cattle is a sideline of the farmer. But, as a resuit
of centuries of underfeeding, almost exclusively on
straw (except for the few rainy months starting at the
middle of June), the cattle are a miserably degenerate
breed. The small oUlput of milk, butter and curd
(which is dried and looked upon as a delicacy) is
therefore much prized by the rural community.
"The fanner wears a dark brown or gray coat of
homespun wool, a pair of trousers, and, when not
working, boots of the same material. He prefers to
wear one sleeve of his gown only, leaving the other
dan;ling behind-a fashion which all Tibetans delight
in. His wite is dressed in a dark sleeveless gown
folded double at the back, with a waist band. Under
her coat she wears a petticoat but no trousers. Her'
dainty apron of coloured horizontal stripes is a sign
of puberty. Another sign is her head dress, a red
20
forklike thing fastened on top of her hair. wh:ch is
parted in till: middle to form two 10:1g queues. The
head dress is rm:de 0, strilW stuffing ill red wool. on
which are sewn imitation corals. Another form of
head dress, pOpU;U.f in Tsang. is in the sj,::.pe of an
arc which spans the head from ear to ear. In former
times, the head dress 'was so dliffiSY to remov~ ::iat
women had to wear it to bed.
"The women see to every household duty from
fetching water to preparing the tea. All T il5 ;,;..:-
fer the Szec;1uan ~til to any o:her brand. T,~e t,:;, l~
first br~wt'j uoroug111y in a little viakr h) Wi:i':;!1
some soda is added. It is the:1 mixeu in a ion:;
wooden tube with more boiled water, salt ::md butter,
and is churned vigorously up and down ror about ,he
minutes by a long stick with a pad at its lower end,
like the p\m:;er of an air pump. For the pOOf, the
brew serves bot:l :lS c~ drink and as a Soup 10 w:1sh
down their barley rr;eal. For many of tht~:11, hllttl;:~
is too mue;] of a luxury to be u::,ed in prfp~,ring t:,\:
tea. A tiny p;ecc of i~ is put into tl:e cup at the
time of ari::k;ng, a::.d while drinkifi3 t;1ey L,ke 12,'\\;':
to blow 0:[ t::c fat 0:1 the sL:rface in order to use It
later for klleading the barley flour.
"The n~en of t}:e taNDS wear cotton or silk shirts
beneath tl;e~r govvus and, rich or pocr, ti:ey w~ar a
tiny piece of turquo;se on the lobe of the (g11t t:llr as
a sign of urbanity. Orl the lefl ear, traders 3!'d com-
moners wcar a metal ring set with tarqlloise, \\hik
the noblerr;en and inteilectuab wear a long p.;;nuant
composed of a pearl set benveen two slender oIm.::-
shaped turquoises. Only nobles who have C'n~ereJ
Government service may curl their hair into the twm
knots mentioned before; all o:hers--- nobles and
commoners--are allowed to wear only a queue.
"On feslive occasions the urban women wear au
open coUared silk shirt. mostly p:nk or green. For a
noble lady, nothing but silk or brocade is aceeptub:c_
and the apron she wears, with its rainbow Eke palt'OrH
and gold brocade borders, can be truly beauU f~J_
Her head dress. which is decorated with pearls :-md
corals, may ha ve cost a fortune. On her breast lies
a silver and gold plated amulet box, about the j:c
of a cigarette case, richly carved and adorned wilh
rubies, turquoises, and even diarno;1ds. A Tib'cian
lady. on fe;tive days, can heap any amount of je\',ets
and ornaments on herself. ,A fashion speciali';j would
require several pages to do her justice".
Language
The TibetlTI lang,mge belongs to the Tibeto-Bur-
man group. It has a mono syllabIc basis and the
BYLAKUPPp
word order is subject, object and verb. In so vast a
country as Tibet it is natural to encounter regionai
variat:ons in the Tibetan dialec t. In its flner shades
the language is said to be capable 0: three dIstinctions
viz. the most hor.orific. the less hono6:k Gnd the non
honorific to l)e used in respect of one's superior~.
equals and inferiors respectively. The honori5c and
the non-honorific have two distinct se:s 0: vo:abubry,
For every word the Tibetans have a Zhe-Sa (ho~ori­
fie) term. Though this language is oiteD described as
a tonal bapuage by S0'11e experts it cont:lins nothh~:
compJm:lk to th~ syst;_;m of fixed tones us. prevailing
in the Chinese l:1nguage.
The Tibetan script which comists d four Vl)w-:b
and tllirty consommts. is said to hay:! been invented
i:1 the seventh century. It is based on the G,m::]
script then prevailing in Korthem India. The for!~ns
of letters aDd the ortho;.rraphY have remained nn(;han-
ged since their introduction.
'rh~ v::ry outlook O:j_ life Le~ng of a philosophic
nature. in education the stress was laid c;olcly in
learning the language only as a tool to u71derstand
and assimikte what the religiolls text books prodaim
as the Truth. Scr:ptures were taught to one and all
and one's primary education lay in memorising thes~
and also le:lrning the alphabets. At a progressiw
stage, the students were taught to participate in deb:~
tes and discourses. Apart from the scriptures th,o
ci:lcr :subjects at study "vere history and mitl)·
metic. In Tibet it is said that the knowk,d~e of read-
ing and writing was widespread. No age ILnit W'J,"
stipulated for scholastic studies. The children of
nobles wb;_;ther girls or boys, learned invariably to
reud ,lnd '."file as a matter of COUL,': and they USed to
spend much of their time in reading history, mytho-
logy etc. In the official school the main emphasi~
was on acquisition of a good hand and knowledge
of arithmetic. It was here that the officers were
trained. In the monasteries the en;phasis was Jaid
on scriptures and other literary works. In towns
there were schools which any child could attend and
in the countryside the landlords usually maintainoo
schools for their children and peasants of the mea
.:ould send their children also to these schools.
Beliefs and practices regal'oi{!g birth, marriage and
dea;h
For the 1 ibetans binh of a child in the family is
not a cause for great rejoicing. They believe in the
eycle of rebirth and death and consider the human
THE PEOPLE. THEIR RELiG!ON, CUL1'l-RE
oody as Ii mean:; to attain the final cn1ic~Ltenn~ent
which according 10 their philosophy is th~ uitimatc
goal of every being in the world. ThoL!fh beys an
preferred, girls are not ili received. h! j'"ct, Ti;J::t:ll1"
consider the womeu us lower, beings and hold that
they should b~ born again as m~n to :.it'];n th~ (·ne
iightemnenL Soon after the birtll, lte ::; \cy is id
with a llttk mixture of b:.;r~cy :1our and b,.tler ;(jc)
upon its crO"ifl a t:;;y lump of b\.)ttel :., ,.n
ord;;:r 10 r[:.,.\Cnt "i~~n \v~:ld'. The !.r,':~;,(1t '},~b(:t-'n',
con:_:iJer, is IC'::'lJOnsibje for 3.b0~t Qne<~_i;J"~ 3 (i: .. '~"\ ~.~ie
:Auman allrr:ents. i-"ll~~\vlse tIl:: p:;lrtuf.C.,~: v, ~r_f,,:! }-:,
given a thick m:';W;'c "f butter a:ld bnrky :-,\"::. '))1
the third dJy the eVent of liit;; arrivai l)i , )"
celebrated by holding· a small par.) 1 ,,[: r" ',",C
g~vi:ag cerernony i;; held as soon as th~ l)~, :J:- ~~~_;~U~
pletes its first mor.tl: of life ar.u on lni:, 0:";,,5;0.; i:
is taken out for its first outing to a tempI.; ,~,JI 0 :e:·
ing prayer:.. TIle nUiT":: may be given :: t~ ;;.
parents or by ,1 Lama v.:ho uSl:J,Hy confc;; hi.; 0', n
name as a mark of blessing. The name;; 0;' both bey,
~i.ad girls look "llikc, Ilcl'c t ~_:~1{; 1:(; d~ Sl' D.L t.tt~lI1 ~,:-~ ~,~
ween the t\>,'o. ;-~el'lher the pregnant wo;~;,'r~ r.c;' t:;~
mothers in their post natal p~riod are subj:::::.1.~;J.
any restrictions regarding food. and work. AJ Tibc' ~D
women whether rich or poor prefer \0 nUE\: t:":r
babies.
The Tibct,ms have evolved customs aml ITl:.;:mcl>
',0 regulate sex relationship in their :;OC;(;ty. Ti:e
:3ssential. Marriage is universal except rot' i.l~('; (:1t', li,
ned monks and nuns. Arranged m:Hri~,gGc; Ly t~lc
parents or guardians of a couple are wmmon Ihoug;;
"TIarria;Se by only mutual consent 02 the w~ple arc
·;S0 not Ull':O:117ilon, Though Loth polYD':1y 2.nd
polyandry are prevalent. polyandry is very cor,'; ;,>:):\
In this the brothers shar,;; their elder bro'her\ \", c-
or else t\\'O or more unrelated p!':fsom ~rn:,' manT a
).ingl~ brIo:: by rr':~; U~J~ t.~on'SeHL /:.i~(l~~~:':r :·;y~tt'{~·
where a bridegroom is married into tnt- ::rilk's family
is also preyulent. 111 t},is, subsequent tc hi~ mnrrmr;e
!le has to s..:,vere <:11 his conncct;o!15 \\'ith tLe par~:;,t(J
family and become a helr to his wife's e:,i3te. {leo
marriages of widows :md divOIc:ed or sC0;'ratt:d \W"~lCn
are also permitted and are common OCClIrlCn=',''i.
t:imally the propos'iL for iJ ma~71a~ e ::lie m·,ik ~l~l o:l_s:h
mediators and the horoscopes of f1e ,\ould be ~,:1UpJc
are rnatcnul befon.: !,j\in:~ a final consent. rh',~retnoo
it is usual to \\'ritel:p ~ contr:}ct .slvI11b t~i~~ :cr..:J..;.~ vI}
which the alliance is to be made and spe,:ify t)ir.'iein
the bride wealth as also the 'milk mOl1ey'~un tOsti·
mated amount expended for his or her uphringing~
which the family receiving the bride or the 'male brlde'
AND 30CIAL LIFE 21
has to pay to rhe other. Tibetam ..mach great 1m·
portance to ampicious bours and dates and mu;;;H)
reckon t{l~ early hours Of the day to oe 5:1cred. Tne
Tibetan marriages are said to be condu( [;:d usual!}
very limited. n:~, custom is said to ,c: pr;:v,;l;;ll!
to prevent tile att~lJ(lance of persons Wh\.l:)t! zodiacal
"igns dash \<ilth !ho~,; of either tile bl~de cr the' h,-ide·
groo::n and thus bring disaster.
Tibetans l1rmiy believe m life a:ter ubth d.nJ th~
wheel 0: rebirth,
by numerou" (·,usc:; ~uch hS i3norancc, negh:ct 01
by malignant spirib. Accordng t·) tl:~ Tibetan'i,
deities capab2e of harmin] d\vell not only around lb
but also within. T::;y hold that th(;,'e :.n; th~: f1mi·
lies of celest:al "pirits in each 11uman body ~L~d th..:
most vital O:lC live.', 0:1 the top or the ti~'2J wIde l,h.;
others resid;; aC,Jve t::e right sLc,uld er. "nder tile Ei rm
pits and wlthia the heart. The hurraH ,0,,1 je, SJid
to travel arountl the body every day and one toudl
upon thc point V,.;ler::: it is resting can be r'ataL Thus
tor eveIyone there are I1lOments, days, months a:-.:ll
y.::us W;i(;~1 ti:e ;:; i;1 jcor' (rdy, Physical lltsvrders arc
C;:OU[;11l UhD'll by nc:gl:;;cl and ignOfcGICe and the wi~e
i'1;n~~~: \'\vu~j J,~ ;::{·-_p~~t··'C' ,~-}f di.ago.ca5in~ th:: \>nr~e:..: :il10
re!T;\.-c.l} Ing the ;-.~mc.
~og~r as tt) \' :-"cf;': and on \\hut objcst the TIlind or th("
dec~(;j·.:d l~~~I_:,.:;d Ii] tL,~ l~i:)l :D.O;ncnl and about the
p:':::-/cr~ ~r: t,~ t,Le:_cJ "j~) lllso i_h~ "ppfo_Pl'i;J.te dat~
;·md tlriJ j ~ r ;::(b tc;c {uli.:ral has to take pl:ace. The~
believe LJ:Jt ;;"ie soul o~ the departed re:rldir,s in the
stlltiO o£ 'midd!C-lxing' for fony nine day~ and then
:ak::~ up the form in its next round of transmigration.
\); i.:~- ;:~ ~-~,\.'r~ud 1"Le fJ [nny kC':-l~s UJ: f1ft in 3
crockery vessel suspended in the room of the Jeccased
and thric;; a doy pours in:o it a mixture Dr harle\
t-Im)r and batter. The odours and fumes are beiieved
to provide 5ustCJ12nC0 to the formless soul o~ the dead.
Learned Limas nre invited to reud scripturc~ to deal
t.lte way ior tl:l\.: ~Gul to enter into its m'.\ j:'li<'Je at
life and to pre\ un die so'11 from L~entering the corpse.
hcly lctt;;rs or hdy .oigns are to be marked on various
points of the corpse, The corpse i, doubled np \yitb
the head betWt('ll lh( knec:s and h thl:n bound wifl (j
on its h ..'ad and btl ll;:r Lmps and other ulferiI1g'i an'
placc:u l1([OIC ~t. LLilil the ;;orp&e is taken om for
final disposal the 1a mas reciting inces:,,;nL rrayers.
keep a vi:,dl day and night. The popular mode of dis-
posal oj the d13;ld is by iceding. it to th(' bird~. The
deslituie cias5, inspiti>! of the exi:;fng law t,I th(,
22
contrary, tl:ro'"\ <twuy the corpse mto a riveL Di~·
posal by burial or hy Crem()i10n is practised to very
little extent.
Social Organisatioll. Law rnd PUllishment
Society in Tibe1 i:-- divided strictly into upp,:r <lnd
lower cl,mes. the nobk" and ordinary :men b~' 3
cleady defined gr8dation in which evcryone i~ l':.pec-
led to know his pn\"er pl~:ce, Evell in the rdi~iou,
hierarchy there ZTe i'uch well marked distinctiox;;. Til..:
Governmem officers of variou" ranks can t:J.siiy and
exactly be identified by the dress they wear. the
number of <llt.::nd"'l'::; they :ue accompanied with etc,
To the Tibetan ruling dass, the class distin'ticlJ h
its every detail is a m:nter of course and any ,light
departure from it:; rules ja!'s on their ner;".:.". The
Tibetan rule is to let everyone behave acC'ord:r;'.! tC'
his status. Just as an inlerior o:hould behave <1S an
inferior, a superior will r!Qt be exempted :rom ce:wure
if he does not behave like a superior. Anyone with
rudimentary knmvledgc of the Tibe:c~n n::e:s \i. i:l b~
able to tell from the manner, address, and lh~ lan~u3i;~"
of the Tibeian he comes across about his rosi! 'on ill
the society, Silk scarr or k/u-to is an abso:ute rcecc'-
sity for all social occasions. There are three kinds
the fir,t one to be pre'"cntcd only to the D"Jui or
Panchen or high inCarnate lamas. the second type to
BYLAKUPPE
,
be used C'x.clusively among the upper cla~ses and the
third tYr~: is m~ant for lower classes. Thert are
tl:ru: n'.)jes of offering the scarL to the one who i~
,ui',erior. it shouhl be held in both hand;; raised above
to ,he b'.'ight d forehead. 'fa an equaL it should be
otfered on :\ l;:vel with one's tihoulders and take one
.scarf in rellril. To one of lower rank the scarf has
to he "pread on his nape, The Tibetans are noted
tor their hoc pitality and to give parties is a popular
rOI'ffi of recre.1tion to both the upper and lower clas·
ses. Tibc;,~n etiquette stipulates numerous rule~
rcgmding the treatment of guests and the behaviour
of the hosts.
Though in Tibet there were no all embracing code
of laws, the Tibetans are proud to look back to the
seventh century Ki;]g Song-Tsen·Gampo. as the author
of their law. His code consists of sixteen general
n:oral principles. A code of thirteen rules of proce-
dure and punishcment was drawn up by the first
prince of the Pha,gmo1rupa family "vbich ruled Tibet
in d;(: G.ftc(;l1th cc:ntury. Luter tnc;e were revi:,ed by
th;: Great Fifth Dalai Lama and a further revision
and addition dv.ring the regime of a Regent in the
ni.;1eteeuth century_ But the administration of justice
was guided rather by custom and usage, for which
the Tibetans have profound regard, Flogging was
the principal punishment.
 o •
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 CHAPTER III
THE SETTLE:\1ENT AT BYLAKUPPE
The Scheme
In the present set up of the world migra-
tion of people on a large scale from one cou!!try
to another is bound to create numerous nroblem~
particularly in the spbere of economy an:! ~he poli.
tical policy of the host country. Exodus of the Tibe-
tans which began during the late fifties gathered mo-
mentum during the early months of 1959. The Chi·
nese, claiming supreme command ovn TIbet and the
Tibetans. launc.hed a. vigorous movement in 1950 to
'liberate' Tibet from Western Impcrhl:sts as tlley
termed it. The mounting resistClnce of the Tibetans
culminated in an open but ullS'lccessful revolt against
the Chinese aHrocities during March 1959 and the
Dalai Lama, the temporal and rdig;ous head of
Tibet, himself escaped to' India with a few of hi~
~lose associates and sought political asylum. The
granting of asylum gave an added impetus to the
movement of refugees to India in large numbers
through widely separated routes. Moreover many of
the restrictions governing the entry of foreigners to
India were waived in respect of the Tibetan refugees.
The Tibetans recognise in the person of His Holi-
ness the D:::1ai Lama and his immediate official as·
sociates. the very existence of Tibet and "it is funda-
mental to all Tibetan thinking that a Dalai Lama
once discovered, cannot in any circumstances divest
himself of his position as head of the religion and
head of the State", Thus the influx of refugees grew
rapidly and the unrestricted admission of the refu-
gees gave rise to the material problem of providing
them with the basic necessities viz., shelter, food and
work. Immediately the Government of India orga-
n'sed transit camps at various places. By the end of
1959, it was estimated that some 17,000 refugees had
b~en received in these camps. The streaming-in of the
refl!gees continued steadily during 1960 and even in
the subsequent years. The prospect of the refugees re-
turning to Tibet in the immediate future being remote
it became necessary for the Govenlment of India to
formulate proper plans for the rehabilitation of the reo
fugees. As it was felt unwise as wen as impracticable
to have all the refugees in G compact area, it was pro
posed to set up a few agricultural settlements at differ-
ent but suitable parts of the country. The Government
of Mysore undertook to implement the scheme of reo
hahUitating 3000 refugees on land 'Jt Bylakunre in
23
Mysore State, This scheme was originally estimated to
cost about Rs. 30 hckhs, to be borne entirely by the
Gover:-:men t of India. It was proposed to implement
the plan during a period of three years (October 1960
to September 1C)(,~). According to Ihe plan, the refu-
gee~' vver;: to be grouped into units called 'family'.
each consist:ng ot Live adults either with or withom
chJdren. It wa:; also immaterial whether all these per-
sons were related to each ether or not. Each such
family was to r-e allotted 5.00 acres of arable land, a
set of agricultuf:ll tools 2nd implements, one working
bullock, a perm,'nent residential house with enough
op,,:n "Pi; ''" all rot:nct and more than alL each refu-
gee was entitled to receive free subsi.<:tence rations on
'1 specified sc?k for a ~tipulated period. It was also
proposed 1.0 (ra: ~ th~ refuf'ce<; in the local cultivation
methods for OD'': or (wo seasons, In addition to all
these, the refugees were to be provided with the neces-
sary amenhies . nch as ]Josp:tals, schools, roads, drink-
ing water, lighting and facilities for recreation etc. In
this superhuman task of rehabilitating a displaced
community numerOlb vo1untary organisations such as
the American Emergency Committee for Tibetan Re-
lief, Ca~LJlic Relief S':rvi-2e in collaboration with Na-
I loml Clirj~tb I' Wclhre Conference, Swi!.s Aid Ab·
road, Young ~V\;n', Christian Association, Indo-Ger-
man Social Sen icc. Co-opentive for American Relief
Everywhere etc.. also came forward with assistance
In cash and kind. Most of this assi~tance has been
received through the coordinating agency of a non-
official organisation, the Central Relief Committee
iIndia). The period for implemention of the scheme
lwd to be extended by two more years and accord-
mgly the estim:'lted cost also rose to 75 lakhs. The
Chief Secretary to the Government of Mysore was
;,ut in direct ch'jt'/Ie of the scheme. A Special Officer
\)f the rank of a Deputy C(lmmis~ioner and a num-
her of other ranks w:re deployed for the purpose. An
Assistant Engineer \1::1<; also posted to look after the
public works.
The uninha~'ltcd village~
of Gollarahosaha lli,
l«(1ilii<;?~\'n:. A.r~il(l!m·lri
and Gulledahalli oj
H:!rn'lrnm !'>ahn in Pl..'riyapatna Taluk, Mysore Dis-
Ir:ct, situ::Jted amkl~t dense forests lying in a fertile
tr~ct where the v;rgin soil reclaimed from forests could
;-Iffer th~ m[~ximU!r '):lportunitie~ to the settlers wert
 24 BYLAKUPPE

chosen for locating the Bylakuppe Settlement. The
office of the Special Officer as also the quarters for the
officer and his staff were located at Bylakuppe, a vil-
lage on the Mysore-Mercara trunk road and situated
at a distance of 54 miles from Mysore, Bylakuppe is
centrally situated with reference to the residential
areas selected in the four chosen villages. Periyapatna
the Taluk headquarters is about tert miles south east
'of Bylakuppe. Kusha~nagar of Coorg district which is
only three miles from Bylakuppe, is an important cen-
tre where a shandy gathers on every Tuesday.
Physical aspects
The setfement i~ located at an approximate
Nort', Latitude of 12° 26' and an East longi-
tude of 75° 58', The altitude of Kappa, a vlllage
two <md a half miles from Bylakuppe is 2730 feet
above the mean sea level while that of Petiyapatna the
'taluk headquarters is 2818 feet. This tract is hilly and
the region is classified as 'Malnad'. The climate is
often hot and moist and the rainfall is moderate to
heavy, The nearest rain gauge statiQIl-is -Knppa :;lod
the quantum of rainfall recorded Jor the years 1962,
1963 and 1964 is seen to be 41.81 ,~nches, 22.~0 inches
and 30.23 inches respectiv,e11. The rainfall at Periya-
patna stafon has been recorded as 42.91 inches. 24.89
, L:ches and 39.49 inches respectively for those three
y.:ars. A g:l::r::e at the following tab1e showing month-
wise particulers of ra'nfall for the period 1954-64 as
recorded at ¥oppa. makes it clear that the rciins are

Rainfall particula~s recorJe.i at KOtlpa Stathn

I Year! 1954 1955· 1957 1958 1959 1960 1961 1962 1963 1964
Months (rainfall in inch~s)

January
Feb'ilury 0'52 0'50
March l' 55 2'09 0'42 0'42 1'06
April 3'40 3'52 1'37 2'83 I' 59 1'23 5'14 2'20 1'00
May 7'96 6·20 11·08 9'91 4'74 4'28 14 '88 8'35 3'95 1'20
June 5'4] 5'01 6'52 3'49 ]1'17 2' 19 9'51 1'76 3'90 1'38
July 13·n 0'82 8'32 14'91 7'172 11'44 24'05 10'49 4'60 5'21
August 4-60 2'10 2'30 5'85 4'47 3'63 9'85 6'99 1'70 9'94
Sep~emper 0'71 3'57 0'12 4'50 6'80 5'85 n.a. 3'82 1.00 3'95
October 8'80 6'64 9'35 3'35 3'01 3'49 n_l1. 9'80 4 85 6'50
November 0'80 3'27 2'09 6'80 n.n. 0'05 1'05
December 1 -::.9 n.a, 0·55
Total 47'96 30'75 42·75 47·86 49'5:> 38'91 64'49 41·81 22'20 30.23

·Particulars not available for 1956.

irregular with wide variations from year to year. Oc-
casionally the untimely and insufficient rains cause
failure of' crops.
There will be early showers at sporadic intervals
during'the months of March and April. This helps the
.agriculturists to start the ploughing operations and
also to apply farmyard manure. The rainfall increases
during May and in June the regular south west mon-
soon sets in. Heavy rainfall in'May is only occasionaL
During the period from June to September there will
be incessant rains and in October it begins to recede.
Though occasional showers are experienced in Nov-
ember, heavy rainfall is an exception and such rains
adversely affect the crops which would by then be
ready for harvest. The winter season sets in during
November and the intensity of cold increases gradual-
ly till it reaches a peak during early January. The early
nlorrings will be misty during the months of January
to March. Hills of varying altitu~es may be seen all
round the settlement. The terrain is undulating and
~ince much of the natural vegetation in the area has
b.:",n uprooted vast stretches of dry land can now be
seen in places where visibility was very poor on ac-
count of dense forest growth only a few years back.
In Kailasapura. Arlikumari and GollarahosahalIi, the
houses have been built. on elevated planes in relation
to their immediate surroundings whereas in Gulleda-
halli, the houses are adjacent to a low range of hills.
The villages of Gollarahosahalli. Kailasapura and
Gulledahalli have a small tank each While a shallow
stream run;; close to the Arlikumari village site. In
the entire settlement area four pick-ups have been re-
cently constructed and water is made available for ir-
rigation. Irrigat~on sluices have been provided to the
tel'ks at Gollarahosahalli and Kailasapura but, due to
want of su:Jj~iont ra ins. water could not be supplied
 ~
~
a:
UJ
t;
0- 0
0- w
n:
"'0
~ 0
~
UJ
..J ~
~
~ J:
U
0 ~
z z
::» «
0 0
a: ~

<t I/)
w
..J
U)
~
:i
a: ~

~
<!
w
..J
«
W u
I/)
U.
.J ~
<t :J
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~ ~
U)
> z«
J: ~
Q. Q;;
~
ii
w
Q,
Til 1! . S-l! T T I. EM! N TAT B Y L A K U P P J!
for irrlgation during the years 1964 and 1965. About
150 acres have been rendered :rrigable as a result of
these two tanks and the pick-ups.
Flora a:ad Fau!J.3
The four villages are surrounded by dense forests
and until the jungle clearance work was taken
~p, they themselves were a,Itr.ost impregnable
fore~ts containing a dense !!rowth of a variety
of timber and other trees. Even now close to the vil-
lage Biakuppe a teak plantat;on extends over a vast
area. Sandal trees are also found in the forests around
the s:tt'ement in add tion to teak, mathi, rosewood,
muthuf!a (butea frondosa). nandi. mango. silver-oak,
red cedar. tamarind, buruga, honge, basari, margosa
and other varieties. Bamboo shoots up in these forests
spontaneously. The proximity of the forests has been
a great boon to the refugees who gather fuel for do-
mestic purposes and also bamboo and jungle wood
for construction of huts for the k;tchen, cattleshed etc.
The cultivated crops in the settlement cO:1sist mainly
of ragi, horsegram. sea island cotton, tobacco, potato
and maize. Plants bearing fruits. ch:e 41 y the papaya
and the banana, have been planted -in the k;tchen gar-
dens attached to most of the houses in every camp.
The Tibetan refugees are also ra;sing vegetables main-
ly for their domestic consumption.
Iml'ortant among the fauna figures the wild ele-
phant found hovering around the settleme:lts in large
numbers occasionally destroying crops and endanger-
ing even human lEe. At the time of the survey on a
particular o:::casion a rogue elephant straved on to the
Mysore-Mercara rOld, at noon and attacked a oerson
who was cycling his way to one 0" the camp sites. In
these forests tirers were found in large numbers some
scores of years back but now tigers have become very
scarce. Whe:1 Dr. Buchanan v i s i te1 Per:yauatna and its
round abo·~ts in about 1800, he is said to have given
the fonowin~ curious a~count: ....... t;gers had taken
pos~ession of the inner fort and espec'ally of the tem-
ples, to such an exte;}! that it was unsafe to enter it
even in the day time, and the inbab'tants of the outer
fort were compelled to shut themf:elves up at sunset"·,
Conditions are. however. different now and the forests
have become thinner and incapable of providing shel-
ter to tigers and other wild and ferocious animals. Now
that even the forest in 'about 3500 acres of land select-
ed for the se:tlement has been cleared even the few
species such as spotted deer, wild boar, fox, hyena,
:rabbits, peafowl etc., have become scarce. A variety
of snakes are found in these parts of the country. The
domestic an:mals are the draught buIIock5. COWl.
·H. V. Ha~avadana Rao, Mjsore Gazetteer. Volume V p. '1-6 BaDialoro 1930.
4-3 Census/My,ore!?3
25
goats, pigs and poultry birds apart from a few dogs
and cats kept by a few households. Buffaloes have not
found favour w:th the Tibetans and so far none of the
Tibetans has purchased even a single buffalo.
Area, hl}U"e3 an:! pOj:u'a!-bn
The vil!age Gollarahosahal'i extends over an area
of 341 acres and II gunias of which 23 acres and 18
guntas have been classified as Kh, Fib or unfit for cul-
tivation. One hundred res dential hou~es have been
constructed here a1d allotted to 100 families of the re-
fugees. The Central School, quarters for school tea-
chers, the hos')ital and quarters for the medical staff,
police station, the carpet factory etc., are also located
in . this camp. The· tobacco barns of the Mysore To-
bacco Company are situated midway between Byla-
kuppe and Gollarahosahalli. The [eographical area of
Kailaspura is 585 acres and 25 guntas of which 29
acres and 35 guntas· have been cIasced as Kharab. All
the hundred houses built in this camp are occupied
by the refugees. Here are located the administrative
offices or th.e RcoreseCltative of H.B. the Dalai Lama,
the residential quarters of a Rimpoche (precious)
Lama of the Gelupa sect, a prayer hall, the office of
the Co-op:-rative Society, the Y.M.C.A. recreation
centre, and a Chotcn (StUl'!o). On the w~y to Kailasa-
pura from Gollan: hosahalli are loc::Jted the elementary
school and the creche. Arlikumari extends over 1466
acres and 11 guntls and of this an area of 134 acres
and 37 gunta: i<; uncultivable. Of the total area only
1140 acres a"d 13 gU~ltas have been earmarked for the
Tibetan refugees. In Arlikumari there are two camps,
each CO'lS sting or one hundred houses. separated by
only a few yards. Some of the old and infirm refugees
have been grouped into some twenty fam:lies and are
placed here. Of the 200 houses iT! ArIikumari about
20 were vacant at the time of enumeration in June
1965. A Rimpoche Lama belongin~ to the 'red hat'
sect has his res denre here and cl()se to it is a school
for young Lamas. Constitution of a temnle near the
fourth camp is steadily progressing and a tall idol of
Lord Buddha has already been got ready. A creche
and an elementary school as also a Y.M.C.A. recrea-
tion centre are the other institutions at Arlikumari. The
ro~d connecting Bylakuppe, GollarahosahaI1i, KaiIa-
s~pura and Arlikumari forms a semi circle. Arlikumari
is nearer to Kopna and Kushalnagar. Gulledahalli
has an extent of 1943 acres of which only 1345 acres
and 28 gu~tas h~ve been released for al'otment to the
refugees. In this village also accommodation has been
provided for 200 families. The two camps are quite
close to each other and the houses are at a distance
of a:bout two furlongs from the Mysore-Mercara·
26
trunk road and at a distance of about two miles from
By!akuppe. An elementary school and a creche are
be'ng run at Gul!edahalli. At the time of enumera-
tion in June 1965 some 10 houses were vacant.
Soon after the preparations began at Bylakuppe
the refugee~ were selected from among the residents
of various transit camps in North India by the Gov-
ernment of India. in view of their agricultural back-
ground and were sent in batches to Bylakuppe. The
first batch consisting of 624 refugees arrived during
December 1960 and this was followed by the second
batch consisting of 576 persons. They were received
at Mysore and allowed to take rest for a couple of
days. From Mysore they were taken to the camp site
in specially chartered buses and lorries, and housed in
temporary tents or thatched sheds for the time being.
It is said that 400 army tents each costing Rs. 400' were
purchased for the scheme and now many of them
have been rendered useless. These transit camps were
provided with essential facilities such as drinking
water. ba£hing sheds etc. Many of the families which
were in indigent circumstances were granted Rs. 10
each for purchase of at least a few essential utensils.
After a brief period of rest the refugees were offered
jungle clearance work on wages. Fresh batches of
re 'ugres were received during 1961, 1963, 1964 and
Feb. 1965; and upto the period of this enumeration
3281 refugees are reported to have been received in
flis settlement. One more batch of refugees consisting
of 237 persons was expected during the latter half
of 1965. Owing to deaths and desertions only 2918
refugees constituting 902 households have been enu-
merated during the survey.
Sources of Water:
The tanks at Gollarahosaha!li, Kailasapura and Gul-
ledahalli and a streamlet near Arlikumari are the
natural sources of water which are being used by the
settlers for purposes other than drinking. A number
01 men, women and children may be found bathing
at these spots on bright and warm days. As shallow
dr:!w wells were felt unsuitable for. supply of drink-
ing water in the settlement area, bore wells have been
sunk in all the four villages and are fitted with pump-
set'>, storage tanks and taps. From these points the
refugee carry water usually in a couple of kerosene
f ns suspended from the ends of a yoke balanced on
one's shoulders.
Transport and communications
Bylakuppe is now provided with good transport
and communication facilities. It is S4 miles away
from Mysore wh;ch happens to be the nearest rail-
way hea'! and a centre of transport with a net-work
of roads. The resIdential areas of the refugees in each
BYLAICt1PPB
of the four villages have been well connected to By.
lakuppe. From the Mysore-Mercara trunk rOld a
metalled and bt:dged road leads to Gollarahosahalli,
Kailasapur and ArLkumari. There is a foot·track
between Arlikumari and Koppa. The house-s'te at
GulledahaUj is only "a couple of furlongs from the
Mysore-Mercara trunk road and this distance is con-
nected by a me:alled road. There is a cross country
foot-track from Gulledahalli to Gollarahosahalli.
The total leJgth of approach roads constructed under
the scheme is about 5 miles. At Bylakuppe a sub
po~t office was opened in 1961 and pr:or to that, the
nearest post office was at Kushalnagar. Th's post
office has been provided with a telephone public call
office. Sub:equent to the settlement of refugees in
these camps, all the State Transport buses plying on
the Mysore-Mercara route are scheduled to stop at
Bylakuppe also. The road commands a heavy traffic
particularly of lorries laden with timber and other
goods. The villages of GollarahosahalF, Kailasapura.
and Arlikumari are provided with a community radio
receiver set each by the Government. In Gulledahalli
two individuals have a rad:o set each.
Residential Pattern
The work of construcfon of houses received priority
and was entrusted to contractors such as MIs. Bis-
weswar Dayal. MIs. Asoka Corporation. The fim set
of one hundred houses at Gollarahosahalli could be
completed dur'ng 1962 and the houses were allotted
to 100 famiEes. By December 1962 the hou::es at Kai-
lasapura were ready and hundred more families were
provided with houses. The remaining 400 houses were
comp:eted dur'ng 1963 and the refugees who were re-
ceived in 1963, 1964 and 1965 were d recdy allotted
houses for their occupation. At the time of this enume-
ration some twenty houses were vacant at Arlikumari
and Gulledahalli camps and in many fam'ly units
there were less than five adults. The residential pat-
tern is not based on any particular attribute such as
people from a particular district in Tibet, people of
a particular tribe etc. Change of houses for conve-
nience of individual members is occasionally permit-
ted.
Houses and bnuse types
Now there are 600 houses in the settlement which
are exclusively meant for the Tibetan refugees. The
general plan of a house being s:mJar, a few varia-
tions in details may be noticed from one set of houses
to another. In Gollarahosahalli, each house is a se-
parate building with a built-:n area of 20' X 20', in a
site of 40' x 60'. The foundation is of size-stone in
clay without concrete bed and the superstructure is
of b~t bricks in clay. The thickness of the wall is
1DJ SITTLEMENT AT BYLAKUPPB
nine inches. The roof is covered with Mangalorc tiles
over bam1::oJ a::d jungle wood reepers supported on
t~ak wood po:es. The inner walls are plastered with
mud while the outer ones are plastered wif1 cen:ent.
Each house has one hall and two rooms. The rooms
are not prov:ded with any doors. The flooring is
ordinary earth with pebbles. The average cost of a
hous~ i::l th's camp comes to about Rs. 1950. It may
be recalled that there were the houses which were
constructed first.
Improvements were effected in the second set of
houses viz., those at Kailasapura. In fact the houses
at Kailasapura are much better than those at any other
camp. Here also each house is an independent struc-
ture with a built in area of 20' X 20' (in a house site
measur:ng 40' X 60'). The foundation is laid on 6
inches concrete bed with size stones in clay. The walls.
be'ng of burnt bricks in clay are Ii feet thick. On
both the s'des, the walls have been plastered with lime.
The flooring is of brick-jelly concrete. The houses are
roofed w:th Mangalore tiles on jungle wood reepers
and cut-size jungle wood rafters. The houses are not
partitioned so as to form a hall, room etc. Each house
is provided with one window. The average cost of
house in this camp is reported to be Rs. 2035.
The house sites are 60' x 80' at Arlikumari though
the buil~-in area is only 20' X 20'. Here also each
house is independent and the average cost per house
is Rs. 1433. The walls are of bamboo and mud in bet-
ween pillars of bricks (18" x 18") with a foundation
of size stones in cement mortar. The houses are roof-
ed with Mangalore tiles on jungle wood scantlings and
jungle wood reepers. Inside, the walls are plastered
with mud while on the outerside the walls are plaster-
ed w:th cement. The fioor'ng is of gravel. Tkere are
no partition walls in the house.
In contrast to the houses in the above-mentioned
three villages, those at GulIedahaIli are not indepen-
dent structures. Four-tenement blocks have been built
in a site measur ng 100' X 60' and the bu'lt-in area
of each hou~e is approximately 20' X 20'. There are
no rooms in these houses. The foundation for the
houses has been laid all round with 6 inches concrete
bed, and is of size srones in clay. The walls are of
mud plastered lattice work of bamboo with
18" x 18" pil:ars of burnt br:cks in between. The pur-
pose of having an all round foundation is that in future
if necessary the mud-tlzatti walls may be easily re-
placed by brick walls in between the permanent pil-
lars. At vresent both the sides of the walls are plas-
tered with mud. Mangalore tiles have been used for
roofing along with rafters and reepers of jungle wood
27
(silver oak. red cedar etc.). The flooring is of gravel.
The average cost per block of four houses is Rs. 5520.
Every house in each settlement has been provided with
a hand-flush lavatory and soak-pit arrangements but
without an enclosure. Some of the households have
put up leafwalls or bamboo walls around the latrines
which are being used while in many other houses
they are open and seldom used.
As each house has been allotted to a group of five
adults-not necessarily related to one another-the re-
sidents have. in many instances, subsequently put up
partition walls of bamboo to obtain some sort of pn-
vacy. No house in the settlement was provided with
a kitchen or a cattleshed as part of the plan. Hence
soon after the allotment it became necessary for the
refugees to build sheds for kitchens. These sheds.
mostly built of mud plastered bamboo walls and roof
of bamboo reeds, have come up adjacent to the
houses allotted and are of varying dimensions. To
allow sufficient light and air, many of the front or
side walls of these sheds have been fitted with ex-
panded metal or bamboo or wooden trellis work. In
houses where there are more than one couple or Where
there are some unrelated persons also with a married
couple sometimes these kitchen sheds are also used
as living apartments. Soon after occupying the houses
the refugees in general built fences of bamboo around
their houses and in this they seem to have liberally
utilised the space reserved for roads, conservancy,
passage etc. In Gulledahalli due to the relatively small
size of the sites and the absence of open space on either
sides. the occupants have taken possession of a con-
siderable portion of the roads which have thus been
rendered very narrow. Kitchens and cattlesheds have
been built in the front yards. Many farm houses have
recently been built by the refugees in the fields with a
view to keep an effective watch over the crops and also
to save the labour and time involved in moving to and
from the fields. These are but temporary arrangements
and inspite of congestion in the allotted houses their
interests are centred around these permanent houses.
Thus in many of the allotted houses there are now
two or more households each having a separate kit-
chen. The materials used in construction of these
houses and sheds by the refugees comprise bamboo.
grass, jungle wood and mud which may be gathered
free of cost in the surrounding forests in addition to
ropes, nails, etc., which have to be purchased. Many
of these structures have mud plastered bamboo walls
while a few have walls of bamboo only, The inclined
roof is generally of long semicylindrical pieces of
bamboos arranged in a row upon a frame work of
bamboo and junj.llewood. Some of the structures
 28 ~B YL·kKU:PP E

have that:hed roofs. !\'O special skill is required for with an open end and a plunger with a long handle.
construct(oJ of ti;ese strw.:tures and C:e refugees ge- The cylinder is called 'Chaadong' and the plunger
nerally he:p e:!c;l ot::cr many a time voluntari!y. 'Gyalo'. The inner diameter of the cylinder varies from
There are a few sheds built on struts of bamboo, the 5" to 9" and the length between 18/1 and 30" or even
ground floor serving as a cattle shed and the top one more. The cost of one set ranges between Rs. 5 and
being used for stacking hay etc. The surroundings of Rs. 12 according to the SIze and quality of wood
the houses are not generally swept clean daily by the used. The same equipment is useful for separating
members of the househo:d. The interior of some houses butter from milk or curds. It is said that in Tibet it
is also k,!pt unclean. However, a good number of was a comn:on feature to have the cylinders decorated
household,:; are keft scrupulously clean ~nd in .all with bands of engrave<! brass, copper or silver lami-
these hou~e::oids the members also tend to be cleaner nae. Of the other articles commonly found are a set
than the rest. of seven or fourteen cups either of silver, brass or
aluminum, philor. mel'u, kabli. and bumpa used for
HouseuoJ,l gaal:i
heping water, chfing and tea before the famHy
The m2ter;al possessions of the refugees mainly shrines; Butter lamps called 'th ng' either of silver or
consists of a f;::w utensils for daily use and brass are also commonly found.
a few ot.:er cheap articles. 1\0 doubt some
For storing food and other articles, the Tibetans
0' th;om could bring with them. while coming
are using tins and cans of different sizes. Gunny bags
to the seUiement Lself. a number of articles such as
and cylindrical granaries of b~mboo are widely used
silver spoons, butter lamps, cups; aluminium vessels.
for the storage of cereals. A few also possess hollow
wooden bowls and lids, mugs of enamel. Tibetan car-
wooden cylindr·cal containers which effectively keep
pets etc., but many had to acquire the esse:ltial arti-
away rats, for storing grains. It was observed during
cles only after setfing over here. Unequal economi:
a visit in March 1966 that in a number of househo:ds
conditions of the refugees ever since the time of their
cobs of maize with the corn and the husk intact were
leaving their country has been responsible for a mark-
hung in series along str:ngs fastened to the walls and
ed variatiDn even with regard to the scanty house-
running parallel to the roof. The grains had fallen
told goo1s r~ey Dossess now. !':ow in every house-
an easy prey to the rats in a number of instances.
hold aluminium ve~s':!ls. who ch invariably include a tea
S~eel trunks are commonly found in every household
kettle and a basin. are commonly used for cook' ng
and where the households are very poor wooden
food, preparing tea etc. Enamel mugs, cups and sau-
boxes are used as substitutes. In these they keep their
cers of pro e!ain and occasionally wooden bowls or
cIothings and a few other important materials if any.
glass tumblers are used for drinking tea. Bowls of
For safe custody of books spec:ally of religious con-
wood called Shing phutu, gOt}/;ur etc., or of porcelain
tent or the ones written by the Dalai Lama etc., the.
are commonly used for eating food. Chopsticks are
Tibetans have wooden book-,-cases. For lighting the
found in every houcehold but since coming over to the
Tibetans use kerosene oil lamps which cost Re. 1.00
settlement many are not us:ng them regularly.· Among
to Rs, ~:OO and hurricane lanterns.
the Tibetans it is not common to wash the cups or
wooden bowls or the mugs immediately after partaking The table below presents data regarding possession
of the tea. Ins~ead it is covered with a wooden lid of furniture by the 902 households surveyed. It may
(called Kapche) ornamented with a silver veneer. be observed that cots and tables are the most common
Earthen pots usually of medium and large sizes are while chairs. stools etc., are not so very popular.
to be seeu in many households, these being used for TABLE I
storing water, food grains etc. Brass and aluminium Possession of Fu 'Iliture
ladles called 'Kyog' and 'Chasa' a strainer, are among
the other common articles found in many households. Number of house~olcls posses~ing
,- __ .____ --:_:.A... ......
Rinds of gourds are even now being used by many for CJts T.1b~eJ C1H:. C;;tool~1 AI· Others
serving wa er. Euckets of z nc-sheets and med:um sized f:. benches mir<lh
("'ooden)
copper or brass ves~els may be seen here and there.
Water is usually carried and stored in kerosene tins. C'·,m'") T Hit 1V} 11 13 42
Cam., II 150 H3 11 11 4q
For drinking (or su::king) chang the Tibetans use a Cam" ITI D'l 111 13 8 31
10" to 12" !ong b3mboo cylinder with only one end elm" IV 154 W) 4 S 12
elm" V 1()~ 141 4 3 5 1
open. This bamboo is about 3" to 4" in diameter. Camp VI 12:) 101 7 3 1 S
The TibeLt:1s have necial equiGment for prep1ring
butter tea. It co.usists of a hollow wooden cylinder
·Tot:>l sn 778 64 43 139 8

It was observed that among the 892 households pos-
iessing cots the number of cots usually varied accord-
ing to the number of adults in each household. The ab-
sence of cots in ten of the surveyed households is due
to the fact that these are new arrivals and have not
had enough time or resources to equip themselves with
cots. The cots and tables are made by the refugee
carpenters and due to the availabil:ty of wood in
large quantities dur:ng 1961 to 1964. they were sold
at very low rates. Many of the refugees gathered the
required wood and prepared the cots and tables in a
rather crude manner for their personal use. Those
who came later and were in poorer conditions have
cots of bamboos. No doubt these are mere excuses
for cots and are cheap but yet they serve the requir-
ed purpose. Likewise regarding tables also a variety
both in size and quality may be noticed. In a few
instances the tabies are provided with drawers whereas
in most of the cases they are not. Tables are general-
ly placed besides the cots and are used for keeping
d:shes and taking food. S:xty four out of the 902
households possess at least one chair each. Folding
steel chairs were noticed in a couple of households
TABLE 2
Possession of Consumer Goods
( " " ' - -_ _ _ -
To·cJ.
light
Cltm:) I (Gollarahosah<..11i)
Chll1P Il (Kaila~pt1l)
Camp III (AtlikumarJ)
Cllmp IV (Allikumari)
Camp V (Gulledahalli)
Camp VI (Gulled"h"lIi)
Totl11 . 105
None of the camps is provided with electricity and
there are no street lights either. Thus for moving about
after the night fall torch light is an essential article.
The percentage of households possessing torch lights
to the total is only 11.6. Some of the refugees use hur-
ricane lanterns instead of torches. In a few households
torches rendered unserviceable were also reported but
those have been excluded in the table above. The num-
ber of households possessing wrist watches constitute
a meagre 4.3% of the total. It may be noticed that
there is a concentration of watch-possessing house-
holds at Gulledahalli where the recently arrived refu-
gees have been accommodated. Many of those who
arr:ved in the early days of the settlement were also
reported to have had wrist watches with them but it
appears they preferred to sell them away and invest
29
while in·a majority of instances wooden chairs with
or without arms were observed. Generally the cots
with the beds or mattress~s always spread on them.
are useful for sitting and thus chairs are considered
luxurious. Wooden almirahs, some of which are of
crude workmanship, are found in ] 39 households.
These were also manufactured by the Tibetan car-
penters and sold at low rates soon after their arrival.
Now these pieces of furniture have become costIy as
wood is relatively s.carce. Grass or cotton is filled in
bags stitched out of gunny or other thick cloth to
serve as mattresses. Large and .small pieces of cloth
are sewn together to form quilts which are commOJl-
ly used for covering. A considerable number of house-
holds possess Tibetan carpets e:tch costing Rs. 100 _Of
even more. It is said that soon after coming over here
some of the refugees sold away carpets and a few
other valuable articles which they had managed to
bring with them.
The following table presents a comparative picture
regarding the possession of other con:iumer goods by
the households in different camps.
Number of households possessing
- - _ - _ . A . _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ -'\
Wrist Bicycle Time Kerosenc Iron Rad.o
watc:l picce stove box
15 S I
19 4 2
9
10 .5
22 9
20 15 3 2.
39 8 2 2:
the money so recUsed on livestock, poultry etc; Most
of the refugees who possess the wrist watches are those
who are in service as interpreters. school teachers. em.
ployees of the Tibetan administrat:ve office etc. A
number of refugees possess ram coats either of plastic
or other water proofing material such as rubber. water
proof cloth etc.. umbrellas. woollen rugs, swords big
and small with silver or wooden sheaths. daggers etc.,
are found with some but these have not been separate-
ly enumerated. On the who;e it may be observed that
the refugees have not been able to buy more of rela-
tively luxurious consumer goods and costly or deco-
rative furniture. They satisfy the:r instinctive desire to
decorate their houses. by having festoons and buntings
of coloured paper and by pasting newspaper cutt:ngs
containing coloured pictures on the walls. Their pri,.'
30
mary need be:ng the stabilisation of their economy,
many of them are reported to have invested their sav-
ings mostly on livestock.
Dress and Orname:lts
About the dress type of Tibetans Lois Lang Sims
writes in 'The Presence of Tibet' as follows:-
"The Tibetan layman is generally to be seen wear-
ing a brown knee-length robe (called a chuba) with
long sleeves which in warmer weather he knots loose-
ly round the waist. leav:ng the upper part of his body
clothed in a white shirt. Occasionally. when he finds
that he has risen somewhat in the social scale-in
other words when he has to some degree 'westernized'
himself-he will wear an incongruous pair of Euro-
pean trousers beneath the brown robe, with shoes in
keeping with this garments; otherwise he will have the
traditional knee-length embroidered boots. In either
case he is likely to be somewhat whimsically crowned
with a European feIt hat, a fashion wh:ch entered
Lhasa before the recent flood tide of western influence
and became so firmly established that one can almost
think of it now as part of the legitimate tradition of
Tibet. The women wear a longer robe wh:ch varies in
colour. bright hued blouses and gaudily striped aprons
made of three pieces of material sewn together in
such a way that the stripes do not exactly meet. a de-
vice which adds greatly to the decorative effect. In
Tibet itself there are varying types of women's head
dress but in the Indian borderlands these are rarely to
be seen; the women for the most part wear their shin-
ing black hair in a single plait intenvoven with colour-
ed braid and carried round the head."
The men folk among the refugees in the settlement
generally put on a pair of cotton or woollen trousers
and a cotton or terelene shirt or a bush shirt. During
warmer days many of the men have only hosiery
banians for the upper garment. Their voluminous
'chuba', the traditional knee length over coat. is now
reserved for festive and such other important occa-
sions. The hot climate of the region in addition to the
unsound economic condJion of a majority of the refu-
gees has disuaded the refugees from using 'chuba' re-
gularly. Nevertheless, there are a few men who have
adhered to the old habits regarding the dress. Some
of the refugees put on woollen or cotton coats as a
regular part of their dress. It is not possible to com-
ment upon the quality of the clothings used by the re-
fugees as they have received these from out of tile gift
c10things donated by foreign countries. Since their ar-
rival to the settlement several bales of used clothings
have been received through the Church World Service
iYLAkUPPI
and Catholic Refer Services for distribution amongst
the refugees. Some of the other local and foreign wel-
fare organisations have also provided the refugees with
new clothings. For the refugees who had come over
here with only one or two sets of their traditional
dresses this material help was a real boon and they
did not at all mind the change in their dress type.
Inspite of the fact that many of the refugees were em-
ployed on daily wages and that they themselves had
brought some cash. saved While in the northern In-
dian tranSit camps, most of the refugees have not
been. so far. able to get new cIothings sttched ac-
cording to their tastes and liking. Many may still be
seen roaming about in torn or darned clothings. Now·
a-days the use of half pants-some of which appear
to be shortened trousers-seems to be gain:ng in popu-
larity on account of its low cost and also convenience
whJe working in the fields. Woollen pullover is an
article possessed by many of the men for use during
winter and ra:ny days. These have been mostly re-
ceived as gift articles or purchased locally. Felt hats
and fur caps are the common headgear in use amongst
the Tibetans. The fur caps are sometimes decorated
with des:gns along the borders. In their day-to-day
life most of the refugees do not put on any head-gear.
A sizeable section of the refugees-mostly belonging
to higher age groups-have retained their preference
to the traditional pig tail. The front portion of their
head will be shorn bald frequently. The others have
adopted the cropped hair to wh:ch they apply cocoa-
nut or perfumed castor oil and comb regularly.
Leather shoes are the common footwear amongst
the refugees. Many of them do possess their traditional
embroidered boots but they have been careful enough
to preserve it for occasional use. The shoes they now
have are those which they purchased since coming
over to the' settlement or the ones suppEed to them
free of cost. All the refugees cannot afford to buy
shoes' and therefore some use only chappals. Many a
time these chappals are observed to be made of tyre
sole and rubber strapping costing either Re. 1.00 or
Rs. 1.25 per pair. Hawai chappals are also popular.
Nowadays it is not uncommon to see a few refugees
walking atout bare-footed.
The women's apparel continues as of old and can·
sists of a robe called 'phume', hri!!ht coloured blouse
with sleeves and the multicoloured, striped apron.
Underneath the robe they wear skirts as lower gar-
ments and hosiery banians for upper undergarments.
The bundles and bales of gift clothings received from
different sources conta:ned skirts and blouses also for
free distribution amongst the refugees. The 'phume'
 THE SETTLEMENT AT BYLAKUPPE
has to be got stitched by themselves or the local tailors
as this apparel has not been included in the gift sup-
ply. Each phume costs Rs. 30 or more depending upon
the quaI:ty of the cloth used. It is generally of black.
dark blue, green or brown colour. It is without sleeves
and covers the body from shoulders to the ankles.
In warmer weather and while moving about in their
homes many women prefer to allow the upper part
of the robe i,e., above the wrist level, to remain loose
or wound it round the waist loosely. On such occa-
s'ons they will have only hosiery ban:ans or sometimes
loose b:ouses as upper garments. On festiVe occasions
some women put on ornamental caps with lace borders
and various designs embroidered on them. Occasion-
ally, when the sun's heat becomes unbearable for the
women working in the fields, they spread a folded
piece of cloth on their head but th:s can in no way
be considered as a head dress. Generally the women
do not put on any headgear at all. They dress their
hair in double plaits interwoven with colour braids
and carried round the head. Somet;mes the plaits are
allowed to rest loose either at the back or the front.
The use of shoes and chappals is popular among
females also. Some of them who are poor have pur-
chased cheap tyre-soled chappals for daily use and
have preserved the leather shoes or finer chappals
for occasional wear. A considerable number of
women possess the'r co:ourful trad tional boots which
they have carefully preserved for occasional use. Now-
adays it is not uncommon to notice women moving
about barefooted.
Boys wear trousers, shirts or bush shirts and oc-
cas'onally coats. Some of them have their traditional
chuba as well but it is meant chiefly for festive and
other spec'at occasions. Hosiery. banians are exten-
sively used and many a time boys prefer to remain
clad only in banians and pants. Shoes or chappats
C'Onst;tute almost an inseparable part of a boy's attlre.
Gir!s' dress conSISts of skirts (k;lts) and blouses.
Many possess phume also but they reserve phumes
for use on festive and other occasIons. Unmarried
girls do not generally wear aprons though a few small
children put it on occasionally in imitation of their
elders. Woollen pullovers of varied hues are possessed
by almost all the girls and many of these have been
received as gifts. Some of the girls have bobbed hair
while many dress the:r hair in double plaits.
The lamas in general have preserved their dress
type in the settlement also. They wear voluminous ma-
roon coloured robes and some of them wear yellow,
Ochre or red colc.UIoo vests,
31
Ornaments.-Though an innate desire for ornaments
is not found wanting among the Tibetan women also,
due to their present economic plight, one can notice
in the settlement numerous refugee women bereft of
any valuable ornaments on the:r person. The most
common ornaments donned by them are bracelets
called Tothub. These are generally made of shells.
ivory, plastic or glass. Silver bangles caIIed Drogung
are also to be seen here and there. If some put on
only one or two bracelets on their left wrist, some
others prefer to have one each on both the wrists.
Ear-rings called agkor made of green stones with
gold or crystal pendants, or the locally made ear·
studs are also in common use among the. women. A
considerable number among them put on silver (or
somefmes gold) finge'! rings called Sikho. Those who
possess silver necklaces called Ghavoo usually wear
them on festive and other important days only. A few
youngsters wear tawdry ear and neck ornaments to sa-
tisfy their instinctive desire for bodily decoration. Tn
Tibet it is said, they had a var'ety of ornaments. usual-
ly of gold, studded with pearls and precious stones. It
was also customary for the bridegroom to present a
head ornament called patu to his bride on the occa-
sion of his marriage.
Some men among the refugees put on silver or gold
finger rings a!ld earstuds of turquoise or ear-rings call
ed Nayu. Generally boys do not put on any ornaments
at all while girls may be seen wearing earstuds and
bangles. Both adults and children wear amulets round
their neck to protect themselves from evil influences.
Tattooing is not in vo~ue amongst the Tibetans though
it is not strange to notice a handful of men and women
bearing tattoo marks on their forearms. It is said that
they got the tattoos decorated on their persons only
after coming over to India. It is a common belief among
the Tibetans that if there were to be any unnatural
marks such as tattoo:ng on their body the sp:rit of the
soul resists to leave such a body even after death un-
less certain propitiatory prayers are held. Though it
is generally considered bad manners some of the
young women paint their finger nails pink or red. Cos-
metics such as creams and face powder are regularly
used by a good number of young women and a few
men.
Food and Drinks.-The staple cereals used by the
Tibetans in the settlement are rice, wheat and ragi.
They use tur dhal and vegetables in large quantities
in addition to eggs. Though the majority favours
non-vegetarian diet many cannot afford to consume
meat. or mutton at frequent intervals. Some of them
32
consume beef on account of its relatIve cheapness.
Most of the Tibetans do not eat fish. Those who take
it buy dry fish sold at Kushalnagar on shandy days.
Soon after their arrival most of the able bodied
Tibetans -were employed on a daily wage rate of
Rs. 2.00 whi~e the infirm, the young and the old were
provided free rafons in accordance with the scales
prescribed by the Government of India. Those who
were paid wages had to purchase their requ: rements.
The refugees who arrived later and also those who
could not be offered any employment are also being
given free rations. Several social welfare organisations
have been he~ping the Government in ~;s feeding pro-
gramme by donating liberal quantities of food arti-
cles such as r:ce. wheat four. corn meal, pork. meat,
milk powder, vegetable oils. bulghar wheat etc. Mid-
day meals are prov:ded free to the school-going chil-
dren. The children who attend the creches are being
fed free of cost.
Generally the Tibetans take three meals a day. The
morning breakfa~t taken at about 8 A.M. cons:sts of
either sugar tea or the salted butter tea and flour of
parched whelt or ragi. Usually the flour is put into
the hot tea in a large wooden bowl and kneaded to
form a thick paste or stirred as porridge and consum-
ed. During the agricultural working season men go
away to the fields soon after getting up from their beds
and the female folk carry the breakfast to the fields.
Some of the youngmen consume raw eggs for their
breakfast while some others take biscuits etc. The
midday meal taken between 12 .noon and 2 P.M.
generally co!'.sists of wheat pancakes, vegetable curry
and boiled or scrambled eggs. Some prepare gongdey
or omlete out of these eggs. Lokamomu a preparation
resemblng rusk is a favourite dish of the Tibetans for
mid day meals. Occasionally rice is consumed in small
quantities w:th curds during this meal. The common
vegetables used are potato. on:oo. tomato. lady's fin·
ger, greens. cabbage and beans. It is a common habit
amo:1g all the Tbetans to throw bits of food thrice
into the a'r as an offering to Gods (Kunjo Sum) be-
fore they themselves begin to eat out of the plate.
The night meal cons'sts usually of Thukpa (nodules
of wheat ata or maida) spiced with onions, chillies,
. tomato. salt etc. In a few households cakes of rice
and dhal are eaten instead of the Thukpa. In Tibet
they were accustomed to eat food either with chop-
sticks or spoon but since coming over to the settle-
ment most of them eat with spoons only, They eat
BYLAKUPPB
certain dishes with bare hands also. The chopsticks
are used only on festive and other important days.
The Tibetans prepare biscuits and some other fried
dishes with wheat ata and cheese for domestic use.
Tea is the most favourite beverage and in each
household it is prepared at least twice a day-morning
and at about 3 P.M.-and each member consumes
at least three cups at a time. Those who cannot afford
to buy milk, co::sume the tea decocten as such and
due to paucity of sugar they use salt instead of sugar.
For the preparat:on of butter tea they use tea leaf im-
ported from Northern India and sold in the local Co-
operative Society. This tea is costlier than the ether
brands of tea sold in the local market. As th:s butter
tea requires some quantity of butter also for its pre-
paration for many of the Tibetans the butter tea has
become a luxury. It is on festive occasions and for
special feasts that butter tea is invariably prepared in
every househo!d. However. there are a few house-
holds in which the butter tea is prepared at very fre-
quer:t intervals. A few of the Tibetans occasionally
take coffee. Chang is their favourite, m:ldly intoxicat-
ing. drink. In Tibet they were preparing this beer from'
barley but in th's sett:ement they use mostly ragi. The
yeast required is locally avaJable in the form of tablets.
Ragi grains are boiled and allowed to dry up for a
short while. These are then mixed with chungse the·
yeast and transferred to an empty kerosene tin,·
covered tightly w:th a plank and allowed to ferment
for 2-3 days. Some people keep it for a week or even
more. Whenever required small Qucmt;tles of the grams
with chang are put into 10 to 12". long bamboo cylin-
drical containers and the chang is sucked through
straws. Both men and women relish this drink as they'
hold chang to be a harmless drink which only tones
up the body. Till the end of 1964 many of the T:betans
were said to have been taking chang daily and in liberal
quantities. But since then due to a constant urge to give
up this habit made by the local officers and the Tibe-
tan leaders. many are sa'd to have been observing
some restraint. It is on festive occasions and feasts.
that everyone indulges in the excessive intake of·
this intoxicant. Though prohibit:on is in force in this
district. occas:onally even wine finds its way into the
settlement.
Smoking of cigarettes or beedi is not very wide-
spread. The use· of snuff is relatively more popular
and even a number of women are addicted to it
 CHAPTER IV
ECONOMY
ErOZlomic resources:
Land, livestock, household industry and labour
are the chief economic resources for the Tibe-
tans in the settlement. According to the
scheme every adult refugee, whether male or female
is enUled to the possession of one acre of land which
can be put to immediate production. But as the
entire land earmarked for the refugees was forest land
it was not possible to allot the lands until they
were reclaimed and got ready for occupation. More-
over in view of the difficulties of the refugees in earn-
ing their daily bread until their lands could prov:de
adequate income it was proposed to provide each
rerugee with some subsistence allowance till he could
reali~e harvests for the first two years. The tasks
of disforestation and reclamation, in addition to the
training of the refugees in the local methods of cul-
tivation thus fanned part of the scheme. Thus, by
the time this survey was undertaken. most of the
residents at Gollarahosahalli had realised two har-
vests and the free subs!stence rations had been totally
stopped from December 1964. Among the residents
of Kailasapur many had already reaped two harvests
while some had realised only one. The quantity of
rat!O::lS issued to them was reduced by half during the
period December 1964 to June 1965 and thereafter
the issue of rations was totalIy s·opped. Those at
Arlikumari received full rations between January 1966
and March 1966.· At Gulledahalla the refugees are
entitled to receive full rations for the year 1966-67
also, as they have not yet reaUsed even a single crop.
Thus. at present, land in the settlement is more an
apparent economic resource than a real one. Though
a total extent of 3000 acres is expected to go into
full production shortly, the actual area brought under
the plough till 1964-65 was about 1350 acres only.
Rearing livestock and poultry is an important
secondary occupation for almost every household in
the settlement. Some of the refugees are reported
to have brought with them some cash while many
other have managed to save a little, for investment
on cows, goats and poultry. Particulars of posses-
si("lTI of !ivc~tock are given in the statement below:
No. of No. of
Households animals
possessing
2 3
1. Cows 371 S88
2. Young stock 261 317
33
5-3 Census/My!ort/11
1 2 3
3. Goats 125 516
4. Pigs'
S. Donkeys . 83
14
156
16
6. Poultry 716 3034
In addition to the above the household or house-
holds living in every house possess one bullock each.
The livestock products namely milk, butter. cheese
and eggs find a ready market in the settlement as
well as at Kushalnagar.
Some among the refugees are skilled in crafts such
as carpentry, smithy, painting etc., and as they also
have been given lands, the crafts provide them with
a secondary source of income. Twenty-one out of the
902 households surveyed. are reported to have earned
substantially during 1954 by pursuing the following
cra"ts: Carpentry-7 households; Silver smithy-4
househo 1ds; Tai'oring-4 househoUs; Blacksmithy-3
households; Knitting of woollen sweaters and socks-2
households: and shoe making-one household. It waS
observed. during the survey, that knitting of sweaters
was a hobby for female members in numerous other
households but the income derived therefrom was too
meagre to be taken notice of. A few among the
Tibetans are hawkers selling vegetables, eggs etc.. in
the s(tt:errent itself. Only one household at Gulleda-
halli is reported to be engaged in seIling cattle feed
like oil-cakes, cotton seed etc., on a small scale.
The Tibetans are known to be honest and hard
workers. This has already become an established
fact in and around the settlement also. A good
number of the Tibetans periodically move into the
coffee plantations of Coorg district to work as
labourers. Some of them. seek work at Kushalnagar
and other surrounding big villages as caounl labourers.
When the jungle clearance work as wen as constru-
ction of roads in the settlement were in full swing
there were ample employment opportunitles but, now-
a-days it is hard to find work regularly. However,
during the agricultural seamn, some of them get
work in the settlement itself.
Reclamation of forest land :
During 1961, the Tibetans were engaged on wages
for clearing the dense tree-growth in the land ear-
34
marked for allotment to the refugees. The" Range
Forest Officer and his assistants supervised this ope-
ration. The valuable timber obtained therefrom was
taken possession of by the Forest Department for
further disposal, while the less useful wood was either
burnt off or used by the refugees as fuel. T,hus by
the end of June 1962 about 3000 acres were cleared
of the standing tree-growth and in about 2000 acres
the stumps and shrub' growth were destroyed by
fire so as to render the land fit' for 'the plough. A
further extent of 300 acres was cleared at Gul1eda-
ha11a during April 1965. An extent of 105 acres at
Arlikumari was cleared during July 1965 and that
reduced the area to be cleared of the iungle to only
286 acres which is shortly to be released by tile Gov-
ernment. At present there is a dearth of shade bear-
ing trees in and around the habitation sites as well
as alongside the newly built roads. No visitor to
the settlement, particularly during summer monlhs,
fails to notice this lacuna. Possibly this unpleasant
situation could have been avoided if only the neces-
sity of shade bearing trees had been realised at the
very initial stages. However. it appears that after
most of the trees in the entire area were felled. road-
side planting and waste-land planting of saplings was
taken u.p during 1962. The surviving plants are too
few to make their presence felt_ ' is got resurveyed. It is only then that these plots-
Owing to the presence of large stumps and under-
ground roots in countless numbers even after the
burning operations conducted in June 1962 in an
area of about 2000 acres, the land was not readily
usable. So a team of four bull-dozers was hired from
the State Government to clear the land of these
persisting obstructions and also to attend to the bund-
ing and levelling work wherever this WaS necessary.
The bulldozers cleared an extent of about 2000 acres
in one year. At this juncture. the Tibetans them-
~elves were asked to clear the obstructions in the re-
maining ,He:!. But they could not show much pro-
p:ress and one precious year was lost in inactivity. At
Ia;t the a~sistancc of Swiss Aid Abroad had to be
sought and the work was started in January 1965.
This on:anisation has provided two caterpillars as also
the required technical personnel. Three bu1Jclozers have
also been obtained on hire from the State Govern-
ment in order to complete the work before the onset
of the impending monsoons.
Soil conservation
The topography of the settlement area in gene.ral
h:,s rendered contour bunding and other soil conser-
BYLAJ:UPPI
vation measures very essential. This item of work
has been entrusted to the agricultural experts working
under the Swiss Aid Abroad and will be taken up
after harvest of 1965-66 year's crop.
Allotment of Lands
Cadastral survey was taken up in the lands deared
during 1962 itse:f. The surveyors were instructed to
divide the land into blocks of 5 acres each in the
Iselected villages. Every such block has been pro-
perly demarcated with head and wing stones. The
demarcated lands have been allotted to the families
of Tibetans at the rate of one block per family.
There seems to be some confus~on caused due to the
existence of two maps of Arlikumari-both prepared
by the Survey Department but having different survey
numbers. This is sought to be rectified by the prepara-
tion of a new map and subsequent grant of saguvali
(lease) chits to the Tibetan assignees. In order to
facilitate the bull-dozing work in about 1300 acres at
Gulledahalla. the head and wing stones have been
removed. These demarcation stones have to be reo
planted after the clearance work is over and the land
can be assigned to the Tibetans for cultivation.
Cultivation holdings
As for the purposes of allotment of land and
houses, family units each consisting of 5 adults were
formed, there cannot be any variation with regard to
the size of cultivation holdings. But if households.
defined as "the group of persons who live together
in the same census house and take their meals from
a common mess unless the exigencies of work pre~
vent them from doing so ",-are to be compared a
wide disparity may be noticed regarding the size of
holdings. During the survey 902 households living in
about 570 census hOllses have been enumerated and
as some of them had arrived only a' few days or
weeks before, they had not yet been allotted any
land. In numerous family units there wer~ more than
one household while in a few instances the number
of adults in the family exceeded fIve due to subse-
quent additions, amalgamations etc. The subjoined
statement provides comparison at a glance. How-
ever, it may be snid that this does not represent a
settled pattern as there is still scope for adjust-,
ments in the allotment' and possession of lands.
 -TABLE III
. Land Holding

Size of holdmg Households ~

Camp-wise
____ _____ distribution
_ _ - A _of the
__ __Household,
_________ ~

Number Per cent

Camp I Camp II Camp III Camp IV Camp V (.:tmp VI

No land 57 6-32 1 2 21 32
Acre HJO 107 11'87 10 11 2I 11 39 15
Acres ~·oo 339 37' 59 85 60 62 24 j8 50
Acres 3'00 li4 19-2,9 34 32 34 20 26 28
AC1CS 4'00 38 4-21 9 4 9 9 5 2
Acres 5·00 176 19-51 23 40 19 29 33 32
Aer,s 6·00 3 0-33 2
Acres 7-00
ACles 8·00 ~
.> o 33 "'
Acres 9'OJ 2 0·22 1
Acres 10'00 :; n-33
lind more.
---.--
90~ 100-00 162 152 167 126 165 130

Cultivation As the cost of cultivation was met by the Depart-

The following facts present a background to the hi5~
tory of cultivation as noticed during the survey_
During 1961-62, about 100 acres of the reclaimed
Jand were brought under the plough (by the autho-
rities incharge of the scheme). The crop~ sown
were: -horsegram--50 acres; coriander-50 acres;
paddy-4 acres; cotton-4 acres and tobacco-l acre.
It is reported that the yields were far below the
average and this was attributed to late sowing and
the very heavy rainfall during the latter half of 1961.
In the following year namely 1962-63. 600 acres
were sown with various crops. The Tibetans were
employed on wages (Rs. 2 per day) at every stage
of cultivation under the supervision as well as guid-
ance of the staff of the Agricultural Department. In
all 91 families -mostly residing at GollarahosahaIli--
participated in this cultivation programme. The crops
sown and the yields realised were:
(i) Paddy-182' 00 palla" valued at
(ii) Ragi-79-97 pallas valued at
(Iii) Horsegram-4- 50 palla" valued at
(iv) C(Jtton-actual v"Jue at
(v) Tobacco-actual value at
Totw'
ment. the cash realised by the sale of cotton and
tobacco was remitted to the Government. The food
crops were distributed equally among the 91 parti-
cipant families. In 1963-64. the area under the
crops in.creased to about 1350 acres. The Depart-
ment supplied the seeds, fertilisers and pesticides
required for the cultivation of sea island cotton in
the settlement. The net area sown with cotton
being 214 acres and 6 guntas, the total quantity of
colton realised stood at 102.14 quintals valued ap-
proximately at Rs. 26,000. In this programme 65
families took part and after the deduction of actual
cost of materials supplied by the Government each
family could get Rs. 200 approximately. In the re-
maining one thousand and odd acres crops such
as ragi, paddy, horsegram, tobacco, potato etc., were
sown by the Tibetans either indiv.idually or by form-
ing group-farming associations.
Particulars of cultivation practised during 1964-65
by the various households were collected during the
survey. As two types of cultivation namely, Indi-
7,2t{O-OO vidual-farming and Group-farming prevailed it is
3,200-00 neither possible to estimate the total area under each
crop nor the total yield. Of the 902 households, 373
190_ 00
households were not engaged in cultivation, 223
12,993 -36
households had individual farms while the remain-
2,616-75 ing 306 househoulds participated in the various group
farming_. associations. The following camp-wise dis-
26,280 -11 'tribution of these three types of households present
a clear picture of the conditions prevailing then.
36 BYLAgl1PP~

TABLE IV
H(}u~eholds and Cuitintion

Type of Household ...--.J..._-.. ... ______________

Households ('amp-wise di,tribution ,.A. _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ '_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ '"""\

No. % Camp I Camp II Camp III Camp IV Camp V C<1mp VI

lIh % Hh ~~ Hh % Hh % Hh ~~ Hh %
I. Ho].;seholds baving r.o cultivation 373 41-4 2 1'2 15 9'9 5) 29'7 44- 3H 153 1))- -> 97 H1
II. Houscholus having individual farms' 223 24'7 15 9'3 82 53'9 110 65'<) 15 11'7 1 0'7
III. Households engaged in group farming 306 33'9 145 89'5 SS 36'2 7 4'4 67 53'4 32 2-J.-6
All Households 902 100'0 162 100-0 152 100-0 167 100-0 123 100'0 155
---
lOJ-O 130 10)'0

Thus only about 25% of the households were work-
ing as individual cultivators. Probably lack 0: agri-
cultural background added to the assured foo:'! supply
(free rations) resulted in the refugees taking readily
to the idea of group farming. In many households
young men emigrated to places in northern India in
search of work leav:ng behind only women. children
and the old. Thus in each camp. especially at
Gollarahosahalli, numerous group farming associa-
tions came into being and each had a recognised
leader who wa~ responsible for keep:ng accounts
and organising' the work. In all these associations
the participants used to take food from a common
kitchen to which they had to give away their rations.
If the actual expenditure exceeded this limit they were
required to bear it equally. The land cu1tivated was
usually a contiguous block and it was not essential
to cover all the land assigned to each one of the
participants. The total produce was to be shared
equally among the actual and regular workers. The
number of workers in these associations varied bet-
ween 10 and 100 or even more in a few instances.
A glance at the above figures brings out the fact that
group farm:ng was very popular at GoUarahosahalli
(camp I) whereas it was the least popular at Arli-
kumari (camp III)- The reasons for such a marked
difference in the systems of cultivation in the two
colonies could not however be ascertained. It may be
only a conjecture to say that most of the refugees
settled at Arlikumari (camp III) had a better agricul-
tural background than the others or it may be due to
individual preferences_ At Gulteiahalla II (camp V[)
some enthusiasts hailing from 32 households raised
horsegram on an experimental basis and each worker
got about 13 Kgs of the grain. There were numerous
but small work groups in camps V and VI for shrub
clearance work in their assigned lands. The workers
who absented themselves had to pay a pe3alty to
the union and the amount so accrued was to be used
for giving offerings to lamas and prayers. At this
stage it is not possible to say whether the residents
of Gulledaha!la wou:d take to group farming or not.
On enquiries being made about the arrangements
for cultivation during the year 1965-66. many ex-
pressed a preference for individual farming. At
Gollarahosahalli also a change in the attitude express-
ing a marked preference to individual farming wa~
reported. The main causes for this change seem to
be the inevitable bickerings and misunderstandings
regarding div:s:on of labour etc .• which crop up in the
group farming associations and also the cessation of
the issue of rations from December 1964 at Gollara-
hosahalli.
The table presented below shows the particulars
of crops raised by the indiv:dual farmers in different
camps:-

TABLE V
Agricullura! Produce

Camp
...---"--'----..
Rh':;

House· Area Qu;)n-

Paddy
, - -____ .A._ _ _

HOClse· Area Quan-

~
HOrSel5iam
,----"----'"""\ -
House- Are.1 Q'lan- Hou~p-·
Cotton
, . _ _ _ _ ..A _ _ _ ,

Area Value
holds tity holds tity holds thy hoUs (Rs.)
acroS Quintals acres Bag aCreS Quintals ac~e~
(0 (0) (0-00) (0'00) (000)

I 5 6'50 7,00 4 8'00 10'0) 4 4-0) 4-61) IJ 1Q-50 ),2l5

II 15 16- 37 2.H)I) 2.\ 32- ()() 87'30 35 59- f)) 87-2') 61 8'1-0 ]2,859
HI 52 6S-()() ]2-~' 50 18 20- 50 59'50 43 4':;-5') 6~-25 77 105'5') ]6,985
IV 9 12-00 IS-50 1 1 . (){) 2-50 8 11· 5) 12-50 8 8-50 1,355
VI 1 t -(){) 1-00
TOTAl 81 102'87 170· ()I) 46 61·50 159'30 91 121-0J 173-60 159 221-63 24,444
ICONOMY
TABLE V (Cone/d)
Cam~
Tobacco
,-----__.)....---
House- Area Value
holds
.. holds
r - _ __J.._
House-
(Rs.)
I 10 10'50 1873
II 24 23'75 4007 2 1'50
III 24 23'50 3272
IV
VI
Total 58 57'75 9152 2 1'50
The total area cultivated is 570 acres. In the set-
tlement cotton and horsegram appear to be the
favourire crops. If the area under cotton accounts for
38.88 % that under horsegram accounts for 21.22 %
of the total area cultivated by these farmers. Consi·
dering the households it is seen that of the 223 in-
dividual farmers as many as 159 households consti·
tUeing 71.3 % have taken a crop of cotton and 91
households forming 40.8% have reaped horsegram.
Horsegram can be raised as a second crop either as
a single crop or as a mixture with ragi. Ragi. cover·
ing about 103 acres out of the 570 acres of land
,cultivated. happens to be the most common and
extensively grown cereal in the region. The number
of individual farming households which reaped ragi
in the settlement being 81, the percentage to the
total number of individual farming households works
out to 36.3. Paddy-a wet crop-is less popular
as the irrigable area itself is meagre. The field
staff of the Mysore Tobacco Company are also trying
to popularise tobacco cultivation in the settlement.
Farming practices
Preparatory cleaning of land and tillage starts
in April following an adequate rainfall. The
lands are plougl}ed with iron and wooden
ploughs two to thr~e times at intervals of about a
fortnight each. ThCf plots are manured with small
quantities of farmyard manure during May and again
the plots are ploughed with the country plough once.
As the Tibetans are not yet conversant in the use
of the plough, the furrows formed by their plough-
ing the lands are frequently noticed to be running zig-
zag rather than in parallel straight lines. Never-
theless the number of ploughings and also the depth
to which the plough share penetrates helps in upturn-
ing the sub-soil and obtaining a good tilth. Gene-
rally the land would be ready to receive the seed
by the first week of June if the rains are timely
and adequate.
Cotton is sown during the first half of June and
the other crops namely ragi and paddy are sown
37
Potato
Area
--.,
Quan-
tity
Groundnut
r-'----"-
House-
holds
Area
Maize
-----., ,--_---A.. _ _--.,
Va:ue House- Area
(Rs.) holds
Quan-
city
Quintal (Bag)
2'50 3 1'25 320 1
2'00 300
2'50 4 3'25 620 0'50 0'50
during the last week of June or early July. The
transplanting of tobacco seedlings is also carried out
during this period. Cotton seeds are dibbJed in hole~
one foot apart on the top of the well·formed ridges.
Ragi is sown with a seed-drill while paddy is either
transplanted or broadcast. About four weeks after
the sowing the thinning and gap filling operatIOns
as well as weeding operations commence. For tobacco
and cotton, fertilizers are applied at appropriate times
as directed by the agricultural staff. Hand Weeding
operations are carried out at frequent intervals. their
frequency depending on the growth of weeds. Ragi
and paddy would generally be ready for harvest bet-
ween the second week of November and the first week
of December. Cotton picking also starts during
November and lasts for six to eight weeks. Horsegram
is usually sown in the second half of September and
harvested in the last week of December. This crop
does not involve much labour or care,
It may be of interest to mention here that both
sea-island cotton and cigarette tobacco ·are new to the
area surrounding the settlement. Ragi, paddy and
horsegram are the major crops rasied by the culti-
vators of the surrounding villages. Some cultivators
produce beedi and chewing tobacco on a small
scale. As such it is not possible to have any com-
parative idea regarding the cost of cultivation and
per acre yield of these crops.
In April 1961. the sea island cotton scheme was
introduced at Bylakuppe in order to cover the Tibetan
colonies in particular and the other surrounding
villages in general. There is an office of the Sea
Is:and Cotton Assistant at Periyapatna. During
1961-62 a plot measuring about 3 acres was selected
in the Tibetan settlement as a demonstration plot
for raising sea island cotton. It fetched a total
yield of 8 quintals worth about Rs. 1600. During
the same year, the Field Assistant at Bylakuppe in-
duced a number of cultivators to raise cotton in a
total extent of 60 acres. In Manchadevanahal1i~
 BYLACUPPa:;

which borders Gulledahalla and lies adjacent to the . generally employ any labourers at all as they mostly
Mysore-Mercara trunk road. only S acres were depend on household assistance or on exchange
brought under cotton. At Kappa another adjacent labour. Moreover they are hard and diligent workers
village only 2 acres were sown with cotton. The who work from dawn to dusk with very little rest
other villages covered such as Chikhosur, Doddahosur. in between. They do not buy the farmyard manure
A varti, Dindagadu, Marati Koppalu, etc., are all far for application to the fields but manage with what
away being 6 to 8 miles distant from Bylakuppe. little quantities they are able to conserve or gather all
This cotton scheme offers as an incentive a 50% the year round. Thus the actual input in cash for
subsidy regarding the cost of fertilisers and pesti- cultivation of cotton in one acre does not normally
cides used in the cultivation of the crop. In the follow· exceed Rs. 80. It may go up to Rs. 100 in a few
ing year about 30 acres .cultivated . in the settlement' . caSe$ .as som.e of the Tib_etans are wont to employ
under the management of the Special Office. were the local labourers for ploughing operations. The
sown with cotton while a total of about 100 acres gros:. value of the produce being about Rs. 400 or
from the other surrounding villages were brought even more under favourable weather conditions, the
under cotton. The area under cotton in the settle· net income per acre of cotton may be reckoned ~s
ment increased very rapidly in 1963·64 and also Ri. 300.
1964-65 to about 400 acres. The average yield per
Tools and equipments:
acre is 2 quintals and the price per quintal will
usually be about Rs. 220. If the entire cultivation Under this Settlement Scheme each Tibetan family
operations are carried on with hired labour and unit has been supplied with the following tools and
the farmyard manure is also paid for the cost of implements:
cultivation per acre will be about Rs. 222 as detailed
below: 1. Iron plough with chain
2. Country plough (wo:>den)
Cost of cultivation (according to thl! wage-ratts 3. Yo'(e
preyailing in the villages)
4. Pickaxe 1
5. Felling-axo 1
L Ploughing. 6. Sickles 3
Thrice @ Rs. 6 per ploughing por acre· 18'0',)
7. Bill hook£ 2
2. Manuring with 6 cart loads of farmyard manure 8. Mumptie3 . 2-
@ Rs. 6 per cart load, including the labour ChllI'
ges . 36'00 9. Iron pan . 3'
10. Crowbar
3. Sowing: Cost of 5 Kg. ~eeds @ 60 paisllrKg.
and wages for 5 labourers @ Rs. 1'00 each . During the enquiry it was noticed that yokes and
4. T11irming and gap fllling (two laboul'ers-one wooden ploughs ,vere yet to be distributed among the
day) . ...
residents of Gulledahalla. Apart from the above,
~. Spraying with Blito" etc. each camp has also been provided with the following
6. Application of 80 Kgs of cotton mixture Ydued equipments for common use:
at Rs. 34' . . • . . . 38'00
7. Earthing-up operation following tbe appli· 1. Bullock carts 5
cation of the fertiliser . Jl.OQ 2. Stone rollers for threshlag 5
8. Second spraying 12'00 3. Sprayers ' 8
4. Inte. cultivatOr!! . 2
9. Hand weeding-IO female labourers onc day 10'00
S. Seed drill S
10. Third spraying . 12.. 00
Each family has been given a working bullock valued
11. Two more woedings at requisite intervals 20'00
approximately at Rs. 500 per pair. Some of the
12. Spraying soon after the bolls are formed 10'00 households possessed wooden ploughs made in the
13. Cotton picking and cleaning 40'00 Tibetan fashion. Two types of ploughs were noticed
Total. RIO. 222'00 during the survey. One of the carpenters at Gul1eda-
halla (camp VI) was found engaged in preparing
the Tibetan ploughs and yokes on a small scale.
In the settlement the wage rate for the Tibetan
labourers varies between Rs. 1.50 and 2.00. This is Organisal'ion of manpower
33 % higher than the rates prevailing in the surround· As each family-which in tum has split up into
ing Village:;. But the Tibetans themselves do not different homogeneous households-poss.esses only one
'CONOllY
working bul10ck and a set of implements, there is an
explicit need for mutual assistance among the Tibetans.
Probably this factor weighed much in favour of forma·
tion of numerous group-farming associations at the
initial stages. Now, with an increase in the number of
individual cultivators. the tendency to acquire more
working bullocks and also a few essential implements,
is growing. In fact some 6 households have already
purchased one working bullock each in addition to
the one supplied free under the Scheme. As a
result of the dissolution of group-farming associations
the necessity of engaging seasonal agricultural
labourers is felt. Reciprocal aid is also common among
the Tibetans. A5 both men and women work in thO!'
fields from dawn to dusk during the seasons. their
dependence on hired labour is not very appreciable.
Generally men plough the lands and also operate the
other bullock-drawn imp~ements in addition to doing
an other agricultural operations. The women help
their men in every ;:.gricu!turaI operation exce:pting in
the operation of the plough and other bullock power~d
implements.
All the cultivators usually draw up a programme
of cultivation for the following year well in adv:lnce
so that their requirements of seed are met timely. So
far, the seeds and fertilisers have been sllppJied free of
cost by the Government. During 1963·64, the residents
of Gol1arahosahalli were supplied seeds, fertiJiseres
and pesticides required for cotton cu1tivation as an
aid and were required to repay the cost after the
realisation of the corp. In all 97 fam:Hes were given
776 Kgs. of cotton seeds valued at Rs. 494.64; cotton
mixture valued at Rs. 5008.00; 624 packets of Fytalon
valued at Rs. 1528.80; Endrex (233 tins) valued at
Rs. 2062.05 and 268 tins of FollidoI valued at
Rs. 1996.60. The total cost of this assistance being
Rs. 11,092.09, the amount recovered stood at Rs.
9,678.29. The recovery of the remaining sum mmely Rs.
1,413.80 was subsequently waived. A scheme named
"OXFAM Seed and Fertilisers Scheme" fin~nced by
CRS and NCWC is in operation since 1963-64. A
sum of Rs. 4,700 was granted for the purpose and this
would be kept rotating year after year. Dming the
year 1964·65 the follO\ving quantiHes. of seeds and
fertilisers were issued ~
Rs.
1. Seeds-Ragi-246 seer~ 123·00
Paddy-1800 seers 548'00
Cotton-457 Kgs. • 287·91
, Horsc¥tam -41Zi seen • •... ·0 264·60,
39
R&.
2. Fertilisers-Cotton mixrure--6800 KS!>, 1,904'00
3. Pesticides Fytalon-184 pockets 528'08
Endrine-96 Tins 831·36
Follidol-9 Tins 50·31
4.637'26
As there was a partial failure of paddy, remission of
Rs. 648 was granted. Apart from this the Central
Relief Committee provided Rs. 30,000 for seeds, fer-
tilisers and pesticides for supply (during 1965-66) to
the cultivators of the first four camps on condition that
10% of the cost is recoverable at the time of distribu·
fon and 40% after the harvest. By the end of June the
seeds for cotton, ragi. potato, groundnut and paddy had
already been distributed. The requirement of seeds
and fertilisers in respect of GulIedahaIIa (for the year
1965-66) was met by the Government. The Tibetans
who propose to cu16vate tobacco intimate the company
staff well in time and through them obtain the re-
quisite quantity of seedlings. fertilisers and pesticides.
The payment for these articles will be made after
the crop is reaped and disposed of.
Disposal of produce
Tobacco leaf produced in the settlement is bought
bv the Mysore Tobacco Company who have establisht'Al
b~rns at Bylakuppe itself. Cotton is sold either to the
local Tibetan Co-operative Society or at depot of the
Sea Island Cotton Marketing Society Periyapatna, at
Kushalnag.2r. Part of the food crops is consumed by
the farmers themselves and the surplus if any, of ragi,
paddy, potato. horsegram etc., is sold to the Tibetan
Co-operative Stores or at the weekly shandy at Kushal·
nagar. "A number of Tibetans use horsegram as a
nutritive cattle feed.
Many of the refugees raise papaya, plantains and
some seasonal vegetables like sweet gourds, beans etc.,
and sell the surplus quantity either locally or at
Kushalnagar.
Animal husbandry
Since settling over at Bylakuppe numerous
households of the Tibetans have taken to
rearing pOUltry. goats and pigs in addition
to cows. The Tibetan Animal Husbandry Co-opera-
tive formed recently maintains cows and poultry birds.
In March 1966 the co·operative had 25 cows, one
breeding bull. 18 calves and 144 poultry birds. The
initial funds for purchase of cows and poultry have-
been donated by the Y.M.C.A. and the Government
respectively. Initially fifteen cows of Sindhi breed
with calves-each costing Rs. 500 and 10 Sindhi
heifers In addition to one Sindhi stud bull, were pur'
40 BYLAltUPPlt

chased. The contractor who supplied these animals A count of livestock head was taken during 1963
donated two more cows, of his own accord. Improved by the veterinary staff attached to the office of the
poultry birds-50 White Leg Horn hens and 5 cocks Special Officer. It was revealed that there were 216
and 50 Rhode Island Red hens and 5 cocks were sup- cows. 1654 goats, 166 pigs, 15 donkeys and 1820
plied to the Farm during January 1965. In order to poultry birds. 524 work:ng bullocks, which were
popularise poultry rearing and also help the Tibetans. donated to the families were also enumerated. The
the Y.M.C.A. donated eggs to some 62 families at the table below presents campwise livestock statistics ac-
rate of seven per family, cording to the present survey.
TABLE VI
Livestock Statistics
Cows Calves Goats Pig'! Donkeys Poultry
r-----J..__---, r-___"'__-, ,-__.r..._-, , - - - - " - - - , ,-___"A,. _ _ """'I ,----"-_"""'1
H)me- No. of House- No. of House- No. of House- N:). of House- No. of H);J~e- No. of
holds animals holds animal! holds anima1.~ holds animlls h)IJ, animl!s hoJj, birds

I. Gollara Hosahalli. 94 133 69 96 20 86 12 26 2 2 149 699

II. Kaila,apura 85 167 71 128 16 39 13 27 10 11 119 571
lIT. Arl:kumaii 64 101 33 52 1 55 4 5 1 127 5)1
IV. Arlikumari 53 85 25 31 5 16 6 7 1 2 82 289
V. Gul'edhalla 42 54 31 36 36 116 32 57 131 514
vr. Gulledhalla 33 48 27 34 41 204 16 34 lOS 4:iJ
Total 371 588 261 377 125 515 83 156 14 16 716 3)34

It is seen that 41 % of the total number of house- the 83 households rearing pigs as many as 48 are
holds possess cows; 28.9% possess calves; 13.8% pos- found at Gulledahalla and they possess 91 out of the
sess goa's; 9.2% possess pigs; 1.5% possess donkeys total 156 pigs. In the settlement pigs have an easy
while 79.4% of them possess poultry birds in varying market and they also breed profusely. During the
numbers. In the above table buEocks have been ex- enquiry it was revealed that many more households
cluded as these animals have been given to all the in camps I and II possessed larger num'1er of goats
family units settled in the camps and subsequently and also pigs tm about 1964. Subsequently these were
many of these famiEes have split up into households sold away gradually and many of them bought cows
and thus possess the bullock allotted jointly. Some 5 and calves. In due course, that is, when the residents
or 6 households have already purchased bullocks for of GuIIedahalla also take up to cu!t'vation whoUy they
their culfvation. This tendency is slowly gaining may also prefer to rear cows and bullocks.
ground. A study of the above table brings out the fact
that 51 % of the total number of cows in the settle- The total value of livestock owned by the refugees
me::t are concentrated in camps I and II while 62% is esfmated at approxiately Rs. 1,00,000. A distri-
of the goats are concentrated in Gulledahalla that is, bution of the households by the total value of lIve-
camps V and VI. Th:s disparity, namely concentra- stock owned is given below:
tion of cows, may be due to the more stabilised condi-
tions that prevail in the first two camps where most of V,alue of anim:.ls Households
,-._......A._'""'\
the refugees have been culfvating the lands since 1963. No. %
At GuPedahalla however cultivation is yet to begin.
Moreover it is easy to rear goats which are consider- Nil 186 21
ably cheaper than cows. In camp IV that is ArIiku- Below Rs. 100'00 325 36
mari II there are about 20 households which consist Between Rs. IOJ and 250 203 23
of the old. the infirm, or the lamas. Hence the per- Between Rs. 250 and .500 141 15
centage of households possessing cows as well as the Rs. 500 and above . 47 .5
number of cows found are relatively low. It is for this Total . 902 100
very reason that there are fewer number of poultry
birds in camp IV. The residents of GuIIedahaIIa have The livestock products namely milk and eggs are
preferred to rear goats probably because the goats can in some cases, wholly consumed by the members of the
find a ready market. Though pigs are found in all the producing households. Many sell the surplus to their
six camps they are very popular at Gulledahalla. Of neighbours- or to tho Tibetan COeoperative Stores, Milk
ECONOMY
is usually sold at 10 paise per glass (approximately
60 paise per litre) while eggs are sold at 5 to 6 a
rupee. In some households butter and cheese are pre-
pared out of milk mostly for domestic consumption.
In the society. -however, the unsold milk is daily used
up for production of butter and cheese which in turn
is sold later. Goats are not generally milked. They
are bred mainly for trading purposes. The average
price of a goat is Rs. 40 and that of a well grown
pig is Rs. 60. Donkeys are used as pack animals
for carrying water, food grains etc.
The Tibetans usually buy the cows and bullocks at
Konanur, about 12 miles away. The cattle are of
Hallikar breed. The Society however, possesses 15
graded Sindhi cows. Besides the stud bull reared by
the Society there are a few adult males which stray
with other cattle. Most of the Tibetans, however, mate
their cows, with the breeding bulls at Kushalnagar.
So far none has availed ,of the artificial insemination
facilities.
So far twenty-two Tibetans have undergone a six
month's training course in poultry rearing and bee-
keeping. These camps which were held at Marthan-
dam. Madra~ State were orgrmi<;ed and financed by
the Y.M.C.A.
The grazing facilities for the cattle in the settle·
ment are adequate at present. In addition to grazing,
the working bullocks are also stall-fed. Their feeds
generally consist of ragi hay. During the heavy work-
ing season the bullocks are given a feed of soaked
horsegram in addition to their regular food. Till the
close of 1964, Government supplied hay or straw for
feeding the bullocks, which were allotted to each family.
Industries
Some of the refugees did posse~s skill in crafts such
as smithy, carpentry, shoemaking, etc., even while
they were in Tibet. Since arriving in India a few
more obtained the requisite training in crafts. In the
settlement these artisans have slowly begun to cater
to the needs of their fellowmen. Now out of the 902
households, 21 are engaged in household industries and
are earning a moderate income from this source. In
the settlement itself the Y.M.C.A. has been impart-
ing industrial training to women having an aptitude
for tailoring and embroidery. So far 12 women have
been trained in embroidery while 24 are undergoing
a course in tailoring. Government have also been
paying adequate attention to this aspect. From 1960,
nearly 60 refugees have been trained in vrnious craft~
6-3 CensU9i Mysore!71
41
such as carpentry, machine tools operation, electro.
plating, manufacture of leather articles etc., and al-
most all of them have already found employment in
different factories. During 1963. 10 refugees went to
a carpentry factory at Tellicheri for training. A carpet
weaving centre for training and production of Tibetan
carpets has been opened in the settlement by the
Swiss Aid Abroad. The idea is to train a group of
expert carpet weavers in the production of carpets
and assist them in running their own establishments
on a co-operative basis. Tho State Government has
been contemplating to introduce schemes for running
several suitable crafts and industries such as bee-keep.
ing, manufacture of bamboo articles etc.. under the
ampices of the Khadi and Village Industries Board,
The delay in finalising these schemes is largely attri·
. buted to some sort of reluctance on the, part of the
refugees to form co-operative societies and thus be-
come eligible to receive help.
During a revisit to the Settlement in March 1966.
the carpet production cum training centre was found
to be employing 27 workers. including a blacksmith
for repairing scissors and a supervisor. There wer.
24 active looms. As the marketing of the carpets pro·
duced had not yet been taken up, on 16·3·1966 thero
was a stock of 110 square metrell of finished good•.
It was noticed that the ex.perienced weavers were be--
ing paid at piece rates-rates varying between Rs. 20
and Rs. 30 per square metre depending upon the
quality of work. But the beginners. that is trainees,
were being paid @ Re. 1-00 per day. In addition. on
an average the centre is said to provide employment
to '-2 spinners who work in their homes and receive
wages at piece (ji} Rs. 1.75 for spinning 500 gms.
The centre is importing wool from Newzea]and and
expects to find a ready market both in India Rnd other
foreign countries.
The following paragraphs present a few facts about
the household industrie~ run by households in the
Settlement. Though five men reported tnemselves as
silversmiths one of them-a resident of Arlikumari-
it W3S observed. did not evince even nominal interest
in this craft during 1964. It was noticed that silyer-
smithy happened to be a hereditary calling in respect
of other four, inc1uding the resident of Arlikumari.
The person, being the son of nomadic farmer in Tibet.
rerofted that he was initiated and trained in the craft
by his maternal unde during his boyhood and that
after coming to age he secured employment in the mint
at Lhasa. As these silversmith·; hnd to work on lands
allotted to them they had very little time to spare for
the craft One of them who worked for more numb...
 .42
of days during 1964 as silversmith could earn about
Rs. 700. The other three earned Rs. 50 (this silver-
smith was the manager of a common mess and hence
could not work regularly). Rs. 150 and Rs. 300 res-
pectively. The tools used are metallic anvil, mecha-
nical, blower, tongs, scissors. hammers of varying
weights and sizes, files, engravers, chisels of different
shapes and sizes, sharp and blunt nails in addition to
a wire drawing scale. The cost of these equipments
is estimated at about Rs. 200. The articles turned out
are silver cups, spoons. small boxes which are used
for offering chang and tea to the Tibetan Gods, boxes
called kavu which are popularly used by the men in .
'niilitary service to enshrine the protective charms
given to them by the high Lamas, silver lamps, vene~rs
for Bwnpa, Phi tor, wooden bowls and Kapche (lids),
'Sliver finger and ear rings, chopsticks etc. The silver-
smiths attend to repousse work and for this purpose
follow the traditional designs. The wage rate is said
to be Rs. 2 per 10 grammes of silver processed.
Generally the customers supply the silver required and
:a:lso provide the shapes and the designs of the articles
required by them. Traditional designs are still the
:orost popular in the settlement.
, All the seven carpenters who earned substantial
siuns during 1964, reported that they have taken to
the ·~craft voluntarily. Two of them were carpenters
in Tibet itself. A!!1ong the remaining five, 3 were
'trained at TeIlictJ.eri and one each at Sikkim and Dal-
housie. There are, however. a few others who have
-undergone carpentry training at Tellicheri recently but
have not yet taken up the craft for one reason or the
~bther. As work on land takes away much of their .time,
these carpenters work at the craft only as a subsidiary
occupation. Only one of these carpenters is reported
to be a wholetimer and' he turns out wooden doors.
window frames and other household fixtures in addi-
tion to furniture. The main articles made by the car-
. pen'rers are 'chairs, tables, wooden boxes, shelves, racks,
h6ok~cases, chandongand gyalo the cylindrical wooden
vessel and the plunger for making Tibetan tea. cots,
stools etc. One of the carpenters residing in Gulleda-
halla prepares wooden ploughs and yokes in addition
to furniture. The cost of a cot ranges between Rs. 40
and Rs. 80 depending upon the workmanship and
it is usua11y of unseasoned teak wood. Chairs, tables
and stools of medium quality may be had for Rs. 20,
. Rs, 30 and Rs. 7' respectively. But articles with a
beUer finish cost more. During 1962-63 and 1964, it
is' said, that the prices of these articles of furniture
'were Vf.fy much lower. As the countryside abounded
in a rich forest growth then, it was not difficult
to obtain raw malerbL But nmv teak wood has be-
BYLAKUPPB
come scarce and for obtaining the same the Tibetans
have to trudge a long way into the deep forest and
moreover several restrictions are placed by the forest
department. Thus when large quantities of wood arc
required the carpenters have to purchase the same at
the saw mills in Hunsur. The important tools and
implements used by the carpenters are saw, handsaw,
brllss and bits, cutting pliers. axes, files, chisels of
verious sizes, smoothing planes etc. Arrangements are
being made by the special officer to depute 8 Tibetans
for training (over a period of 2 years) in carpentry and
bJacksmithy at the Artisan Training Centre, Hunsur.
Both the blacksmiths enumerated during the survey
are reported to have this occupation hereditarily. One
of them could earn about Rs. 120 during 1964 while
the other earned only Rs. 80. They mainly attend
to the repair .of agricultural tools like sickles, au,
knife, weeding fork etc. One of them-staying at Gul-
ledahalla can make new axes, knives, sickles, weeding
forks, Tibetan locks, scissors etc., and in fact at the
time of a later visit to the (settlement in 1966 March)
he was found employed by the carpet production
centre. The other continues to repair agricultural tools
only. The tools and implements used are bellows of
goatskin (costing Rs. 12), sledge hammer (valued at
Rs. 17), tongs (Rs. 7 each), hammers, scissors and
anvil. Iron, when needed is bought at Mysore.
There are three tailors-one at Gollarhosahalli and
the others at GulledahaIIa-according to the survey.
All the three are reported to have taken to the craft
voluntarily. One of them had been a big landlord
owning hundred and odd across in Tibet and had learnt
tailoring as a hobby. When he escaped to India he was
pennyless and during his sojourn at Dalhousie refuge!
camp in 1959 he was given a sewing machine free of
cost as assistance. Then onwards he has been a tailor.
The other two are brothers and they reported that
they had learnt the craft as apprentices under a private
tailor at Lhasa and in fact tailoring formed their only
source of income. Further. they revealed that they left
Tibet in 1955 itself owing to the spiralling prices and
preferred to come over to Kalimpong where they stayed
till 1961. Later they were mixed up with the other
refugees and then transferred to this settlement. The
cloth required for making garments is supplied by the
customers and the tailors get their wages. For stitch-
ing a chuba-men's cIoak--the charge is Rs. 6 and
that for pllllllle is Rs. 4 or 5. Blouses and shirts
are charged 75 paise and Re. 1-00 while trousers are
charged Rs. 2. At present the refugees are frequently
receiving gift cIothings and ,lIsa do not have enough
earnings and so they spend little on new garments.
Naturally the tailors in the camp are not prospering.
 'i!CONOMY 43

Though a few persons reported their ability and skill straps which are used for fastening aprons by the
in the preparation of Tibetan boots only one person, womenfolk. Two men reported themselves as artists:,
incidentally a lame man-who lost his leg while work- Both are painters and one of them can prepare masks
ing on road making at Sikkim··-is reported to be practis- required for the Tibetan religious dances while the
ing the leather craft. In Tibet he was a farmer with other is adept at preparing line-drawings of Tibetan
mod.erate means and had his abode in Khanu district. Gods, Lamas, and other religious symbols like shipha
Angered at the nefarious activities of the Chinese he karla. stupa etc. The latter had been an artist at
joined as a volunteer to tight them out and ultimately Tibet also and is reported to have received training
he bad to retreat to Lhasa in about 1956 leaving be- fpr a period of 6 years. The former was an agriculturist
hind his wife and children. It was there, that he and had taken to painting and the making of masks,
voluntarily took to the making and repairing of the (using clay, cloth and crude paints) only as a hobby.
traditional Tibetan boots. The drift of the events later Both these artists seem to have good prospects in this
brought him as a refugee to Sikkim and then on to settlement as they can cater to the religious needs of
this settlement. After coming over to India he started the settlers.
repairing leather shoes, chap pals and boots. Now he
Other occupatioIW:
has an artificial leg supplied to him by the Poona
A small fraction of the Tibetans has been
Lame Centre. During 1964 he is reported to have
able to secure salaried jobs in the Settlement
prepared 8 pairs of Tibetan boots-each pair valued at
while many seek work as casual labourers
Rs. 15 and repaired about 40 to 50 pairs of leather
either within or outside the settlement. The office of
shoes and sandals. In all he could earn only about
the Special Officer, T.R.S. scheme has employed in-
Rs: 155. Raw materials namely leather, thread.
terpreters, (3 in 1964 and till July 1965, later reduced
nails etc., worth about Rs. 50 were purchased at
to one only) on a salary of Rs. 100 p.m. (reduced to
Mysore. The tools used by him are two small ham-
Rs. 50 with effect from July 1965), operator for pum-
mers, bradawl (nyungbu) and needles. According to
ping water, a veterinary assistant, and two liaison
him he requires two mandays for preparing a pair of
officers. The Hospital prbvides employment to a Jeep-
Tibetan boots.
ambulance driver, an interpreter, a cook and some
ayahs. Three Tibetans are employed as school teachers
Some of the refugees brought with them, while while three more are employed as cooks for prepar-
migrating from Northern India (Punjab), bundles of ing the midday meals. The creches run in the settle-
raw wool which they have been spinning here and pre- ment, the Y.M.C.A. poultry farm, Tibetan co-opera-
paring sweaters and socks for sale. It is learnt that tive stores, etc., also provide employment to a· few-
only a handful are earning substantially though ac- men and women. However there is little scope for
cording to the survey only one household is reported expansion of occupations of this nature in the Settle-
10 have earned a sum of Rs. 160 net in 1964. The ment. Education and vocational training may, of
cost of 1 Kg. of raw wool is said to be Rs. 9. The course, help a few to obtain salaried jobs in the years
sweaters are sold at Rs. 16 each (full sleeves) and to come.
Rs. 8 each (sleeveless) while socks are sold at Rs. 3.50
or 4.00 per pair. Some of the refugees, even now, Labour force, workers and employment opportunities:
manage to get a supply of raw wool from centres in At the time of this survey, population of the re-
North India either by a personal visit or through per- fugees in the settlement is 2918. It is made up of
sons who happen to visit the settlement from North 1465 males and 1453 females. This population may be
India. Knitting of sweaters and socks is a hobby for broadly classified into workers or economically active
many of the Tibetan women. They consider the locally persons and non-workers. Accordingly it is observed
sheared wool to be unsuitable for thdr purpose. that there are 1387 workers constituting 47.5% of the
total population. The reference period for this data
In addition to the above mentioned crafts, one is the year 1964. Distribution of workers by sex and
woman is reported to be engaged in preparing cotton age groups is given in the subjoined table.
TABLE VII
Workers and non-workers
,--___.~~------~--~-- -«- ~-~- - - " " , - - -

Total population Workers NOll-workers

Age-group Males Females Persons Males Females
Persons Males Females Persons
2,918 1,465 1,453 1,387 895 492 1,531 570 961
All ages 3 831 412 419
~14 834 415 419 3
890 390 500 557 312 245 333 78 255
15-34 477 779 542 237 276 36 240
35-59 1,055 578
139 -82 57 48 38 10 91 44 47
60 and over
44
If the percentage of workers among male~ is 61.1 thal
among females is 33.9. Considering the workers by
age-groups it is seen that only 3 are below 14 years
of age and 48-c!111<;tituting 3.46% -- are ~Jgcd 60 years
or above. From thl'iC till 0 age groups \\j11ch together
constitute 33.4% ot the total population, the contribu-
tion to the working force is meagre. The majority of
workers--numberirlg 779 and constituting 56.11,·,() ---
fall in the age group 35-59 while the remaining 557
or 40.16% are in the 15-34 age-group. Con~idering
the population in the 15· -34 and 35 - 59 ,) ~c·gro.iI'S It
is observed that the former contributes 62.3",. of its
strength 10 1he labour force while the hllkr contributes
as much as 73.8' ;,. In both these ag~ :;roufJs women
also participate in several economic activities and
many of them arc SiJ cm;)iL'yej be..:allsc t];,> can bene
behind their infants in the crccbes run in each village
by the National Christian Council to Like care of
children in the age bracket of 6 month~ to 4 years.
A brea.k-up of tlll: male workers by age-groups shows
that 60.56% are in the age-group 35 - 59: 34.86'''; are
in the age-group 15--- 34; 4.24% arc in the age-group
60 and above while only 0.34% are aged 14 years or
less. SimiJarly among female workers it is seen that
49.80% are in the age-group 15--34; 48.17~', are in the
age-group 35---5 1;; 2.(j3°', are aged 60 years and
above while none below fourteen years of age is
TABLE Vllf
Workers and Occupations
-------.----------~-----------------.-.
OccupatiDll C\;,).(\f\\'{J;'~,ers
1\1.\'.,") l'~,n"i~s
1. Cultivation 856 4S1
2. Cultivation and Agri\.'altural labour 2 -+
3. Cu1r.ivdtld;]:i:1 j fljlbtl Y 8 2
4. H\J:l~'"llolJ f:JJ'hr; v 2 4
5. Ind:'l\try and cu,t:v,ltiOI1 3 2
6. Sc,",ice I~ .'"
-------,---------- -------.----.~---------------
The term cultivuton in the table includes the Jungle
clearance work I:!ttcnded to by the refugees in lands
allott"d to tl1;:rn C:>l);le 1r'c het they did not rc'di,c any
income fi(_)Di (.',di~valion. Almosl ail the we,1;cf;; at
Gulledaha!l;t belong to this category. Those cngac!ed
in indus:rl~~ numbcr:ng 23 comtitute only 1.66%
while the 21 per:-ons employed by tho.o Govc-nmcnt or
, tile ether local in:,tiLUtions cOJ;stitu~e a me"grc 1.5J ~:)
of the total \YDrkcrs. E"'cn though nnny more women
are adept at knit!ing and spinning \\('01 they have not
been able to earn any substantial ~:ln~lur:t by pursu:n:;:
these o~~upal:0H', At present, [I',-y attend to them
more as a hobby than as an econom c enicrpr:;;c. The
carpet making CC;1lre is proviJin:> \\ m\.: k) only a fcl\'
(about a dozen) spinners and a score or weavers work-
BYLAKUPPE
found to be ecom)mically adive. The low percentage
of participation of the children and the old may be
explained by the fact that they do not constitute an
economic Jiahi]ity to the;r parents or guardians. Al-
most every child jn the school-going age-group attends
the school regularly and these children are eligible to
the free ralil'TIs as well as a mid-day meal at the school.
The old persons are also getting free rations on account
of their old age and some are lamas while a few are
infirm. Moreover cultivation and animal husbandry
have yet .to turn the corner and enter into full fledged
production. Then 3 need may arise for more and more
contributi,)H to the working force from the different
age group" including the children and the old.
A proh..: into the nature of work .clone by the various
workers trin[:s out the fact that 96.4',:~) are engaged
solely in cuit.vation. It may be recounted here that
this survey h,.h been carried out in two stages. At
first 172 howel101ds representing a 20';~, sample from
the six C31nps were C\wered and subsequently the re-
maining !-:r·,lSeholLh \\ere ~llrveFd u~;ng a condensed
iullll (1[' Lju::',linnnaire. ~or the former households in-
forn:cltiull a [X1Ut primary and secondary occupations
\\ere collcc..:Cd \\hile \\ith regard to the latter house-
holds unl] t;,c I'rincipal occupations were noted. The
f~)1:0\\ ing is a distrihution of the workers by occupa-
tion, sex "nd age-groups.
------~----.--~---.
0--·1\ 15-·34 35--5<) 60'-
0.1'\:"", females :'vI'!CS Female, Ma!cs Fcnl~lk, rvlalcs Females
.1 295 __,,;)
'"J1° 521 233 .17 10
4 I
3 I 4
4 2
~ 2 10
ing on the looms. These workers have 'been excluded
from 1he ahDve table as the production in the centre
had not c\)mmenced during ]964. After January 1965
the Tibet:!ns at Golbrrahosahalli and Kailasruru are
,!Hming a h~cn desire to seek employment as lal10urers
in '...orL.,~ r~:"ntahms of Coor!; district, rO~ld conqrllction
and rcp~lir works etc. This diversion may be attributed
to the ccs:;a~jon of the issue of free rations in these two
(<imjJs. 1n due course this tendency may develop
amung thc res:dents of the other camps also.
An assessment of the employment opportunities In
and around the Settlement can llmv be attempted. Dur-
ing til;:; ye:l rs 1961 to )9(,3 the G()\'cfl1ment could pro-
vide work to a large number of refugees in the develop-
ECONOMY 45

Jl1cnt works sw.:b a~ forcst clearance, road comtruction, Acthities of Don-workers

construction of bui Idings, agriculture: etc. These labour-
ers were paid at the rate of Rs. 2 per day. But the The non-workers numbering 1531 constitute 52.5%
stage is slowly getting set 'where there would not be of the population. Analysing the non-workers by age-
any scope for the Government to offer regular or groups it is seen that 54.3 ';:) are less than 14 years of
casual jobs to the refugees. Besides the carpet pro- age; 21.8~.';, are in the age-group 15--34: ]8.0% are
duction-cum-training centre, other private enterprises in the age-group 35~-59; and the remaining 5.9°{) are
like the Oriental Aromatics, Flax farm and the Mysore aged 60 years or above. Among the non-workers if
Tobacco Company are intending to start farms cover- 570 are males the remaining 961 constituting 62.7(;~)
ing large extents of land and these form the only are females. A classification of the non-workers by
potential sources of employment and they can absorb the nature of their activities as also their distribution
the available Tibetan labour. by sex and age-groups is presented below:
TABLE IX
Activities of non-workers
-----_.--------------- J\ll ages o ~14 15-34 35 - 59 60
Males Females I'vlalc, Females !l.falc-; FCl11" les Male., Females M"les Females
1. Dependents 344 301 258 254 9 .. 33 21 44 26
HOLlscworkcrs 1 456 .1 1 213 219 21
Stuuents 222 197 154 161 68 36
-I. PCIllldl1Cntly disabkd 2 7 1 6 2
5. Sickness 1
The male non-workers consist 60.2 S;, dependents; employed on monthly salaries. The reference period
38.9"~) stlldenb: 2 disabled persons one sick man and for the dat:l collected happens to be 1964 and as 21
a h~useworker together constituting 0.9';{,. Likewise households arrived in the settlement only during 1965
among the female non-workers it is seen that 47.4% they are excluded for this discussion. At the outset
are house-\\ orkers: 31.3,/;, are dependents; 20.5 % are it may have to be clarified that the figures discussed
disabled. The persons who came over to the Settle- under this head relale to estimates and not actuals,
ment very recently and as such, reported no occupa- as partically none in the camr is in the habit of main-
tion at all have been returned as dependents. This ex- taining regular accounts. To enable a discussion on the
plains the presence of 9 dependents in the 15~-34 age- income and expenditure pattern the 881 households
group. In due course they would also take to cultiva- have been grouped into 4 broad occupational cate-
tion of lands. A few of these dependents are lamas. gories and each category is further divided into 5
income groups. The households which earned at least
Income and expenditure some income from culti\ation. industry or service have
been grouped separately while those which subsisted
I",CU~jE: Ex-gratia gr:.mts given to the refugees in wholly on free ra(ons. remittances etc., or earned from
kind and cash during: 1964 constitute the main source other "ources n:.lve all been grouped under 'other~.'
of income for almost every household. Only a few The table below presents a di~tribulion of households
households-~23 to be exact ~~did not receive these and population by occupation, income-group and
grants as the members from these households were population be age-groups.
TABLE X
Households and OCCUIJatioll by income-groups
---------~~--~-~-~-- -~~_-----~--.-.---._----.-- -_.-._-------
occupation 1'0[,,[ TIiC,111le gm"p" (per ;tnl1lln1) Tl'L,1 ,\gc~grwlPs Average
S1. Nll. of ,- ~~~-- ~,.~ .~. - ~- ~ -, 1':\>. (11' (- _._~..A.._ ~ --- - , size
No. 10
hl)!.ISC- Belo\\' Rs. 901 Rs. J ~(il Rs. 2.701 Rs. 3/;01 I~L~ll1- G 2 Below
holds Rs. 900 to to tq and bcl's )C:lr~ vea rs yt:ars 2
1.800 2.7liO 3 GOO morc III and to 9 to 5 years
hU'h~­ [tbo\c years ye~lt's
hl,~d~
111'.: '1 t ion-
eJ in
<'::'1,3
. i)
~ .-~-~'~~----~g~~-- ..
.
~.--.~---

") , ,~
~
(, 7 P- In 11 12 1.1 14
---'--'-~----
--.---.~~ -----~-.-.-----~- .. --_--- -.. -------.~~---

5:\2 163 27;:{ E6 21 .1- '767 1.178 10,1 216 70 3·3

1.
2.
3.
Cultivation
Industry
Scrvi,:e
21
2.1
305 1(·2
,:7.
I ()
117
7 11
,. )
")-
6
..
3
1
1
1
7)
914
go 7<,
(,5
7·L~
4
4
3G 97
5
2
2

3S
.
·t
4' I
3'3
3'0
4. Others --_--- -. ----------~---~- ---- .. ---~- . --------_
All 8:;] 3JO 412 108 24 7 2842 22Gl 147 320 114 3'2
~---------
 46 BY L A K UP P'l

The above statement reveals that· 60.4~;, of the TAaLE XI

households had cultivation as a main source (exclud-
ing the grants); 34.6~);) had either mere exgratia grants Percentage distribution of households by Occupation
or earned a little by way of livestock products, wages, " Income-Jevel
remittance~ etc; only 2.4% had industry either singly OLcl1pation Annual income iroups
or in addition to some other gainful source and the r-.~ . ---.------------"-- - ------.-~--,
Less than Between Between Between Rs.
remaining 2.6% had service as their main source. Con- Rs_ 900 900- 1800-- 2700- 3600
sidering the distribution of households by income 1800 2700 3600 and above
groups it may be observed that during 1964, 37.4% of
the total households earned less than Rs. 900; 46.8% 1. Cultivation 30·6 52'2 12'4 4'0 0-3
of the households earned in the range of Rs. 900 and ~
[ndusllY 9-5 33'3 52'4 4·1
Rs. 1800; ]2.3% of the households earned between
Rs. 1800 and 2700; 2.7% of the households earned 3_ Service 13'0 43-5 26'1 13-0 4·4
between Rs. 2700 and Rs. 3600 while only 0.8% earned 53·1
4. Others 38·4 1·2 0·3
more than Rs. 3600. No doubt these income figures
present a pleasant picture as compared to the villages
in the neighbourhood but it should be remembered Among 'others' it is seen that nearly 91.5 % earned lesi
here that every refugee whether an infant or an old than Rs. 1800 during 1964 and this is mainly be-
person received exgratia grants in cash and kind for cause they had no gainful source of income. The size
his subsistence. According to the prescribed scale of the household alone remained the decisive factor
every refugee-either male or female- aged 10 years for its income. About 17% of the households in the
or more received on an average Rs. 384 (partly in kind group "cultivation" earned more than Rs. 1800 and
and partly in cash) during 1964. Those in the age- this income includes not only the income earned from
group of 6-9 years received Rs. 306 while those cultivation but also the exgratia grants and earnings
in the 2-5 years age-bracket received Rs. 123. Th~ from all other sources. Of the households in 'industry'
infants less than 2 years but more than 6 months if 52.4% earned in the range of Rs. 1800 to 2700 one
received Rs. 138 and the still younger ones were given household or 4.8% is seen to have earned beyond
milk powder valued at Rs. 6.50 per month. Income of Rs. 3600. The average size of a hous~hold in this
a household is thus seen to be directly proportional group being 4.1, is the highest among the four occupa-
to its size and age-group composition. This correla- tional groups. Moreover some of these artisans had
tion between the income and the size of a household cultivation, livestock rearing etc., also as their subsi-
may not continue when the issue of free rations is diary sources of income besides the free rations.
stopped.

The percentage distribution of households in each The table below presents the particulars of average
occupational group by income-level is presented in annual income per household, per capita income and
table XI. the household income by income groups:

TABLE XII
Average annual income per household by occupation

Total No. Average Per Average annual income per Household

of house- annual capita r--~
.A. -...
holds income income Less than Bdween Between Between Rs. 3,600
occupation Rs. R5. and
Rs. Rs. Rs.900 Rs.
900-1800 1800-2700 27~3,600 above

532 1,545 468 665 1,304 2,155 3,0&7 4,732

Cultivation

21 1.790 43G 712 J ,253 2,101 4,2S(i

Industry
23 1,871 567 627 1,526 2,021 2,993 4,799
Service&

305 1,002 334 631 1,250 2,037 6,345

Others
 ECONOMY 47

The per capita income is seen to vary between as there is a good demand for both these not only
Rs. 334 in the case of 'others' and Rs. 567 in the case from the Tibetans themselves but also in the neigh-
of 'service.' These figures are relatively higher in com- bourhood. Though the income under the head "ser-
parison to the per capita income in the villages round vice" was roughly 8% in 1964 there is every possibility
about. of a diminution in the years to come unless some other
institutions likely to provide salaried jobs to Tibetans
Tho total approximate earnings during 1964 from are started. Cultivation of lands alone cannot offer
sources other than exgratia grants amounted to wholetime employment to the workers all the year
Rs. 1,92,149. This sum is found to be distributed as round. Therefore if opportunities for work are pro-
follows: vided during off-season, a large number of the Tibetans,
known to be hard workers, would gladly avail of them.
Source Total No. of Source- Before concluding this discussion on income it has to
income house- wize be stated that neither farming, livestock rearing nor the
holds Avelagc,
which per e~rn- household industries etc., have gone into full'· pro-
earned ing House duction. So the income from these gainful economic
hold.
Rs. Rs. activities is bound to increase gradually.
1. Cultivation U2,476 514 219
EXPENDITURE: . The topic of expenditure has also
2. Sale of livestock products 5,640 47 120
3. WaJes 6,410 22 291 been discussed, as under income, by the four occupa-
.~.Arts and era fts 5,180 23 223 tional groups and the five income groups. It has to
5. Service 15,381 37 416 be pointed out at the very beginning that as the hou~e­
6. Re~ittaJlc. ~7,062 246 191 holds were receiving exgratia grants mostly in kind
in addition to some cash and some of them were sup-
plementing their income by earning from other gain-
Tho total number of households which stayed through- ful sources also without maintaining any accounts, it
out in the Settlement during 1964 being 881 and the was a difficult proposition to ascertain how much each
population 2,842, the average annual income per house- household spent on items as cereals, pulses, meat,
hold and the per capita stood at Rs. 218 and Rs. 67.6 other food items etc. Hence all food items including
respectively. Apart from cultivation, remittanc~ the beverages consumed have been grouped together.
figures out to be a very important source contributing Many of the households had joined common messes
nearly 25 % of the total income. The livestock rearing to which they used to give away the entire free rations
is still in an infant stage as many households reported received by them and at times had to pay a little
to have brought cows, goats etc., only during 1964. In cash also. A few others which had no income other
due course the livestock rearing including poultry rear- than the rations managed to divert some cash received
ing which is a common feature in all the six camps, in lieu of food articles for obtaining other necessities.
is bound to assume greater importance. When the ex- The general impression conveyed by the refugees is
~ratia grants are totally stopped the refugees will tc.ke that the rations .in kind and cash given to them were
to selling of eggs and milk produced in their homes not sufficient to meet all their requirements.
TABLE Xln
Average montllly expenditure of household by occupation and level of income
Occupation Items of All Households Households with a monthly income of Rupees
expenditure ,--_~_..A....~~~ ,. ~ -,
Number Expen- Below Rs. 75 Rs. 75-150 • Rs.225-300
Rs. 150--225 Rs. 300 and more
diture ,.--..A..---,,.--.A.___- .\r.._._.A. _ _---v--_________.J.._ __ ~__.r_--.A--~---~
per No. of Average No. of Average No. of Average No. of Average No. of Average
House- House- - Expen- House- Expen- House- Expen- House- Expen- House- Expcn-
hold hold5 diture holds diture holds diture holds diture holds diture
Rs.
2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 II 12 13 14
I. Cult i- . Food and Drinks 532 89·04 163 42'25 278 90'46 66 147'73 21 213'70 4 287·81
vation.
Fuel and light 532 1'05 163 0'95 278 0'98 66 1'14 21 1'25 4 2'39
Tobacco 532 0'75 163 0-40 278 0'82 66 l' 21 21 1'62 4
Clothing & foot- 532 3'80 163 1'96 278 3'08 66 4'46 21 6'62 4 11 ·81
wear
All other items 532 6'54 163 4'92 278 7·17 66 10·40 21 9'00 ../ 11·81
------~~--~-------~------------ --------------~-----~
Total 532 IOJ'18 163 50'78 278 102·51 66 164'94 21 232'25 4 313' 82
48 RYT.AKUPPE

TABLE xm (Conc/d.)

2 3 4 5 6 7 8 ') 10 11 12 13 14

11. House- Food and Drinks 21 98·44 2 55·33 7 73·45 11 107'89 255'50
hold Fuel and light [,28 0·92 1·08 1'50 1'00
Industry Tobacco 1·47 2·92 1·82 I'll
Clothing and 4'2,3 3',33 3·88 3'64 14'58
footwear
All other items 7'86 12'50 7· 13 6'86 19'75
"~--~--., .. - ----.-----~~-.-----.--------.-.---~-------.- - - - - . -~-~------- .. ----- -._,,--'_--- -~-~-

Total 21 113'28 2 75'00 7 87·36 II 121'00 290'83

III. Service Food and drinks 23 119'13 3 42'58 lO 83·76 6 147·97 .3 170'67 383'25
Fuel and light 1 '53 0'92 1·57 1'()6 1'{)9 4'25
Tobacco 2,,,;.1 1'39 4·00 1'54 0·6')

Clothing and 6'05 3'47 6'02 5·21 8'33

footwear
All other items 13 '63 3'56 16· 35 8'93 26'95 5'00

Total 23 142·75 3 51·92 10 112'30 6 164'71 .3 208'73 398'75

IV. Others Food and drinks 305 91'90 162 48'38 117 99·05 25 163'04 450'00
Fuel and li~ht 0'85 0'67 1·05 l' t}7 3'00
Tobacco 0'49 0'32 0·66 0'79 8'33
Clothing and 1· 82 1· 37 2'19 2'34 16'67
footweat
Other items 4'46 2'57 '5·75 5·89 33'33
.-.---~-------.-.---------.--~------------

Total 305 99·52 162 53-31 117 108·70 25 173' 13 1 511·33

The above table furnishes particulars regarding the TABLE XIV

average monthly expenditure per household by various Pattern of Expenditure by Occupations
income groups and occupations. It is obeserved that
the monthly expenditure varies between Rs. 99.52 in Items of Occupation
Expenditure ,.-- _ _ _ _ _ _ __J.._ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ ""'\
the case of "others" and Rs. 142.75 in the case of the
households in "service". The expenditure in the Cultiva.. Indu,try Servic(.; Others
tion ~<) of ~<~ of o,;~ of
former case ·is the lowest mainly because of the fact ~~ of expendi .. expen- expen- ex pen-
that these househoulds have very little or no income ture ditute dittlre diture
at all from sources other than the exgratia grants. 92'35
I. Food and drink. 88'00 '86'90 83'45
The households in the group 'cultivation' spend on an 2. Fuel and light 1'04 1.13 1'08 0'85
average a sum of Rs. 101.18 while those in Household 3. Tobacco 0'74 I' 30 1'69 0-49
Industry spend Rs. 113.28. The presence of a large 4. Clothing and
number of households in the occupational group "culti- footwt<lr :1. -16 3· 73 4·24 1-83
vation" and "others" is also partly responsible for the 5. Others 6'46 6'94 9'54 4-48
averages being very low. Comparing the average per Total 100'00 100'00 100'00 100'00
capita expenditure it is seen that those in "service" Total amount Rs. 101'18 113· 28 142-75 ')9·52
spend the highest namely Rs. 43.2: those in "olhers"
spend Rs. 33.2: those in 'cultivation' srend Rs. 30.6 and Food is t.he major item which forms between 83 to
those in the 'Industry' spend the lowest of Rs. 27.6. 92"i, of the total expenditure per month. In a few
The following statement should prove useful for a households the rations issued were felt insufficient and
I:omparative study of the pattern of expenditure in the the deficit was made good by spending on food from
different occupational groups. home prodllced grains, vegetahles. dairy products, or
BCONOMY
by spending cash earned from some other sources. Tea
and sligar are considered very essential and the ex-
penditure on these two items forms about 40% of the
total expenditure on food and drinks. In a few house-
ho;ds if milk or milk powder is not available mere
tea decocfon is taken with much relish. Tobacco ad-
dicts are comparaLvely few. Among the poorer and
rusfc people tobacco in the form of snuff, is preferred.
Per~ons engaged in service and a few others show a
preference for cigarettes. Kow-a-days a few are getting
accustomed to bidis also. The percentage of expendi-
ture on tobacco varies between 0.49 in the case of
'others' and 1.69 in the case of 'service.' None of the
refugees is at present incurring any expenditure on
fuel, as firewood is available in the surrounding jungles
and may be JIilthered free of cost. The expenditure
on kerosene oil used for lighting accounts for 0.85 %
in the case of 'o~hers' and 1.13% in the case of
'Industry.' From )961 to the end of 1964 almost every
refugee received some gift c10things and footwear do-
nated by volunts.ry organisations, in addition to the
c'oth'ng 2nd footwear that they themselves had man-
aged to bring w'th them to the Settlement. Consequen-
tly only those who had enough cash have reported to
have bought new cIothings and foot wear during the
reference year. Thus the average expenditure on cloth-
ing and foot Wf'ar is very much deflated. In terms of
money the average monthly expenditure on clothing
rer r.ou:;elioid is "een to vary between Rs. 1.82 in the
case of "otters" and Rs. 6.05 in the case of the occu-
pation groun ('If "service." Comparing by incorrlt'
levels it may be observed that if the 330 households
with an income of less than Rs. 900 a year spend on
average Rs. 1.69 per month the seven households with
an income of Rs. 3600 and above spend on an average
Rs. 12.10 per montlL The other miscellaneous items
include expenditure on articles like soap. hair oil. con-
tributons to Lamas and monast'eries. purchase of cattle
feed, and other household articles, of daily use. The
oercentage of expenditure on this score varies between
4.48 in the case of "others" and 9.54 in the case of
49
"service," The rersons in service real'se higher in-
comes in terms of 1T'0ney and are therefore inclined
to spend more on contributions as also on purchases
of luxury articles etc. At present. due to the free
medical aid and free educaton prov:ded by voluntary
agencies as also free supply of potab!e wa:er none of
the re'ugees is re~u:red to incur any expe:1diture
on these items. During 1964 the cultivators were sup-
plied frre 'seeds (50% subsidised in a few cases), ferti-
lizers and pesticides. Thus they were not required to
raise money for investment on agriculture as is re-
quired of other cu'fvators. The practice of mutual
assistance ard also the popularity of group-farming as-
sociations in 1964 were responsible for the cultivators
not incurring any expenses on agricu!turaI labour. But
these condit ons may change in the years to follow as
now itself the group-farms have lost their appeal and
a tendency to employ labourers is p~rceived here and
there. For the benefit of the cultivators, however. a
sum of Rs. 4700/- has been granted by N.C.W.C. and
C.R.S. to constitute a revolving fund the scheme be-
ing kno·'n as "OXFAM Seed and Fertilisers Scheme."
The sum is to be util'sed for buying the seed etc.,
requiremenh in bulk and distributing the same to the
farmers. The entire value is recoverable after the
harvest of the crops.
Apart from the regular items of expenditure noted
above many of the households are reported to have
spent sizable amounts in buying livest0~k, cO:Jstruction
of cattle-she.ds and farm-houses, agricultural and other
tools and implements etc. In most of these hpuseholds
it was revealed that the money for such expenses was
drawn from savings accrued during 1961 to 63 wh~n
employment opportunities were available in plenty for
the labourers in the Settlement. Money earned and
saved in other transit camps and brought over here.
remittances sent periodically by earners living away
from the family etc .• also helped them in their purchas-
ing. constructions etc,
 CHAPTER V

SOCIAL AND CU!.,TURAL LIFE

S [aa~:ics rela' bg to population. births, deaths, sex in 1964 the number of deaths rose to 29. There have
~ a.lO, age, Lllcatioll etc. been no out-breaks of epidemics after 1960.
D,~.pT-r
~ '_, '_d_" n', : A ceoI' d'mg to the survey
ATIC"T there are SEX RATIO:
2918 T beta'} inhabitants in the settlement. Though
The population of the Tibetans consists of 1465
no other periodi::al count of people seems to have so
males and 1453 females. The sex ratio is thus seen to
far been taken in the Settlement. the office of the
be 992 females for every 1000 males. An idea re-
S;Je:ial Officer ffiaintains an account of the refugees
gardifig the sex-ratio in the different age groups may
received from time to time for rehabilitation and ;lso
be had from the table below which presents the distri-
keeps record of the births and deaths occurring amongst
bution of the population by sex and age groups.
the Tibetans, A::-cordingly it is seen that till the end
of February 1965. 3281 refugees were received and TABLE XV
ever since the arrival of the first batch of refugees till ~ex-Iatioby Age groups
the dose of December 1965 there were 419 births and ---_._-_
Age groups Maie Fcma:c Sex mtio per
] 35 deaths in the Settlement. Taking note of these 1000 males.
events the population should have been around 3565
0- 4 200 182 910
during the survey. The disparity of about 600 persons 112 1142
5 -9 98
may be explained by the fact that there have been fre- 10 -i4 117 125 1068
quent emigrations of a number of young and middle 15 -19 74 72 973
aged men to places in North India in search of better 20-24 72 96 1333
prospects. Most of these persons have left their de- 25 --29 108 170 1574
pendents in the Settlement and visit this place once 30-34 136 162 1191
35-44 305 285 934
a year. In add:tion, it is learnt L1]at a number of
45-55 273 192 703
children have been sent to Madras. Mysore and even
60 and above 82 57 6SS
to foreign countries for prosecuting their studies under
All age" 1465 1453 992
various aids. -----
The preponderance of females in the age-groups 20-24,
TH5 BIRTHS AND DEATHS: 25---29 and 30-34 may be explained bv the fact
The births and deaths in the Settlement are being re- that numerous young men who were recei~ed in the
corded by the police staff with the assistance of the Settlement for rehabilitation emigrated later to other
Tibetan interpreters. In 1961 the total number of parts of the country.
births was only 56-consisting of 31 boys and 25 AGE DfSTRIBUTION
g;r!s- when the refugee population was at its lowest
?n a classification by broad age-groups the popu-
in the Settleme:1t but in 1962, the number of births
latIOn of the settlement is observed to be made up of
increased to 92 and in 1963 it reached the maximum
R'H (or 28.58%) mfants aged 14 years or less; 890 (or
of 162 ,viCl 89 boys and 73 girls. Only 107 births
30.50%) young adults that is persons in the
have been registered for the year 1964 and this shows
age-group 15-34; 1055 (or 36.16CJc) middle-aged that
a decline as c{)mpared to the rate prevailing in 1963.
is persons in the age-group 35___:59; and 139 (or 4.76%)
Many of the refugees are said to have been victims of
old persons aged 60 years or above. The persons be·
chlOnic diseases at the time of their arrival at the
low 35 years of age constitute roughly 60% and this
settlement. Inspite of immediate medical aid. there
fact indicates the possibility of a steady growth of
were 61 deaths during 1961. The intensive medical
population in the years to come. The birth rate
aid provided in the settlement brought down the number
noticed in the settlement also supports this view.
of deaths to only 20 during 1962 and a number of
persons suffering from Tuberculosis etc., were cured Considering the age distributon by sex it is seen
of their ailments, In 1963 there were 25 deaths and tha~among male', 415 (28.32 %) are inJants: 390

50
S Q C IA LAN D C U L T U R ALL I F B 51
(26.62%) are young adults; 578 (39.45%) are middle rest namely 57 (3.23%) are old. For comparison, the
aged while 82 (5.61 %) are old. Lkewise among the sex and age-distribution of the rural population of
fema1e:; 429 (29.537D are children; 500 (34.41 %) are Periyapatna taluk is set out below:
young adults; 477 (32.83%) are middle aged and the
TABLE XVI
Population by sex and age-group-(Pedyapatna Taluk Ru al)

Sex Age groups

__ ____ ___ .. _ _ _, _ _ __
AgL not
stated
...___.~_, ~ ~ ~ .n"_~".~_.~. ~_.~_

0--14 15--34 35-59 60+

Person~ /~ r~t30ns "; Persons
Persons % Persons /0 .0
. __..__ %---
..

18955 41-80 14191 31'36 9633 21'29 2421 5,35 47 0, 10

Male
Fe:nale 19158 43'90 13901 31'85 8183 18'75 2347 5'31 54 0' 13
Total 38113 42'88 23092 31'60 17316 20'04 3768 5-36 101 0'12

MARITAL STATUS:
A distribut:on of the population by age-groups, sex and marital status is presented in the subjoined tabl!:

TABLE XVll
Population by age, sex and marital status
Tot"l population Ne,er married Married \Vidowed DivolceJ or separated
r-_________A._-, r-----____.A.---, ,.-_ _______.A. _ _ _-., r--_______;"_--_.-., r--~-~~..A.--"----,
Age groups
M<lleS F<!malcs Males Females Mhks Fem,~le5 Males f'em,Jes Males remaks

All ages 1465 1453 745 568 598 778 97

0--14 415 419 415 419
15-19 74 72 74 64 8
20--24 '72 96 59 27 13 66
25-29 108 170 50 16 57 146 1
136 162 45 14 85 142 4
30--34
IS6 16S 27 12 l20 147 8
35-39
149 120 16 4 121 106 7
40--44
45-49 110 79 16 ::. 77 62 11
83 67 9 1 55 48 14
SO-54
46 16 4 43 30 16
55-59 80
18 4
.,.,
'-, 23 36
60 and ovet 82 57

It is observed that of the total population 45.0%
is never married; 47.2% is married: 6.8% is widowed
and the'remaining 1.0% is divorced or separated. Com-
paring sex wise, it may be seen that if the never married
among the males constitute 50.8 % among females the
never married constitute only 39.9%. On the contrary
if the females in married status account for 53.5%
among males the married constitute only 40.8%. In
the case of the widowed, the widowers form only 6.6%
of the male population while the widows form 7.1 %.
The percentage of divorced or se!'arated women to the
total female population is negligibly small.
The above tab!e also reveals that none below 14
years of age in \ the settlement is ever-married. In
the age-groun 15--19. no male is ever married while
8 out. of the 72 females (or 11 %) are married. These
figures provide ample proof to the fact that child and
infant marriaqes are uncommon among the Tibetans
and the Tibe~ns prefer to enter matrimony at a higher
age, Of the 72 men in the age-group 20-24 only 13
(or 18%) are ever married while in the next age-group
nameiy 25-29 the percentage of ever married' men
is seen to be 57.6. About 33% of men in the 30-34
age-group are never married. In the higher age-
groups also never married men are found. This is
mostly because the Tibetan community in the Settle-
ment consists of a number of lamas who are ordained
to live a life of strict celibacy. Among females the
percentage of never-married in the age-group 20-24
is noticed to be 28 while the corresponding percentage
in the next higher age-group namely 25-29 is only
9.4. Thus the marriageable age for women may be
taken to range between 22, and 28. However, 42
wome:1 aged 30 or more are reported to be never-
married. The institution of Anee (Nuns) is partly
responsible for this \"hile many of these v;omen are
spinsters on account of their constant ill-health or
periodical mental instability. The number of widowed
and d:vorced/separated persons is relatively small
32

mainly because the Tibetan community. guided as it Before proceeding [Q describe the educational
is by its customs and traditions. approves remarriage facilities in the settlement it would be helpful to
of not only widowers but also of t.!1e widows, divorced have an insight into the system of education that
or separated wom~n. But for this practice there would prevailed in Tibet till very recently. The fo:lowing
have been a Llrger proportion of men and women in is an extract from "The story of the Education or
these two categcries. Numerous remarriages are re- Tibetan Re:ugee children in India" published by the
ported to have bken place during the per'od of their Tibetan Schools Society. New Delhi.
transit to India or immed:ately t~ere8.fter.
"EDLCATION IN TlBET: The education pattern
EDue,\. rIDN: The survey revc:a!s the number of liter- in Tibet centred round religion. At the primary stage,
ates in (-c s~tt)G,; .:;nt to te 6-;7 co.,sisti'1g G[ 476 males the child learned to read and ,,,rite the Tibetan lallgu-
and 201 fema:es. In other wOids. 23.2% of the popu- age. At the next stage, he learned scriptures by
lation is literate. If the percentage of literacy among heart which not only had an impact on his Efe but
males is 32.5 that affiong the females is only 14.5. also trained his memory. This study ...vas followed by
The sutjoiJed table presents a comparative idea dialectical discussions be ween the pupils and the
regarding literacy in var:ous age-groups. teachers for the cultivation of mind. Higher edu-
cation '.vas given in the monasteries. the most impor-
TABLE XVIII tant of wh:ch were Drepung, Sera and Ganden. all of
which were located in central Tibet. There did exist
Litei"l;cy by sex and age-groups a system of secular educa ion comprising instruc-
Males Females
tions in Drama, Dance and Music, Poetry and Com-
Age
groups ,--------- j~ ------, r-~ . . -.. . "... -__.I......-.-~----,-. position. The major subjects of learning were Sans-
Total Literates Total Literate:; I krit, Dialectics. Pnilosophy and Religion, the last
No. of ,--~---. No_ of ,._.____.A___ ":'-_'
persons Number % pe:sons Num!x.r ~.;; being the most important and fundamental of them
all, but Na:uraI Sciences such as History. Geography
0- 4 200 Nil 182 :Nil
and Economics did not find an appropriate place in
5- 9 98 30 30-6 112 28 25-0
the curriculum. There were some schools which gave
10-14 117 97 82-9 125 94 75 2
training in aCC01.:nts or vocations. but the chief attra\.>
15-19 74 63 8S-1 72 41 57-0
20---24 71 36 50'0 96 15 15-6 tion for the Tibetan parents was the higher education
25-29 lOS 48 44'4 170 7 4 ·1 in the monasteries. and only les~er important persons
30-34 136 44 32-3 162 7 4·3 sent their children to these vocational institutions,"
35-39 1:;6 37 23·7 165 3 1·8
40-44 149 42 28-2 ]20 2 1-7 The educafon programme in the Settlement since
45-49 110 32 29-1 79 3 3'-8 July 1962 and the entailing expenditure is being taken
50-54 83 19 22-9 67 care of by the Tibetan Schools Society working under
55--59 80 20 25-0 46 2'2 the Ministry of Education, Government o~ India.
60+ 82 8 9'8 57 During 1961-62. the State Government and the CentraJ
All ages 146j 476 32'5 1453 :COl 14 5
Ministry of External Affairs were looking after the
education programme. It may be not out of place here
The higher percentage of literacy in the age groups to mention a few details regarding the formation of
10-14 and 15 ---59 noticed both among the males the Tibetan Schools Society. The education of child·
and the f~males is solely due to the satisf~ctory rent particulariy in a community which 'has been
facilities provided for education to the Tibetan child· suddenly uprooted and thrown in different environ·
ren in tile setlerr:ent. The percentage of literacy in ments-physical. social and psychological-assumes a
the age [TOUpS 2~24 and onwards but excluding paramount importance. This aspect causing worry to
60 + is seell to vary between 22.9 and 44.4 among His Holiness the Dalai Lama evidently received top-
the males and between 1.7 and 15.6 among the fe- priority in his talks with the then Pr:me Minister
males. This goes to show that men. even when they Pandit JawaharIaI Nehru in 1961. Already in 1960,
were in Tibet. were more accuston:ed to acquire edu- His Holiness the Dalai Lama. had started a nursery
cation at least to the extent of reading and writing school at Dharmashala and three residential school£
the Tibetan language than their female counter- at Simla. Mussorie and Darjeeling. On his request
parts. Among the males and females aged 60 or these schools were taken over by the Government
over the percent<1ge 0; literacy is 9.8 and nil res- of India and these children being considered a sacred
pectively. trust it was decided to provide them with education
 53

based on modern scientifk principles but laking ("are ~treilgth of s:udents ill each ~rand~Hd and ,('ll\l\)] W<l ..

to preserve their culture. religion and language, The as follows in 1965·66:- c

fibetan Schools Sodety was then constituted under

the chairmanship of the Education Yinister himself. Statement shnwing the number of Stu:!ems ill each ScIlOOi
with three representatives (1f H:s Holiness the Dalai
L<!ma and three represen:atives of the concerned Standard
Namo of school r<~2~--- ~. ___ ",~________.A___ __ ~_" •. _ ~--==...,

Ministries namely Education, External Affairs and I 1I III IV , \/1 VII

Finance. An Officer of the Ministry of Education
Central school,
was appointed as Se,;rel:.lry. The Society registered Gol1ar,,~ ilos~'.l,(.. j: t ;)7 h-6 '1 {_,
under the Rezistration of Societies Act 1960 is being Elementary Sch:',)L
financed entireiy by the Government of India. Its Kjj&sapm!1 ,'4 21 ,>4

main functions art: to est:lblish and run Tibetan Elcmeiltdi'Y SehouL

Arlikum2lri 25 ]S 24
schools in various ,;ettlements, to receive r,rants from
Elementary ::ie·he,lll.
Government a~ld donations from other voluntary agen- Gulledahalla 61 35 24
cies and to evolve a pattern of education most suit-
able to the Tibetans, in consultation with His Holi-
TOTAL 140 71 82 66 21 s
ness t.ie Dalai Lama. The medium of instruction
is Erglish. Therefore even for imparti,)g education Tbus it lS "een that ot a total population ot 2918
at the elementary stage the society entertains only as many as ~80 are enrolled as 5tud'::!lts. All the
Graduate-teac':lcrs. For teaching Tibetan language four schools are now housed in pm:ca buildings con·
and ReligiO!! each sc1:001 will have Tibetan teachers structed at 11;': COS! of the Society. In addilion there
as well. To impart phy~icaI training. traind Ins· are staff quarters in the Settlement. The Central
truc·.ors are appointed under the National Discipline School ha!'o a spacious play ground close to it and
Scheme of the Ministry or Education. The children the students are provided with equipments for out·
are provided with free books and stationery in all door games, like foot ball, volley ball, hockey, tenni-
the schools administered by the Society. It the text coit etc.. and iIldoor games like carrom, draughts
books on Tibetan language are reconm:ended by the etc. The children are being trained regularly in
representative of His Holiness the Dalai Lama. with dance and music as welL
regard to other subJects a Text Book Committee
has been formed to review and select suitable books. The Y. M. C, A. has been contributing Its bit to
The So::iety is running (1) Residential schools where improve tbe standard ot literacy among (he Tibetans,
the entire expenditure on all the necessities of life It. maintaim. IJ reading room in each of its three
are provided at the cost of the Society: (2) Day fecreation centres located at Kailasapura, Gulleda-
schools where tbe children reside with their parents halb and Arliku1'13ri. It is conducting adult-
and :lttend the schools during day-time only (free literacy da:'ses in the evenings (7 P.M.-9-30 P.M.) in
middhY meals are ;:iven to these 3tudents): (3} ~ath of the four Villages. Both men and women are
Transit schools in places where the refugees have admitted to these class;es. The folIowim,,: statement
not yet been settkd and lastly (4) Grant-in-aid shows. th;: number of students trained <,0 in each fur
schools ,chool. by the ,ubiect~ taught. The teachers em·
ployed for lni ) purpose are ali voluntarv workers
Beside" a central ochool located at Gollarahosa· and the Y.M.CJ\. has only to meet the- expense$
regarding kero ;ene oil for lighting and for purchase
halli camp 1. tllc'" (tre three Elementary schools in
",f stationery '!fiides.
the Bylakuppe Settlement All these schools are
day-schools and the children are given midday meals Staten:ent Showing the Subjects Taught
in addition to free education. The Elementary
",Jumber of Student.,
schools teach upto III standard only while the cen~ral ,.-' '. __. ___ ,_ _ _A ,,_ ._ _ ~,

school imparts cdacatiou to students from the IV to K<"dias· ArH- Gulled· O(,lIar e
Total
rllra k.um~Ji h:t1!a hosa-
the VII standards, Tllere are in all 25 Teachers of halli
whom 12 are Junior teacl:ers, 1 are elementary tea-
1. Tibetan language ~6 l36 1M 42 42&
chers, 5 are Tibetan teaChers, one craft teacher' (for 2. Hindi langJ..age 54 :54
_()a~~ting and drawing), one physical training Instruc- 3. English 20 54 68 142
,4. Arithmetic . 36 54 6~ 158
tor and two "National Discipline Inspectors.'~ The _ -___ -
, - ..
,~==_,.~_~.~,~~,~.~--.=,o.~;:"'_""_~~~ . . . .__~
.:=_,--...... -
54 -BY~AK.UPPi

Dunng 1965 summer the Y.M.C.A. orgamsed a fort·
i:;ight's holiday camp for Tibetan children at Kum-
balgod nehr Bangalore. In addition to the educational
facilities, the Y.M.C.A. affords recreational facilities
also to the Tibetan children and adolescents.
In a number at households chihlren were noticed
doing home-work using self made ink and small (4"
long) pieces of bamboo with one end pointed and
split like a nib instead of the fountain pens. It was
learnt that the ink could be prepared in an indigenou"
manner using charred rice or wheat. and water. In
Tibet. it is said, they used to prepare ink with soot.
water and sugar.
MEDICAL A TD:
Imm~diately a:ter the settlement ..:ame ir.to existence,
the Medical Officer in charge of the Public Healtl1
Unit, Nandinatnpur-a village four miles away-was
placed in charge of the Tibetan colony :lIsa. He was
expected to V;~;!t the Settkment daily and had been
oroyided with a Compounder. Health Tnspe::tor and
~ midwife for his assistance. In 1961, the Service Civil
International (India) bad deputed a French lady volun-
teer to the Settlement to assist the medical staff. In
July 1962. when a separate Medical Officer was
appointed for the Settlement and later dispensaries were
opened at three pbces (GulledahCllla, Ar!ikumari and
midway between Knilaspura and Gollarahosahalli)· the
medical facilities improved considerably. A special
ward was constructed and attached to the Public Health
Unit at Nandinathpur for the Tibetans. After july
1964. however. the curath.: side of the !\1edica] and
Health programme has been taken over by the Central
Relief Commiltee (India). A well equipped hospital
with a provision for 24 beds has already been esta-
blished. The present medical staff consists of one
Medical Officer, two Staff Nurses, one Compounder
and one Laboratory Assistant. The staff have also
been provided with residential quarters and the
overall cost of the buildings namely Hospital and
quarters is estimated at about Rs. 97,000. This Health
Programme is being financed entirely by the American
Emergency Committee for Tibetan Refugees. The
Hospital now possesses a jeep and an ambulance van
for its use. On the preventive side. the Health
Department of the State Government arranges for
the spraying of D. D. T.. chlorinating the drinking
water, vaccinating the people against small pox etc.
The expenses for treatment of refugees at other places
like Mysore etc.. in case the disease cannot be pro-
perly attended to in the Settlement is being met by
th~ National Christian Council. Ever since the
opening up of the Settlement the AECTR has been
comtar.tIy sending consignments of valuable medi-
cines such as antibiotics. vitamin tablets, hormone
preparations etc.. from time to time.
It is said that in the initial stages almost every
refugee received in the Settlement was found to have
some ailment or the other. An idea regarding their
health conditions may be had by a glance at the
following statement (extract from "second Adminis-
tration Report of the Tibetan Refugee Rehabilita-
tion scheme, Periyapatna Taluk for the period Octo-
ber 1961 to March 1962).

Statement shuwing patients treated for vari3us diseases

----~--. ---------- . ----_
~- .....__~~. ..

Name of Disease Number of patients trt.ated

,-~------~'-'. -,
Oct. 1961 Nov. 1961 Dec. 1961 Jan. 1962 Feb,1962 March 1962

L Malaria 1 20 44 4 2
2. Other fevers 12 16 5 .5 9 9
3. Pneumonia 5 11 19 10 6 g
4. Other Respiratory di,ease~ 151 149 174 134 131 182
5. Dilocrrhot.a 121 101 150 88 72 118
6. Dysentry· 20 14 45 16 14 37
1. Other digestive disease~ !99 142 143 154 166 304
8, Worms 27 29 57 30 27 38
9. Aneamia' 45 28 48 42 58 81
10. Ulcers 70 48 58 67 36 120
11. Other skin diseases 42 46 24 46 49 51
12. 11 otb~r disef.scs 168 169 165 152 124 321

MONTHWISE TOTAL 867 763 889 744 6R4 1,270

TOTAL OLD AND NEW CAS liS TREATED 2,565 1,906 2,265 2.699 2,700 2,352
~ .. ~.,.-~-. ,-' -.~--~-----.-~.--~-----.- ~---- .-------~

Vaccinations Conducted: P.V. 66 Rc.V_ 1254-1320

SOCiAL AND CULTURAL LIt!:'
Vaccination conducted: P. V. 66 and Re. V. 1254= 1320
The High incidence of respiratory disc3ses. diarrhoea.
malaria etc., during those early months may be attri-
buted both to the sudden change of climate and food
as also the hardships experienced by the re:ugees. SO{'l!l
after their arrival protective inoculations against typhoid,
tuberculosis and vaccination against small-pox we":::
given to the refugees, Most of the refugees were
subjected to X-ray screening to detect signs of
tuberculosis and those fo:md affected were put under
prolonged med:cal tre::tment either at the Sanatorium,
Mysore or Madanapalli. As a result of the constnn!
efforts of the Medical Staff. Malarl(1 i~ now ent:rely
.wiped out from the Settlement. The most cr\IT:n:,OJ
diseases encountered now are ordinr:ry fevers, cold,
and cough. skin di;;c~1S;::5, dysentrv :,nd dhrrhoe:J
etc. As no statistics p~rtaining to the n:).ture of d1--
eases and patienls treated ie, avaibblc DOW ;n !ht'
hospital it is difficult t~l have a comparative ide:~
regarding the common diseases affecting the refugee",.
On the whole it may be saJd that the refugees an'
enjoying adequate medical facilities. Moreo;er their
stay in the Settlement for such a length of time ano
the economic security which they enjoy now, hav\'
helped them considerably to regain their healthy 8nd
strong constitution.
In the matter of personal hygiene the Tibetans in
the Settlement may be observed to be not upto the
mark. This general feature may be mqinly due le-
the climatic conditions prevailing in their mother-
land: During the cuid months in that snowclad
country to expose one's body to the weather is dan-
gerous and as such it was only during the hot months
that they were taking a bath. In the rural parts
bathing was a real lUXUry and many were not chan?-."
ing clothes at all for weeks and months. In town:;
Oistributloll of Households by slzt
Total no. of households
,....--.~~~-
Singk ~v{ember 2-3 members
,--------A ___ ~ r-__A~---_"'~
Hhs M F Hhs M
902 151 73 is -tOS
It is observed that 16.74?(J of the total households
are single-membered; 44.90% are having two or three
members each; 34.59% are having 4 to 6 persons
each; 3.32% are having 7 to 9 members and only 0.45%
are having lO members or more. Considering the
population it may be seen that roughly 50 % of the-
lotu} population are living in hou.>eholds having 4
however ffit'n and women med to change their clothes
more frequently. Since coming over to the Settlement
the refugees are heinr consistently insisted upon, by
the staff of the Special Officer and other voluntary
organisations such as Y.M.CA., to bathe as fret~u­
ently as po"sible and to w3"h their clothes as welL
As a matter of fact the Y.M.C.i\. hml1ched a prn-
grawme lor giving bath to some 375 school childre.:1
thrice a week. The members of the youth club-both
girls and boys-were to render a%istance in this pro-
gramme. These persnations had the r;::::uired effect
and now many bathe at least once a week and change
their soiled c1oth;~s more frequently, The tanks-
both the natural ones and the buiilc'n water tanks·-
are the places where one could see ma:1Y men . WOrr.fl1
md children h;lving their cold ";::iter oEth on summer
afternoons. Neveithdess ther.:: are a few who roam
about in dirty clothes and do not care to b:nhe even
once a month, Habits die hard and each chan;lf
requires its own time to effect a total reformation.
Now the use of toilet soap, washlng soap, tooth paste
and brush is becoming more popular. Among young
women the use of cosmetics also prevails.
Size and compG6i!ion of hOll!eboJd$
It has already been pointed out that the household
is defined as a group of persons commonly living
together in the same census house and taking their
food from a common mess unless prevented to do so
by the exigencies or work. Thus in a settlement where
600 families each consisting of 5 adults were planned
to be rehabilitated 902 households have been enume-
rated. By grouping the households by the number
of members in each the fol1(1wing information i~
reveale<L
TABLE XIX
Size of household~ ....A._~~ __.. ,~ _~ _____ ~ __ .c~_~._.~. _ _ ""'"
4-6 :vremb~ls 7·~9 Members 10 men or more
r--=--..J'---~-. r- ~ ____ .A..___ .__ ---... -,-~~-~
F Hhs M F Hils 1\1 F Hhs M F
504 SIS 312 15.3 714 30 101 128 >} 34 18
to 6 members and another 35% are living ill house-
holdil having 2 10 3 members. The percentage of
populalio;; living in huger hou~~holds that i:, those
having more than six members is only 9.6. Most
of the hou:"ehold" in th~ Settlement are now homo-
geneQt:$ uuits despite the fact that at the initial stage~
there were n11Itlerou~ heterogenous units Wher!
once some ~Ofl. 01 ~ettled conditIOns were establi!>hed
the members fT0l1p~d in che 'fLlmily units' began to
form indc!',~ndent households but comillued to live in
the san:e allotred house and share the allotted land
and equipment. They st8.rled to have their own
monetary trami'ctions. There were some changes
regarding the sb:c of familie:, due to amalgama ~ion
of difL:rent but reJated units and also due to births.
marriages; :lnd ,karh~ oCCl:rring in them, Even now
there are a few hOl"i:holds consisting' of unrelated
members bm mostly the mem!1ers of these house-
holds are lamas Simple families com:sting of hus-
band. wife anJ unrmrried children ~eem to be mor,'
popular thoagn there "re at present 'I sizer;ble num-
ber of joint Of intemJcdiate families in the Settlement.
Be!i{'l:s mEl ;::":1r1ires .-om~e{'~erl Wail ~lirth, Marriage
aId neat~i'··
HIRTH
The Tibttan& in general are aware of the
phys;.ologi.cal rrocesses involved in the conception
and birth 0: :" child. There nre howe"'er. a few who
believe that a woman may occasionally conceive solely
through a supernatural agency (ghost, spirit etc,.) and
in tLi<: <":\\:1!k:crion they relate a legend concerning a
Queen of China. The child born thus-that is with-
out the nnion of a man and a woman-i~ called
Hashang which literally means 'only flesh: The
Tibetans believe th:it if the mother con;ributes tht"
fleshy portion to her offspring the father is responsible
for the b,me... It is thus that a child born to ~ome
spirit or ghost which i~ f()rmJes~ hcromes ex:remely
Reshy.
The Tibetans have neither ceremonk~ to .::eJebrrllt:
(he event of conception nor otTer;ngs to mah for
propitiatin!! the snlrits or Gods. The\. have the
practice of inviting a laTIn, (luring the prefmancy of
J woman to reci'e SSriptUff'C, and offer prayers aiminE!
at averting posslble mishaps connected with chUd"
birth and to imhue the foetus with onlv virtue~. Thr
pregnant \-VOH'en do not ohserve any restrictions
regardin::: fO(ld ,r~d drinks e'<cept that they es<:hc\\
pork and mut1Q;J, Fowl's fic'>b' i~ their favourite'
dish hut \hi~ also 1~ wken OTICe; in a way. They may
jrink cb,:/1f! :be n:!ld into'{icsnt but not in excessive
qmmtitie~. As tbe prc~nancy advances the p';'cgnam
women u:mally keep indoors and avoid d01r:g heavy
aGd e\\1:JtJsting "','ofk To keep the foe\!1s warm
they generally wear waist pads (of cotton <;or \'\'ooHco
doth) covering the h~Hy and the bins.
The delivery usually take'S place at her rH'~band\
place iwd. m. the w;uJ!.~ sleeping room It ,s net
binding on the parents of a pregnant ITvoman even
in tie case 0: first pregnancy to fetch her to their home
for delivery and confinement. 1t all depends on
one's convenience rat:lcr than on custOir.. /,n ex-
perienced elderly woman attends the parturition ex-
cept in the case of complicatetd cases when either a
midwife is invited or she is taken to the hospital.
Very few Tibi2tan women are repor'ed to have utili-
sed ihe benefit of the maternity facilitie" provided by
the cent raJ hospital. At the time of labour
usually the mother or the mo:her-in-law of the f'2r-
turicnt woman will also be present. Soon after the
birth the umbilical cord is cut and the placenta is
[~athered in ;l large earthen pot or a plastic conta:ner.
This is later burid in a c'ean spOt outside tl!e house.
The child is wushed a few moments after the birth
and a little quantity of butter is administered, A
tiny lump of butter is placed on lis scalp and it is
believed to render the breathing of the cbld eClsy.
Th:~, practice which prevailed in Tibet is being
followed in the Settlement a:: well. The rrother i!\
also bathed in W:lrID water. She is give~l a small
lump of butter mixed with the flour of fried whelt
(barley ill Tibet) soon after the bath and is later fed
with chicken soup. Tbe suckling starts usually on
the second day and the period of suckling las's for
about 2 year:" During this period the m6ther fre"~'
quently applies butter to her breasts and the teats so
as to keep them supple. For wearing away· the
child certain bitter pastes are applied to the teats.
The period of confinement for the mother usuu1fy
lasts far four to six weeks and th's may at times be
extended depending upon her health, During thi;.:
period the mother is given rich food like chic:k::n 50,ll1'
and chang in addition to prepa;ations of wheat. The
child h given solid food when it ie- about one year
old and n;' s!,'.'cial ceremony is h~ld to celebrate th~
event
On rhe lhml day after the birth, the Tibetans invite
a lama t.o conduct special prayers. A few friends and
relatives are also invited and feted. The invitees
bring k!;(ifa (scarf) for being presented to the host.
They do not observe christening ceremony separately
The .:hildren arc often named after the day of their
hirth like N:v1ma (Sunday). Dawa (Monday), Hlak-pa
IWednesday) e~c. as an affix to such names as Tsering
(long-life). Dolma (mother goddess) etc. The child-
ren are also named after high lamas. In the Settle-
ment it i'l sf);d that there are a few who Yifote to
His Holiness the Dalai Lama seeking a suitable name
for the child born in their household, Many of the
Tibetans in the Settlement take the name fron! tfJe
Rimpoche (pI.;vkms) L;'IDiiS residing 'J.t Kaihlspur ~nd
 SOCIAL AND CULTURAL LIFE
ArIikumari. On its first outing the child is taken to
the Rimpoche and the pagoda or the monastery. On
this occasion the nose of the baby is smeared with a
black dot and this is believed to avert the influence
of the evil eye. The child. either male or female.
will be shorn bald on an auspicious day soon after
the completion of its first year of life. On this OCca-
sion a Lama is invited to the house to fC'cite relevem
prayers and read scriptures. For his services he
receives a rupee or two in addition 10 a sumptuous
meal. The hair severed on this occasion from the
scalp is either burnt or thrown away into a river.
When the girls are about 10 years old they have their
earlobes pierced while boys, excepting those who are
ordained to become lamas, will have their ears pier-
ced when they are ] 5 to 20 years of age. No cele-
bration marks this occasion. Boys insert lead pieces
in their earlobes for a couple of weeks in ordcr to
widen the aperture. Attainment of puberty by girls
is also not considered as an occasion for celebration.
Only the boys who enter the religious order of lama-
hood undergo initiation. The ceremony takes plal:C
in a lamasery under thc supervision ar,d p:uidnnce of
a Lama of a high order. At the initiation, the initiate
undergoes a tonsurial ceremony. he is given a new
name and a set of new robes.
The Tibetans do not appear to observe any ritual
impurity following the birth of a child in the family.
The infants aged a year or less are usually carried
in the forearms while the older ones are carried on
the back. For fastening the baby to the back a
length of strong cloth is used. The Tibetans rrefer
to have a son as their first born as it is considered
lucky. Barrenness among women is despised and
such women are referred to as 'kyangar' (an anima1
resembling Zebra). Praying to village God is the
only method known to such barren women to beget
children. Family planning methods are totally un-
known to the settlers.
Boys born in a 'Tiger year' and girls born in a
'Mouse year' are considered very lucky. The Tibe-
tans associate every year of a twelve year cycle with
a particular animal like Tiger year. Mouse year,
Dragon year, Horse year etc. These years are dis-
cussed in further detail when dealing with their
marriage practices. Birth day anniversaries are cele-
brated by burning incense and praying the chief vil-
lage God for a I{)ng life. Some raise new prayer
flags while a few add an extra flag to the pnJe already
existing in front of the house.
MARRIAGE:
Among Tibetans marriage is a social institution
having very little or 110 reli~il)lls signiticance Tn
8-3 Censlls:MysOfe-/73
57
Tibet marriages were commonly contracted by
ne!!otiations carried on bv the parents or
gu~rdians of the COl:p 1C. Love ~::miages \~ithout seek-
ing prior consent of th,~jr parents were rare. Tibetan
custom and tradition ;:,~rmits heth polygyny and polyan-
dry. Similarly. soronlte and levirate were also quite
popular. Remarriage of widows had the approval of tht"
society while divorc~. thOl!r:h allowed. cOllJd be resor-
ted to only in ex:('(~rf ;0:)81 cir~u [pQ:'!1ces. Such divor-
ced women also conlc. '~Grry again. In Tibet it is said.
there was no limit to t~]r; numt~r of marriages that a
man or a woman cOl.lld contract. It was Jot uncom-
mon for men to marry women much older than them-
selves and vice versa.
The Tibetans were divided into several endoga-
mous groups such as Shepa the butchers. Serso the
goldsmiths and silversmiths. Chagso or Ohara the
blacksmiths, undertnkers. Nyapa the fish'~rmen and
hunters etc. Shin?hn the agriculturists and herds-
men constituted the In1j()f section of the nopulation.
The noble men also hailed from this comnan peasant
class. All persons be10nging to groups or functional
castes such as lhe smiths, undertakers, hunters etc.,
were relegated to the k,wer rungs of t'le Tibetan
society. Inter-marriage between members of these
groups was not aUmveu under any circumstances.
Another distinction noticelble a::Dong th,~ Tibetans
is their tribal :::tffiliations depending upon one's origin
in the various districts of Tibet such as Amdowa.
Khampn, Yuna, Dl'otcy. The inter-tribal marriages,
though not very common, were allowed a!1d practised
occasionally. ConsanguineotlS marriages were not
contracted by the Tibetans as they hold marriages
among: blood reJatiom as ince:;!uous and hence taboo.
In the Settlement even though marriages by nego-
tiation between o[t':'s elders are in vogue. those by
mutual consent without prior knowledge ("If sanction
of the elders concerned are very popular. This change
may he attributed to the altered environ.ments. Many
men and women, unaccompanied by any of their
relations and hailing from different parts of Tibet
have now been liviD; together as a village community.
During the resistance movement in Tibet, numerous
men left their homes and hearths as volunteers and
the drift of events brought them over to India as
refugees. Their dependents left behind in their
homes had to look after thcn'eslves and many of
them managed to .ioin other groups of people tree-
king their way to India and :1:~i.D.-::... tcly mJDClged to
reach their destination. During this period of transit
associated as it was with ~~r~"t r: ks to p":fsonal safety,
many of the womcn--young and old---travelling with-
out their hu<:ha!ld~ rmtn<lged to enter into matrimonial
58
alliances with men little known to them. The dis-
tinction of one's caste and tribe was of no regard. The
same trend continued even after reaching India and
many of the marri2 ge reguhtions and rites were done
away with to suit individual conveniences. Now in
the SettleT.·ent some sort of a seWed atmosphere pre-
vails and normalcy promises to return soon. It is
said that their rfliious as weU [IS temporal head His
Highness the Dab! Lama has issued a call to all
the Tibetans to s:nk their differences based on func-
tional castes and tribal affiliations and to form a
united and hOElo~eneous community. Thus inter-
tribal marriages are now common and all the Tibe-
tans constitute a single endogamous unit. Since
settling over at Bylakuppe, polygamy seems to have
lost its appeal amO!1g the Tibetans. However, there
are a few instances of both polyandry and polygyny.
In a particular case it was noticed that both father
and son h::\d a common wife while in another house
a man had taken his step-daughter also for his wife
in addition to her mother. A few instances of bro-
thers sharing a common wife were also reported. This
custom Wi'S considered very advantageous in Tibet
but now s;}(.;, ;} f('e 1ing is nof commonly shared. The
remarriage of widows c,ad divorced women is allowed
and widely practised. Though divorce is viewed with
much disfayour by the elderly persons, its incidence is
on a steady increase partly because of the popularity
of love-marriages Bnd also, the estrangement of the
couple in mar.v imtances where the husband has lelt
the S:::<::e·n -· '.., - -'C.' 0f l'ett('l' prospects and keeps
visiting OI'ce a year or so. In all cases of divorce
the aggri::v('d pe:rSO:1 gets some compensation. In
case a person preters to have a divorce the matter is
referred to the Tibetan leaders and an enquiry is
held and then if rer.onciliation fails, the separation is
sanctioned .. As in Tibet, here also marriages are not
contracted among blood
~ ,
relations and bence cons an-
guineous marriages are unheard of. A man may
marry his brother's widow or even father's brother's
widow, or his wife's own sister.
The m~rriageable age for the Tibetan women is
generally 18 to 25 and that for the Tibetan men is
22 to 30. Marriages are, at times, contracted at a
much adv'1nc~d ave due to personal reasons. From
'the statistics r('~arding rrariwI status presented already
it is se~n that only 8 girls less j:'~m 20 years of a~e
8J': in m,,;-r;ed Etalus while as many as 69 out of
96 in the (lG'~-':~'0U') 20-24 ace married. Likel,'iis~
amon~ me:1, only 13 ('ut of 72 in the age-group 20-
24 are nlclrr;ed. These factors reveal the fact that
Tibet:::::s f2VQ1.1r a rel::tively h;~~h~" age for marriage.
A study carried out at Mainpet (Madhya Pradesh)
BYLAKUPPE
Refugee Settlement regarding the "marital factors and
child bearing among Tibetan refugees" revealed the
folloviing facts reg?rding the age cit first marriage
(Antiseptic: February 1966. VOl. b3 NO.2. Article
by Dr. N. S. Nair and Nallathambi).
"The age at marriage (for women) ranged from
12 to 40 years, the most popular period being between
16 and 25; when 68.41 per cent of the subjects had
got married. Both halves of this decade were equally
popular. TIle im:' ':kte Dest pu: r -t11 marriages
were looked down with disfavour, only 4 -:', cent of
girls having been under 16 years of age at the time
of marriage. It was not common for women to
get married after 30 years of age. Tibetan men
appeared to favour a relatively higher age for enter-
ing matrimony; thus 56.7% of them were between
20 and 30 years of age at the time of marriage and
a third of them were bachelors at 30. No fewer
than 16 subjects were in their forties when they got
married."
It is not uncommon for Tibetan men to marry
women much older than themselves. This custom
had wide Cl:r:'el1CY in Tibet where arranged marriages
were the rule. However in the Settlement such occur-
rences, especially with a wide disp2rity in age bet-
ween husband and wife, are rare.
In Tibet marriage by payment of bride price,
usually in terms of livestock head. tea, and other
articks. wa, qu'et commo!), The bridC:2room's
fath",]' us~~ally carried these art i (:"'<; of wealth along
with a khnt,' (~c3rf) to the br:;:'e S D?renjs at the time
of his very first visit to them for a~king their daughter
to his family. Bat now in the Settlement such a
prac- ice is iIT'practicable due to the economIC strin-
gency shared by one and a:1. Hmvever as a token
for choosirg the bride, she is given a costly finger
ring or a piece of turquoise.
In their hanl(' country. the Tibetan~ used to cele-
brate the bttrotha' cen Cl",ony whereas here most of
them do' not oo~ervc this function at a1l. On this
occasion it w<,s custorrary to pr:-rare an express
alHeement cu ied f:;:\·cnja in dU;Jlicate stating sped-
fi,~;Jlly the J,;;r"s <'Ld COflci:;:JIiS of the alliance, the
penalty n;;\,,':)le ill c,).~e of b'·c?cn e!c. The parents
of the couple were to preserve a copy of this agree-
n1_l1t July 5~gn(" ~ 1; 'Jncerr. ~d. Here also in a
ie'''' ill'tances of marnage by nego lation by elders
this practice is respected and continued,
SOCIAL AND CULTURAL LIFE
In the settlement there are ample opportunities for
unmarried men to meet women while working in the
fields, or attending night schools etc., and develop
some sort of intimacy. Exchange of love letters has
become a cornman feature. The parents of a girl
also do not take it amiss if they see her Hirting with
a bachelor. Their mutual liking and the intention
to be united by a marriage bond is later conveyed to
their parents. The parents then arrange to meet
one another. At this meeting of the parents the
local leaders also remai~ present. For every 10
families there is a leader and for every camp of
100 families there are two leaders. This done, an
auspicious day is chosen to celebrate the marriage.
Some of the Tibetans ask for the advice of a lama in
selecting a date for marriage. Saturday is consi-
dered to be very auspicious. Tibetans consider all
the 12 months in a year to be equally auspicious for
celebrating a marriage. But now-a-days as they
have become touchy about the month in which their
leader was forced to leave his courtry they are
abstaining from observing any celebrations during
that month (March). The marriage may take place
either at the bride's residence or the bridegroom's
residence according to convenience. The number of
invitees to a marriage is u3Ually very small. The
marriage house is decorated with festoons and
buntings. A Lama is consulted regarding the direc-
tion the couple have to face on this occasion as also the
colour of the garments to be worn by the bride. At
the appointed time, usually early hours of the morn-
ing, on the day of marriage a man from the bride-
grooms side carries a scarf to the bride's residence.
offers it to the bride's father or guardian and wishing
them ,good luck invites them to fetch the bride to the
bridegroom's residence. At his residence the bride-
groom remains seated on a decorated cot. On arrival,
the girl is made to sit to the left side of the bride-
groom on the cot. Thereupon the parents of the couple
exchange scarves and then each in turn places a scarf
on the napes of the couple. All the assembled guests
follow suit and at the time of offering the scarf they
do nol forget to present an envelope containing some
cash to the couple. S0011 after the ani val of the
guests and the bride's people tea, chang and biscuits
are distributed. The elderly persons meet tht?- couple
and give a bit of advice asking them to be faithful to
each other and to lead a happy life. The guests then
join in 'changshe' a special marriage dance accompa-
nied by group singing. This soIemnises the marriage.
In the Settlement no Lama or any person of a reli-
gious order is invited to, either offer prayers or to
solemnise the union whereas in Tibet it was custo-
mary to call a Lama to offer 'Iha sang' (incense) and
59
prayers to the Almighty. Later in the afternoon a
feast is got up and the drinking and dane~:lg con-
tinues all through the night. On tnc fo:lowing day
or the third day the girl's parents entertain tiie coupie
and a few guests to a grand feast. The Tibetans do
not hold any special ceremony to con:;u:umate the
marriage.
Most of the Tibetans have superstitions regarding
the success of a marital union based on th,~ day and
year of the birth of the couple concerned. Each day
of the week has an attribute as .i,v;>:d oe:lo'.v and cum-
bination of persons born all days of ail opposing
or controversial character are considered to bode ill.
Sunday and Tuesday=Fire; Monday and Wednesday
= Water; Thursday=Wood; Friday=Iron and Satur-
day = Earth. As water can extinguish fire it is
argued that the combination of perS0113 born on
Sunday or Tuesday and Monday or Wednesday will
not be good. Similarly each year of a ~v'l~lve year
cycle is associated with some specific crelture and
certain combinations are reckoned to boae weil while
certain others do not. The twelve year cycle is as
given below:-
Chiwa=Mouse year; Lang=Bull year; Tak=Tiger
year; Yo=Hare year; Druk=Dragon year; Dru=
Snake year; Ta=Horse year; Lu=Sileep year; Tre=
Monkey year; Cha=Bird year; Khyi=Dog year; Pha
=Pig year.
Marriage of persons born in a pig year and a
sheep year are supposed to bring good luck. The
combination of persons born in a dog year and
dragon year; bull year and sheep year etc., are consi-
dered to bode ill. Some of the Tibet3ilS resort to
other methods like throwing of dice by .1 Lama, or
opening a page from the scrjp~ures cle., or knowing
whether a marriage would be lucky or net. But in
the Settlement such practices are resortc:d to only when
marriages are arranged by nego~iations.
Generally the expenditure over a marria3e ranges
between Rs. 300 and Rs. 600. The mE jar part of
the expenditure is borne by the bridegroom as he
has to present new garments and at least 0_1(; or two
ornaments to his wife. The feast may ;.;onsist of a
sumptuous dinner or else a simple tea p.::.,ty. This
depends mostly upon the cap?city of the bridegroom
or his parents to spend on the celet·rations. In the
Settlement much of the pomp and feastin::; ~1as been
given up as the Tibetans are con3:iol1s of t~le suffer-
ings that their brethren are undergoing 2t the hands
of the Chinese.

DEATlE:
In Tibet. the Tibetans were ::.c<:ustomed to liispo:,c
of their dead b) c ~ ,. ;:~ : ~1cm to . u:;", >; caned
'Tajor' or by thrmving away tile corpse" at ri\ers or
streams. Soon after coming over to t;l~ ~cltkil1cnL
as no vultures ready to do away with tlle corj)ses wc:rc
to be seen. the Tib;;:tan::; resorted to dJ:,po:;al of tb,_;
dead by throwiilg away in a ri\;er. But this practice
had to be abandoned as the pcopi<.; in t~e neighbour·
hood as well as the oftkials tcok strong obj,,:ceion,
Thus the Tibetans '~vt:rc per:'umied 10 d,~, pose of t:icir
dead by cremation. Small children are mually
buried. though a few slray ins,ai1ccs of throwing away
such corpses in the ri'ver are also r\;p(lrt~d occasionally.
Death is generally attribut\;d 10 nhyslv:.d condition~.
injury, ill health etc., exc;;pt in rlie case of ac:,;jdcnr,d
or unnatural deaths wnjch are supposed :0 be due to
the malice of spirits, ghosts <:tc., Of due to ;;ins and
previous acts of commission and ommis"ion, When
a person is laid up with ailment tile Tibetans gene-
rally invite a learned 18ma 10 divine the reason {::Ir
illness and take counter measures such as pmy:ng
to Almighty or prescribing medicines. Failing thi,
or even simultaneously, they approach the qualified
physician in the Settlement for treatment. When death
becomes imminent the relatives closcby put water
added with some prepa"::J.tion called 'Zinden' obtained
from a Lama into, the 'mouth. Generally a dying
person is allowed to breathe lLis last in hi> U~lla~
place of resting aDd, evcn :' fter ;:leath, the l.'OfF"c:
is not moved out until a Lama app,;]ls on the S:cflt'
and issues instructions [0 do so. S,)on after amy a!'
the Lama places some scriptures close tJ tb:: corp~c
to ward off the evil spirits and s:urts rt.:ci ting prayc:s.
Only the close relativc:s and friends visit the corpse
to pay their last respects. The visitors place kh{!ta
or scarves on the corpse as a token of their regard.
It is believed that if any person ';',ere to touch the
corpse before the starting of prayers by the L:.ma
it would calise tbe soul to leave the body and 11," cr
~bout in the dark. The prayers rccitc(( are ('(\n~i-
dered to help the soul in finding its ,ath to h,,:tvC'n,
In Tibet it was custcilli1ry to keep the corp"cc llnd;~·
turbed for three days \\'hen Lamas kc:-,t (1[1 recitin~r
prayers. But bere th(; climatic conditions ,p';_: [1:0,1
unsuitable for retention of a corps:: lwer <;uch a 1(Ing
period and the rlGctars m the Sett;ement dispose of
the body l?ene£:tHy wiH1in 2~, ~ 01., 'S, An:: stroloQcr
or the Lan};} himself ic]stn;cts 2.S to who n:r!ong the
relations or friends of the dec'?3.seJ me y touch the
corpse. carr)' it to the crcr;.lalOJ:iUl1l, the directi,m
II ). L .\ K TJ P P E
whicll the corp:,e has to lace while being taken out of
the house, and also points Ollt the spot where the
funeral pyre consisting of country wood and cowdung
cakes has to be arranged. There is no rule as to
who should carry the dead but sometimes it is
believed that if a son carries the corpse of his father
he will be absolved of all sins committed so far
and acquires merit. The preparation of the pyre is
attended to by relations and friends. The funeral
party is generally headed by the Lama who h{llcls in
his hand a burning torch. Women and children do
not take part in the funeral rites. At the cremalo·
rium the corpse shrouded in a white sheet of cloth
is laid on jlle pyre and the Lama after wa\'ing the
torch before the corpse sets fire at different places.
The funeral party stays there till the corpse i~ wholly
consumed by nrc. As touch of a corpse or attend-
ing a funeral is not supposed to cause any pollution
the party need not bathe on their way home. Close
to the place of burning prayer flags-usually ftve-
are planted and these arc periodically replaced with
new prayer Hags.
When the corpse of a pregnant woman is to be
disposed of generally the foetus is removed before
cremation. This custom of separating the foetus
prevailed in Tibet also.
The bones remaining after the cremation arc collec-
ted later and placed in the home till the 49th day oC
death and worshipped. Then the bones are powdered
and mixed with clay and formed into lumps· ·big and
small--which will later be fllaced at elevated places
like hillocks or places close to a pagoda or a mona-
stery. In Tibet some rich men used to retain a
piece of bone of the deceased and take it fOLllld on
a pilgrimage to important centres under the belief
that it would assist the deceased in earning merit.
If a child is born in the family of the deceased before
the expiry of one year, it is considered fO be the
reincarnation of the dead person,
The Tibetans do nol observe any ritual pollution
consequent upon the death or a person in the family.
But they mourn the death for a period of atleast 49
days. During this period they abstain from singing.
dancing and rejoicing. The chief mOllrner in the
case of a married man i" his wife while the mother
mourns the death of her unmarried children and her
husband. The chief mourner during the 49 days of
mourning abstains from putting on ornaments. new
clothes and even does not care to comb or wash his/
her hair. In the Settlement it is reported that the
period of mourning has come down to about seven
SOCIAL A:-iD CUL[URAL LIFE
days ev~n with regard to the chief m,'UrI1('L the
other members of the family mourn the d~:1lh tor J
to 7 uays according to their scntil1lcntJl 'ltt:,iC:1l11c'nt.
Immediately alter the death ~h;:: soul of a pCl~~H1
is believed to remain bodiless for 49 days. For i:s
subsistence fumes emanating from daily oHerings at
wheat flour, ghee or butler ar~ mc:de by the member:,
of the family twice a day. For this purpose an
earthen pot containing embers is hung just outside
the house. The cup med by the deceased durin~
his life time is also filled with tea at least twice a day
and the tea is later thrown away on the roof. As many
of the refugees arc unable to employ Lamas to offer
prayers for a period of 49 days they usually have a
Lama to recite prayers on the day of the death as
also on the 49th day. A few arrange prayers on
every seventh day till the 49th. The Lama engaged
is usually paid a rupee or two in addition to food.
On the 49th day also no gucsts arc entertajncd even
though a feast is held for the Lama and the mcmber~
of the household. I t is on this day that the soul
of the departed is believed to enter into some other
form of earthly existenCe in its cycle of trammigra-
tion. The p;ayers are supposed to guide the soul
into higher realms by acquisition of merit. Of the
food prepared on the 49th day a little quantity is
thrown outside the house by the Lama for reeding the
birds. Butter lamps are lighted before the family
- altar and are kept burning incessantly all through the
period of 49 days or atleast on the first and the forty
ninth day. The well-to-do keep these lamps for a
complete year. On the day of the iirst death annI-
versary hundred or more butter lamps are lit bcfo,'e
the family altar. If the soul of lh~ departed turr,c
out to be a ghost and then begins to torment tlie mem-
bers of the household a Lama is invit"d to hold pra-
yers at home so as to drive away the spirit and at
the same time helping it to acquire a lot of merit. On
this occasion a manikin (Thonnc) is made out of
wheat flour and after due rites placed at a road
junction or near a solitary tree as these ph.ices are
considered to form the abodes of ghosts and spirils.
On the first death anniversary this ceremony is gone
through and also a ~heet of card board on which
geometrical designs and human figures dressed in
Tibetan fashion are scribed in coloured pencils by the
Lama is placed near the entrance to the house on a
bamboo trestle. To a sticic radiating from the mid-
dle of this card-board a length of coloured thread is
wound systematically. This arrangement is believed
to be imbued with the capacity to turn away the
spirit or the ghost from entering the house.
61
ihe '1 ilxtan, !<lEe r)ilgod~;s ,mJ uti];:r me1llorials
only in respect of very eminent tc~!chcrs and Lamas.
Religious institutions:
Since coming over tLl the Scttle;:ncnt. the TihetaI1';'
ha\e built a 'chholcn' (pagoda) close to Kailaspur
camp for offering their worship. The work was
completed in 1964 itself. The devotees circumam-
bulate this pagoda clockwise, all the while reciting the
sacred hymn 'Ol\i MAN! PA.ME HUM' for a speci-
fied number of rounds like 108 rounds or its multiples.
At Arlikumari close to camp IV a large monastery
is being buiit ~1l1d already the ~lUge idol of lord
Buddha which \vill be installed in this shrine is pre-
pared. The entire construction of this monastery
has been organised and supervi:,ed by the Rimpoche
Lama staying at Arlikumari. The expenditure for
constructing the pagoda and the monastery is being
met by raising voluntary contribt tions in cash and
kind.
The residents of Gulledahalla hwe a ~mall shrine
of Phalden Lhamo, the Mother GJddess, for offering
prayers on important occasions. Tte speed with which
the refugees are putting up their public places of
worship bears testimony to their intense relig:ous tra-
ditions.
F::Jmiiy deity;
Almost every i1l)usehuld keeps a family altar
where a photo of His I-Iolines~ the Dalai Lama
adorned with a ~craf or some other object of
worship like line drawings of a Choten, Ehodi tree
etc., is placed. In front of it some households keep
a gong and one or two butter lamps. A row of seven
or fourteen cups (silver or aiurr'1nium) are also
placed before it and every morning these cups are
filled to the brim \vith fresh water which \.vdl be
later thrown over the roof. Some do kec[) woodeD
bowls for pouring tea as an offering to their God.
Every morning or in the evenings joss sticks are
lighted and waved before their deity. Before going
(0 bed all the members of the family sit in their sleep-
ing place and offer prayers all the while counting
rosary beads or turning the prayer wheel.
Festivals:
The Tibetans reckon time by cycles, the
most common of which is known as '10 khor.' rIle
twelve years are named after some creatures, such as
mouse, bull. tiger etc. A cycie of sixty y('ar~ is
formed by joining the five elements viz. shill!! (wood).
me (fire), sa (earth), eha (iron) and ehu (water) to the
twelve creatures of the Lo khor. The Tibetan
months-twelve in number--have no names but are
 62
num bered 1, 2, 3 etc. Each month lasts from the
day atter one new moon day to the next and consists
of approximately 30 days.
Lo saris the new year festival celebrated during
February-March to mark the commencement of the
Tibetan New year. It was customary in Tibet to
celebrate this festival over a period of fifteen days
but in the Settlement the festivities last for only three
days. The houses are decorated with festoons and
paper buntings. On the inner walls of the hall and
the rooms auspicious marks such as yunding I.haktec.
(swastika), Dorje, Tsa, the Sun and the Moon are
painted. On the 1Irst day the members of the family
get up very early (3 a.m.) and offer prayers' at th.;
family altar in a group. Special dishes called
GOlldcll (prepared from chang, jaggery and cheese),
Tibetan biscuits, Drothuk (made out of wheat, water
and sheep head) etc., are prepared for tll is day.
Before the family altar they keep fried wheat and
fried wheat flour contained in wooden bowls, light
a number of butter lamps and burn incense. Neigh-
bours and friends exchange visits and when they auiw
the wooden bowls c;ontaining the grains are held for
them to throw into the air thrice as an offering sClying
'Thasihdile' and later they eat a few grains. In the
afternoon and evening they revel in drinking chang
and dancing. Members from each family take a
prayer flag fastened to a post to a closcby hillock
and plant it there. In front of their houses :llso
prayer flags are raised. The feasting and dancing
continues for two more days. The New Year is a
community festival as well and therefore it i~ celebra-
ted at the office of the Representative of His HL'liness
the Dalai Lama also. On the first day all the Lam;}s
in the Settlement assemble at the office at 3. AM.
and offer prayers till about 7 AM. At the central
portion of the haH a large sized photograph of the
His Holiness the Dalai Lama is placed and (he assem-
bled persons offer khata to his Holiness. Adjacent
to this photograph towards the right an elevated seat
with cushions meant for His Holiness is placed.
Numerous butter lamps are kept burning and all the
photographs etc., are very well garlanded and deco-
rated. After the prayers the Lamas as well as any
other persons attending the prayers are given shond-
ray (cooked rice mixed with some sugar and butler).
All of' the assembled persons are shown woodt:n bowls
containing fried wheat repeating grains and each throws
a few grains of fried wheat 'Thashi dile' thrice. Wheat
porridge is also similarly served. On the second and
third day also similar early morning prayers are held.
On the third day the important ceremony is the hoist-
ing of a new prayer flag in front of the office. This
BYLAKUPP£
will be held' at about 9 A.M. and is followed some-
time later by the blowing of trumpets by two yellow
capped monks. The monks that is, lamas then
pay respecL~ one by one to His Holiness the
Dalai Lama, personified in the Photograph, by
placing a scarf. The chosen Tribal leaders called
Garthvi place a red string on the nape of the laity
who happen (0 visit this shrine and pay respects.
After the usual serving of shondray and tea to the
monks and the assembly the Tibetan representative
unfurls the Tibetan National Flag. This is followed
by chorus singing of the Tibetan National Anthem.
Afterwards the monks would recite some sacred texts
by which time every one in the assembled crowd is
given a handful of wheat flour. Simultaneously cheer-.
jng loudly all raise their hands thrice and on the third
occasion they toss the flour high into the air as an
offering. This over, some symbolic religious mask
and drum dances are performed by a select few. The
school children as also some of the other flien and
women give some dance performances later. This
concludes the celebrations and in the afternoon as
well as all through the night the people join in groups
and revel in dance, drinking chang, singing etc.
CHENGA CHHUBA:-On the fifteenth day that is,
fullmoon day of the first month this festival called
'chenga chhuba' or the 'day of miracle' is celebrated
at every home by offering prayers and di~hes at the
family altar and lighting butter lamps. Those in
affluent circumstances offer alms to the poor, All the
lamas gather at the monastery in the evening and
offer mass prayers. Certain dances specially meant
for this occasion are also performed.
SAKATHA: -This festival marking the birth anni-
versary of Lord Buddha falls in the fourth Tibetan
month. The first fifteen days of this month are
spent in praying to the Lord at every h0me and keep-
ing butter lamps and also mass prayers at the mona-
steries. Those who can afford distribute alms. Even
butchers refrain from slaughtering animals and none
partakes of any non-vegetarian dish during this period
of 15 days. In general, they abstain from liquor
and do not utter bad or vulgar words. This whole
month is a blessed month, commonly known as the
'month of a hundred thousand merits', for Lord
Buddha attained Buddahood as well as 1';irvana in
this month. The high potency possessed by this
month is such that either the good or the bad that
one does is multiplied a hundred thousand times.
On th~ night of the fifteenth day most of the Tibe-
(ans keep on moving from monastery to stupa and
SOCIAL AND CULTURAL LIFE
to the houses of Lamas to add fresh ghee to the but-
ter lamps kept there, burning incessantly. They keep
wide awake all through tne night praying and turning
the prayer wheels or counting the rosary beads.
BIRTHDAY OF DALAI LAMA:-The birth day
anniversary of His Hoiiness the Dalai Lama which
comes off in the fifth Tibetan month is celebrated by
individual as well congregational prayer for his long
life. To the Tibetans Dalai L:lma is the very em-
bodiment of Tibet and its existence. During 1965 a
drama was performed on this occasion.
DR UKP A TSE SHI : -This festival is celebrated
on the fourth day of the sixth month to commemorate
the first sermon of Lord Buddha. The laity invite
Lamas to their homes for prayers and keep butter
lamps before the altar all through the day and night.
During the seventh and the eighth momh no festi-
vals are being celebrated in this Settlement. But in
Tibet, it was during the seventh month' that the
Dalai Lan a used to lYle" ~ in ~ ",te Ie l'·'orhu Li'1<Yka
the summer palace flom FouLl. '1'",; cekorJtfon~
used to last tor seven days and consi:;ted of op~n-air
theatrical performances. The eighth month 01 the
Tibetan calendar synchronises with the harvest season.
Everyone owning or working on land used to offer
prayers to lodh"k literally meaning 'manager of crops'
symbolised by five flags of different colours (red,
white, yellow, green and blue). Tn the Settlement,
however, Tibetans do not offer any prayers or pujas
to their gods at the time of either sowing or reaping
of crops.
On the 22 day of the ninth month the Tibetans
believe that their gods and goddesse~ descend to
earth to bless the human beings. Therefore it is held
to be a day for meritorious deeds anj offering pra-
yers.
GAN-DEN NGA CHU: -~This is celebrated during
the tenth month to mark the death anniversary of
Tson-kha-pa the founder of the Ge-Lu-Pa sect and
also of the Gan-Da:t Monastery, This is also a meat-
less day spent whoHy ;n Fayers at home and mona-
steries, At night there will be a display of butter lamps
illuminating the fringe of hou.se tops anJ w:ndows.
Fcopl:o mumbling "ffii mi t11n ve de chin Chen Re Zi"
a sptcial prayer for ~his day 11l(J,,; al"lut 1,-: .. , the
monastery and stupa to ,;dd flTSh ghee to the butter
lamps. Children hold b:;1100ns <,no oil b11I}S and
take out a procession in the settlement repeating
prayers.
63
In the eleventh month comes off a festival called
'Nyilllba GonslIm' and 'Sangba c!rC/lSU/Ii' meaning
'the assembly of nine bad and ten good elements.'
It occurs for half a day on two separate day, deler-
mined according to astroi'ogical calcu11tiom. It is'
believed that there \>;ould be a fight betweer. the good
clements and the bad ones and ultim,ltely the good
will win. If some people keep on praying on this
occasion some others arc said to enjoy drinking chang
and dancing: This concludes the annual cycle of
Tibetan festivals. The Tibetans :'lQVe immense faith
in their religion ,"nd are continuing to cherish their
intense devotion to Lord Buddha and His Holiness
the Dalai Lama.
Leisure and Recreation:
Agricultural operations are seasonal and moreover
the Tibetans raise only one crop a year. During the
working season both men and women work hard from
dawn to dusk and find very little or no leisure at all.
The youngsters and the school-going ones have enough
leisure all round the year. They usually spend their
leisure hours in playing indoor and outdoor games,
the facilities for which are provided at the school and
the Y.M.C.A. recreation centres. The common in-
door games are carrom, chinese checkers, table tennis
and the outdoor games are foot ball, tenni coit, volley
ball etc. For gymnastics trapeze bars, stones for
weight lifting and Roman-rings are also provided at
Kailaspur. Swings, see-saw and slides are provided
by the Y.M.C.A. for the Tibetan children to play.
The elderly men and women spend their leisure hours
in praying or in gossip. During the agricultural off-
season usually men seek employment as labourers in
the surrounding areas while women spend their spare
hours in knitting and sewing. Much of their time is
spent in fetching water and attending to other daily
chores. Frequent or at times occasional, visits to
Kushalnagar, the nearest shopping centre, is also felt
refreshing by many of the Tibetans.
The Tibetans are lovers of music and dance. Many
possess musical instruments such as flute, drum and
some stringed instruments. Occasionally men and
women join at some convenient place in the evenings
and spend a few hours in singing and dancing to the
accompaniment of flute etc. As the new year festival
approaches this form of recreation gains in intensity
and some troupes practice, for days together, the reli-
gious mask dances. Aiming competition with whistling
arrows called phishoa prevails during the period im-
mediately preceding the New Year.
64
There are three reading rooms attacbed to the
Y.M.C.A. recreaticn centres at Kailaspur, Arlikumari
and Gulledahalla. Some of the educated persons at-
tend them regularly. In addition, a handful of Tibe-
tans in each camp of hundred houses are found to
subscribe to a Ticetan newspaper "Freedom" costin"
5 paise each. ' C
The Tibetans occasionallv VISIt cinema shows at
Kushalnagar. They attend c;ttle fairs held at Rama-
nathpur and also ,he weekly cattle markets at Kona-
nur for buying ard selling cattle. They also mingle
with the local people during fairs at Periyapatn3,
Bettadapura etc., and enjoy seeing the gath-erings
and the recreation t1 facilities available there.
Village Organisation:
The Tibetans in the setlement are nOw a well or-
ganised community. Their chief leader is the repre-
sentative of His Holiness the Dalai Lama. He main-
tains a link between His Holiness and the Tibetans
as well as the Gcvemment and the Tibetans. He is
assisted by an interpreter, also employed directly by
His Holiness the Dalai Lama. Under this leader are
three persons "Garthyvi" to represent the peopJe of
Y upa and Tsangpa, Am<lowa and, Khampa respective-
ly. These three are called choka sum and are select-
ed by the people once in three years. Each camp of
100 houses in turn has two leaders ,'vho are elected by
a secret ballot on~e in three years. Both males and
females above 21 ~Tars are eligible to cast their votes.
The contestants U~e symbols and carryon canvassing
. also. This sort of election is new to the Tibetans but
has been imposed in accordance with the pattern
prevailing in India as, in due course it is proposed to
evolve an organisi.ition similar to village panchayats.
In the present set up for every ten houses (approxi-
mately consisting of 50 persons) t}1ere are leaders
chosen by people themselves to voice their grievances.
These leaders and the representative adjudicate the
disputes arising now and then umong the Tibetans.
The rulings given by lhem are gener:!lJy accepted by
all concerned.
In the settlemert there are 110 rival groups either
ba,sed on sectarian affiliations or territorial affiliations.
There is harmony among people living in the different
villages in the Sel'lement. Exchange of vi~its between
rcop1e of different v;lb;'e<; and camps are very com-
mon. The Tibctar:s are 0n amicable terms with the
rt'ople in the adjo:ning: "mages. However there will be
a few occasional C:ises of exchange of words over such
breaches as cattle trespaf,s. breaking of fences mound
the field~ ('1(: On the '.·\ho!c the Sell1elnent presents
BYI.AKUPPE
a pleasant atmosphere and a sense of unity prevails
among the Tibetans.
Co-operative Society:
In July 1964 a Co-operative society was
stnrted by the Tibetans in the Settlement. The
share \alue being Rs. 10 each, there are at pre-
sent 2700 paid up shares. The main activity of the so-
ciety consists in running consumer stores at different
places in the Settlement and also buying the local pro-
duce for sale either inside or outside the Settlement.
The affairs of the Society are being looked after by a
president (Representative of Dalai Lama), a Secretary
and nine elected members. The term of office for these
office-bearers is not stipulated in advance, but if the
member" dem;:md the expulsion of one or all the office-
bearers, fresh elections will be held. Eversince the be-
ginning, the annua1 accounts, balance sheet etc., have
not been maintained properly. During March 1966 the
society had appointed an experienced non-Tibetan
[iccount:nt for f(~b'111arising the accounts.
The Government has drawn up a scheme for develop-
ing this consumer stores into a sizeable co-operative'
society hy providing share and working capital, CDns-
truction of godowns and sharing of managerial ex-
penditur~ at a progressive1y diminishing rate in the
first 5 years. The National Christian Council has
taken up the work of construction of a rat-proof go-
down. The Swiss Aid Abroad has donated a truck
to the ~.ociety. This society acts as an intermediary
for the supply of major items of rations such as rice,
dha1, oil and salt to the Tibetan refugees. The office
of the fredal Officer. Tibetan colony allows a com-
mission of 3% to the society. The need for an agri-
cultural service co·operative society is felt by the
refugees so that they can also avail of the facilities
provided by the State Government to the farmers in
the State. The Tibetans are not very familiar with
the co-operative organisations aided by the Govern-
ment. They feel the 0perational methods as well as
the maintenance of accounts etc., as very cumber-
some. But now-a-days they are being grDdually educat-
ed in this matter and they have been able to exhibit a
keener interest. As attached to the Co-operative stores
recently an Animal HUSbandry Co-operative has been
~t~1rted and it is functioning well. There is no doubt
that the Tibetans, with their instinctive leanings towards
co-operation and integrity would in due course form
agricu1tura1 us well as industrial co-operatives among
them.
Oth':~ 2>speti<; of serial and cultural me:
The Tibetans in the Settlement are now passing
thf()1l.~1h ~\ pn)cess c." 'ncio"cultur;!I ?\'ollltion. They are
SOCIAL AND CULTURAL LIFE
a conglomeration of people from different regions of
Tibet and are legatees to varied customs and habits.
As never before they are exposed to external influ-
ences since leaving behind their homes and hearths a
few years ago and now their 'cloistered life in moun-
tain-fastness remote from the rest of the world' has
become a myth. The rupture of the Tibetan society
caused by the onslaught of the Chinese has been so
great that, for years to come, the fusion of Tibetan
society into a homogeneous whole based on tradi-
tional lines may remain only a cherished goal. In
the Settlement they are leading life as a self-contain-
ed social. cultural and religious entity with a more
or less sound economic footing. In due course they
are bound to develop their economy with vigour. The
social and religious freedom granted to them is en-
couraging them to preserve their distinctive culture
and also their tradition-bound customs with a few
regional adaptations. The presence of His Holiness
the Dalai Lama in India and his frequent visits to
the Settlement have been of great help in infusing
among them a sense of unity and hope for the future.
His religious influence as expressed through the Rim-
poche Lamas in the Settlement and the secular
control exercised through his representative have been
of great help in unifying the people under a common
banner. Religion has been the very essence of life for
the Tibetans since generations and this fact remains
true even today. Already they have built their own
places of worship in the Settlement. There are two
schools, for the young Lamas, for teaching religion in
9-3 Census/Mysore!73
G5
the traditional manner. These facts bear ample testi-
mony to their religious fervour as also the facilities
provided to them.
The Tibetans have already lived successfully amidst
unknown people in a strange environment. The lan-
guage has been a barrier for mutual understanding.
But the honest and amiable nature as also the mild
behaviour of the Tibetans have created a feeling of
sympathy for them in the local people. The presence
of Tibetans in this neighbourhood no longer arouses
any curiosity as almmt everyone including those in the
interior villages are now familiar with the establish-
ment of the Settlement. In the initial stages the local
people though sympathetic and curious to know about
the hardships of the refugees were avoiding close as-
sociation with them because they were not taking bath
regularly. The Tibetans took some time in getting ac-
customed to the habit of bathing and washing their
clothes. Now the Tibetans are clean enough by local
standards and their presence is no longer abhorred.
Already many of the Tibetans are able to converse in
Hindustani while a few can follow Kannada, the local
language. Some can a [so speak a few Kannada words
in common use. On the other hand a few local people
can understand Tjbetan dialect to a limited extent and
one of the local residents has picked up the language
so well that he can carryon conversation fluently with
the Tibetans. The mutual contacts between the Tibe-
tan people and the people in the neighbourhood 15
bound to brin, ~ood to both th. iTOUpS.
 CHAPTER VI
CONCLUSION
The foregoing account of the life of Tibetan refugees
at Bylakuppe brings out the fact that they have ably
adapted themselves to alien environments and at the
same time have been preserving their distinctive tra-
dition. Among other things the report highlights the
beneficial activities sponsored and carried out by vari-
ous agencies, including the Government as also the
sense of unity, discipline and sincerity exhibited by the
refugees. The Scheme-a challenge not only to the
Government hut also to the community itself-can
now be said to have been totally implemented but for
a few minor items. A sizeable section of the refugee
community has already begun to live on their own ear-
nings and many more would join this group in the
immediate future. The prospect of the refugees de-
veloping their economy, provided as they are with a
sound economic base is quite bright.
Their religious fervour has not shown any signs
of diminution since coming over to the Settlement.
On the ot~er hand they have created a stll[1a and
built a huge monastery enshrining Lord Buddha dur-
ing the short period of their stay in the Settlement.
They have already started two schools for teaching
. rc1igion in the Tibetan tradition to the Lamas and
even now religion continues to be the very essence
of their life. Their faith and reverence to the Dalai-
Lama, the secular as well as religious head of the
Tibetan nation, may be said to have taken deeper
roots. This can he illustrated by the fervour exhibit-
ed by one and all in the Settlement during certain
months of 1965 when it was feared that the health (as
well as life) of their cherished leader was in jeopardy
owing to the position of planets. stars etc. Special pra-
yers were offered by individuals both in their homes
and also in the evening congregations of men and
women at a central place in every camp. For the Tibe-
tans the Dalai Lama is the veritable God. He is the
pivot of their nation and they long to see him and
listen to his inspiring and encouraging words. In the
Settlement the refugees are enjoying religious freedom
and are also being encouraged to nurture their intrin-
sic faith in their religion.
In their social life the refugees have effected a few
ch:!nges to suit the altered climatic and environmental
conditions. They continue to honour the institution of
marriage. Though marriage \vithout the intervention of
66
elders is now-a-days more common, there are a few
who stilI adhere to the traditional custom of marriage
by negotiations. The celebration of marriage has
been simplified and the cost involved has also been
reduced considerably. But these changes have not aI,
tered the underlying features of a marriage. Now,a-
days the Tibetans have been expressing their disap-
proval for polygamous marriages and also have almost
given up their rule of endogamy based on tribal and
functional affiliations. With regard to the disposal of
their dead, due to the geographical features of the
neighbourhood, they had to reluctantly gjve up their
longstanding custom of disposal of the dead by feed-
ing the birds. They are also unable to keep the corpse
undisturbed for a period of three days as enjoined by
their age-old custom. Nevertheless the services of the
Lamas are readily available in the Settlement and
with little or no detriment to their basic beliefs they
can conduct the obsequies. Their faith in reincarnation
is deep-rooted as also their belief in the effect of ac-
quisition of merit. For them the wheel of birth and
death is eternal unless one extricates himself by at-
taining Buddhahood. This zeal to acquire merit, acts
as the guiding principle.in the social as well as the
economic life of the Tibetans and dissuades them from
sinful activities. The Tibetan Society in the Settlement
is characterised by its implicit faith in the leadership,
obedience and a sense of discipline. They are well
organised and if any disputes arise among a few indi-
viduals they are settled amicably by their local leaders.
Now a set-up similar to the Village Panchayats is be-
ing formulated and the Tibetans have been introduced
to the concept of exercising their franchise. When the
Government help is withdrawn it is proposed to allow
this Panchayat to function as a local body.
In the field of education there has been an overall
change as compared to the conditions which existed
in Tibet. There, stress was laid primarily on religion
and philosophy and secondly on arithmetic. Even now
the elderly Tibetans make use of the 'abacus' for all
arithmetical manipulations like addition, subtraction,
division and multiplication. The schools in the Settle-
ment run under the allspices of Tibetan Schools So-
ciety, Delhi are catering to the diverse needs of the
students. They are being taught humanities, languages
and natural sciences Wit~l adequate provision for fine
arts also. Thus the younger generation have been en-
eONCLUSION
abled to understand the world in all its vastness through
the subjects they study rather than limit their interest
only to religion and philosophy. This will certainly
broaden· the outlook of the society-in-the-making and
may. help the community in relaxing the present con-
servatism. The punctual and regular attendance of the
students in the Settlement is heart warming. The stu-
dents are said to be quite inquisitive and eager to learn.
There can be no denying of the fact that the economic
help rendered to the refugee community in the form
of free rations to the young and the old as also the
mid-day meals served to the school-going children and
the programme of free education have been the main
conducive factors. It has to be made clear that the
programme of education for a Tibetan child has been
so chalked out as to ensure that it in no way inter-
feres with their culture, language, and religion. It is
with this view that the organisation that runs the
scheme of education is well represented by the Tibe-
tans themselves. It is hoped that this degree of inte-
rest in education would continue in the future also.
The refugees have been provided with adequate
medical facilities and they have been taught to take
more care of their personal as well as environmental
hygiene. Their faith in the magico-religious practices as
a cure for bodily as well as mental 'ailments is still in-
tact. At present they have been provided with drinking
water and in the near future there is a proposal to
supply electricity to the Sett1ement.
The first and foremost problem before the refugees
is to make themselves economically self-sufficient. So
far the refugees have been the recipients of ex graticl
grants consisting mainly of food and clothings. About
one-third of them would continue to receive these
grants till the end of 1967. They have been provided
with requisite amenities to earn their incomes inde-
pendently and develop their economy. The Survey has
revealed that during 1964 the per capita income stood
at Rs. 384 varying between Rs. 334 in the case of
those depending solely on ex gratia grants and Rs. 567
in the case of the few employed on salaried posts. If
the income from the ex gratia grants is excluded, the
per capita dwindles down to a meagre Rs. 67.6. This
clearly reveals how much they depend on ex gratio
grants for their sustenance. It has to be stressed here
that in 1964 neither farming nor animal husbandry
had gone into lull production.
Bylakuppe is mainly an agricultural colony. It has
been' pointed out already that during 1964, 514 house-
holds earned Rs. 219 each on an average. It is true
67
that the lands have not yet gone into full production
so far and it requires some more time to turn the
corner. From the pattern of yields realised, the net
average income per block of 5 acres assigned to each
family may be estimated at Rs. 750 (based on the
20,;:{, sample). Till the end of 1964-65, the refugees
were being supplied with seeds, fertilisers and pesti-
cides free of cost thereby. their gross income from cul-
tivation could very well be reckoned as equivalent
to the net income. But when once this material help
is withdrawn their net income will get much reduced.
In other words the value of the increll~>=d yields when
the lands become fully productive will be offset by
the incidental expenses. Thus even after the lands
become fully productive the net income per acre
cannot be expected to exceed Rs. 150 per adult or
Rs. 750 per household cultivating 5 acres of land.
According to the present scheme the issue of free ra-
tions would be stopped after the realisation of the
second crop from the fields. So when the households
are left with only cultivation as their source of in-
come their net income may then be about Rs. 750
which may go upto Rs. 1,000 in cases where the
households are able to supplement this income by
some other sources or if the lands are extra produc-
tive. This will definitely mean that their income will
suffice for only 2.5 members of each household of 5
members. So unless, the refugees are introduced to
some other sources of income so as to make them
self-sufficient there is every chance of the able bodied
males migrating elsewhere or deserting the camps
leaving behind only their dependents to look after
whatever cultivation they can independently do. This
may also result in subletting of the aSSigned lands to
local cultivators and problems of tenancy may arise.
Cultivation is also bound to suffer if all able-bodied
workers emigrate. Work in the fields is seasonal.
Therefore, it is possible and is also essential to provide
the refugees with some other occupation thereby en-
abling them to supplement their income. And till
they are able to reach at least an income of subsist-
ence level it may be necessary to continue the assis-
tance in some form or the other. Indefinite continuance
of issue of free rations is not at all desirable as the re-
fugees will not then have any compelling necessity to
engage themselves in a gainful activity. Therefore it
was suggested soon after the sample survey, that issue
of rations at subsidised rates would be appropriate. the
subsidy element being gradually scaled down as and
when their income from gainful economic activities
increased. Free rations an; issued for two years. For
the next two years rations may be issued at half cost
and for two more years at two-thirds cost. This sys-
tem would provide adequate incentive to the refugees

68
to stay on in the area and at the iame time require
them to engago themselves in ~0n10 gainful activity.
Among the refugees, 1387 are returned a~ workers
and in the days to come their number is bound to
increase gradually. Cultivation of about 3000 acres
in the Settlement by itself cannot provide these wor-
kers with either enough work all through the year or
sufficient income. By nature, the Tibetans-both males
and females-are hard workers. At present some of
them seek casual employment on road works, tree-
felling, coffee plantation etc. But these works are not
of a permanent nature and therefore it would be in
the interest of the refugee community if some cottage
or household industries are started in the Settlement.
Timber and bamboo are available in plenty in the
forests close to the Settlement. There are about a
dozen trained carpenters in the Settlement. So, indus-
tries based on timber such as wood-sawing depot or
carpentry workshop could very well be started. In the
neigh bourhood of Coorg district there are extensive
coffee plantations and there is a keen demand for
bamboo baskets for raising coffee-seedlings. Therefore
basket making industry can also be introduced.
There are ample facilites for grazing the cattle in
the neighbourhood and this feature can very well be
exploited by introducing dairy farming on a large
scale. Kudige Farm in the Coorg district is only 8
miles away and the dairy-farm scheme. if accepted can
be placed under the technical guidance and supervi-
sion of the Kudige Farm authorities. Even at the house-
hold level the refugees may be encouraged to rear
cows and buftaloes to augment their income.
The Tibetan Refugees have a Co-operative Society
of their own. Its main activity now consists in run-
ning consumers stores at variou~ camps and also in
acting as a buyer of the local produce. It is said to
have earned a considerable amount of profit and is
now showing signs of further development. It would
be very beneficial to the agricultural community if a
Service Co-operative is also constituted. Already an
anitTIal husbandry co-operative has been started with
an initial grant donated by the Y.M.C.A. and the
Government. The Tibetans have an inborn leaning to-
wards co·operation. They have been taught since ge-
nerations to nurture this feeling of co-operation in all
spheres of life. Even in the Settlement when they were
asked to form families consisting of 5 members, even
unrelated persons willingly accepted to share a com-
mon house and a common farm. They also formed
DYLAKtJPl'1!
numerous group-farming a~sociations to pool the avail-
able men and material and cultivate land. Owing to
certain operational difficulties its influence is now
waning. On the other hand co-operation at the house-
hold level, evidenced by mutual reciprocal aid in agri-
cultural activities is becoming more popular.
In the past there have bee a a few attempts in the
State to rehabilitate landless agriculturists and also at
times refugees from Pakistan. Indoor colonization
scheme in Mundgod Taluk, North Kanara District is
.one such scheme which was launched during 1948-49.
The Scheme was a part of the Grow More Food Cam-
paign, and was administered by the then Bombay Gov-
ernment from 1948-49 to 1951-52 covering in all 12
viIla~es. It Was envisaged to grant a minimum extent
of 6 acres land to each settler on 'new tenure' i.e.,
inalienable and impartible. In addition the settlers
were granted long term loans recoverable with only
3i% interest from the third year of their settlement
in fifteen equal annual instalments. Major works such
as clearance of gaothan, provision of drinking water,
construction of approach roads and repairs to minor
irrigation tanks were taken up by the Government and
the amount so spent was non-recoverable. Indoor
scheme was one of the major schemes in Mundgod
Taluk where some refugees from East Pakistan were
also settled.
A probe into the implementation of the above sche-
mes reveal that these are defunct since 1955-56 when
they were formally wound up and the special staff ap-
pointed for the purpose were withdrawn. It is learnt
that in all 600 families were settled and an extent of
3353 acres were brought under cultivation. At
present, it is learnt only 337 families (of which 14
belong to Sindhis displaced from West Pakistan) are
residing in these villages. The residual work is now to
effect recoveries of outstanding loans from the settlers.
During the period of operation of these schemes a total
sum of Rs. 10,12,370 was advanced. It is alleged that
the accounts were not properly maintained' and the pre-
sent task of recovery, entrusted to the Revenue De-
partment assisted by the District AgricutluraI Officer,
North Kanara, is said to be a tough one. There are said
to be instances of settlers deserting the colony and a
few more evicted for most negligent work. These re-
claimed lands are in turn being granted to the culti-
vators who can operate them without any Government
help. This (Indoor) Scheme was not a particular suc-
cess. There were several cases of desertion. It is also
said that there were several instances of misapplication
of funds, squabbles etc., the cumulative effect of all of
which was adverse on the whole scheme. It was
CONCLUSI(!)N
1.1ouglrtt that sam, enqumes could be made into file
worJtin~ of this scheme. so that a comparison coul«
be drawn as to how other peoples settled under alien
environments have responded. Attempts were actually
made to elicit information from the Government De-
partments and other agencies connected with this
Scheme. But these attempts did not bear any fruit as it
was admitted by them that they got connected with the
scheme at a late stage as the staff which actually
handled the scheme in the implementation stage is
eitier disbanded or transferred and the papers are
yet to be sorted out and scrutinised.
The Government has now proposed to implement
another scheme for setting up an Agricultural Settle-
ment for the Tibetan Refugees in Mundll:od Tahtk.
North Kanara District. The villages proposed to be
released are Tattihalli, Kopp~ Kusur and Na.djkatta
69
with a total :i!rable extent of 2500 acres. In all some
2750 Tibetans are proposed to be settled in the Sot-
tlemtUlt. It is hoped that the new Settlement would be
more successful than the past colonization schemes iR
the neighbourin: villaies.
The Bylakuppe Settlement Scheme has been a suc-
cess mainly because of the efforts of the Government,
help rendered by voluntary agencies and lastly but not
the least, the unstinted co-operation and disciplined
behaviour of the refugees. Inspite of all the material
help ~iven to the refugees in addition to freedom in
the matter of religious practices and preservation of
their culture it is to be seen whether their nostalgic
longing to return to Tibet can ever disappear. It is
not l::nown what the future has in store for these refu-
gees and ....hether at all they would be able to return
to their home-country and once again lead a comfor-
table and a happy life.
 APPENDIX I
Ecol/O/1/ic Survey of the Tibetans settled at Bylektlppe settlement.
QU(,11iollllairt'

Name of the camp: No. House No.

I[ Na'me of head of household
UI(a) Particulars of household members

Sl.. RelatiQn~hip to the he"d Sex Ag~ Marital Standard Oo;cupation Remarks
No. status of education
(1) (2) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8)
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

Tll(b) Members living away flO111 the household

--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------,------',
(I ) (2) 0) (4) (5) (6) (8)

IV Agriculture: Total land held ........ .

Year Name of crop Area SO\\ n Total produce QtyiValue Remarks

V Livestock: (a) Number of animals possessed:

Cows (adult) Young-stock Working bullocks Goats/Sheep Pigs Donkeys Poultry birds
(I) (2) 0) (4) (5) (6) (7)

(b) APPIOXIITIe.te value of Livestock owned:

VI Household industry:
VII Other occupations:
VIH Possession of Household goods:
Number of
,.-- _ _ _ ' _ _ _ ' _ _ _ _ _ _ _ ' _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ , _ _ _ _____.A... _ _ _ , _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
-..,
Cots Tables Chairs Stools or benches Allllilah Wrist-watch Cycle Torchlight Others (specify)

IX Income and expenditUie: (during 1964)

Income Expenditure

Source Amount Item of expenditure Amount

I. Cultivation Food and drinks
I.
2. Livestock 2. Lighting and fuel
3. Wages J. Tobacco and pan supari
4. Arts & Crafts 4. Clothing
5. Sen'icc 5. Others (Specify
6. Remittance
7. Oth~rs

Total

X lndebtedness:
Month and year of borrowing Amoul1t borrowed Purpose Interest if any Amount outstanding
1 2 3 4 5

--------------------------------------------------------------------~-

70
 APPENDIX If
Statement .~h01ring the value of rations issuable to the 5 age-groups.
(First Quarter-April, May (lnd J~l1e ~964.)
A B C D E
Childern under Children btt- Children bet- Children bet- Youths over
six months ween 6 months ween 2 y~ars to ween 5 yrs. to 10 years and
Rate & l. years 5 yeals 10 yrs. adults
A rtic!es of mtion PCI ----~------~--~---- -- ---_------ -- ----------~----~----.----.-.--~------- -~--~.-

kilo Quan- V~due Quan- Value Quan- Value Quan- Value ~uan- Value
tity (Rs.) tity (Rs.) tily . (Rs.) tltv ' (Rs.) tlty {Rs.)
(Kg,) 0-00 (Kgs_) 0·00 (Kgs.) 0·00 (Kgs.) 0'00 (Kg,.) 0·00

2: 3 4 5 6 7 R 9 10 II 12

ISSUABLE RATIONS:
Rice 0·78 1·650 1'28 1'650 J '28 4'350 3'39 6'975 5'44
Wheat 0·73 I' 650 1'20 4'350 3' 18 6'975 5'09
Toor Dhal 1'19 0'450 0·54 0'450 0'54 1'200 1'43 l' (150 1'96
Salt 0'10 0'150 0·02 0'450 0'05
Liquid Oil 2'54' 0'450 1'14 0'750 1'90 1 '650 .4- 19
Salad Oil 3'23
Mill Powder 4'50 1·275 5'74 1·690 7·60 0'845 3'80 1'800 8·10 0'750 3'37
Multipurpose Food 1·69 O' 300 0·51 0·750 J ·27
II. NON-ISSUABLE RATTON:
Meat· 3'50 1 ·105 3 86
Vegetables :
(a) Leafy 0'44 0'825 0·36 1'275 0'56 0'315 0·16 0'863 O· 38
(b) Non-Leafy 0'51 0·825 0·42 I' 275 0·65 0'375 0'19 0'862 0'44
(c)l Roots j '225 0·82
Sugar . 0'48
1·20
0·750
1'650
0·36
1 ·98 1'650 j·98
MHsalas 4'00 0·90 0'36 0'150 0'60
Tea 8'00 0'210 1 ·68 0'450 3'60
Match Box 0·07 2'}5 Box 0'03 7:15 Box 0·03

APPENDIX II
Statement showing the value of ration issuable to the 5 age-groups.
(Second Quarter July, August & September 1964.)
ABC 0 E
Children under Children bet- Children bet- Children bet- Youths over 10
six months ween 6 months ween 2 years we,n 5 yrs. to years and adults
& 2 years to 5 years. 10 yrs.
Articles of ration Rate ----------------.-------------.-----.--------.------.--'-
'per Quan- Value Quan- Value Quan- Vaiue Quan- Value Quan- Value
kilo lily (Rs.) tity (Rs.) tily· (Rs.) titv (Rs.) lity (Rs.)
. (Kgs.) 0-00 (Kgs.). 0.:00 (Kgs.) 0-00 (Kgs.) 0'00 (Kgs.) 0'00

2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 to 11 12

1. ISSUABLE RATIONS:
Rice 0'78 1'650 1· 2R 1'650 1'28 4'350 3'39 6'975 5'44
Wheat 0'50 J '650 0·83 4'350 2' J8 6'975 3'49
Toon Dhal 1'19 0'450 0'54 0·450 0·54 1·200 1'44 1·650 1'96
Salt O'lO 0·150 0'02 0'450 0'05
Liquid Oil 2'54 0·450 1'14 0'750 1·90 J ·650 4'19
Salad Oil .. ..
Milk powder 6·00 l' 275 7'65 1 . tWO 10' 14 0·845 5'07 1'800 10'80 0'750 4-50
Multipurpose Food 1 ·69 0'300 0'51 0·750 1·26
II. NON-ISSUABLE RATIONS;
(i) Veietables (a) Leafy 0'50 0'825 0'41 1'275 0'64 0'375 0'19 0.863 0.43
(b) Non-leafy 0'60 0'825 0'50 1· 275 077 0'375 0'23 0'862 0'52
(c) Roots 0'65 0'750 0'49 j·725 1'12
(ii) Me"t 3·00 .. .. 1'105 3'20
(iii) Sugar 1·25 ],650 2'06 1·650 2'Oe
(iv) Masalah 4·00 0'90 0'36 0'150 0'60
(v) Tea 9'40 0·210 1·97 0'150 4'23
(vi) Match Box 0·06 2/5 Bo\ O·()J 2/5 Box 0-0)

,71
 APPENDIX II
Statemnt sholl'ing the villue of r.Uon issuable t. the 5 «tt!-tflmps.
(Third and Huth Quarters:
October, NOl'embu and Dect!mber and JanuOI)', Feb., March 65.)

A B C D f
Children un- Children bet- Cilliidren bet~ ChildlCm bet- Youtlls ov~r Ii)
der six mon- ween 6 montlls \\eTon 2 year to ween 5 yrs. ro years ud adutl;
Articles of r:ltion Rate ths & 2 ye;.rs 5 ye:al. 10 yrs.
per
kilo Quan- Value Qu:m- Value Quan- Value Quan- Value QUl.n- Value
tHy (Rs.) tity (R.<;.) tity (Rs.) tity (Rs.) tily (Rs.)
(Kg;s) 0'00 (Kgs.) 0·00 (K~.) 0·00 (KitS.) 0·00 (Kls) 0'00

2 3 4 5 6 7 II IJ 10 11 12

l. ISSUABLE RATION:
1. Rice 0'83 1'650 I' 37 1'650 1· 37 4'350 3'61 6'975 5'7'
2. Dhal' ]'63 0'450 0·73 0'450 0·13 1·200 1'95 1·650 2·6k
3. Groundnn! Oil 2'60 0'450 1'17 0'750 1 '95 1'650 4·2?
4. Salt 0'10 0'150 0'02 0'-450 0'{)5

II. VALUE COMMUTED AND ISSUED OUT OF GIFT SOURCE:

1. Wheat 0·50 1'650 O' 83 4' 350 2'18 6·975 3·4,
2. Milk Powder 6·00 1·275 7·65 H;90 10·14 0'845 5'07 1·800 10'80 0·750 4·50
~. Multipurpose Food 1·69 0'300 0'51 8'750 )'26

ITr. CASH VALUE PAID IN VIEW OF NON-ISSUABLE ARTICLES

1. Vegetables :
(a) Leafy· 0'50 0'825 O'4[ l' 275 0'64 0'375 0·19 0'862 ,,·43
(b) Non-Leafy 0·60 0"25 0'50 1'275 0'77 0'375 0'23 0'862 0·52
(c) Roots' 0·65 0·750 0·49 1·275 1·12
2. Meat 3'00 1·105 3·30
3. Su~ar 1· 25 l' 650 2'06 1'650 2·06
4. Masalas 4'00 Q'OI}() 0·36 0'150 0·60
5' Tea 9'40 ()'210 1·97 0'450 4·23
6. Match Box 0'06 2/5 Box 0'03 2i5 :box 0'03

REMARKS: I & II. Purchased through the Tibetan Co-operative Society Ltd. Kailaspur. Rates adopted are as p.er wholtHal.
Co-operative Society, Mysore, Transporation and 5% handlin, .hari'Os to he paid to {he Tibetan Co-operat'ivc Society,
Kilaspur. Issued out of gift source. rn. Paid in ~sh.
 APPENDIX III
Gift articles received from Central Relief Committee (India), New Delhi, during the period from January 1961 to
March 1965

1. Rice:- American Rice 1400 bags of 40 meaSUles 9. Cheese 560 cases.

each
10. Rolled wheat 150 cases containing 12
-Madbyapnsdesh Rice 370 bags of 90 measures
packets of 3 100. each.
each
'Vietnam Rice 460 bags or 46 tons. 11. Demo sana 5 boxes Lach containing
624 pieces.
2. All purpose flour 4219 bags of 50 lbs each
12. Bon Bon 10 casLs;each cases con-
3. Corn meal • 2782 bags of 50 lbs each taining 20 bags of 3 0 25
each.
4. Milk powder (i) Fulcream 937 cases (each case con-
taining 6 tins of 3 kg.) 13. Margtine . 7S cases; each case con-
(ii) -do- 60 cases (each case con- taining 27 tins of 400
taining 12 tins of 1 kg.) grams each
(hi) Whole milk o 50 cases (each case con- 14. Salad Oil . 80 cast-s; each containing
taining 12 tins of 1 kg.) 30 tins of 375 litres.
(iv) Non-fat dlY 15. Protein Supplement 250 cases.
milk 2515 cases(each case con-
taining 12 packets of 2050 16. Wheat 1450 bllgs of 120 Ibs.
grams.) each.
5. fork Luncheon meat • 2240 cartons. 17. Bulgar wheat • 1976 bags of 100 1m.
6. Cottonseed oil 400 cases of 12 tins each. e<.ch.
18. Used c10thts 377 bales.
~/. 'Soyabeens salad oil 0 o 320 castS of 12 tins each.
19. Multipurpose food 20 tins of 16' 55 grams
8. VegetAble oil o 1450 ca.~es each containing
12 tins. each.

73
10-3 Census/Mysore/73
 APPENDIX IV
Expenditure incurred under different Head of Accounts, yearwise from the inception of the scheme "pto
end of December, 1965.
Tibetan Refugee Rehabilitation Scheme, By/akuppe Mysore District

SI. Head of Account Actuals for Actuals for Actuals for Actuals for Actuals fot Acmals for
No. 1960-61 1961-62 1962-63 1963-64 1964·65 65-66 upto end
of Dec'6S.
2 3 4 5 6 7 8

1. Transit CamP' 51,488'92 42,130'29 12,267-84 7,869'68 4,832,37 S5'00

2. Feedin, 54,850'8.4 2,21,754-03 3,12,326-02 8,25,225' 40 6,63,412 -83 3.63.613-10
3. Housing 73,059-03 1,65,722-28 5,17,154' 63 2,53,719'72 3,291-12 77-S7
4_ Approach Roads 25,464'36 17,766-05 48,219'43 9,642'50 4,775'72 198-50
5_ Water Supply 8,343'00 30,985-83 34,969-99 28,291-15 12,953-50 978'36
6_ Health and Sanitation 352-42 24,244- 52 44,390-00 48,913- 30 ..22,146'43
7_ Education 3,731-36 3,478'23
8_ Irrigation . 10,411-80 12,628'06 19,135'71' 8,098-33 688,82
tJ_ Clearance of Jungle 1,11,920'95 3,59,508'70 90,517'00
10. Reclamation of lands 5,142'00 1,72,401-58 5,49,450'64 1,52,505' 66 • 1,04,659'34 61,942',30
11. Demarcation of lands 1,818'00 18,440- 76 11,009'11 7,835'07' 156'43
12. Animal Husbandry 20,777-18 56,736- 32 82,721-93 ;50,713'42 38,836-28
13_ Cottage Industries . 1,369-00 5,670-57 1,251-06
14. Co-opcration
15_ Law and Order 3,068'13 5,507-44 5,976- 51 6,214-25
16_ Administration and Miscollaoeous 40,994'92 97,845-76 1,10,025'64 1,02,743-26 61,180-85 24,<430-06

Total 3,94,211 -62 12,24,147'51 18,36,934' 96 15,18,242'55 9,31,808' 51 4,53,084' 01

74
 BmUOGRAPHY AND REFBRENCES.

1. H.E. Richardson, ''Tibet and its History" Oxford University ". "Tibetan Refugees Rehabilitation in Mysore" 1960-6'
Press, 1962. Published by the Diroctor of Publicity and Information,
2. Lois Lang-Sims, "'Ibc Presence of Tibet~ Tho Ci'essct Gove;nment of Mysore, Bangalore.
Pless. 1963.
3. Tsung-lien Shen and Shen-Chi Liu, "Tibet and the Tibctam" 7. C. Hayavadana Rao: Mysore Gazettee Volume V. New
Stanford University Press, 1953. EdItion 1930, Government Press, BangalOle.
4. Lohzaq livaka, "The Life of Milarepa" John MUDay,
1962. I. 'Tho Antiseptic' February 1966. Volume 63, No.2. Article,
5. "The story of the Education of Tibetan Refugee Cbildren contributed by Dr. N.S. Nair and Dr. Nallathambi, with
in India" TIbetan School Society, Government of India, the title "Study of Marital factoB and child bearing among
Miniatry of Education, Delhi. TIbetan Refu,ees".

9. Government of India Publications:-

(i) Report of Officers of the Government of India
and the People's Republic of China on the Boundary
Question and (ii) Notes, Memoranda and letters ex-
changed between the Governments of India and China-
November 1959 to March 1960-White Paper No. III.

75
MGIPCBE---Sl--3 Cen.us/Mysore/73-9-1-7S-750.
 ERRATA

Page No Column No. Line No. For Read

2 41 in there is there

2 1 34 Tsunghein Shen Tsung-kin Shell

2 2 9 ture pure

2 2 31 Tsung lien Lien Tsung-lein Shen

3 2 15 antolope antelope
.) 39 Tsan Campo Tsan Gampo

5 2 6 son Son

14 2 36 are 0 ther the are the other

18 19 awe owe

19 2 31 improverished impoverished

21 2 25 diagonasing diagnosing

25 2 38 Constitution Construction

28 29 Pro elain porcelain

29 2 5 ram rain
(below the Table)

29 2 7 etc., umbrellas etc. Umbrellas

33 40 other have others have

41 2 34 at piece @ at piece rates @

42 2 32 across acres

45 2 7 partically practically
(below the Table)

56 2 29 For wearing For weaning

56 2 last line (previous) (precious)

61 1 46 scribed scribbled

62 48 and containing fried wheat. containing fried wheat

49 repeating grains and grains and each throws
each throws a few grains a few grains of fried
of fried wheat 'Thashi dUe' wheat repeating
thrice. 'Thasidile' thrice.