Herbal Medicine among the Miskito of

Eastern Nicaragua 1
PHILIP A. DENNIS 2

Medicinal plants identified by Miskito informants in Awastara, Nicaragua, were

collected in the field. They are listed and botanically identified in this paper. Par-
ticularly interesting among the collection of 23 plant species are those used to cure
snakebite and athlete's foot, as observed in the field.

The Miskito speaking people of eastern Nicaragua and southeastern Honduras

live in small villages along the rivers and coastal areas, hunting and fishing,
practicing subsistence agriculture, and working for wages when jobs are available.
Their conflicts with the Sandinista government of Nicaragua have brought them
international attention in recent years (Diskin et al. 1986; Lernoux 1985). In
1978-1979 I did fieldwork among the Miskito, living for 8 mo in the village of
Awastara, about 20 miles north of Puerto Cabezas (Fig. 1). One of my interests
was health and curing, and I had the opportunity to help collect a number of
medicinal plants used in the community.

MISKITO MEDICINE

The Miskito people use a wide variety of plants for curing. In the Miskito
language, medicine of any sort is called sika, and those who cure with herbal
medicines are referred to as sika uplika, or medicine people. In the creole English
also widely spoken on the coast, herbal curing is referred to as "bush medicine."
The English word "doctor" has also passed into Miskito, and a curer is often
referred to simply as daktar, or in creole English as a "bush doctor." A different
sort of curer, often mentioned in the ethnographic literature on the Miskito (Helms
1971:182-186), is the sukia, a healer who conducts elaborate curing rituals. The
sukia nani were regarded as heathen enemies by the Moravian missionaries who
worked on the coast, and those who remain today face the disapproval of those
Miskito who are devout Christians. Bush doctors or herbalists, however, can be
found in most Miskito communities and are widely respected for their abilities.
In addition, most ordinary individuals know a few plants useful for common
problems.
Miskito herbal medicine has never been carefully studied or described, although
scholars working on the Miskito coast have noted its existence (Helms 1971:212-
213; Nietschmann 1973:55). George Heath, a Moravian missionary who lived
among the Miskito for almost 30 yr, wrote an extensive ethnographic glossary
noting medicinal uses of many plants (Heath 1947).
Bush doctors regard their herbal cures as private property. To learn them, one
must buy the knowledge from the owner, often for a considerable sum. This fact
limits the number of plant cures the average individual can learn and sometimes
puts new ones beyond the means of those who might like to learn them. In addition

l Received 20 July 1986; accepted 1 July 1987.

2 Department of Anthropology, Texas Tech University, Lubbock, TX 79409.

Economic Botany, 42(1), 1988, pp. 16-28

9 1988, by the New York Botanical Garden, Bronx, NY 10458
1988] DENNIS: MISKITOMEDICINE 17

c~oG,~c~., o~os :i::ii! :

::~:.
HONDURAS o/- ~A~x'-- : ~!A'.....

Atlantic

i: /\ . NICA

Ocean .... Managua, .:.

~ ] ~ .~' . Is, and
i:?:: 9 " Blucfiekl~ ~~'~:
~2 .

Fig. 1. Map of Nicaragua showing Awastara, the research site, on the Atlantic coast north of Puerto
Cabezas.

to its human owners, each medicine is also believed to have a supernatural owner,
or dawan. A symbolic payment of a few cordobas to the sika dawanka, or medicine
owner, may be necessary to collect the plant. Such a payment is placed on the
ground near the plant before it is picked, or put in the pot in which the plant is
boiled, and can be recovered later by the person who deposited it.
In practice, many bush doctors specialize in particular sorts of problems and
specific herbs to treat them. For example, a well-known "snake doctor" in Awas-
tara treated fer-de-lance and other snake bites. Several people treated grisi siknis,
a spectacular culture-bound syndrome in which victims are possessed by devils,
run away, and sometimes mutilate themselves (Dennis 1981, 1985).

METHODS
During my fieldwork, Dr. Warren Douglas Stevens of the Missouri Botanical
Garden was collecting plants for a general compendium on the flora of Nicaragua.
He spent about a week with me in Awastara, and we devoted each afternoon to
collecting medicinal plants with the help of local informants. In order to deal with
the Miskito system of individual ownership of plant medicines, I explained that
we did not intend to use them in any medical practice of our own, and I agreed
not to reveal specific medicines to other local Miskito people. For some plants
we paid a nominal fee to the owner. Our procedure was to ask older individuals
I knew personally to go with us to gather medicinal plants and explain their uses
to us. Dr. Stevens then collected specimens of the plants, assigned them collection
numbers, and identified them if he could, while I wrote down the informant's
comments. Vouchers have been deposited at MO and HNMN.
18 ECONOMIC BOTANY [VOL. 42

In all, 16 different informants identified some 98 medicinal plants in the field.

Since different individuals identified many of the same plants, the collection
represents only 23 different plant species. Included in the collection are a number
of species that are widely used for common problems as well as some less widely
known and more specialized in use. The more secret plants were identified by
two practicing bush doctors, who also provided the longest plant lists. The sample
is undoubtedly only a small portion of the plants actually used throughout the
whole region.
THE MEDICINAL PLANTS

The following list is in alphabetical order by genus. Following the Latin name,
it includes: (a) family/(b) Miskito name/(c) collector and collection number (W.
D. Stevens' series)/(d) use, manner of application, multiple informants reporting
similar use/, and (e) general comments.
1. Acisanthera quadrata Pers. (a) Melastomataceae/(b) asdura pata ("chigger
food")/(c) Stevens 10400/(d) for kakmapara, a skin disease contracted from
a parasite that lives in pools of standing water--leaves are crushed and applied
to infected area (two informants)/(e) very common small plant covered with
chiggers during the rainy season.
2. Bryophyllum pinnatum (Lam.) Oken (a) Crassulaceae/(b)fratdutki/(c) Ste-
vens 10403/(d) for liwa rnairen siknis--whole plant is boiled and a tea made
from it; used separately or in combination with "black jack" (no. 23)/(e)
small, common plant with succulent leaves (Fig. 2); native to Madagascar,
this Bryophyllum may have been brought originally as a medicinal plant; this
plant, or a closely related species, is also used medicinally in Panama (Duke
1972).
3. Chamaecrista kunthiana (C. & S.) Irwin and Barneby (a) Caesalpiniaceae/(b)
insaukan saika/(c) Stevens 10399/(d) for wounds--leaves crushed and ap-
plied as a poultice; for uro-genital problems (called iskadura saika)--leaves
boiled and drunk as a tea/(e) six tiny leaflets on plant, flowers yellow-orange;
also used medicinally in Panama (Duke 1972).
4. Coccocypselum hirsutum Bartling (a) Rubiaceae/(b) iskadura saika/ (c) Ste-
vens 10417/(d) for iskadura siknis (probably uro-genital problems including
venereal disease)--tea from leaves is boiled and drunk (two informants); for
liwa mairen siknis; for mairen plauia trobil (uterine problems in women)--
tea from leaves is boiled and drunk; for headache--liquid from leaves is
rubbed on the head/(e) a small creeping plant, flowers purple.
5. Cordia curassavica (Jacq.) R. & S. (a) Boraginaceae/(b) riskupata/(c) Stevens
10389/(d) for respiratory problems--plant used to steam patient in vapor;
for snakebite--leaves used as a poultice on the wound and also made into a
tea/(e) large, shrubby plant with yellow flowers and red fruits; leaves often
appear to have been eaten by insects (Fig. 2); also used medicinally in Panama
(Dukc 1972).
6. Desmodium incanum DC. (a) Fabaceae/(b) latawira saika/ (c) Stevens 10436/
(d) for wounds--leaves crushed and applied as a poultice to the wound (4+
informants)/(e) vine-like plant; leaflets in threes, flowers purple; also used
medicinally in Panama (Duke 1972).
7. Drymaria cordata (L.) Willd. ex R. & S.? (a) Caryophyllaceae/Co) no local
1988] DENNIS: MISKITO MEDICINE 19

Fig. 2. Two common medicinal plants used by the Miskito of Awastara, Nicaragua. Cordia curassa-
vica (upper left) has small white flowers and leaves that appear to have been eaten by insects. Bry-
ophyllum pinnatum has fleshy, succulent appearing leaves (bottom center). Both are very common,
"weedy" species.

name given/(c) Stevens 10438/(d) used for snakebite from the karas pyuta
snake--pounded up and placed on the wound as a poultice; also used as an
eye medicine/(e) tiny, creeping plant with circular leaves; also used medic-
inally in Panama (Duke 1972).
8. Eryngiumfoetidum L. (a) Apiaceae/(b) kia saura/(c) no specimen collected/
(d) used for grisi siknis, a condition caused through possession by superna-
turals (see Dennis 1981, 1985)--leaves are crushed and rubbed on the face
to revive the victim; "the strong smell is what makes it work"; also used for
fits (epileptic seizures)/(e) a strong smelling plant; also used medicinally in
Panama (Duke 1972).
9. Gossypium hirsutum L. (a) Malvaceae/(b) wahamuk, "'cotton-leaf plant"/
(c) Stevens 10519/(d) for bla (dizziness, nausea) or for fatigue--leaves crushed
and rubbed on body; for wounds--leaves crushed together with Senna oc-
cidentalis to apply to wounds/(e) large, shrubby cotton plant; this plant, or
a closely related species, is also used medicinally in Panama (Duke 1972).
10. Hemidiodia ocimifolia (Willd.) K. Schum. (a) Rubiaceae/(b) no local name
given/(c) Stevens 10412/(d) for pain or cough, or cold in the chest--root
only is boiled to make a tea (two informants); for liwa mairen siknis--used
together with Polypodium and Gossypium, in steam; for eye problems--leaf
is crushed and applied to the eye/(e) thin leaves, white flowers.
11. Hyptis verticillata L. (a) Lamiaceae/(b) wahiwin saika/ (c) Stevens 10409/
(d) for wahiwin siknis (illness caused by a pig-like supernatural)-- used in
steam and also rubbed on the body; for yumu trobil (a kind of abdominal
20 ECONOMIC BOTANY [VOL. 42

pain)--root is pounded and boiled to drink as a tea; for use as a love potion--
"rub the leaves on your skin to make the girl love y o u " / ( e ) shrubby plant
with pendant white flowers; also used medicinally in Panama (Duke 1972).
12. Lindernia diffusa (L.) Wettst. ex Durand & Jackson (a) Scrophulariaceae/(b)
no local name given/(c) Stevens 10401/(d) "for bile in your belly"; boiled
and drunk with a glass of warm water; "you will vomit up all the bile in your
belly"; "cleans out your belly to make it work well" (three informants)/(e)
small plant growing in wet places, small purple flowers; an identical medicinal
use for this plant or a closely related species is reported from Panama (Duke
1972).
13. Ludwigia octovalvis (Jacq.) Raven (a) Onagraceae/(b) no local name given/
(c) Stevens 10402/(d) "for pregnant women, so they won't lose the b a b y " -
plant is boiled and tea drunk/(e) yellow flowers, red fruits.
14. Mangifera indica L. (a) Anacardiaceae/ (b) mango dusa/(c) no specimen
collected/(d) for wounds--inside layer of bark is scraped off and applied to
wound (two informants)/(e) common mango; also used medicinally in Pan-
ama (Duke 1972).
15. Melochia villosa (Mill.) Fawc. & Rendle (a) Sterculiaceae/(b) no local name
given/(c) Stevens 10414/(d) "for when a pregnant woman has pain"--root
alone is boiled and tea drunk/(e) slender branches, purple flowers with five
petals.
16. Mikania micrantha H.B.K. (a) Asteraceae/(b) kiwa (vine)/(c) Stevens 10439/
(d) for snakebite, particularly the fer-de-lance, or "tommygotT'--leaves are
crushed up in a rag and applied as a poultice to the wound (Fig. 7); tea from
leaves is also drunk/(e) a vine with heart-shaped leaves and white flowers,
found in wet areas (Fig. 6); used very successfully by the Awastara snakebite
doctor.
17. Piper sp. (a) Piperaceae/(b) lulubakbak/(c) no specimen collected/(d) "for
cold w o m b " - - t e a from leaves is drunk and may also be infused vaginally;
for snakebite--tea from leaves is drunk/ (e) genus with various medicinal
uses in different parts of the world (Lewis and Elvin-Lewis 1977:250, 330,
347).
18. Polypodium ?lycopodioides L. (a) Polypodiaceae/(b) no local name given/
(c) Stevens 10440/(d) for witchcraft attacks--rubbed on skin as a kangbaika
or prophylactic against witchcraft; for liwa mairen siknis--steaming proce-
dure (two informants); for sprains or broken bones--rubbed around affected
area; to control fever in children--rubbed on skin; (e) an epiphyte with cir-
cular, shiny leaves, grows on bark of the mango tree; also used medicinally
in Panama (Duke 1972).
19. Scoparia dulcis L. (a) Scrophulariaceae/(b) bruin tahplira/ (c) Stevens 10437/
(d) for sirang, or fright illness--plant is boiled and tea is drunk; for "heart
trouble" as identified by the Miskito--sometimes used together with waha-
muk, its aimia (two informants); for the bite of the solkat bastar snake--
leaves are crushed and applied to the wound; (e) also used for snakebite in
Panama (Duke 1972).
20. Senna alata (L.) Roxb. (a) Caesalpiniaceae/(b) sus tara saika, "Christmas
blossom plant"/(c) Stevens 10419/(d) for ringworm infection--leaves are
crushed and rubbed on the infected areas; for stomach-ache--root is boiled
1988] DENNIS: MISKITO MEDICINE 21

Fig. 3. Senna alata or "Christmas blossom plant" is used effectively for ringworm infection and
for athlete's foot (fungal infection).

and liquid drunk as a tea; "should not be given to a pregnant woman or she
will abort" (three informants); for athlete's foot--leaves are crushed in a rag
and juice squeezed onto affected area (Fig. 4 and 5)/(e) shrubby plant with
big, rounded leaves (Fig. 3); similar medicinal use is reported in Panama
(Duke 1972).
21. Senna occidentalis (L.) Link (a) Caesalpiniaceae/(b) singsingia/(c) Stevens
10420/(d) for plauia trobil in women (probably menstrual or uterine pain)--
22 ECONOMIC BOTANY [VOL 42

crushed and boiled as a tea; sometimes used together with nutmeg (four plus
informants); also for constipation in babies and for pain generally/(e) shrubby,
flowers yellow; also used medicinally in Panama (Duke 1972).
22. Sida acuta Burm.f. (a) Malvaceae/(b) yu tangni/(c) Stevens 10407/(d) used
during difficult deliveries--root crushed and boiled as a tea to hasten birth
(four plus informants)/(e) small, creeping ground cover with small yellow
flowers that open only around noon. Normally an erect plant; this prostrate
form apparently results from intensive cutting and/or grazing; also used me-
dicinally in Panama (Duke 1972).
23. Not identified (a) Lamiaceae/(b) "blackjack"/(c) Stevens 10435/(d) for liwa
mairen siknis and for bla--made into a tea along with Bryophyllum--small
amount of tea drunk, liquid rubbed on patient's body and also used to steam
patient (two informants)/(e)a kind of mint.
The following paragraph regroups the above plants in terms o f the general kinds
of ailments they are used to treat.
Abdominal problems: Hyptis verticillata, Lindernia diffusa, Senna alata, S. oc-
cidentalis; colds, chest pain, fever: Coccocypselum hirsutum, Cordia curassavica,
Hemidioidia ocimifolia, Polypodium ?lycopodioides, Scoparia dulcis; cuts and
abrasions: Chamaecrista kunthiana, Desmodium incanum, Gossypium hirsutum,
Mangifera indica; eye problems: Drymaria cordata (?), Hemidioicha ocimifolia;
skin disease: Acisanthera quadrata, Senna alata; snakebite: Cordia curassavica,
Drymaria cordata (?), Mikania micrantha, Piper sp., Scoparia dulcis; sprains and
broken bones: Polypodium ?lycopodioides; supernatural possession: Bryophyllum
pinnatum, Coccocypselum hirsutum, Eryngium foetidum, Gossypium hirsutum,
Hemidioidia ocimifolia, Hyptis verticillata, Polypodium ?lycopodioides, Scoparia
dulcis; uro-genital problems: Chamaecrista kunthiana, Coccocypselum hirsutum;
uterine problems: Coccocypselum hirsutum, Ludwigia octovalvis, Metochia villosa,
Piper sp., Senna occidentalis, Sida acuta.

DISCUSSION

In our collection are some plants identified by several informants for specific
organic problems. One is Desmodium incanum, used as an antiseptic for wounds.
Another is Lindernia diffusa, which clearly has emetic properties. Acisanthera
quadrata and Senna alata counteract skin infections, and Senna occidentalis seems
to be effective against pain in general. Sida acuta speeds deliveries, presumably
by increasing contractions during childbirth. For these plants in particular, inter-
informant reliability indicates widely recognized pharmacological properties. Duke
(1972) reported that 17 of our 23 species were used medicinally in Panama, and
gave identical medicinal uses for four of them. Such use across wide areas may
be additional evidence o f pharmacological effectiveness.
Supernaturals of various kinds are important disease causing agents in Miskito
culture. Plant cures for these diseases are also widely used. Among species in our
collection used primarily for diseases of supernatural origin are Hyptis verticittata
and Polypodium ?lycopodioides. Whether plants used to treat this category of
illnesses are as active pharmacologically as those used to treat strictly organic
ailments is an interesting research question.
Most of the plants we collected were common, "'weedy" species growing widely
1988] DENNIS: MISKITO MEDICINE 23

Fig; 4. Bush doctor treats physician's foot. The large leaves of Senna alata are pounded up in a
rag and the thick juice is squeezed onto the skin and allowed to dry.

around the village. Only Mikania micrantha was particularly rare or hard to find.
It is difficult to say what percentage of the total Miskito pharmacopoeia may be
common, shrubby species, but at least most of our sample fell in this category,
contrary to my expectations. One implication may be that the "pharmacy" is
close at hand and readily available for many common health problems. In general,
the more c o m m o n the plant, the more useful i t w o u l d seem to be in daily health
24 ECONOMIC BOTANY [VOL. 42

Fig. 5. Close-up o f Senna alata t r e a t m e n t for athlete's foot. Juice f r o m plant leaves h a s f o r m e d a
thick, green paste o n infected area.

care, and the more difficult it would be to keep knowledge of its uses a secret in
the Miskito system of herbal medicine.
Several especially interesting plants were pointed out by Miskito friends. A
plant whose medicinal effectiveness I had a chance to observe is Senna alata,
which is used for athlete's foot, a common problem on the coast, where rainfall
averages more than 100 in a year and one's feet are constantly wet. A physician
friend of mine, who had been suffering from a bad case of athlete's foot, visited
Awastara to give a clinic. He had treated himself with all the salves and other
anti-fungal preparations available in the Puerto Cabezas hospital, but to no avail.
In Awastara, a local bush doctor used the juice from the leaves of Senna alata
as indicated, and cured the badly infected feet within a few days (Fig. 4 and 5).
Convinced of its effectiveness, my physician friend asked if he could prescribe S.
alata for his own patients. Duke (1972) reported that S. alata is also used for
athlete's foot in Panama.
Snakebite is another common problem on the coast. Several kinds of poisonous
snakes are found in the area, and one of the most dangerous is the fer-de-lance,
called "tommygoff" in creole English and simply pyuta saura, or "bad snake," in
Miskito. A smaller, gray snake is called the solkat bastar in Miskito. Herbal
treatment for snakebite involves making incisions over the bite and applying
poultices of herbs, as well as giving the patient herbal infusions to drink. The
leaves of Scoparia dulcis are said to be an effective poultice for solkat bites.
Snakebite occurs most frequently as people work bending over in their small slash-
and-burn fields, encountering snakes lying under the plant cover.
Fer-de-lance bites are quite serious and sometimes cause death. A specialist in
treating these bites lived in Awastara and agreed to show us his special herbal
1988] DENNIS: MISKITO MEDICINE 25

Fig. 6. Mikania micrantha, a vine with heart-shaped leaves and white flowers, is used very effec-
tively to treat snakebite in Awastara.

medicine. It turned out to be the leaves ofMikania micrantha, a vine growing in

swampy areas (Fig. 6). I had the opportunity to observe one treatment for snakebite
using this plant. The patient, an elderly woman, had been bitten on the foot on
the way to her fields. The snake doctor was summoned, and he immediately gave
her a tea made from the plant leaves to drink. He then made several small cuts
over the wound with a razor blade and applied a poultice of Mikania leaves (Fig.
7). The foot was still swollen the next day, although in 2 wk the swelling had
disappeared and the patient appeared completely recovered. This snake doctor
claimed to have cured 63 snakebite victims, while losing only three. He claimed,
and other local residents concurred, that his herbal snakebite treatment was more
effective than going all the way to the hospital and seeking treatment there. Al-
though the knowledge of Mikania is "secret" and the private property of the snake
doctor in Awastara, Duke (1972) reported that the plant is also used to treat
snakebite in Panama.
Towards the end of my fieldwork, an herbal medicine to produce sterility was
pointed out to me. One woman in Awastara had had six children who died in
early childhood, apparently as a result of a genetic defect. Finally, after two
children did survive, she decided to take a drastic step. She bought a medicine
to "close her womb." This medicine is prepared by boiling together a common
bromeliad with the fruit of an epiphytic plant that grows on the bark of the mango
tree. Several cups of the mixture are drunk daily. During this time one experiences
a heavy vaginal discharge, which is said to be "'like water, but makes your clothes
stiff, as if they were starched." Sexual intercourse is prohibited for a month after
taking the medicine. Later the woman reported resumption of her normal men-
strual periods but said she could never again conceive. In fact, she had never
26 ECONOMIC BOTANY [VOL. 42

Fig. 7. Poultice o f crushed Mikania micrantha leaves h a s been applied to a fer-de-lance bite on
the foot o f an elderly w o m a n . Foot is noticeably swollen in the photograph.

become pregnant again. Several other women confirmed the effectiveness of the
medicine. Unfortunately, it was not possible to have the two plants in question
botanically identified.
The Miskito names for the medicinal plants we collected are indicated in the
list above. Some of the names refer to descriptive properties. Yu tangnL for
example, literally "daytime flower," refers to a tiny plant whose flowers open in
the middle of the day. Kia saura, literally "bad smell," refers to Eryngium foe-
1988] DENNIS: MISKITO MEDICINE 27

tidum, a plant whose strong odor is also indicated by its Latin name. Asdura pata
or "chigger food," refers to a plant whose leaves, examined closely, can indeed
be seen to be covered with chiggers during the rainy season.
More commonly, however, Miskito plant names refer to the disease or condition
for which they are used. For instance, there are latawira saika, or medicine for
wounds (latawira); iskadura saika, or medicine for uro-genital problems; and liwa
mairen saika, medicine for a disease caused by a dangerous female supernatural
called the liwa mairen. This creature is believed to live in the ocean and in streams
and lagoons. She drowns men but causes abrasions and skin infections in women.
She may also cause infants to be born deformed or sickly. The liwa mairen is
regarded as a common cause of illness and of infant mortality, and there are a
number of cures.
Since the naming system is quite general, it is logical that a number of different
plants may be called by a single name such as latawira saika, or wound medicine.
The system apparently leaves unlabelled the specific characteristics by which
medicinal plants are recognized. In other words, abstract labels for identifying
plants are rare, apart from seeing them in the field and having their uses explained.
In field identification of plants, informants sometimes asked i f " I could see them
clearly" (pain kaikisma?), an interesting Miskito phrasing for visual recognition
of particular varieties. The cognitive process by which plants are identified is
obviously important to the Miskito, but it is not reflected in a separate system of
plant names.
Several methods of administering plants are employed. Boiling and drinking a
tea from either the whole plant or some part of it is perhaps the most common.
However, the leaves of a number of important plants are crushed and either the
juice is applied to the skin or a poultice is made of the crushed leaves and tied
onto the skin. An interesting method is steaming, in which packets of medicinal
plants are boiled in water, while the patient sits under a blanket with the pot
beneath his/her legs, and inhales the vapor. In steaming procedures I observed,
the pot was taken off the fire and placed beneath the patient's legs, and relatively
little actual steam was inhaled. The effect was very different than a "steam bath,"
although the Miskito use the word "steam" or "smell" to refer to the procedure.
Miskito theory is that the essence of the plant is inhaled and thus serves as a
curative or prophylactic for the condition being treated.
Plants are sometimes used together. In Miskito, a plant may be said to have
an aimia, or partner, which is necessary to make the medicine effective. For
instance, Bryophyllum is used together with a mint for liwa mairen siknis. It is
possible that in some case the aimia system refers to plants whose pharmacological
action depends on joint use.
As in many traditional societies, herbal medicine provides essential health care
for the Miskito. It does not necessarily have as high prestige as modern biomed-
icine, but it is relatively inexpensive and widely available. For some problems,
such as snakebite, it is recognized as equal or superior to biomedicine. Simple
ailments are effectively treated with common plants, e.g., abrasions with Des-
rhodium incanum and athlete's foot with Senna alata.
The secretiveness and individual ownership of herbal medicines militate against
the wider use of those that are indeed effective. During my fieldwork a proposal
was discussed to bring together bush doctors from all over the Miskito coast.
Through interchange, a fairly complete list of herbal medicines could be compiled
28 ECONOMIC BOTANY [VOL. 42

a n d d i s t r i b u t e d . S e v e r a l b u s h d o c t o r s were e n t h u s i a s t i c a b o u t the i d e a e v e n t h o u g h
it w o u l d m e a n m a k i n g w i d e l y a v a i l a b l e t r a d i t i o n a l l y secret k n o w l e d g e . F o l l o w i n g
the c u r r e n t strife, m o r e a t t e n t i o n s h o u l d be g i v e n to t h o r o u g h s t u d y o f the M i s k i t o
p h a r m a c o p o e i a . Its r i c h n e s s is still largely u n k n o w n .

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Fieldwork among the Miskito in 1978-1979 was funded by an NIMH Postdoctoral Traineeship
through the Department of Anthropology, Michigan State University. In Nicaragua, special thanks
are due to Dr. Warren Douglas Stevens, now the B.A. Krukoff Curator of Central American Botany
at the Missouri Botanical Garden. Dr. Stevens collected plants with me in Awastara and then very
generously identified them and provided botanical information. Dra. Mima Cunningham K., now
Minister for the Atlantic Coast of Nicaragua, also helped with the research. Dr. David Northington
of the National Wildflower Research Center in Austin and Dr. Arthur Elliot of the Biology Dept. at
Texas Tech provided very useful comments. Miskito friends and informants in Awastara should be
particularly thanked since they made the fieldwork possible; their friendship and collaboration are
gratefully acknowledged.

LITERATURE CITED
Diskin, M., T. Bossert, S. Nahmad S., and S. Varese. 1986. Peace and autonomy on the Atlantic
coast of Nicaragua: a report of the task force on human rights and academic freedom. Latin
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Book Review
Food, Diet, and Population at Prehistoric Arroyo Hondo Pueblo, New Mexico. Wilma
Wetterstrom. Arroyo Hondo Archaeological Series 6. School of American Research Press,
P.O. Box 2188, Santa Fe, N M 87501. 1986. 302 pp. $15.00 (paper).
The book is divided into two parts: 1) The Foods, Diet, and Population at Arroyo Hondo
Pueblo by Wetterstrom, and 2) Additional Reports with two contributions--Ethnobotanical
Pollen Record by Vorsila L. Bohrer and Artifacts of Woody Materials by Richard W. Lang.
The first part consists of sections on food plants, making a living in a marginal environment,
lean times in a marginal environment, and diet, death, and demography. The detailed
reports on pollen and other plant materials in the second part are excellent studies of
considerable importance to economic botanists.
This book is one of the few that views ethnobotanical or ethnoarchaeological information
from an ecologic aspect or from the point of view of the peoples who were alive and active
at the time of now extinct cultures. It represents a large step forward towards the fast
developing field of southwestern archaeoethnobotany, and we hope for more contributions
of this kind.
RICHARD EVANS SCHULTES, HARVARD UNIVERSITY, CAMBRIDGE, M A 02138