Ghosh P. Network Theory Engineering Handbook 2019

2019 First Edition
Network
Theory
engineering handbook p.k. ghosh

Contents
CHAPTER . 1 . INTRODUCTION TO ELECTRICAL NETWORKS &
NETWORK TOPOLOGY
1.1 INTRODUCTION 1
1.2 OHM'S LAW 1
1.2.1 Relation between Resistance (R) & Temperature (T) 1
1.2.2 Resistance 3
1.2.2.1 Calculation of Equivalent resistance 5
1.2.2.2 Current Division Rule 6
1.2.2.3 Voltage division rule 6
1.2.3 Inductance (L) 7
1.2.3.1 Calculation of Current 7
1.2.3.2 Calculation of Equivalent Inductance 7
1.2.4 Capacitance (C) 8
1.2.4.1 Calculation of voltage 8
1.2.4.2 Calculation of Equivalent Capacitance 9
1.3 KIRCHOFF'S LAW 9
1.3.1 Kirchoff's Current Law 9
1.3.2 Kirchoff's Voltage Law 10
1.4 SIGN CONVENTIONS10
1.4.1 Application of sign convention 11
1.5 TYPE OF ELECTRICAL SOURCES 13
1.6 NETWORK TOPOLOGY 14
1.6.1 Graph of a Network 15
1.6.2 Concept of Tree 16
1.6.3 Network Variables 17
1.6.4 Tie-set Matrix : (Using link current) 17
1.6.5 Cutset Matrix 20
1.7 INCIDENCE MATRIX 21
1.8 DUALITY 22
1.9 RMS & AVERAGE VALUE CALCULATION 23
1.9.1 Average Value Calculation 23
1.9.2 Rms Value Calculation 25
1.10 SPECIAL WAVE FORM EXAMPLES 26
SOLVED EXAMPLES 28
SHORT QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 33
NUMERICAL PROBLEM 34
CHAPTER . 2 . NETWORK THEOREMS
2.1 INTRODUCTION 35
2.2 SOURCE TRANSFORMATION 35
2.2.1 Star Delta Transformation 36
2.2.2 Conversion Technique 36
2.2.3 Technique Description 37
2.3 FUNDAMENTALS OF CIRCUIT 37
2.4 CALCULATION OF CURRENT BY DIFFERENT METHODS 38
2.4.1 Branch Current Method 38
2.4.2 Mesh Current Method 41
2.4.3 Nodal Analysis Method 44
2.5 THEVENIN THEOREM 50
2.5.1 Procedure for solving the problem 50
2.6 NORTON'S THEOREM 59
2.6.1 Procedure for solving the Problem using Nortons theorem 60
2.7 SUPERPOSITION THEOREM 63
2.7.1 Procedure for Solving the Problem 63
2.8 MAXIMUM POWER TRANSFORMATION THEOREM 68
2.8.1 AC Analysis 69
2.8.2 DC Analysis 69
2.9 MILLMAN'S THEOREM 71
2.10 RECIPROCITY THEOREM 74
SOLVED PROBLEMS 75
2.11 TELLEGEN'S THEOREM 90
2.12 SUBSTITUTION THEOREM 92
2.13 COMPENSATION THEOREM 93
NUMERICAL PROBLEMS 94
CHAPTER . 3 . RESONANCE
3.1 INTRODUCTION 97
3.2 SERIES RESONANCE 97
3.2.1 Phasor Diagram of RLC Series Circuits 98
3.2.2 Veriation of current and voltage with frequency in series RLC Circuit. 100
3.2.3 Calculation of Selectivity & Bandwidth 103
3.2.3.1 Calculation of lower half power frequency (f1) 105
3.2.3.2 Calculation of upper half power frequency (f2) 105
3.2.3.3 Quality Factor (Q) 106
3.2.3.4 Selectivity of Series RLC Ckt. Varies with Capacitance 107
3.2.3.5 Selectivity of series RLC Circuit with L-Variable 108
3.3 PARALLEL RESONANCE (ANTI RESONANCE) 109
3.3.1 Calculation of impedance at resonance conditions 111
3.3.2 Calculation of impedance when frequency is close to resonance frequency 112
3.3.3 Calculation of Bandwidth & Selectivity of Parallel Circuit 114
SOLVED PROBLEMS 115
CHAPTER . 4 . COUPLED CIRCUITS

4.1 INTRODUCTION 120
4.2 SELF INDUCTANCE 120
4.3 MUTUAL INDUCTANCE 121
4.3.1 Coefficient of Coupling 122
4.3.2 Relation between L1, L2, K & M 123
4.4 CALCULATION OF EQUIVALENT INDUCTANCE 123
4.4.1 Series Addition of Coil 123
4.4.2 Series Opposition of coil 124
4.5 MODELLING OF COUPLED CIRCUIT 124
4.6 DOT CONVENTION FOR REPRESENTING COUPLED CIRCUIT. 125
4.7 TUNED COUPLED CIRCUIT 133
4.7.1 Single tuned circuited 133
4.7.2 Double-Tuned coupled circuit 135
CHAPTER . 5 . LAPLACE TRANSFORM & ITS APPLICATION

5.2 INITIAL CONDITION 139
5.2.1 Procedure for Evaluting Initial Condition 140
5.3 DC TRANSIENT 141
5.4 DC TRANSIENT OF R-L CIRCUIT 141
5.4.1 Solution of R-L circuit by using Laplace Transformation method 147
5.5 DC TRANSIENT OF R.C. CIRCUIT 149
5.6 R-L-C SERIES CIRCUIT 153
5.7 A.C. TRANSIENT 156
5.7.1 Sinusoidal voltage applied to the R.L. Circuit 157
5.7.2 Step input voltage applied to the R.C. circuit. 158
5.7.3 When we applied Ramp input voltage to the electrical circuit. 160
5.7.4 When impulse input voltage V(t) = d(t) applied to the
any electrical Circuit 160
5.8 LAPLACE TRANSFORM OF PERIODIC FUNCTION 176
5.9 SHIFTING THEOREM 178
5.10 INITIAL VALUE THEOREM 179
5.11 FINAL VALUE THEOREM 179
CHAPTER . 6 . TWO PORT NETWORK

6.1.1 Single Port Network 182
6.1.2 Two-port network 182
6.2 Z-PARAMETER 183
6.3 Y-PARAMETER 187
6.4 A,B,C,D (TRANSMETER)PARAMETER 192
6.4.1 Interconnection of Two-Port network 194
6.5 H-PARAMETER 196
6.6 SPECIAL NETWORK(PARALLEL NETWORK) 199
6.7 p AND T NETWORK 203
6.7.1 p Network 203
6.7.2 T-Network 203
6.8 IMAGE IMPEDANCE 205
6.8.1 Calculation of Primary side image impedance (Z1i) 205
6.8.2 Calculation of Secondary side image impedance (Z2i) 206
6.9 CLCULATION OF CHARACTERISTICS-IMPEDANCE(Z0) 207
6.10 INTERRELATION OF TWO PARAMETERS 209
6.10.1 Y-Parameters in terms of Z-parameters 209
6.10.2 Z-Parameters in terms of Y-parameters 210
6.10.3 Y-Parameters in terms of H-parameters 211
6.10.4 ABCD-Parameters in terms of Z-parameters 212
CHAPTER . 7 . NETWORK FUNCTIONS & RESPONSES

7.1.1 Driving point impedance Z(S) 230
7.1.2 Driving point Admittance Y(S) 230
7.1.3 Transfer impedance 230
7.1.4 Transfer Admittance 231
7.1.5 Voltage Trans fer function 231
7.1.6 Current Transfer Function 231
7.2 PROCEDURE FOR CALCULATION OF DRIVING POINT IMPEDANCE 231
7.3 POLES & ZEROS CONCEPT OF DRIVING POINT IMPEDANCE FUNCTION 234
7.3.1 Calcutaion of zero values 235
7.3.2 Calculation of poles value 235
7.4 RESTRICTION OF POLES & ZEROS IN DRIVING
POINT IMPEDANC FUNCTION 238
7.5 NECESSARY CONDITION FOR TRANSFER FUNCTION 239
7.6 RESPONSE OF A NETWORK 239
7.6.1 Calculation of open circuit natural frequency(O.C.N.F) 239
7.6.2 Calculation of short circuit natural frequency(SCNF) 239
7.7 TIME DOMAIN BEHAVIOUR FROM POLE-ZERO PLOTS 247
CHAPTER . 8 . FOURIER ANALYSIS

8.2 EXPRESSION OF FOURIER SERIES IN TERM OF COSINE FUNCTION 254
8.3 EXPRESSION OF FOURIER SERIES IN SINE FORM 254
8.4 CALCULATION OF a0, an, bn 255
8.4.1 Calculation of a0 255
8.4.2 Calculation of an 256
8.4.3 Calculation of bn 256
8.5 FOURIER SERIES IN EXPONENTIAL FORM 260
8.5.1 Calculation of Cn 261
8.6 WAVE SYMMETRY 261
8.6.1 Alteration of symmetry 262
8.6.2 Rotation or odd function symmetry 262
8.6.3 Mirror or even symmetry 263
8.6.4 Quarter wave symmetry 263
8.7 AVERAGE AND RMS VALUE OF COMPLEX WAVE FORM 263
8.8 CALCULATION OF POWER OF COMPLEX WAVE FORM 264
8.9 CALCULATION OF NON SINUSOIDAL VOLTAGE 264
8.10 CALCULATION OF NON SINUSOIDAL CURRENT 265
CHAPTER . 9 . FILTERS
9.2 TYPES OF FILTER 272
9.2.1 Low pass Filter 272
9.2.2 High pass filter 272
9.2.3 Band pass filter 272
9.2.4 Band Stop or, Band Elimination Filter 273
9.3 DECIBEL AND NEPER 273
9.3.1 Decibel(dB) 273
9.3.2 Neper 274
9.3.3 Relation between neper and decibel 274
9.4 BASIC RELATION IN A FILTER 274
9.4.1 Cutoff Frequency 275
9.4.2 Characteristics Impedance 275
9.5 CONSTANT K-TYPE FILTERS 276
9.5.1 Constant- K Low Pass Filter 276
9.5.2 Constant-K High pass filter 278
9.5.3 Bandpass filter 280
9.5.4 Band elimination Filter 282
9.6 M-DERIVED FILTERS 283
9.6.1 M-derived Low-pass Filter 284
9.6.2 m-derived H.P.F. 286
CHAPTER . 10 . NETWORK SYNTHESIS

10.2 HURWITZ POLYNOMIAL 289
10.3 POSITIVE REAL FUNCTION 292
10.3.1 Properties of positive real function. 292
10.4 STABILITY ANALYSIS OF A FUNCTION BY USING
‘ROUT-HURWITZ’ METHOD 292
10.5 CONCEPT OF NETWORK SYNTHESIS 295
10.6 METHOD OF SYNTHESIS 295
10.7 SYNTHESIS OF LC NETWORK 295
10.7.1 Properties of LC Network 295
10.7.2 Foster-I for LC Network 295
10.7.3 Foster-II of LC Network 296
10.8 SYNTHESIS BY USING CAUER 297
10.8.1 Synthesis by Using Cauer-1 297
10.8. 2 Synthesis by Using Cauer-1I 297
10.9 SYNTHESIS OF RC NETWORK 302
10.9.1 Foster-I 302
10.9.2 Foster-II 303
10.9.3 Cauer-I for RC circuit 304
10.9.4 Cauer-II for RC circuit 304
10.10 SYNTHESIS OF R-L NETWORK 306
10.10.1 Foster-I for R-L 306
10.10.2 Foster-II for R-L 307
10.10.3 Cauer-I for R-L Network 307
10.10.4 Cauer-II for RC circuit 308
10.11 SIGNIFICANCE PAMRAMETER IN FOSTER FORM OF L.C CIRCUIT 317
NUMERICAL PROBLEM 318
BIBLIOGRAPHY 320
ppp
Chapter 1
INTRODUCTION TO ELECTRICAL
NETWORKS &NETWORK TOPOLOGY
1.1 INTRODUCTION
This chapter gives the brief idea about necessary and fundamental requriement of
network theory.It contains Ohm's laws,Kirchofff's laws,fundamentals of circuit
parameters,network topology,Average and Rms value calculations,etcs,which have versatile
applications in electrical circuitry.
1.2 OHM'S LAW
The potential (V) applied across a conductor is directly related to current (I), provided
temperature remains constant.
Mathematically, V µ I
or V = KI
Where, K = Proportionality constant and it's property is to oppose the flow of current
through the conductor.Electrically it is denoted by symbol ‘R’.
V
i.e. V = RI Þ R= unit - Ohm
I Current (I)
Graphically,
Voltage (V)
Fig.-1.1
1.2.1 Relation between Resistance (R) & Temperature (T)

Let R t = Resistance at T0 C
R0 = Resistance at 00 C
2 Network Theory
a = Temperature coefficient of resistance at 00 C
Let a conductor having resistance R0 at 00 C and let its resistance Rt at
temperature t0 C.
Now, it is found that the increase in resistance D R = R t - R 0
depends (a) Directly proportional to R0 .
(b) Directly on the rise in temp.
(c) On the behaviour of conductor material.
Mathematically,
(R t - R 0 ) µ R 0t Þ (R t - R 0 ) = aR 0t
where a = Temperature coefficient of Resistance of conductor
Þ R t = R 0 + αR 0 t ....... (A)
R t - R0 D R
From equation (A), a = =
R0t R0t
Suppose, R0 = 1 ohm & t = 10 C
DR
Now, a = = R t - R0
1x1
Hence the temperature coefficient of resistance is defined as the increase in resistance
per original resistance per 0C rise in temperature.Above definition holds good for both rise
as well as fall in temperature. As the temperature of conductor decreases, its resistance
value also decreases.
[N.B. a =+ ve, for conductor. & negative for semiconductor.]
Temperature coefficient ( a ) is +ve indicate the resistance of conductor increases with
the rise in temperature. But for -ve temperature coefficient indicate, the decrease in
temperature with the raise in resistance and vice versa.
Example-1.1
In case R0 is not given, Let R1 is the resistance at t10 C and R2 is the resistance at t20 C.
NowR2 = R 0 (1+ a t 2 ) .......... (B)
R1 = R 0 (1+ a t1 ) ..........(C)
Dividing equation(B)by equation (C)
R2 1+ a 0 t 2
Now =
R1 1+ a 0 t1
R2
= (1 + a 0 t 2 )(1 + a 0 t 1 ) = (1 + a t )(1 - a t ) = 1 - a t + a t - a 2t t
-1
Þ
R1 0 2 0 1 0 1 0 2 0 1 2
Coupled Circuits 3
R
But value of a << 1 , so a 2 is neglected.
2
= 1 + a 0 (t 2 - t1 )
0 R1
a0
Þ R 2 = R 1 [1 + a 0 (t 2 - t1 )] and a1 =
1+ a 0 t1
What are the basic parameter of electrical circuit ?
Ans-a) Resistance b)Inductance c) Capacitance
1.2.2 Resistance
It is an electrical parameter which opposes the flow of electron. The resistance in a
conductor arises due to inter molecular collision of electron. When conductor gets the
energy from supply voltage, due to which electrons go to the exciting state and collide each
other. Due to intermolecular collision of electron resistance arises.
V
Mathematically, R= Unit-ohm
I
L
V
Fig.-1.2
l L L
Resistance R µ L and R µ ÞR µ Þ R = r where
A A A
R= Resistance of conductor , L= Length of conductor
A= Area of cross-section of conductor, r = Resistivity (Unit r = Ohm-meter)
Example-1.2
A copper conductor has its specific resistance of 1.6 x 10-4 ohm-cm. at 00C and a resistance
temperature coefficient 1/254.4 per 00C at 200.
Find out (i) the specific resistance and
(ii) the temperature coefficient of resistance at 500C.
Solution :
1
Given data, r 0 = 1.6 x 10-4 ohm-cm., t = 200, a 20 =
254.4
a0 a0
at = Þ a 20 =
1+ a 0 t 1 + a0 t
4 Network Theory
1 a0
Þ = Þ 1 + 20 a 0 = 254.4 a 0
254.4 1+ a 0 x 20
1
Þ a0 = per 0C
234.4
æ 1 ö
(i) r 50 = r 0 (1 + a 0 t ) = 1.6 ´ 10 - 4 ç1 + ´ 50 ÷ = 1.94 ´ 10 - 4 ohm.cm
è 234.4 ø
1
a0 234.5 1
(ii) a50 = = = per 0C
1 + a 0 ´ 50 1+ 50 284.5
234.5
Example-1.3
A coil has a resistance of 18 W when it's mean temperature is 200 C and of 20 W when its
mean temperature is 500C. Find it's mean temperature rise when its resistance is 23 W
and the surrounding temp. is 150C.
Solution :
Let R0 is the resistance of the coil and a 0 its temperature coefficient at 00C.
Then 18 = R 0 (1 + a 0 ´ 20 ) ... (A)

20 = R 0 (1 + a 0 ´ 50) ... (B)
Dividing equation (A) by equation (B)
18 1 + 20 a 0 1
Now, = Þ a0 = per 0C.
20 1 + 50 a 0 250
If t0C is the temp. of the coil when its resistance is 23 W , then
æ t ö
23 = R 0 ç1 + 0 ÷ ... (C)
è 250 ø
æ t ö
R 0 ç1 + ÷
23 è 250 0 ø ...(D)
Solving equation (A) and (C) we get =
18 R 0 (1 + a 0 ´ 20 )
1
But the value of a 0 = per 0C. put in equation (D).
250
We get, t = 650C , Hence temp. rise = 65-15 = 500C. (Ans.)
Coupled Circuits 5
1.2.2.1 Calculation of Equivalent resistance :
Case-1 : When two or more resistance connected in series -
A B
I R1 R2 Rn
V
Fig.1.3
V= I R1 + I R2 + --------- + I Rn
I x Req =I (R1 + R2 + ---------- +Rn)
Req = Equivalent resistance between A & B.
Req= R1 + R2 + ---------- +Rn
[N.B. : Current is same for all the resistances]
Case-2 : When two or more than two resistances connected in parallel -
R1
I1
A I2 R2
B
I I3
R3
In Rn
V
Fig.1.4
In this case I = I1 + I2 + I3 ................. + In

V V V V
But I1 = , I2 = , I3 = ---------- I n =
R1 R2 R3 Rn
V V V V
Hence I = + + + ---- +
R1 R2 R3 Rn
V æ1 1 1 1 ö
Þ = V çç + + + ...... + ÷÷ Q V = I ´ R eq
R eq è R1 R2 R3 Rn ø
Where Req = Equivalent resistance between A & B.
[N.B. : Voltage is same for all the resistances]
1 1 1 1 1
= + + + ---- +
R eq R1 R2 R3 Rn
6 Network Theory
1.2.2.2 Current Division Rule
I1 R1
A B
I2 R2
V
Fig.1.5
Let I=Total current =I1 + I2
I1=Current passing through resistor R1
I2=Current passing through resistor R2
V V æ 1 1 ö æ RR ö
Here, I = I1 + I2 = + = Vçç + ÷÷ Þ V = I çç 1 2 ÷÷ ...(E)
R1 R2 è R1 R 2 ø è R1 + R2 ø
R1 R 2
But V = I1R1 , putting in equation (E) , We get I1R1 = I
R1 + R 2
2 R
Þ I1 = I R + R
1 2
Similarly, V = I2R2 , putting in equation (E) ,
R1 R 2 1 R
So, I 2 R 2 = I Þ I2 = I R + R
R1 + R 2 1 2
Opposite resistance
N.B. : Branch Current = Total Current x
Summation of two parallel resistance
1.2.2.3 Voltage division rule
I R1 R2 Rn
Fig.-1.6
By applying KVL, V = v1 + v2 + ..... + vn = IR 1 + IR 2 + ...... + IR n

V
I=
R 1 + R 2 + .... + R n
Coupled Circuits 7
For 1st resistance
V V R1
I= = Þ V1 = V
R 1 R 1 + R 2 + .... + R n R 1 + R 2 + .... + R n
R2
Similaly ,For 2nd resistance V2 = V
R 1 + R 2 + .... + R n
1.2.3 Inductance (L)
It is a coil which opposes the rate of charge of flux.The emf induced in a coil
due to the change of its own flux linked with its own turn will also change,which will
produce in it what is called self induced e.m.f.
di L
Voltage across inductor VL µ
dt
I
di di Fig.-1.7
Þ VL = K , Here, K = L Þ VL = L
dt dt
where, L = Proportionality Constant, known as Inductance (Unit = Henery)
1.2.3.1 Calculation of Current
di di 1
Þ As we know VL = L Þ = VL
dt dt L
1
Þ di = VL dt
L
1
Now Integrating both the side, we get Þ i = di = ò L ò
VL .dt
1
Lò
Where voltage VL is function of time. Hence, i(t) = VL ( t ).dt
1.2.3.2 Calculation of Equivalent Inductance
Case - 1: Calculation of Equivalent inductance when L1 & L2 are connected in series.
L1 L2
A B
I
~
V(t)
Fig.-1.8
There is no mutual inductance between L1 & L2 .
Applying KVL, V(t) = VL1 + VL2

8 Network Theory
di di di
Leq = L1 + L2 Þ Leq = L1 + L2
dt dt dt
Case - 2 :When two inductors are connected in parallel,
I1I1 L1
L 1
A
A B
B
L2
II L2
II22
~
V
Fig-1.9
At point ‘A’ I = I1 + I2
1 1 1 1 1 1
L eq ò V.dt = ò V.dt +
L1 L2 ò
V.dt Þ L
eq
=
L1
+
L2
1.2.4 Capacitance (C)
It is an electrical parameter, whose function is to store electric charge.
Mathematically, Q = C V
where, Q = Charge stored in capacitor
C = Capacitance, Unit is Farad.
V = Potential across capacitor
As we know, Q = it Þ it = Cv
Now, differentiating both the sides with respect to time (t) Þ i dt = Cdv
dv dv(t)
Þi = C , Þ i(t) = C ...(F)
dt dt
1.2.4.1 Calculation of voltage
dV i 1
From equation (F) , = Þ dV = i . dt
dt C C
Integrating both the sides within the limit - ¥ to ‘t’ we get,
t 0 t t
1 1 1 q 1
V = ò dV = ò i.dt = ò i.dt + ò i.dt = 0 + ò i.dt
C -¥ C -¥ C0 C C0
If initial charge( q0 ) stored across capacitor is Zero which is just before switching
condition and voltage across capacitor is function of time.Then
t
1
C ò0
VC (t) = i.dt ...(G)
Coupled Circuits 9
1.2.4.2 Calculation of Equivalent Capacitance
Case - 1: When two capacitors are connected in series.
A C1 C2 B
I
V C1 V C2
~
V(t)
Fig.-1.10
M athem atically, V( t ) = VC1 + VC2
1 1 1 1 1 1
Ceq ò i.dt = ò i.dt +
C1 C2 ò
i.dt Þ C =
C1
+
C2
eq
Case - 2 : When two capacitors are connected in parallel.

I1 C1
A B
I C2
I2
~
V
Fig.-1.11
According to KCL, I = I1 + I2
dv dv dv
Ceq = C1 + C2 Hence, Ceq = C1 + C2
dt dt dt
1.3 KIRCHOFF'S LAW
Gourav Robert Kirchhoff (1824-1887), a German physicist, enunciated two laws which
enable us to find the currents flowing in an electric circuit and voltages across the
varios elements of the circuit.
There are two laws of Kirchoff.
(a) Kirchoff's Current Law (KCL)
(b) Kirchoff's Voltage Law (KVL)
1.3.1 Kirchoff's Current Law
Accroding to KCL, sum of incoming currents to a junction is equal to the sum of
outgoing currents away from that junction.Otherwise, sum of currents meeting at a
junction is equal to zero.
10 Network Theory
I1
I5
I2
I3
I4
Junction
Fig.-1.12
Mathematically,
Sum of incoming currents = I1 + I2 + I3 Sum of outgoing currents =I4 + I5
According to KCL, I1 + I2 + I3 =I4 + I5
Þ I1 + I2 + I3 + (- I4 ) + ( -I5 ) =0 Þ åI = 0
1.3.2 Kirchoff's Voltage Law E2
+ R1 - + R2 - + -
According to KVL, in a close loop
I
network, the supply voltage is equal to the +
E1
summation of voltages due to individual - O ur dir n R3
parameters. Otherwise, the summation of
voltage drops in a closed loop path is equal
to zero. R4
E3
Fig.-1.13
Mathematically,
V= I R1 + I R2 + I R3 + I R4
V = å IR
or V - ( I R1 + I R2 + I R3 + I R4 ) = 0 ÞV - å IR = 0
1.4 SIGN CONVENTIONS
Fig. - b
- + - +
I I
E E
Our dir n
E = + ve E = - ve
Fig.(a) Fig.(b)
Fig.-1.14
In fig -1.14(a), our assumed dirn is from -ve to +ve side indicates final sign is +ve, i.e.
E = +ve .
In fig -1.14(b), our assumed dirn of current is from +ve to -ve indicates the final sign
-ve, i.e. E = -ve.
Coupled Circuits 11
F ig . - c
+ - + -
I I
R R
V = -I R V =+ IR
Fig.1.15 : Fall in potential Fig.1.16 : Rise in potential
In fig -1.15 : Current entering point of resistor is taken as +ve and leaving point as -
ve. Our direction of movement from +ve to -ve indicates fall in voltage takes place,
i.e. V = - I R
In fig -1.16 : Here direction of movement from -ve to +ve indicates rise in potential,
i.e. V = + I R
1.4.1 Application of sign convention E2
+ R1 - + R2 - + -
Case - 1 : Due to current I, sign
I
convention of resistors is shown in the +
E1
fig.1.16. Suppose, our movement is in - O ur dir n R3
clockwise direction as shown fig.1.17
R4
Mathematically, E3
+ E1 - I R1 - I R2 - E2 - I R3 - E3 - I R4 = 0 Fig.-1.17
E1 - E2 - E3 = I R1 + I R2 +I R3 + I R4
E1 - E 2 - E 3
I = ... (A)
R1 + R 2 + R 3 + R 4
E2
+ R1 - + R2 - + -
Case - 2 : If our direction is anticlockwise. I
+
E1
- Our dir n R3
Mathematically,
- E1 + I R1 + I R2 + E2 + I R3 + E3 + I R4 = 0 R4
E3
I ( R1 + R2 + R3 + R4 ) = E1 - E2 - E3 Fig.-1.18
E1 - E 2 - E 3
I = .... (B)
R1 + R 2 + R 3 + R 4
From equation (A) and (B), it is seen that the magnitude of current is independent of
our direction.
12 Network Theory
Example-1.4
Calculate the current of the following circuit using sign convention method.
Method - I : If our direction of current is clockwise.
+ - + - + -
2W 3W 4W
30V Clockwise 15V
- +
6W
Fig.-1.18
15
30 - 2I - 3I - 4I - 15 - 6I = 0 Þ I = = 1 Amp. Ans.
15
Method - II : If our direction of current is anticlockwise.
+ - + - + -
2W 3W 4W
30V Anticlockwise 15V
- +
6W
Fig.-1.19
15
- 30 + 6I + 15 + 4I + 3I + 2I = 0 Þ I = = 1 Amp.
15
Example - 1.5 Using Kirchoff's Current Law, find current Ix , Iy & Iz .
15A
6A 8A
A B
IY 2A
3A IW
2A
5A IZ
D IX C
Solution : Fig.-1.20
At point 'A' , 15 + 3 + Iy = 6 Þ Iy = 6 - 18 = - 12 Amp.
At point 'B' , 6 + 8 + 2 = Iw Þ Iw = 16 Amp.
At point 'C' , - I Y + I W + I X = I Z Þ -(12) + 16 + 0 = I Z Þ I Z = 28A
As at point D, 5 = 3 + 2 + I X Þ I X = 0A
Coupled Circuits 13
1.5 TYPE OF ELECTRICAL SOURCES
Electrical Source
Voltage Source Current Source
Independent
Voltage Source
Dependent
+ Voltage Source
- +
-
Time Dependent Time Independent
( AC ) ( DC )
Voltage Dependent Current Dependent
+ Voltage Source (VDVS) Voltage Source (CDVS)
~ Battery
- + +
J V i V
- -
VµJ V µ i
V = KJ V = ai
K is unit less a = Unit - ohm
Current Source
Independent Dependent
Current Source Current Source
Time Dependent Time Independent

(AC) (DC)
Voltage Dependent Current Dependent

i (t) I Current Source Current Source
J I
i
I
I µ J I µ i
I = bJ I = gi
γ - Unitless
Unit of b is mho
14 Network Theory
Example-1.6 : Calculate the current 'I' in the folowing circuit.
A + - + - B - + E
+ -
2W 3W 3I 3W
I I2
+ 4W +
5V
- -
15V
D F
C
Fig.-1.21
Solution : Consider the loop ABCDA,
5 - 2 I - 3 I - 3 I - 4( I + I2 ) = 0 Þ 5 - 12 I - 4 I2 = 0
Þ 12 I + 4 I2 = 5 ...(A)
For loop BEFCB,
3I 2 - 15 + 4(I + I 2 ) = 0
Þ 7 I2 + 4 I = 15 ... (B)
Solving equations (A) and (B),
15 - 4 I
From equation (B), I 2 = , the value of I2 put in equation (A)
7
é15 - 4I ù 25
We get, 5 = 12I + 4 ê ÞI= Amp
ë 7 úû 68
1.6 NETWORK TOPOLOGY
Network topology is the sequence of representation of network using some straight
lines and dots, that gives the complete properties of the circuit in which various elements
of the network are grounded. In this chapter, so many fundamental items are there.
1) Graph
2) Tree
3) Network Variable
4) Link
5) Tie-set
6) Tree branch voltage
7) Cut-set schedule
8) Datum voltage
which involves the following definitions
(i) Node: A node is a point in an electrical network to which two or more elements are
connected.
(ii) Branch: A branch is a line segment which represents a network element or a
combination of elements connected between two nodes.
Coupled Circuits 15
In general, a branch may represent a single resistance R or a capacitor C or an inductor L
or a combination of these elements. The flexibility of choosing elements is illustrated :
in Fig. 1.22.
Fig. 1.22
a, b, c are the nodes. The parallel combination of R and C in Fig. 1.22 (d) can be regarded
as a combination of two branches or a single branch. Similarly, the series combination of L
and R as shown in Fig.1.22 (e) may be regarded as a combination of two branches or a
single branch.
(iii) Path: The path in a network constitutes a set of elements traversed such that no
node is passed through again.
(iv) Loop: Any closed path in a network.
(v) Mesh: Any loop which does not contain any other loops in it, i.e. an independent
loop is a mesh.
(vi) Planar circuit: A circuit which may be drawn on a plane surface such that, no
branch passes over or under any other branch.
(vii) Non-planar circuit: Any circuit which is not planar.
1.6.1 Graph of a Network
The diagram which produce the network geometry and uses lines with dots at the end
to represent network element is usually called a graph.
5
Example 1.7
3
1 6
4
2
7
Fig.-1.23
16 Network Theory
Graph of the above network is given by :
5
1 3
6
4
2
7
Fig.-1.24
The terminal common to two or more elements are called nodes and are denoted by
small circles. The above graph contains 5 nodes. Branch is a conducting path of a
networks and the above graph contains 7 branches.
1.6.2 Concept of Tree
In graph all the paths are essential for flow of current. When we are removing the
some of branches from the graph due to which there is no current flowing in the
circuit, the residual graph after removal of branches , disallow the flow of current is
called a tree. The remaining branches are called links.
Example-1.8
2 4
1
12 1 3
7 10 11 3
5
8
9 2
6 13
4 6
7
5 Fig.-1.25
(Graph) (Tree)
or
Fig.-1.26 : Tree
Coupled Circuits 17
Let nt = Total No. of nodes in the graph.
b = No. of branches in a graph ,n = No. of tree branches= nt-1=8-1=7
L= No of Link =13-7 = 6 Mathematically b = L + n
1.6.3 Network Variables
Network consists of not only passive elements of various types but also energy sources.
A complete response of network consists in knowing the current and voltages in each
of its branch. Each branch current is related to branch voltage through the branch
impedance. If voltage and impedance are known, then
Voltage
Current = Impedance
Hence, in this case current is variable. Suppose impedance and current are known,
then
Voltage = Current × Impedance.
Hence voltage is variable.
In analysis of network on current basis, removal of all the links destroys all the closed
path and renders all the branch current zero. Hence, link current alone forms the
independent current on which all branch currents depend. Hence, each branch current
is expressed in term of link current.
Let, J 1 , J 2 , J 3 , -------------- J n are called branch currents.
i1 , i2 , i3 , --------------- in are called link currents.
1.6.4 Tie-set Matrix : (Using link current)
In any graph, addition of a link results in a closed path or loop and a circulatory
current or a link current. There result, therefore 'i' the link current in a network. The
current in any branch of the graph may be obtained by -
(a) Using various link currents that flow through the branch.
(b) Direction of flow of these link currents through the branch.
Example-1.9
Here in this case we have to find out the Tie-set Schedule of the following graph and
tree are given below. It's Branch current denoted by symbol (j) and it's link current
denoted by symbol (i).
3 J3
J6 i3
6 J7
7
J2 i2 i4 J4
2 4
5 8
J5 i1 J8
1 J1
Fig 1.27(a) (Network Graph) Fig -1.27(b) (Tree) Fig -1.27(c)
18 Network Theory
Here, J 1 , J 2 , J 3 , -------------- J 8 are called branch currents.
i1 , i2 , i3 , i4-------------- are called link currents.
Arrow head indicates the direction of current flow.
Here branches 5, 6, 7 & 8 constitute a tree, while branches 1, 2, 3 & 4 (J1, J 2, J 3,
J 4) form a link. In this case, suppose the link current i1 flows through the branch J 1, J 5,
J 8 (1, 5, 8). These set of branches forming a closed loop on which the link current
circulates is called tie-set .
Case - 1 : If the direction of link current is same that of as branch current, then its
value is +1.
Case - 2 : If the direction of link current is opposite to that of branch current, then
its value is -1. And for all other cases, it i equal to zero.
Tie set Schedule
Link No. Branches
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
1 +1 0 0 0 -1 0 0 +1
2 0 +1 0 0 +1 -1 0 0
3 0 0 +1 0 0 +1 -1 0
4 0 0 0 +1 0 0 +1 -1
From the above fig. J5 = i2 - i1 (i2 > i1)

J6 = i3 - i2 (i3 > i2)
J6 = i4 - i3 (i4 > i3)
J7 = i1 - i4 (i1 > i4)
Hence, the above equations indicate that the branch current (J) can be expressed
in terms of link current (i).
Here i1, i2, i3, i4, identified with J 1, J 2, J 3, J 4,
i.e i1 = J 1, i2 = J 2, i3 = J 4, i4 = J 4
Example-1.10
1W
For the given network, draw graph
and tree. Show the link currents on the
4W 6W
graph and the tie-set schedule for the tree.
Write the equations for the branch currents
and in terms of link currents and write
3W 5W 2W
separately the independent equations.
Fig.-1.28
Coupled Circuits 19
Solution : Graph of the above network
1
4 6 4 6
3 5 2 3
Fig.-1.29 Graph Fig.-1.30 Tree

nt = No of nodes = 4
No of Tree (n) = nt-1= 4-1 = 3 (Dotted lines indicate tree branch)
Total no of branches b = 6 (1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6)
L = No fo Links= No of independent Loop Currents
= b - n= 6-n
= 6 - 3 = 3 (There lines are shown in following figure).
J1
i1 J6
4
6
i3 J4 J 5
J3 i2 J2
5
3 2
Fig.-1.31
Here link currents are taken in branches 1, 2 & 5.
Tie - Set Matrix
Link No No of Branch
J1 J2 J3 J4 J5 J6
1 +1 0 0 +1 0 -1
2 0 +1 +1 -1 0 +1
3 0 0 +1 -1 +1 0
Here , i 1= J 1 .....(A)
i 2= J 2 .....(B)
J 3= i 2 + i 3 .....(C)
And i1 + J 4 = -(i3 + i2) .....(D)
J 4 = -i3 - i2 - i1 .....(E)
Also i2 + J 6 = -i1 , J 6 = -i1 - i2 .....(F)
20 Network Theory
1.6.5 Cutset Matrix
C 3 D
C D
6 l2
7
l3
2 4
5 8 l1
l4
B 1 A B A
Fig.-1.32 Graph Fig.-1.33 Tree
It is one of the alternate method of finding the branches and currents in a net
work.We begin with treating the tree branch voltage as a set of independent variables
in terms of which voltages of all branches may be expressed.The fig-B indicates the
Tree of graph which is shown in fig-A.This Tie-set schedule is solved similar to cut-
set schedule, but the basic difference is that ,Tie-set sehedeule is done in voltage
where as Cut-sehudle is by current basis.
Let V1, V2, V3 - - - V8 be the voltages of branchs 1, 2, 3 --- 8 respectively.
Let current i1 flowing through branch 1 to make node A +Ve w.r.t node B. Hence
V1 is the voltage of node ‘A’ w.r.t node B. similarly, V 2, V3, --- V8 chosen accordingly.
Branches 5, 6, 7 and 8 constitute the tree branches and V5, V6, V7 and V8 forms a set
of independent variables.
Now in this case
e 1 =V 5 , e 2 =V 6
e 3 =V 7 , e 4 =V 8
Again, branch voltages and link voltages are expressed as follows :
Case - I consider triangle ABE (Consists of Tree-branch VoltageV1)
V1 + e4 = e1 Þ V1 = e1 - e4 .....(A)
Case - II Consider triangle BCE
Here e1 + V2 = e2 Þ V2 = e2 - e1 .....(B)
Case - III Consider triangle CDE
e2 + V3 = e3 Þ V3 = e3 - e2 .....(C)
Case - IV Consider triangle DAE
e3 + V4 = e4 Þ V4 = e4 - e3 .....(D)
Solve the above equations A, B, C, D, E & F, we get
Now all the Tree-Branch voltages indicated by symbols e1, e2, e3 & e4, are shown in
Fig.A, Fig.B, Fig.C & Fig.D respectively.
Coupled Circuits 21
,E
C ,D
A,
B, C, D, E
V3
e3 V4
e V2
e2
e4
1 V2 V4
V V1
1
A, B, C, E
Fig.A Fig.B Fig.C Fig.D
Fig.-1.34
Cut-Set Matrix
Tree branch Branch number
Voltage No.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
1 +1 -1 0 0 +1 0 0 0
2 0 +1 -1 0 0 +1 0 0
3 0 0 +1 -1 0 0 +1 0
4 -1 0 0 +1 0 0 0 +1
N.B : When we consider a closed loop path, if the assumed current direction is
same as that of a branch current, in that case, the voltage across that branch, is
taken as +1, but if it direction is opposite, then voltage is taken as -1, in all
other cases, it is taken as 0.
1.7 INCIDENCE MATRIX
The incidence matrix of elements to nodes f
in aconnected graph is shown by the
element node incidence matrix(A). In the 1 3
a 2 b
following fig.-1.35 arrows indicates in the
branches of a graph result in an oriented
or a directed graph. c d e
These arrows are the indication for the
current flow or voltage rise in the
network.It can be easily identified from Fig.-1.35
4
an oriented graph regarding the incidence
of branches to node.The dimension of matrix A is n × b.Where n is the number of
nodes and b is the number of branches.For a graph having n nodes and b branches,
the complete incidence matrix A is a rectangular matrix of order of n × b.
In matrix A with n rows and b columns an entry aij in the i th row and j th column has
the following values.
a ij = 1 , if the j th branch is incident to and oriented away from the i th node
aij = -1, if the j th branch is incident to and oriented towards the i th node.
22 Network Theory
aij = 0 if the j th branch is not incident to the i th node.

Now the incident matrix (A) of the above graph is as follows.
Branches a b c d e f
Node
1 é1 0 1 0 0 1ù
ê- 1 - 1 0 - 1 0 0 úú
2
A= ê
3 ê0 1 0 0 1 - 1ú
ê ú
4 ë0 0 -1 1 -1 0 û
The entries in the 1st row indicates that three branches a ,c and f are incident to
node 1 and they are oriented away from node 1 and therefore the entries a11 , a13 and
a16 are +1.Other entries in the 1st row are zero as they are not connected to node 1.
Likewise, we can complete the incidence matrix for the remaining nodes 2,3 and 4.
1.8 DUALITY
Consider series RLC and parallel RLC
circuits shown in Figs. 1.36 and 1.37
respectively.
Writing KVL for RLC series circuit we
obtain
Fig. 1.36 Fig. 1.37
di 1
v = Ri + L + ò i dt ....(A)
dt C
Similarly applying KCL for RLC parallel circuit we obtain
dv 1
dt L ò
i = GV + C + v dt ....(B)
From Eq. (A) and Eq. (B) we can find that both equations are identical except for a
change in symbols, namely v is interchanged with i, and R is interchanged with G and L is
interchanged with C. These types of networks known as dual networks.
Two different networks are dual when the v – i equations that characterize one
network has the same mathematical form as the v – i equation that characterise other
network with voltage and current variables interchanged. In the above example the
inductance is dual to capacitance, resistance is dual to conductance and current is dual to
voltage. The following table shows some dual quantities.
Procedure to draw the dual of the network
1. Place a node in each loop of the original network. These nodes are non-reference
nodes in the dual network.
2. Place a node outside the given network. This node is reference node of the dual
network.
Coupled Circuits 23
3. Connect all the nodes by dotted, line through the elements, travelling only one element
at a time.
4. For each element traversed in the original network replace each element by its dual
element.
Mesh node
current voltage
capacitance inductance
inductance capacitance
voltage source current source
link Tree branch
Tieset Cut set
Tree branch current Link voltage
1.9 RMS & AVERAGE VALUE CALCULATION

1.9.1 Average Value Calculation
Let f(t) is a function of time period T. Then average value of f(t) is given by following
formula
Average value of f(t) is given by
T
1
f(t)avg = ò f (t ).dt ,Where T = Time period of the function f(t).
T0
Example-1.11
Calculate the average value of the following wavefrom.
V (t)
( 1 , 10 )
10 V
5V
(0,0) 1 2 3 4
Sec
Fig.-1.38
Solution : Here Time period= T = 2 Sec.
Case - 1: (0 < t < 1 sec.) If end paints of a straight line are
(x1 y1) and (x2 y2), then Equation of straight
10 - 0 line is given by the equation.
y–0= (x - 0)
1 - 0
y 2 - y1
y - y1 = (x - x1)
y = 10x x 2 - x1
24 Network Theory
In x - axis, x = t
In y - axis, y = v(t)
Hence V(t) = 10t
Case-II: (1 < t <2)
V(t)= 3 Volts
1é ù
T 2 1 2
1 1
Average Value =
T0ò V (t ).dt = ò V (t ).dt = ê ò 10t.dt + ò 5.dt ú
20 2 ë0 1 û
1 10
= 5 + 5 = = 5 volt
2 2
Example-1.12
Calculate the Average Value of the following wave form.
( 2 , 10 ) ( 4 , 10 )
10 V
( 12 , 0 )
(0,0) 2 4 6 8 10 12
- 10 V
( 8 , -10 ) ( 10 , -10 )
Fig.-1.39
Solution: Time period,T = 12 Sec.

There are five interval.
0 to 2 Sec., 2 to 4 Sec., 4 to 8 Sec., 8 to 10 Sec., 10 Sec. to 12 Sec.
Case-1 : (0 < t < 2 Sec.)
10 - 0
y-0 = (x - 0)
2 - 0
y = 5 x Þ V(t) = 5t, (In X- axis x ® t, In Y axis ® v(t))
Case-2 : (0 < t < 4 Sec.)
V(t) = 10v
Case-3 : (4 < t < 8 Sec.)
-10 - 10
y - 10 = (x - 4) Þ y - 10= - 5 (x - 4)
8 - 4
Þ V(t) = - 5 (t - 4) + 10 Þ V(t) = -5t + 30
Case-4 : (8 < t < 10 sec.)
V(t)= -10V
Coupled Circuits 25
Case-5 : (10 < t < 12 sec.)
0 + 10
y + 10 = (x - 10)
12 - 10
Þ V(t) + 10 = 5 (t - 10) Þ V(t) = 5t - 50 - 10
Þ V(t) = 5t - 60
Average value = 0, Because area of +ve half cycle is equl to area of -ve half
cycle.
Hence it is concluded from the above problem that if area of +Ve half cycle is
equal to the area of -Ve half cycle of the wave form, then it's average value is equal
to Zero.
Example-1.13 Calculate the Average value of the following sinusoidal wave form.
V (a)
V m S in a
Vm
p 2p
a
- Vm
Fig.-1.40
Solution :
Above wave form is a sinsoidal wave form having time period T = 2 p , Here the
area of +ve half cycle is same as area of -ve half cycle. So average value is 0.
That is why, we must consider +ve helf cycle only, having time period T = p
Average value of V(t)
T p
1 1 V 2V
ò V (t ).dt = ò Vm sin a .da = m [cos ]0 = m = 0.637 ´ Vm
p
=
T0 p 0 p p
Hence , Average voltage = 0.637 x maximum Voltage (Vm)
1.9.2 Rms Value Calculation
Let f(t) is a function of time period T. Now the rms value of f(t) is given by Rms
Value of f(t).
1
é1 T ù 2
f(t)rms = ê ò f 2 (t).dt ú
ëT 0 û
26 Network Theory
Example-1.14 V (a)
Calculate the Rms value of the

Vm
following wave form
p 2p
a
- Vm
Time Period (T)= 2 p
Limiting value of time from Zero to 2 p (0 < t < 2 p ), v( a ) = Vm Sin a
1 1
é1 T 2 ù 2
é 1 T 2 ù 2
Vm
Rms Value = ê ò V (a ).da ú
= = ê ò Vm sin 2 a .da ú =
ëT 0 û ë 2p 0 û 2
Example-1.15
Calculate Rms value of fig-A of Problem - 1.11
Solution : Given data, Time period T = 2 Sec.
Case - 1: 0 < t < t Sec.
v(t) = 10.t
Case - 2 : (1 < t < 2 Sec.)
v(t) = 5 Volt.
Rmsvalue
1 1 1
é T ù 2
é1 2 2 ù 2
ì1 é 2
1 2
ù 2
(Vrms) = ê 1 V 2 (t ).dt ú
ò
ëT 0 û
= ê ò V (t ).dt ú
ë2 0 û
= í ê ò V (t ).dt + ò V 2 (t ).dt ú
î2ë0 1 û
1
ìï 1 é 1 2
ù üï 2
85
= í ê ò (10t ) 2 .dt + ò 5 2.dt ú ý = = 5.4 Volt
ïî 2 ë 0 1 û ïþ 6
1.10 SPECIAL WAVE FORM EXAMPLES
Example-1.16
When the following wave form of current passing through inductor of inductance 3H,
calculate voltage across inductor, also draw it's output wave form.
i (t)
(2,5) i (t)
5
3H VL
2 4 6 t (in sec.)
Fig.-1.42
Coupled Circuits 27
Solution:
Time period of the above wave form T = 2sec.
Equation of line between interval 0 to 2 sec.
5 - 0 5 5
Y - 0= (x - 0) Þ Y = X Þ i(t) = t
2 - 0 2 2
di d æ5 ö
Voltage across inductor V2 = L = 3 ç t ÷ = 7.5 volt.
dt dt è 2 ø
The wave form is same all intervals. So output waveform is of the form.
VL (t)
7.5 V
2 4 6 t (in sec.)
Fig.-1.43
Example-1.17
When the waveform of problem No.1.12 is passed through capacitor of value
3F. Calculate the current flowing through capacitor, and also draw the waveform of
current.
Solution : Given dataC = 3F
Data from wave form (from problem No.1.12)
For, 0 < t < 2 Sec.
V(t) < 5(t) ...(A)
For, 3 < t < 4 Sec.
V(t) = 10 ...(B)
4 < t < 8 Sec.
V(t) = -5t + 30 ...(C)
5 < + < 10 Sec.
V(t) = -10 V ...(D)
10 < + < 12 Sec.
V(t) = 5t - 60 ...(E)
Calculation of Current
dv(t) d
Case - 1: 0 < t < 2sec., i = C =3x (5t) = 3 x 5 = 15 Amp.
dt dt
Case - 2: 2 < t < 4sec.
dv(t) d
y(t)= 10, i = 3 =3 (10) = 0 Amp.
dt dt
28 Network Theory
Case - 3: 4 < t < 8sec.
dv(t) d
v(t)= -5t + 30 Þ i = C =3 (-5t + 30) = -15 Amp.
dt dt
Case - 4: 8 < t < 10sec.
dv(t) d
v(t)= -10V Þ i = C =3 (10 - 0) = 0 Amp.
dt dt
Case - 5: 10 < t < 12sec.
dv(t) d
v(t)= 5t - 60 Þ i = C =3 (57 - 60) = 15amp.
dt dt
Wave form of the current as shown in following figure :
i (t)
15 amp
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
-15 amp t (in sec.)
Fig.-1.44
SOLVED EXAMPLES
Q.1 Circuit shown in fig. the constant voltage V = 60 Volts applied to the circuit.
I 2W 6W
+
7W
V
-
Fig.-.1.45
Calculate the voltage drop and power across each resistor.

Solution : Applying KVL to the above Ckt.
60
60 - 2I-6I-7I = 0 Þ I = = 4 Amp.
15
Voltage across 2 W resistor = 2 x 4 = 8 volt.
Coupled Circuits 29
Powr consumsed by 2 W resistor = I2R = (4)2 x 2 = 32 Wat.
Voltage drop across 6 W resistor = 6 x 4 = 24 Volt.
Power consumed by 4 W resistor = 42 x 6 = 96 Watt.
Voltage drop across 7 W resistor = 7 x 4 = 28 volt
Power consumed by 7 W resistor = 42 x 7 = 112 Watt. Ans.
Q.2 Two voltage VA = 20V and VB = 50V applied to the ckt shown in fig.
I 2W 6W
+ +
VA = 20V VB = 60V
- -
Fig.-.1.46
Calculate the power delivered by each voltage source.

Solution : Here VB > VA, so direction of current from VB to VA.
40
Now 60 - 2I - 20 - 6A = 0 Þ I = = 5 Amp.
8
Power delivered by VB = 60 x 5 = 300 Watt.
Power delivered by VA = -20 x 5 = -100 Watt.
Here voltage VA is -Ve, So power delivered by VA is -Ve.
Q.3 To the Circuit shown in the figure if
supply voltage is V(t) = 300 Sin w t. I 25W
Find the current i (t),instantaneous +
power P(t) and the average power V(t)
P. -
Fig.-.1.47
V( t )
Solution : Instantaneous current i(t) = = 12 Sin w t.
R
Instantaneous power, P(t) = V(t) i(t)= (300 Sin w t) (12 Sin w t.)= 3600 Sin2 w t.
Watt.
p p
1 1
Average power = π ò P(t).dt = π ò 3600sin wt.d(wt)
2
0 0
p
300 é sin wt ù
= êwt - = 450 Watt. Ans.
2p ë 2 úû 0
30 Network Theory
Q.4 What is the current supplied by 50V source to the connected network of resistors as
shown in following figure.
5W
2W
12W 8W + 6W 3W
50V
-
Fig.-.1.48
5W
Solution : In above circuit 12W, 8W and 2W
6W, 3W resistors are parallel to each
other. So the ckt can be reduced as
12 8 = 4.8W + 6 3 = 2W
follows :
50V
-
50 Fig.-.1.49
I=
[(4.8 + 5) 2]+ 2 = 13.44 Amp
Hence current supplied by 50V source is 13.44 ampere.
Q.5 A constant voltage V = 100Volts is supplied across the combination of four capacitors
shown in following figure. Find the charge ‘q’ Coulombs an each capacitor.
0 .8 μF 0 .3 μF
0.2 μF 0 .7 μF
Fig.-.1.50
Solution : Above ckt is reduced as follows
+ 1μF 1μF
1x1
Total capacitance Ceq = = 0.5 m F.. 100V
1 + 1 -
Total charge Q = C x V = 0.5 m F x 100 = 50 m .
Fig.-.1.51
Total charge q = q1 + q2 = 50 m C -------(A)

= q3 + q4 = 50 m C -------(B)
q1 q2 c1 0.8
Now, VC1 = VC 2 Þ = Þ q1 = q2 = q2 = 4q2
c1 c2 c2 0.2
Putting the value of q1 = 4q2 in equation (A),
Coupled Circuits 31
We get, 4q2 + q2 = 50 m C Þ q2 = 10 m C
Hence q1 = 50 - 10 = 40 m C,
q3 q4 c3 3
Similarly VC 3 = VC 4 Þ = Þ q3 = q4 = q4
c3 c4 c4 7
3
Now the value of q3 put in equation (B) we get q4 + q4 = 50 Þ q4 = 35 m C
7
3
q3 = x 35 = 15 m C
7
Q.6 A square wave of voltage V(t) applied to the following parallel RL network shown
below. Find the total current supplied by the voltage source. Also draw its current
wave form.
+ 20V
IT IR IL
V(t) 4W 10mH 5sec 10sec

t in sec
- 20V
Fig.-.1.52
Solution : Given voltage wavew form having time period T = 10 Sc.

No 0 < + <5 Sc. V(t) = 20 V
5 < + <10 Sc. V(t) = -20 V
Case-I: 0 < t < 5 Sec.
V 20
Current through 4 W resistor = = = 5Amp.
R 4
5
1 1
´ [t ]0
5´10 -3
Current through inductor =IL =
L0ò V.dt =
10 ´10 -3
= 2 x 10-3 [5 x 10-3 - 0] = 10 Amp.

At the end of 5 Sec., total current = 10 + 5 = 15 amp
Case-II : 5< t <10 Sc.
v(t) = -20V
20
Current through resistor 4 W = - = -5 Amp.
4
32 Network Theory
10
1 - 20
Current through inductor = = ò V(t).dt = -3
[t ]105 = -10 Amp
L5 10 ´ 10
Total current = -5 - 10 = -15 Amp.
Q.7 For constant voltage of 100 V at the terminal ab shown in fig. determine the charge
on each capacitor having capacitances C1 = 0.1 m F & C2 = 0.2 m F
Solution : Equivalent capacitance between a and b
0.1 x 0.2 0.2 1

Ceq = = = mF
0.1 + 0.2 0.3 15
Q q1 q2 q1 q2
V = VC1 + VC 2 Þ
Ceq = C1 + C2 Þ 15Q = 0.1 + 0.2
15Q = 10q1 + 5q2 ----(A)
1 20
Total changes Q = q1 + q2 = CeqV = x 100 = m C.
15 3
20
Þ q1 + q2 = ----(B)
3
20
The value of q2 = - q1 is put in equation ‘A’’
3
20 æ 20 ö 100
We get 15 x = 10q1 + 5 ç - q1 ÷ = 10q + - 5q1
3 è 3 ø 1
3
100 300 - 100 40

Þ 100 = 5q1 + Þ q1 = = μC
3 3´ 5 3
20 40 20
And q2 = - = - mC
3 3 3
Q.8 In the following circuit, L1 = 2L2. Find L1 & L2, if the equivalent inductance across a
& b is 0.70H.
L1
A B
0.5H
Fig.-1.53
Coupled Circuits 33
Solution : Now from the above circuit
2
L1x L2 2L 2 x L 2 2L 2 2
Leq = 0.5 + = 0.5 + = 0.5 + = L2 + 0.5
L1 + L2 2L 2 + L 2 3L2 3
2 0.2 x 3
Þ 0.7 = L2 + 0.5 Þ L2 = = 0.3H
3 2
But L1 = 2L2 = 2 x 0.3 = 0.6 H. Ans.
SHORT QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS

1. Define graph.
In a network, when we replace each element by a line segment, the resulting diagram is
called a graph.
2. How the graphs are classified? Explain.
Graphs are classified into two types (1) connected graph (2) unconnected graph.
A graph is said to be connected if a path exists from any node to every other node: otherwise
the graph is said to be unconnected.
3. Define
(i) Planar graph (ii) non-planar graph
A planar graph is one that can be drawn on a plane surface with no cross overs; that is no
branch passes over any other branch. A nonplanar graph is one that is not planar.
4. Define (i) subgraph (ii) oriented graph
Subgraph is a part of graph. It may be connected or unconnected.
5. Define the following
(i) tree (ii) link (iii) twig (iv) cotree (v) cutset (vi) loop
Tree : A tree of the graph is defined as a set of branches that connects every node via
some path without forming a loop.
Link : The branch of cotree are link.
Twig : The branch of tree is called twig.
Cotree : The branches of a tree that is not a part of tree is called cotree.
Cutset : A cutset is minimum set of branches, which when cut will divide the graph into
exactly two separate parts each of which is connected.
6. What is a fundamental loop ?
Fundamental loop for a graph of a network is defined as a loop that contains only one link.
7. Define fundamental cutset.
A fundamental cutset is a cutset that contains one twig.
8. Define the duality of a network.
Two different networks are dual when the v-i equations that characterize one network has
the same mathematical form as the v-i equation that characterize other network with
voltage and current variables interchanged.
34 Network Theory
9. What is the dual element of inductance ?
Capacitance
10. What is the dual of charge?
Flux
NUMERICAL PROBLEM
Q.1 (
Obtain the time t, in microseconds and milliseconds, at which V = 250 1 - e - 2´10
3
t
)
volt has the value 95.5 Volt.
Ans. 247 m Sec., 0.247msec.
Q.2 Obtain the work and power associated with the movement of 3.5 x 10-2 Kg. massby a
7.5 x 10-4N force over a 2 meter distance is an elapsed time of 14 seconds.
Ans. 1.5mJ, 0.107 mw.
Q.3. A Pulse of electricity measures 305V, 0.15 Amp. and lasts 500 m s.. What power and
energy does this represent.
Ans. 45.75w, 22.9 mJ.
Q.4. A series combination of the two capacitors C1 = 15 m F and C2 = 40 m F is charged by
a momentary connection to a source of 50V. Find the voltages V 1 & V2 and the
charges Q1 and Q2 on the capacitor.
Q.5. Three resistors are connected in series and have a total constant voltage VT. R1 has a
voltage of 30V, R2 has a power of 25w and R3 = 4 W . If the constant current is 5 amp,
Find VT.
Q.6. A resistance of 35 W has a voltage V = 150 Sin 377 Find the instantaneous and average
power.
Q.7. Find the average value and Rms value of sinusaidal wave form having time period 0
to 2 p .
Q.8. Explain how does D.C. affects on inductor and capacitor.
Q.9. What are the parameters of electrical circuit. Write its volt-Amp relation of each
parameter.
Q.10. Write the definition of Rms and Average value of any wave form.
Q.11. What are the difference between dependent and independent electrical source, explain
briefly.
Q.12. Write the short notes on
i. Inductor ii. Capacitor iii. Tree
iv. Cut set schedule v. Graph vi. Link
vii. Bi lateral network viii. Unilateral network
ix. Active and Passive network.
ppp
Chapter 2
NETWORK THEOREMS
2.1 INTRODUCTION
This chapter contains some theorems which are very important tacts for simplifying
complex circuits and analyzing the solutions easily with the help of these theorems like
Thevenin's Theorem, Nortons theorem, Superposition Theorem, Maximum Power Transfer
Theorem, Millman theorem, Reciprocity Theorem, etc., we can convert any type of
complicated circuit into a simple circuit and calculate the required parameter value very
easily and tactfully using own creativity.
2.2 SOURCE TRANSFORMATION
Source Transformation means voltage source is converted into current source and vice
versa.
A A
R1 Þ
V
+ Ü R1 R1
V
- B B
ifF ig.-2.1
V
If the voltage source series with a resistance R1 it's corresponding current source I =
R1
Amp.
1
Similarly the current source = Voltage Source x
Resistance
N.B. : Þ Voltage source to current source
Ü Current source to voltage source
36 Network Theory
2.2.1 Star Delta Transformation
Here three resistors are used to form a star (Y) / and ( D ) Delta.
Star connected system (Y)
In star connected system end terminal of each of the 3 resistors are connected together.
1
R1
N eutral
P oint
R2 R3
2 3
ifF ig.-2.2
Delta Connected System :
In this case each of the three resistors are connected back to back. There is no neutral
wire, only three terminals are their.
1, 2, 3 ® Three terminals
1
R12 R31
2 R23 3
Fi g .- 2 . 3
2.2.2 Conversion Technique 1
For the star connected system, resistances are

R1, R2 & R3 and for R1
Delta connected system Resistances are R12, R 12 R 31
R23 and R31.
Case-1 Delta ( D ) to star (Y) conversion
Given data R12, R23 and R31 R2 R3
We have to calculate R1, R2 and R3
2 R 23 3
Fi g .- 2 . 4
Network Theorems 37
R12 R 31 R 23R12 R 23R 31

R1 = , R2 = and R3 =
R12 + R 23 + R 31 D D
Where D = R12+ R23 + R31
Case-II Star (Y) to Delta ( D ) conversion
Suppose datas of star connected system are given i.e. R1, R2 and R3
We have to calculate R12, R23, R31
Let N = R1R2 + R2 R3 + R3R1
N N N
R12 = , R23 = and R31 =
R3 R1 R2
2.2.3 Technique Description
1. In delta connected system, star equivalent is ratio of multiplication of adjacent resistances
to the total resistance.
R12 R 31
Ex R1 = The cammon subscript of R12 & R31 is 1, so resistation is R1.
D
2. It star to delta connection conversion, delta equivalent is the ratio of (sum of product of
each of two resistors) to the opposite resistor.
N
Ex. R12=
R3
There are three subscripts 1, 2, 3, in resistance R12, absent subscript is 3, Denominator
value of resistance contains subscript 3 i.e. R3
2.3 FUNDAMENTALS OF CIRCUIT
Circuits: A circuit in a closed conducting path through which electric current
can flow.
Parameters: The various elements of an electric cercuit are called its parameters.
i.e. resistance, copacitance, inductance, etc.
Linear circuit: A Linear circuit is one whose parameters are constant i,e they donot
change with voltage or current.
Bilataral Circuit: A bilateral circuit is one whose properties or characteristics are the
same in either direction.
Ex.Transmission line.
Non-Linear circuit:It is that circuit whose parameters change with voltage and current.
Unilateral Circuit : It is that circuit whose properties change with the direction of
operation. Ex.Diode rectifier.
Passive Network : Itis a network that contains no source of emf. within it.
38 Network Theory
Active Network : It contains one or more than one source of emf.
Node : It is a junction in the circuit, where two or more circuit elements are
connected together.
Branch : It is a part of net work which lies between two nodes and conducts
current.
Mesh : It is a closed conducting path in a circuit which allows
no other loop within it.
Loop : It is a closed conducting path in a circuit, in which no element or node
is encountered more than once.
R1 R2
V
R3 R4
I1 I2
I3
R6 R5
Fi g .- 2 . 5
In figure. : Branches = 7 inos.

Node = 6 (1, 2, 3, 4, 5 & 6)
Loop = 3
Mesh = 2 (I1, I2 close path)
2.4 CALCULATION OF CURRENT BY DIFFERENT METHODS
1. Branch current method
2. Mesh current method
3. Loop current method
4. Nodal Analysis method
2.4.1 Branch Current Method
a
+
R1
- b + -
R2 e
I1 I3 I2
V1 R3
d c f
Fi g .- 2 . 6
Network Theorems 39
Step-1
In branch curent method we denote the different currents in different branches. F r o m
the above figure, currents in branches R1, R2 and R3 are I1, I2 and I3 respectively.
Now I1 = I2 + I3
Step-2
Apply kirchoff's voltage law by using proper sign convention.
For path a b c d a
V 1 - I1 R1 - I3 R3 = 0
V1 = I1 R1 + I3 R3
= (I2 + I3) R1 + I3R3 ...(B)
For path b e f c b
- I2R2 + I2R2 =0 ...(C)
I R
I2 = 3 3 put in equation (B)
R2
I A éR R ù
V1 = 3 3 R1 + I3 (R1 + R3) = I3 ê 3 1 + (R1 + R3 )ú
R2 ë R2 û
é R 3 R 1 + R 1R 2 + R 2 R 3 ù
= I3 ê ú
ë R2 û
I3 = Where D = R1R2 + R1R3 +R2R3
R3 V1R/ 2 R 3 V1R 3
I2= I3 x = =
R2 D R/ 2 D
V1R 2 V1R 3 V1
I1 = I1 + I2 = + = (R2 + R3)
D D D
V1 (R 2 + R 3 )
I1 =
R1R 2 + R 2 R 3 + R 3R1
From equations B & C
éV1 ù é R1 R1 + R 3 ù é I 2 ù
ê 0 ú = ê- R R3 úû êë I 3 úû
ë û ë 2
Above determinate can solve by camer's rule as follows.
40 Network Theory
éa b ù é x ù ée ù
ê c d ú ê y ú = êf ú
ë ûë û ë û
éa b ù ée b ù éa e ù
D = determinant of ê c d ú = ad - bc , D 1 = êf d ú = ed - bf , D 2= êc f ú = af - ce
ë û ë û ë û
D1 ed - bf D2 af - ce
x = = y = =
D ad - bc D ad - bc
Example-2.1
Find the current flowing through each branch.
a + - b + - c + - d
I1 4 I2 I3 4 I4 I5
5W 3W 4W
+ +
30 V 2W 4W
- -
h g f e
Fi g .- 2 . 7
Solution: I1 = I2 + I3 ...(A)
I3 = I4 + I5 ...(B)
Consider path, a b g h a
30 - 5I1 - 2 I2 = 0
30 = 5I1 + 2 I2 ...(C)
For Path , b c f g b.
- 3 I3 - 4 I4 + 2 I2 = 0 Þ - 3 (I4 - I2) - 4 I2 + 2 I2 = 0
Þ - 3 I1 + 3 I2 - 4 I2 + 2 I2 = 0
Þ - 3 I1 + 5 I2 - 4 I4 = 0 ...(D)
For Path, c d e f c
- 4 I5 + 4 I4 = 0
I4 = I5 put in equation (B)
We get, I3 = 2 I4
I1 - I 2
Þ I1 - I2 = 2 I4 Þ I4 = put in equation (D)
2
é I1 - I 2 ù
Þ - 3 I1 + 5 I2 - 4 ê 2 ú = 0 Þ - 3 I1 + 5 I2 - 2I1 + 2 I2 = 0
ë û
Network Theorems 41
Þ - 5 I1 + 7 I2 = 0
7
Now the value of I1 = I2 is put in equation (C) we get,
5
7 30 10 10
Þ 30 = 5/ x I2 + 2 I2 Þ I2 = = = Amp.
5/ 9 9 3
7 7 10/ 2 14 14
I1 = I2= x = Þ I1 = Amp.
5 5/ 3 3 3
14 10 4 4
I3 = I1 - I2 = - = Þ I3 = Amp.
3 3 3 3
I3 4/3 4 4
But I3= 2 I4 Þ I4 = = = Þ I4 = I5 = amp
2 2 6 6
2.4.2 Mesh Current Method
Calculate the current flowing through each branch using mesh current method.
+ R1 - R2
I1
+
+
R3
V
I1 - I2 -
M e sh -1 M e sh -2
Fi g .- 2 . 8
For Mesh-1
When you consider mesh-1, mesh current I1 is greater than that of all other currents of that
circuit i.e. I1 > I2
Current flowing through R1 is I1
Current flowing through R3 is (I1-I2) i.e. net direction of current is downwards, so upper
sign of resistor is +ve and lower is -ve.
Applying KVL
V - I1 R1 - (I1 - I2) R3 = 0
Þ V = I1 (R1 + R3) - I2 R3 ...(A)
42 Network Theory
For Mesh-2
Current I2 > I1 R1 R2
So, current flowing through R2 is I2 And current
through R3 is (I2 - I1) -
R3
because I2 > I4. The net direction of current is V
upward, so lower terminal I1 + I2
of resistor is +ve and upper terminal is -ve

Fi g .- 2 . 9
Now applying KVL
-(I2 - I1) R3 - R2 I2 = 0
I1R3 - I2 (R3 + R2) = 0 ...(B)
From equation ‘A’ & ‘B’
éV ù éR 1 + R 2 - R 3 ù é I1 ù
ê0ú = ê R R 2 + R 3 úû êëI 2 úû
ë û ë 3
Using cramer's rule, or variable separation method calculate I1 & I2.

Current flowing through, R1 = I1Amp
Current flowing through ,R2 = I2Amp
Current flowing through, R3 = I1 - I2 (if I1 > I2)
= I2 - I1 (if I2 > I1)
Example-2. 2
Calculate the current flowing through 6 W resistor by using mesh current.
+ - + -
I1
3W - 6W 4W
+
+ +
2j
20 V - -3j
- I1 - + I2 I3 3j
Loop-1 Loop-2 Loop-3

Fi g . - 2 . 1 0
Solution :
For loop-1
I1 > I2, I1 > I3
20 - 3 I1 - 2j (I1 - I2) = 0
20 = (3 + 2j) I1 - 2j I2 ...(A)
Network Theorems 43
For Loop-2
I2 > I3, I2 > I1
-2j (I2 - I1) - 6I2 - (-3j) (I2 - I3) = 0
Þ -2j I2 + 2j I1 - 6I2 + 3j I2 - 3j I3 = 0
Þ 2j I1 + I2 (- 2j + 3j - 6) - 3j I3 = 0
Þ 2j I1 + (- 6 + j) I3 - 3jI3 = 0 ...(B)
For Loop-3
-(-3j) (I3 - I2) - (4 + 3j) I3 = 0
Þ 3j I3 - 3j I2 - (4 + 3j) I3 = 0
Þ -3j I2 + I3 (3/j - 4 - 3/j) = 0
-3
Þ -3j I2 - 4 I3 = 0 Þ I3 = j I2 put in equation (B)
4
We get, 2jI1 + (-6 + j) I2 - 3jI2 = 0
(- 35 + j)I 2
Þ I1 = = 8j
put in equation(A)
(- 35 + j)I 2 123 + 67j I 2

We get 20 = -(3 + 2j) =
8j 8j
160 j
Þ I2 = = 1.14 Ð 61.410 Amp.
123 + 67 j
[Q Z =a + jb ® Rectangular form Magnitude |Z| = a 2 + b 2 = M]

-1 æbö
Angle θ = tan ç ÷ Now, Z = M Ð q ® Polar form
èaø
= M Cos q + jM Sin q = a + jb
Example 2.3
2W 5W 6W
Calculate the current flowing through
I1
each resistor using loop current
method. 4W 8W
30 V 3W
I1 I2 I3
Loop-1 Loop-2 Loop-3
Fi g . - 2 . 11
44 Network Theory
Solution:
Current flowing through 2W = (I1 + I2 + I3)
Current flowing through 5W = (I2 + I3)
Current flowing through 6W = I3
Apply KVL fori 2 loop-1
30 - 2(I1 + I2 + I3)- 3I1 = 0 Þ 30 = 5 I1 + 2 I2 + 2 I3 ...(A)
For Loop-2
30 - 2(I1 + I2 + I3)- 5 (I2 + I3) - 4 I2 = 0
Þ 30 = 2 I1 + 13 I2 + 7 I3 ...(B)
Apply KVL for loop-3
30 - 2(I1 + I2 + I3) - 5(I2 + I3) - 14 I3 = 0
Þ 30 = 2 I1 + 7 I2 + 16 I3 ...(C)
From equation A, B & C
é30ù é5 2 2 ù é I1 ù
ê30ú = ê5 13 7 ú êI ú
ê ú ê ú ê 2ú
êë30úû êë2 7 16úû êë I 3 úû
Solving the above by Cramer's rule or variable separation method. We can easily calculate
the value of I1, I2 and I3 .
2.4.3 Nodal Analysis Method
The nodal analysis method is based directly on kirehoff's current law, where as loop current
method is based on kirchoff's voltage law. This method is more advantageous because,
minimum number of equations are required to determine the unknown quantities.
1 2
R1 R2 R5
R3 R4 E2
E1
3 4
Fi g . - 2 . 1 2
In these case, there are four node 1, 2, 3 & 4 Node 3 & 4 are taken as one node because,
there is no parameter between 3 & 4. So, this common node is called the reference node
or datum node. Other two nodes 1 & 2 are general nodes.
Network Theorems 45
Above circuit can be redrawn as follows :
N o d e-1 N o d e -2
V1 R2
i1 i3 i4 i6
R1 R5
i2 i5
R4
E1 R3
E2
l= 0
n t ia
e p o te
N od
R e f.
Fi g . - 2 . 1 3
Potential at node 1 = V1, Potential at node 2 = V2, Potential at ref. node = 0
Step-1: Consider node - 1
The node Potential V1 is greater than that of all other potential of the circuit.So current is
flowing away from this node.By using KCL, i1 + i 2 + i 3 = 0
V1
Calculation of Current i1(Fig.-2.14) R1

+ I1
-
The current i1 is flowing from v1 to ref. node.
V - E1 E1
V1 - i1 R1 - E1 - 0 = 0 Þ i1 = 1
R1
Calculation of Current i2(Fig.-2.15) l = 0
te n t ia
e po
V1 - i2 R3 - 0 = 0 R e f.
N od
Fi g . - 2 . 1 4
V1 i2
i2 =
R3 R3
Calculation of Current i3(Fig.-2.16)
V1 - i3 R2 - V2 = 0
Fi g . - 2 . 1 5
V1 - V2
i3 =
R2
Now i1 + i2 + i3 = 0 R2
V2
V1 Fi g . - 2 . 1 6
V1 - E1 V1 V1 - V2
+ +
R1 R3 R2
é1 1 1 ù V2 E1
V1 ê + + ú- = ...(A)
R
ë 1 R 2 R 3û R 2 R1
46 Network Theory
Step - II Node potential v2 > V1
å Outgoing current = 0 Þ i4 + i5 + i6 = 0
V2 - V1 V2 V2 - E 2
Þ + + =0
R2 R4 R5
V1 é 1 1 1 ù E2
Þ- + V2 ê + + ú= ....(B)
R2 ëR2 R4 R5 û R5
From equation A & B, we get
éæ 1 1 1 ö 1 ù é E1 ù
êçç + + ÷÷ - ú ê ú
êè R 1 R 2 R 3 ø R2 é V ù
ú 1 = ê R1 ú
ê ê ú
1 æ 1 1 1 öú ëV2 û ê E 2 ú
ê - çç + + ÷÷ú
R2 êë R 5 úû
ëê è R 2 R 4 R 5 øûú
Using Cramer's rule or variable separation method calculate value of V 1 & V2. After we
can easily calculate the value i1, i2, i3 etc.
Current flowing through R1 = i1 ,Current flowing through R3 = i2
Current flowing through R2 = i3[if V1 > V2]
= i4 [if V2 > V1]
Current flowing through R4 = i5 ,Current flowing through R5 = i6
Example -2.4
3W
2W 4W 4W
Using nodal analysis method calculate
I1
the current flowing 3W resister.
- 2W
6W 5 amp
+ 30 V -
+ 10 V
Fig.-2.17
Solution :
1 V1 4W V2 2
The above circuit can be i3 i6
i1 i4 4W
33W
redrawn as follows : i2 i5
6W
2W
30 V 10 V 5 amp
l= 0
ot entia
ode p
Fig.-2.18 Ref. N
Network Theorems 47
Consider node-1: Let Potential V1 > V2
i1 + i2 + i3 = 0
V1 - 30 V1 V1 - V2
+ + =0
3 2 4
é1 1 1 ù V é 4 + 6 + 3 ù V2
V1 ê + + ú - 2 = 10 Þ V1 ê ú- = 10
ë3 2 4 û 4 ë 12 û 4
13 V2
V1 - = 10 ...(A)
12 4
For node-2 Node potential V2 > V1
Sum of current away from this junction (node) is equation.
i4 + i5 + i6 = 0
V - V1 V + 10
Þ 2 + 2 + (-5) = 0
4 6
V1 é1 1ù 10
Þ- + V2 ê + ú = 5 -
4 ë4 6û 6
V1 é 3 + 2 ù 20 10 V1 5 10
Þ- + V2 ê ú = - Þ - + V2 =
4 ë 12 û 6 6 4 12 3
é10 V1 ù 12 120 3
Þ V2 = ê 3 + 4 ú 5 = + V
ë û 15 5 1
3
The value of V2 = 8 + V1 put in equation (A)
5
12 1é 3 ù 12 3
We get, V1 - ê8 + V1 ú = 10 Þ V1 - 2 - V = 10
13 4ë 5 û 13 20 1
é12 3 ù 12 x 230 12 x 230
V1 ê + ú = 12 Þ V1 = = = 13.73 Volts.
ë13 20 û 240 - 39 201
Current flowing through 3W resister is given by
V1 - 30 13.73 - 30 - 16.26
i1 = = = =-5.4 Amp.
3 3 3
48 Network Theory
Here -Ve sign indicate the actual direction of current flowing through 3W resister is towards
node - 1. Ans.
Example-2.5
Calculate the current flowing through each branch using node analysis method of the
following ckt.
i3 3j i4 i6
2W i1 1
> 2
> 3W
i2 i5
5 am p 4W
-5 j
30V
=0
n tia l V
pote
N ode
R e f.
Fig.-2.19
Solution:
At node - 1,Potential V1 > V2
So, i1 + i2 + i3 = 0
V1 V1 - V2 é1 3ù V
= 0 Þ V1 ê + ú - =6
2
-6 + +
4 3j ë 4 3j û 3j
é 4 + 3j ù V2
Þ V1 ê 12j ú - 3j = 6
ë û
Þ V1 (4 + 3j) - 4v2 = 72j ...(A)
At node - 2 Potential V2 > V1
i4 + i5 + i6 = 0
V - V1 V V + 30
Þ 2 + 2 + 2 =0 ...(B)
3j -5 j 3
V1 æ 1 1 1ö V æ 5 - 3 + 5j ö
Þ- + V2 çç - + ÷÷ = -10 Þ - 1 + V2 çç ÷÷ = -10
3j è 3j 5j 3 ø 3j è 15j ø
V1 æ 2 + 5j ö
Þ- + V2 çç ÷÷ = -10
3j è 15j ø
- 5V1 + V2(2 + 5j) = - 150j
Network Theorems 49
5V1 - 150j
V2 = put in equation(A)
2 + 5j
5V1 - 150j
Now V1 (4 + 3j) - 4 = 72j
2 + 5j
20 600j
V1 (4 + 3j) - V1 + = 72j
2 + 5j 2 + 5j
é 20 ù 600j
Þ V1 ê4 + 3j - = 72j -
ë 2 + 5j ú 2 + 5j
û
-360 - 456j
Þ V1 = = 15.47 Ð 95.610
-27 + 26j
5V1 - 150j 5 150j

V2 = = x 15.47 Ð 95.610 - = 13.66 Ð 16.160 Volt
olt
2 + 5j 2 + 5j 2 + 5j
V2 = 13.66 Ð 16.160 Volt
V1 15.47 Ð95.61
i2 = = = 3.86 Ð 95.610 Amp.
4 4
i2 = 2.005 <-54.13
V - V3 15.47Ð95.61-13.66Ð16.16
i3 = 1 = = 5.42 Ð -44.820Amp. Ans.
3j 3j
V2 13.66 Ð16.16
i5= = = 2.07 Ð - 73.840 Amp. Ans.
-5j 5Ð90 0
V2 + 30 13.66 Ð16.16 + 30
i6 = = = 43.24Ð5.04 Amp. Ans.
3 3
Dir current are as follows : 3j
2W i1 3W
5 amp 4W
-5 j
= 0
ial V
otent
ode p
Fig.-2.20 Ref. N
50 Network Theory
2.5 THEVENIN THEOREM
Thevenin's theorem states that any linear active two terminal network containing
impedances(For AC circuit) or resistance(For DC circuit) and voltage source or current
source can be replaced by a single voltage source V Th in series with an impedance ZTh .The
the Thevenins equivalent voltage VTh is the open circuit voltage at the network terminals,
and the Thevenin'sequivalent impedance ZTh is the impedance between the network terminals
when all sources are replaced by their internal impedances.
A
LINEAR A + ZTh
SINGLE Þ ~ VTh
PORT NETWORK B -
B
Thevenin' s Equivalent Circuit
Vth Voc
IL = =
R th + R L R th + R L
Where IL = Current flowing through any branch, where current is to be found out.
V th = Thevenins equivalent voltage or open circuit voltage across the removing
resistor (Load Resistor).
Rth = Thevenins equivalent Resistance across removing resistance.
RL= Load resistor where current is to be found out.
2.5.1 Procedure for solving the problem
Step - 1 Remove the resistance (RL) across which current is to be found out.
Step - 2 Calculate the open ckt voltage VOC = VTH across open ckt. terminal. Where Vth
is knownas Thevenins voltage.
Step - 3 Calculate the Thevenins equivalent resistance (Rth) across open circuit terminal.
If there is a voltage sourc. Then replace it by its internal resistance (or short
ckted, if internal resistance = 0). If there is a current source that can be replace
by open circuit.
Step - 4 Connect the Thevenins equivalent resistance in series with Thevenins voltage.
That indicates thevenins equivalent Ckt. across resistance A & B.
R th
a
+
V th
-
b
Fig.-2.21
Network Theorems 51
Step - 5 Finally connect the load resistance he across A & B
a
Rth IL
+ RL
Vth
-
b
Fig.-2.22
Vth
The current flowing through load resistance RL is given by IL =
R L + R th
Example-2.6
Using Therenin theorem, find out the current flowing through 4W resistance.
10 W 4W
+ +
15V 5W 6V
- -
Step-1 Temporarily remove the resistance
10 W
4W called load resistance (R L) a b
through which current is required.
+ +
Now ckt is of the form.
15V 5W 6V
- -
Fig.-2.24
Step-2 Calculation of voltage across a & b i.e. Vab = Vth

Vab - 5 I1 + 6 = 0 a b
10 W
Vab = 5 I1 - 6 I1
I1
+
For loop-1 + +
15V 5W 6V
15 - 10 I1 - 5 I1 = 0 Þ I1 =
15
= 1 amp. - - -
15
Vab= 5 x 1 - 6 = -1 volt.
Loop-1
Here -Ve voltage indicates that terminal b is +Ve with
Fig.-2.25
respect to terminal ‘a’ but magnitude of voltage taken as +Ve.
52 Network Theory
Step-3 Calculation of Rth (Rab) across terminals a b
10 W
a & b. 15v & 6v voltages sources are I1
short ckted. Now Ckt. is of the form +
5W
50 10 -
Rth = Rab = 51110 = = W
15 3
Fig.-2.26
Step-4 The connect the Thevenins equivalent

voltage in series with thevenins a
I1
equivalent resistance (Rth) Which 10 3 W
indicates Thevenins Equivalent +
1V
Circuit.Taking magnitude of voltage to -
be +Ve.
b
Fig.-2.27
Step-5 Connect the resistance (RL) across

terminals a & b of the Thevenin's I1 10 3 W
Equivalent Ckt. +
1V
IL =
1
=
3
Amp. - RL = 4W
10 22
+ 4
3
Fig.-2.28
3
Hence current flowing through 4W resistance is amp.
22
Example-2.7
Using thevenin's theorem calculate the current flowing through 6j ohm branch.
2 4
6j
6
2
+ -
30V
Fig.-2.29
Network Theorems 53
Solution:
Step-1 Remove RL = 6jW, inductance, Now Ckt. is of the form
a
2 4
I1
I2
6 2
I b
+ -
30V
Fig.-2.30
Step-2 Calculation of Vth = Vab

I = I1 + I2
Consider the upper path
30 - 2 I1 - 4 I1 = 0 Þ 6 I1 = 30 Þ I1 = 5Amp
Consider the lower path. 30 - 6 I2 - 2 I2 = 0, Þ 8 I2 = 30
30 15
Þ I2 = =Amp. But, Vth = Vab = Va - Vb .
8 4
Voltage at node 'a', Va = 30 - 2 I1 == 30 - 2 x 5 = 20 Volt.
3 15 15
Voltage at node 'b' Vb= 30 - 6 I2= 30 - 6/ x = Volt.
4/ 2 2
15
Hence Vab = 20 - = 12.5 volt.
2
E
Step-3 Calculation of Rth = Rab .Voltage source (30v) is short ckted.Now ckt is of the
form,
a
a
2W 4W
2 W 4 W
c
Þ 6 W 2 W
6W
2W
b
b Fig.-2.31
b
aaaaassdfd
54 Network Theory
8 12 17
R th = (2 || 4) + (2 || 6) = + = W
6 8 6 R th = 17 6 W
Step-4 Connect the Vth in series with Rth that IL
a
indicates the Thevenin's equivalent
Circuit.Also connect R L = 6j across +
V th = 12. 5 V
open circuit terminal of Thevenin's - R L = 6j
equivalent Circuit.
b
Vth 12.5 12.5 x 6 75 Fig.-2.32

IL = = = =
R th + R L 17 17 + 36j 39.81 Ð 64.72
+ 6j
6
= 1.883Ð - 64.72 0
Example-2.8
Using Thevenins theorem calculate the
current flowing through 4W resistor. 6W 4W
2W 3W
15 V 6 amp
Fig.-2.33
Solution :
Step-1 Remove 4W resistance. Now ckt is of the form.
6W a b
2W 6W
15 V 6 amp
Fig.-2.34
Step-2 Calculation of Vth = Vab
+ 6W -
a b 6 amp
+ +
2W 6W
15 V
i1 - - 6 amp
Loop-1
Fig.-2.35
Vab - 2i1 + 6 x 6 = 0 Þ Vab = 2i1 - 36 .......(a)
Consider loop - 1
Network Theorems 55
15 -6 I1 - 2 I1 = 0
15
Þ I1 = amp
8
The value of I1 put in equation (a) ,
15 15
We get Vab = 2i1 - 36 = 2/ x - 36 =
- 36 = -32.25 volt
8/ 4
4
Step-3 Calculation of Rth = Rab.Voltage source is short ckted, Current source is open
ckted.
Rth = Rab = (6||2) + 6 I1 I
2W a b I I1/ = 0 3W
I2
12
= +6 7W 2W
8
I
3 15
= +6= W Fig.-2.36
2 2
Step-4 Connect Rth in series with Vth.That indicates Thevenin's equivalent Ckt.
R th A
+
V th
-
B
Fig.-2.37
Step-5 Calculation of current through 4W resistor
R th
a IL
+
RL = 6W
V th
-
b
Fig.-2.38
Vth 32.25
IL = = = 2.8 Amp.
R th + R L 15
4 +
2
SPECIAL CASE
Case-1 When circuit contains Both Dependent and Independent sources.
56 Network Theory
Procedure for solution :
Step-1 The open circuit voltage V0c or Vth is determined as usual with the source activated.
Step-2 A short circuit is applied across the terminals a & b and the value of short circuit
current (Isc) is calculated by usual manner.
Voc Vab Vth

Step-3 Thevenins resistance Rth = = =
I sc I sc I sc
Example-2.9
4W - + 2W
Using Thevenins theorem calculate the
i a
current flowing through 6W resistor of the
following circuit. + 6W
12V
- 6j
b
Step-1 Remove RL = 6W resistance.
4W + 2W
I=i 2i i Isc a
+ Voc
12V
- 6j
6j
b
Fig.-2.40
Step-2 Calculation of short ckt current Isc.In above figure
I = Isc + i 4W - + 2W
I i a
For Loop-1 12 - 4I + 2i - 6j i = 0 2i Isc
+ Isc
12 - 4 (Isc + i) + 2i - 6j i = 0 12V
12 - 4ISc - i (4 - 2 + 6j) = 0 - 6j
b
12 - 4 Isc - (2 + 6j)i = 0
Loop-1 Loop-2
12 = 4 Isc + (2 + 6j)i ....(A)
Fig.-2.41
For Loop - 2
2 I sc I sc
- 2Isc + 6j i= 0 Þ i = = -j , the value of ‘i’ is put in equation (A)
6j 3
÷ = Isc é4 - (2 + 6j) j ù = Isc é 4 - (2j - 6 ) ù

æ I sc ö
12= 4 Isc + (2 + 6j) ç - j
è 3ø ê 3 úû ê 3 úû
ë ë
Network Theorems 57
= Isc
é12 - 2j + 6 ù Isc
é18 - 2j ù
ê 3 ú = ê 3 ú
ë û ë û
3 x 12 36
Þ Isc = = = 1.98 Ð 6.30 Amp.
18 - 2j 18 - 2j
Step-3 Calculation of Voc = Vab = VthHere, current flowing through 2W resistor is 0.
4W + 2W
2i i a
+ Voc
12V
- 6j
b
Fig.-2.42
So, voltage across a & b is Voc = Vab = Vth = 6j x i ...(A)

12 - 4i + 2i - 6j(i) = 0 Þ 12 = 2i + 6j(i) = i (2 + 6j)
12
Þ i = 2 + 6j ,The value i put in equation (A).We get
12 72j (0 + 7 2j) 72 Ð 90
Voc = 6j x i = 6j x = = = = 11.39Ð18.430
2 + 6j 2 + 6j 2 + 6j 6.32 Ð 71.56
Voc 11.39 Ð18.43

Step-4 Rth = = = 5.75Ð12.13Ohm.
I sc 1.98 Ð 6.3
Step-5 Thevenins equivalent ckt is of the form
a
Ri
5V R
RiL= 6
b
Vth Fig.-2.43
IL=
R th + R L
11.39 Ð 18.430 11.39 Ð 18.430

= = = 0.98Ð12.54 0 Amp.
6 + 5.75 Ð 12.130 5.62 + 1.20 j + 6
58 Network Theory
Case - II When circuit contains dependent source only.
Solution Procedure :
Step-1 In this case Voc = 0 Volt
Step-2 We connect 1 amp source to the terminal a & b and calculate the value of V ab
provided short circuit current Isc = 1Amp.
Vab Vab
Step-3 Rth = =
I sc 1
5W
Example-2.10 i
Using Thevenin's theorem calculate the
current flowing though 5W resistor +
3i 12 W 5W
across terminal a & b of thefollowing -
circuit.
Step-1 Remove 5W resistance.
5W
+
3i 12W
-
Fig.-2.45
Step-2 Calculation of Vab. Connect 1Ampere current source across a & b.
5W
i a
I1
+
3i 12W
1 amp
-
b
Fig.-2.46
3i - Vab V
i1 + 1 = i Þ + 1 = ab
5 12
3i Vab Vab 3i æ1 1 ö
Þ - + 1 = Þ + 1 = Vab ç + ÷
5 5 12 5 è 5 12 ø
Network Theorems 59
3 17
Þ i + 1 = Vab ...(a)
5 60
Vab
Substituting the value of i = in equation (a), we get
12
3 Vab 17 3 17
+ 1 = Vab Þ Vab - Vab = -1
5 12 60 5 60
æ 3 17 ö æ 36 - 17 ö
Vab ç - ÷ = -1 Þ Vab ç ÷ = -1
è 5 60 ø è 60 ø
60 60
Vab = - = - = - 3.15 Volt
36 -17 19
Vab 3.15
Magnitude of Vab = +3.15,Hence R th = = = 3.15 ohm
1amp 1
In this Thevenin's theorem, Voc = Vth= 0.So, equivalent circuit is of the form
R th = 3 .1 5 W
b
Fig.-2.47
2.6 NORTON'S THEOREM
Norton's theorem states that any two-terminal linear active bilateral network can be replaced
by an equivalent current source in parallel with a single registance. The current source
being the short-circuited current through the Load terminals and the resistance being the
internal resistance of the source network looking through the open circuited Load terminals.
In Linear bilateral network the current flowing through any branch is given by -
RN
I L = ISC ´
RN + RL
where, IL = Current flowing through resistance RL .
RN = Norton's equivalent resistance = Rth .
RL = Load resistance where current is required.
ISC = Short ckt. current .
60 Network Theory
2.6.1 Procedure for solving the Problem using Nortons theorem
Step-1 Remove the resistance (RL) through which current is required.
Step-2 Calculate the equivalent resistance Rth or RN across removing terminal.
Step-3 Calculate the short circuit current (ISC) across the removing terminal & short
circuit the open terminal i.e. the terminal a & b.
Step-4 Connect the short circuit current source a
parallel with Norton's equivalent resistance
RN . This circuit indicates the Norton's
RN
equivalent across removed terminal. I sc
b
Fig.-2.48
Step-5 Connect the Load resistance (RL) across terminal a & b.
a
IL
RN RL
Isc
b
Fig.-2.49
RN
Now, I L = ISC ´
RN + RL
Example-2.11
Calculate the current flowing through 5W resistance of the following circuit using Norton's
theorem.
2W 3W
5Ω
7W 2W
20 V 5 amp
Fig.-2.50
Solution :
Step-1 Remove RL = 5W resistance.
a b
Now circuit is of the form. 2W 3W
7W 2W
20 V 5 amp
Fig.-2.51
Network Theorems 61
Step-2: Short ckt. the terminal a & b. Now we have to calculate the value of ISC.
I1 a Isc b (I1+5)
2W 3W
(I1- Isc)
20 V 7W 2W 5 amp
Fig.-2.52
20 - 2I1 - 7(I1 - ISC ) = 0 Þ 20 - 9I1 + 7ISC = 0

Þ 20 = 9I1 - 7ISC ... (A)
20 - 2I1 - 2(ISC + 5) = 0 Þ 20 - 2I1 - 2ISC - 10 = 0
Þ 10 = 2I1 + 2ISC ... (B)
Þ 5 = I1 + ISC
Þ I1 = 5 - ISC puting in equation (A) we get, 20 = 9(5 - ISC) - 7ISC
40 - 20
Þ 20 = 45 - 16ISC Þ ISC = = 1.25 Amp.
16 I I
6W
Step-3 Calculation of Norton
I2 a b
equivalent resistance (RN) or Rth I1
across a & b.Voltage Source is +
+ 6W
short ckted. Current source 2W -
is open ckted. -
I
Fig.-2.53
( )
Rab = RN = Rth = 7 2 + 2 =
14
9
+ 2=
14 +18
9
=
32
9
ohm
Step-4 Connect RN Parallel with Isc. a

I sc = 1 .2 5 am p
32
RN = W
9
b
Fig.-2.54
a IL
Step-5 Connect the resistance (RL) across
RN RL
termional A & B. I sc
b
Fig.-2.55
62 Network Theory
æ ö
RN ç 32 ÷
÷ = 1.25æç
9 3.55 ö
IL = Isc
RN + RL
= 1.25 ´ ç ÷Þ IL = 0.51 amp
ç 32 + 5 ÷ è 55 + 5 ø
3 .
ç ÷
è 9 ø
Example-2.12 a b
5 amp 4W -3j
Calculate the current flowing through I2
branch a & b. using Norton's 6W 3W
theorem of the following circuit. 2W
5 amp
Fig.-2.56
Solution
Step-1 Remove RL = -3j of branch a a b
4W
& b, Now the above ckt can
redrawn as follows.
2W
6W 3W
5 amp
Fig.-2.57
Step-2 Calculation of short ckt current Isc by short ckting terminals a & b.
I1 Isc I1
4W a b 4W
2W
6W 3W Þ 2W 6 3 = 2W
5 amp 5 am p
Fig.-2.58
2 5x2 10
I1 = Isc x = = Amp
2 + 2 + 4 8 8
6 10 6 5
Þ Isc = I1 x = x = Amp
6 + 3 8 9 6
a b
Step-3 Calculation of RN = Rth = Rab 4W
current source is open circuited. 3W
2W 6W
Fig.-2.59
Network Theorems 63
RN = (4 + 2) 6 + 3 = 3 + 3 = 6 ohm
Step-4 Connect Isc Parallel with RN
RN
Isc
b
Fig.-2.60
Step-5 Connect RL = -3j ohm across terminals a & b.
IL
R L = -3 j
R N
I sc
Fig.-2.61
RN 5æ 6 ö 5Ð0
IL = Isc x = = çç ÷÷ =
RN + RL 6 è 6 + (-3j) ø 6.7 Ð - 26.56
Þ IL = 0.74 Ð 26.560
Hence current flowing through RL is 0.74 Ð 26.560 Amp. Ans.
2.7 SUPERPOSITION THEOREM
According to superpasition theorem, if there are a number of emfs applied simultaneousl
to a linear bilateral network, then each emf acts independently to others i.e. as if the
other emfs do not exist. The current flowing through any branch is the algebraic summation
and subtraction of currents due to each emf.
[ Summation = for same direction of current.]
[ Subtraction = opposite direction of curent.]
This theorem is generally applicable for linear network where current is linearly related
to voltage according to ohm's law.
2.7.1 Procedure for Solving the Problem
Suppose, we want to calculate the different R1 R3
branch currents of the following figure.
E1 E2
R2
Fig.-2.62
64 Network Theory
Step-1
Consider E, voltage source. If other source R1 R3
is voltage source which can be replaced I1 I3

by short ckt. If other source is current E1
source that can be replaced by open R2
ckt.Calculate the values of I1, I2 & I3 by I2
using any method.
Fig.-2.63
Step-2
R1 R3
Consider E2 voltage soce, E1 sourrce is I1 /
I 3/
short ckted. Similarly Calculate the
values of I'1, I'2 & I'3 by using any R2
method. E2
I 2/
Fig.-2.64
I1 1
Case-3
R1 R3
When we consider both the electrical I3 I3/
I1/ I2
sources the direction of respective currents
E1
in the circuit is of the form shown in the R2
figure. I2/
E2
Fig.-2.65
Now current flowing through R1= I1 - I'1 (if I1 > I'1)

= I'1 - I1 (if I'1 > I1)
Current flowing through R2 = I2 + I2' (Same direction)
Current flowing through R3= I3 - I'3 (if I3 > I'3)
= I31 - I3 (I31 > I3) Ans.
Example-2.13
Using superposition theorem calculate the current flowing through each branch of the
following circuit.
2W 6W 50 V 4W
30 V 4W 6W 10 amp
Fig.-2.66
Network Theorems 65
Solution
Case-I Consider 30V source, 50V source is short ckted & 10 Amp. Source is open
circuited.
2W 6W
I1 I3 I5=0
4W 6W
30 V
I2 I4
Fig.-2.67
30 30
I1 = = = 6 Amp.
[(6 + 6) 4] + 2 12 x 4
+ 2
16
4 4/ 6 3
I3 = I4 = I1 x =6x = = Amp
6 + 6 + 4 16/ 4 4 2
3
I2 = I1 - I3 = 6 - = 4.5 amp
2
Case-II Consider 50V source, 30 V source is short circuited & 10 Amp source is
open ckted
Now ckt is of the form.
2W 6W
50V
I1/ I3 /
I5 / =0
4W 6W
I2 / /
I4
Fig.-2.68
50 15
I 3¢ = I 4¢ = = Amp.
6 + (2 4 ) + 6 4
4 15 4
I1¢ = I 3¢ ´ = x = 2.5Amp.
6 4 6
15 5 15 - 10 5
I 2¢ = I 3¢ - I ¢ = - = = Amp , I 5¢ = 0
4 2 4 4
66 Network Theory
Case-III Consider 10 Amp current source, 50 V voltage source and 30 volt voltage
source are short cktd.
6 4 6 4
I¢¢3 I¢¢3
2
I 1¢¢ I¢¢2 4
I¢¢4 6
I5¢¢ Þ 2 || 4 = 4 4 I5¢¢ 10
I¢¢4
10
amp 3 6
amp
Fig.-2.69
æ ö
ç 6 ÷ 10 x 3 x 6
I 5¢¢ = 10 Amp , I 3¢¢ = I 5¢¢ç ÷= = 4.5Amp
ç 6 + 6 + 4 ÷ 18 + 18 + 4
ç ÷
è 3ø
4 4 .5 ´ 4
I 4¢¢ = I 5¢¢ - I 3¢¢ = 10 - 4.5 = 5.5 Amp. I1¢¢ = I 3¢¢ ´ = = 3A
4+2 6
I 2¢¢ = I 3¢¢ - I1¢¢ =4.5-3=1.5 A
Case-IV When we consider all the three sources and its respective current directions
as shown in following figure,
50 V
2W I3’’ 4W
I1 6W I5
I1’
I3
I2 I5’
I5’’
I1’’ I3’
30 V 4W I4’
I4 6W 10
I2’
I2’’ I4’’ amp
Fig.-2.70
Now current flowing through 2W resistor

= I1 - ( I1¢ + I1¢¢) = 6 - (2.5 + 3) = 6 - 5.5 = 0.5 Amp
Current flowing through shunt 4 W resistance
5
= I 2 + I 2¢ + I 2¢¢ = 4.5 + + 1.5 = 7.2 Amp.
4
Current flowing through series 6 W resistor..
15 3
= ( I 3¢ + I 3¢¢) - I 3 = + 4.5 - = 6.75 A .
4 2
Network Theorems 67
Current flowing through series 4 W resistor..
= I 5¢¢ - ( I 5¢ + I 5 )
= 10 - (0 + 0) = 10 amp Ans.
N.B : Arrow indicates the direction of current shown as figure below :
2W 6.75 amp 6W 10 amp

4W
0.5 amp
50 V
7.25 amp
3.25 amp
4W 6W
30 V 10
amp
Fig.-2.71
4j
Example -2.14 2W
Using superposition Theorem calculate the

currrent flowing through each branch.
20 V -3j
5 amp
Fig.-2.72
Solution 4j
Case-1 Consider 20V source, 5 amp 2W
source is open ckted. I1 I3
20V -3j
I2
20 20 20
I3 = 0 , I1 = I2 = = = Fig.-2.73
4j - 3j j 1 Ð 90
= 20 Ð -90 Amp
Case-II Consider 5 Amp source, 20V short ckted.
4j
4 j
I 3¢ = 5 amp, 2W
I 3 ’’
I 1 ’’
(-3j) 3j/
I1¢ = I 3¢ x =5x = -15 Amp.
4j - 3j /j -3 j
5 am p
I 2 ’’
I 2¢ = I 3¢ - I1¢ = 5 - (-15) = 20 Amp.
Fig.-2.74
68 Network Theory
Case-III When we consider both the electrical sources.
4j 2W
20V
-3j 5 amp
Fig.-2.75
Current flowing through 4jW = I1 - I1¢ = 20 Ð -90 - 15 = -25 Ð 53.130Amp.
Current flowing though -3j Capacitor = I 2¢ + I 2

= 20 Ð -90 + 20
= 20 - 20j
= 28.28 Ð - 450 Amp.
4j
4j 2W 5 amp
Current flowing through 2W resistor = 5 25 Ð 33.13

28.28 (-450)
amp.Hence actual direction of currents are
shown as follows : 20 V -3j
5 amp
Fig.-2.76
2.8 MAXIMUM POWER TRANSFORMATION THEOREM

According to this theorem, the maximum
power can be transforred from source to i
load when load impedance is equal to Zi
complex conjugate of internal impedance
of the circuit. V
ZL
Mathematically Z L = Zi
Proof : Let V = Supply voltage Fig.-2.77
Zi = Internal impedance of the ckt = Ri + j xi

ZL = Load impedance of the ckt. = RL + j XL
PL = Power consumed by load
V
In above circuit current I=
Zi + Z L
Network Theorems 69
V V
= =
(R i + jx i ) + (R L + jx L ) (R i + R L ) + j (X L + X i )
V2 x [R L + ix L ]
Power consumed by load (PL) = I2 x ZL =
[(R i + R L ) + j (X L + Xi )]2
2.8.1 AC Analysis
XL and XC are two variables, that vary with frequences, when RL & Ri remain constant.
Now (PL) = (PL)max when the denominator value [(Ri + RL) + j(xi + xL)]2 is minimum.
i,e. Xi + XL = 0 Þ XL = -Xi
2.8.2 DC Analysis
For dc ckt complex part reduce to zero
V2
i,e PL = x RL ....(A)
(R i + R L )2
In this case lood resistance RL is variable in nature. so that
PL = (PL) max
d æ V2 ö d æ RL ö
ç ´ RL ÷ = 0 Þ V 2 ç ÷=0
When
dRL ç (R + R ) 2 ÷ dR ç ( R + R )2 ÷
è i L ø L è i L ø
Þ
( Ri + RL ) - RL ´ 2(Ri + RL )
2
=0
(Ri + RL )4
Þ
(Ri - RL ) = 0
(Ri + RL )3 Þ Ri - RL = 0 ,Hence Ri = RL
Hence ,from the above proof,We conclude when Load resistance and impedance is
combination of resistance and reactance, the maximum power can transfer from source
to load takes place when load impedance is complex conjugate of internal impedance.
i.e. ZL = Zi
if Zi = Ri + j Xi , hence RL = Ri - j Xi
i.e. Ri = RL and XL = -Xi
Calculation of maximum power consumed by load
V 2 RL
From eqn. (A), PL ( Max ) =
(Ri + RL )2 Ri = RL
70 Network Theory
V 2 R/ L V2 V2 V2 V2
PL = = = ( P )
Þ L max = =
4 R 2L/ 4R L 4R i 4R L 4Ri
Output Power (Load Power)

Calculation of Efficiency ( h ) =
Input Power
PL I2 R L RL
= = =
Pi + PL I2 Ri + I2 R L Ri + R L
RL
Hence h = But we know , But, Ri = RL
RL + RL
RL
= = 0.5 = 50%
2R L
Hence, maximum 50% of power can transfer from source to load.
R
Example-2.15
Using maximum power transfer Theorem
calculate the value of R in which the 6W 3W 4W 2W
resistance consumes maximum power.
10 V 3W 6W
Fig.-2.78
Solution:
Step-1 Remove RL = 6W resistance. Now ckt. is of the form.
R
3 4 2 a
10 V i
3
b
Fig.-2.79
Step-2 Calculation of Vth = Vab = Voc
10
Vth = 3i = 3 x = 5 volt
62
Network Theorems 71
Step-3 Calculation of Rth = Ri = Rab , Voltage source short circuited.
R
3 4 2 a
3
b
Fig.-2.80
3 2R 13R + 22
Rth = Ri = (3 3) + 4 + (R 2) = + 4 + =
2 R+2 2( R + 2 )
Step-4 Thevenin's equivalent ckt is of the form.
For maximum power consumed by 6W R th
resistance -i.e.Ri = RL
IL
13R + 22 +
Þ =6 V th= 5V
4j R L = 6W
2( R + 2)
-
Þ 12R + 24 = 13R + 22 Þ R = -2 ohm
Maximum power consumed by 6W resistance Fig.-2.81
VS2 5 2
25
PL = = = watts
4R L 4x6 24
2.9 MILLMAN'S THEOREM
This theorem can be stated either in terms of voltage source or current source.This
theorem is combination of property of Nortion's and Thevenin's theorem. It is generally
used for finding the common voltage / current across any network which contains no of
parallel voltage / current sources. A
Example :
IL
R1 R2 R3
RL
I4
E1 E2 E3
B
Fig.-2.82
A
Þ E1
R1
R1
E2
R2
R2
E3
R3
R3
I4
RL
Fig.-2.83
72 Network Theory
A
Þ I eq R2
RL
R1 R3
Fig.-2.84
E1 E2 E3
Total current = + + + I4 = Ieq ,
R1 R2 R3
R1, R2, R3 connected parallel to each other.
1 1 1 1
So = + + Þ Geq = G1 + G2 + G3
R eq R1 R2 R3
I
Here, Veq = I x Req =
G eq
A
1
A
R eq =
Þ
+ Geq
RL I RL
Ieq Geq - Veq =
G eq
B B
(Norton's Equivalent) Fig.-2.85 (Thevenin's Equivalent)

æ E1 E2 E3 ö
I eq çç + + ÷÷ (G1E1 + G 2 E 2 + G 3E 3 + I 4 )
Veg = = è R1 R2 R3 ø =
G eq G1 + G2 + G3 G1 + G 2 + G 3
Problem
Use milliman theorem, to find the common voltage across A & B and calculate the
current flowing through RL in the following ckt.
A
1.5 W 3W
5W
5W 3W
5 amp RL = 5W
3a
B
Fig.-2.86
Network Theorems 73
Solution
A
A 1.5 W 3W
1.5 W 3W
30 5W 5 5 = 2.5
Þ
= 6 amp
5 3W 3W
5W RL = 5W
6 RL = 5W
5 amp 5 amp
B
B
A A
2.5 W 1.5 W 3W 4W 3W
+ 3W Þ + 3W RL = 5W
15 V RL = 5 W 15 V
- 5 amp 5 amp
-
B B
A A
3W 3W
4W RL = 5W 4W R L = 5W
Þ
2.5 3W
15
= 3.5 amp 5 amp 3W amp
4
B B
A A
4W 3W
7W
+
RL = 5 W
Þ RL = 5W
34 V 34 3W
3W amp
- 7
B
B
2.1 W
A
A
Rth
IL IL
2.1 W
+
34 RL = 5 W Vth RL = 5W
amp 34
7 - ´ 2.1V = 10. 2V
7
B B
(Norton's Equivalent) Fig.-2.87 (Thevenin's Equivalent)

34 2.1 34 x 2.1
According to Norton's , IL = x = = 1.43 Amp.
7 5 + 7.1 7 x 7.1
10.2 10.2
According to Thevenin's ,IL = = = 1.43 Amp.
2.1 + 5 7.1
74 Network Theory
2.10 RECIPROCITY THEOREM
In any linear bilateral network, if curent flowing through any branch (supose, it is the
branch where Ammeter present) is I due to voltage source E, then the same current I
will flow when the position of voltage source and ammeter are inter changed.In other
case E1 & I mutually tranferable.
E
Now transfer resistance =
I
Case-1 In this case E1 produce the current I1 in resistance R3.
R1 R3
R2
E1
Ammeter
Fig.-2.88
Case-2 Now we are inter change the position of voltage source E & Ammeter i.e.
voltage source E produce thesame current (I) in resistance R1.
I R1 R3
R2
E
Ammeter
Fig.-2.89
E
Hence transfer resistance =
I
Problem : Verify the reciprocity theorem in the following circuit.
R 1 = 7.5
15 Wohm II 1 3 ohm
I2 I1
I3
R 2 = 30 W 2 ohm
60V
10V
R 3 = 60 W 5 ohm
Fig.-2.90
7,7.
Network Theorems 75
Solution
Case-1 Consider above Circuit.
10 10 10
I= = = =1
[(3 + 2) 115] + 7.5 (5115) + 7.5 2.5 + 7.5
5 1x5
I1 = 1 x = = 0.5 Amp
5 + 5 10
Case-II When we interchange the position of ammetes and V = 10V.
I3 I2
7.5 W 3W
A 2W
5W
10V
Fig.-2.91
10 10 10
I2 = = = = 1.25 Amp
(7.5 5) + 5 7.5 x 5 8
+ 5
12.5
5 1.25 x 5
I3 = 1.25 x = = 0.5 Amp.
5 + 7.5 12.5
I1 = I3 = 0.5 Amp. Hence we verify the reciprocity Theorem.
E 10
Now Transfer resistance (R)= = = 20 ohm
I 0.5
SOLVED PROBLEMS
Q.1 A
3W
Obtain the Thevenin's and Norton's + 6W
equivalent of the following Ckt. 20V
-
10V
B
Fig.2.92
Solution A
3W
Step-1 Calculation of Rth, (or Rab), short
Circuit the two voltag sources and 6W
shown in fig-2.93
B
Fig-2.93
76 Network Theory
6x3
Rth = 6 || 3 = = 2W
6 + 3
Step-2 Calculation of VTH = VAB
A
3W
+ 6W
20V
-
10V
B
Fig-2.94
30 10
20 - 3i - 6i + 10 = 0 Þ i= = Amp.
9 3
Similarly Vab - 6i + 10 = 0 Þ Vab = 6i - 10
10
=6x - 10 = 10 Volt. A
3 R Th = 2ohm
Thevenins equivalent Ckt. shown in Fig. 2.95 +
Vth = 10 V
-
B
Fig.2.95
Nortons Equivalent Ckt. :
Step-1 Calculation of short Ckt. Current Isc. (fig. 2.96)
I1 3W I2 A I sc
+ 6W
20V
-
10V
B
Fig.2.96
20
By applying KVL 20 - 3I1 = 0 Þ I1 = Amp.
3
-5 20 5
Similarly, -10 -6i2 = 0 Þ I2 = Amp.Isc = I1 + I2 = - = 5 Amp.
3 3 3
The Nortons Equivalent Ckt. shown in fig.2.97.
Network Theorems 77
Isc = 5Amp RTh = RN = 2W
B
Fig.2.97
Q.2
The following network given below, has a driving current I1. The curent in 10 ohm
resistor is I2. Find the ratio of I2/I1.
I1 4Ω I2
3W
10W
5Ω
4jΩ
I1
Fig.2.98
Solution: In above circuit can redrawn as follows.
I1 4Ω I3
5Ω Zeq = (3 + 4j) 10
I1
Fig.2.99
30 + 40j
Equivalent impedance, Zeq =
13 + 4j
5 65 + 20j
I3 = I1 = I1
æ 30 + 40j ö 147 + 76j
4 + 5 + çç ÷÷
è 13 + 4j ø
3 + 4j 65 + 20j 3 + 4j I2
I2 = I3 x = x I1 Þ = 0.151 Ð 27.130
13 + 4j 147 + 76j 13 + 4j I1
78 Network Theory
Q.3 Obtain the Thevenins equivalent circuit across terminals A & B, of the following circuit.
A
50 W
+ 60j
20V
- 30Ω 21W
B
12Ω 24j
Fig.2.100
Solution:
Calculation of T hevenins equivalent I I2 I1
impedance (Provided voltage source is 50Ω 21Ω
short Ckted.) + A
20Ð 0 0 V B
- 30Ω 12Ω
60jΩ 24jΩ
Zeq = ZAB = [21|| (12 + 24j)] + [50||(30 + 60j)]
Fig.2.101
21 (12 + 24j) 50 (30 + 60j)
= + = 47.4 Ð 26.8 0W.
33 + 24j 80 + 60j
Calculation of Thevenins voltage VAB = VA - VB
= 20 Ð 00 - 21 I1 - (20 Ð 00 - 50I2) = 50 I2 - 21 I1
50(20 Ð 00 ) 21 (20 Ð 00 )
= - = 0.328 Ð170.50
80 + 60j 33 + 24j
The Thevenins equivalent Ckt. is shown in fig 2.102.
Z eq = 0.328Ð26.80 A
+
VTh = 0.328Ð170.50
-
B
Fig-2.102
Network Theorems 79
Q.4 Find the Norton's Equivalent circuit of the following ckt. across A & B.
20Ð - 90 0 A
10Ω 2jΩ
A
5Ω
2Ω 2jΩ
B
Solution Fig.2.103
Calculation of Norton's equivalent resistance across A & B = RN (Provided current
source is open Ckted.)
(12 + 2 j)2 j
RN = Zeq = [(2 + 10 + 2j) || 2j] + 5 = + 5 = 5.63 Ð 19.730
12 + 4j
Calculation of short Circuit current (Isc) by short Ckting. two terminals A & B, shown in
fig. 2.104
I1 2jΩ
5Ω
20Ð - 90 A 0
10Ω 2jΩ I sc
2Ω
Fig.2.104 æ ö
10 ç 10 ÷
I1 = 20 Ð -900 x = 20Ð - 90 ´ ç
0
÷
10 + 2 j + (5 || 2 j) + 2 10 j
ç 12 + 2j + 5 + 2 j ÷ø
è
æ 5 + 2j ö
= 200 Ð –900 × ç ÷ = 15.124 Ð –105.35
è 56 + 44 j ø
2j 2j
Isc = I1 × = 15.124 Ð 106.35 ×
5 + 2j 5 + 2j
= 5.61 Ð –38.55
Now the Norton's equivalent circuit shown in fig. 2.104.
80 Network Theory
A
I sc = 5.61Ð - 38.55 R N = 5.63Ð19.730 W
B
Fig.2.105
Q.5 Applying superposition theorem,calculate the voltage across A & B of the following
fig.2.106.
A
10Ω
I1 = 2Amp 5Ω 2Ω I 2 = 4A
Solution Fig.2.106
Step-1 Consider I1 current source, I2 source open Ckted.
A I3
10Ω
Isc = 2Amp 5Ω 2Ω
I4 I3
B
Fig.2.107
5 5x2 10 10 24
I3 = I1 x = = Amp. I4 = 2 - = Amp.
5 + 10 + 2 17 17 17 17
Step-2 Consider I2 current source, I1 source open Ckted.
10Ω I¢2
A
5Ω 2Ω I2 = 4A
I¢4 I¢3
B
Fig-2.108
Network Theorems 81
2 4x2 8
Now I ¢2 = I ¢4 = I2 = = Amp.
17 17 17
Total current flowing through branch A & B
24 8
= I4 + I 4¢ = + = 1.88 Amp.
17 17
Hence VAB = 5 x 1.88 = 9.41 Volt.
Q.6 Calculate star equivalent of the following network
2 + 3j
Fig. 2.109
Solution Star equivalent of the resistance shown in fig. 2.110
2 + 3j
R3
R1
R2
Fig-2.110
(2 + 3j) (3 - 2j) 12 + 5j
R1 = = = 0.707 Ð -450
2 + 3j + 3 - 2j + 2 + 16j 7 + 17j
(2 + 3j) (2 + 16j) -44 + 38j

R2 = = = 3.16Ð -108.42
7 + 17j 7 + 17j
(3 - 2j) (2 + 16j)
R3 = = 3.16Ð -18.42
7 + 17j
Hence it's star equivalent circuit is shown infig.2.19.
82 Network Theory
R1 R3
R2
Fig.-2.111
Q.7 Find of the star equivalent of the folowing network.
5W 2W 10W
4W
10W
Fig-2.112
Solution: Here R1, R2, R3 resistances are equivalent star network.
5W 2W 10W
R1
R2
10W 4W
R3
Fig-2.113
2 x 10 20 2x4 8
R1 = = = 1.25 W , R2 = = = 0.5 W ,
2 + 10 + 4 16 16 16
10 x 4
R3 = = 2.5 W Finally the star equivalent circuit shown in Fig. 2.22
16
6.25W 10.5W
2.5W
Fig-2.114
Network Theorems 83
Q.8 Find the current flowing through 2W resistor of the following circuit. using super position
Theorem.
2W 5W 1W
10V 5W 4W 27V
Fig-2.115
Solution
Step-1 Consider 10Volt, voltage source, 27Volt Source short Ckted.
I1 I4
2W I2 5W I3
1W
10V 5W 4W
Fig-2.116
10 10
I1 = = = 2.13 A
[ ]
(1 4 + 5) 5 + 2 éæç 4 + 5 ö÷ 5ù + 2
ê 5 ú
ëè ø û
Step-2 Consider 27V voltage source, 10V voltage source short Ckted.
I1¢ I¢3 I¢4

2W I¢2 5W I¢5
1W
5W 4W 27V
Fig-2.117
27 27 4
I¢5 = = = 2.46 A , I¢3 = I¢5 = 0.94 A
[(2 5 + 5) 4]+ 1 [(6.42) 4]+ 2 (2 5) + 4 + 5
5 5
I1¢ = I¢3 = 0.94 ´ = 0.67A
5+2 7
84 Network Theory
Current flowing through 2W resistor = I1 - I1¢ = 2.13 - 0.67 = 1.46 Amp.

Q.9 In the following circuit calculate the voltage between A & B.
B
-
5W 20V 5W 5W
+
5V 20V
A 5W 12W
+ - + -
Fig-2.118
Solution
Consider the above circuit, putting the direction of current properly shown in fig. 2.27
and
I1 B
I1 I2
-
5W 20V 5W 5W
+
I1 I1 5V I2 20V
A 5W 12W
0A + - 0A I 2 + -
Fig-2.119
By applying KVL. For loop-1
20
20 - 5I1 - 5I1 = 0 Þ I1 = = 2 Amp.
10
For Loop-2
20
20 - 5I2 = 0 Þ I2 = = 2 Amp.
10
Applying KVL. from point a to b.
Let Va = potential at point ‘a’, Vb = Potential at point ‘b’
Þ Va + 5I1 + 5 - 5I2 - Vb = 0
Þ Va - Vb = 5I2 - 5 - 5I1 = 5(I2 - I1) - 5 = -5 [Q I1 = I2 = 2 Amp.]
Hence Vab = Va - Vb = -5 Volt
[Here 5V source taken as + 5V because direction of current from +Ve to -Ve. But we
are considering our direction from ‘a’ to ‘b’]
Network Theorems 85
Q.10 In the following circuit find the potential at node 1, 2, 3 & 4.
10W 2 20W
5W
+ - - + 3
1
20V 5W 15V
10W 4 20W
Fig-2.120
Solution Direction of current are shown in following figure.

Consider Loop-1 (Current = I1)
I1 > I2, I1 > I3, I1 > I4
10W 2 20W
I1 5W I2
1
+ - - + 3
20V 15V
5W
I3 I4
10W 4 20W
Fig-2.121
Applying K.V.L., we get 20 - 10 I1 - (I1 - I2)5 = 0

Þ 20 = 15 I1 -5I2 ...(A)
Consider Loop-2
I2 > I1, I2 > I3, I2 > I4
Applying KVL. we get -5 (I2 - I1) - 20 I2 - 15 = 0
Þ 5I1 - 25 I2 = 15 ...(B)
5
Solving equation (A) & (B) we get I2 = - Amp.
14
86 Network Theory
æ 5ö
The value of I2 put in equation (B). We get, 5I1 - 25 ç - ÷ = 15
è 14 ø
Þ I1 = 1.2 Amp.
Potential at node ‘1’ = 20V
Potential at node ‘3’ = 15V
Potential at node ‘2’ = 20 - 10 I1
= 20 - 10 x 1.21 = 7.9 Volt.
Consider Loop-3
I3 > I1, I3 > I2, I3 > I4
- 20 - 5 (I3 - I4) - 10 I3 = 0
Þ 15 I3 - 5I4 = -20 ...(C)
Consider Loop-4
15 - 20 I4 - (I4 - I3) 5 = 0
24 I 4 - 15
Þ I3 = putting in equation (C) we get,
5
æ 24I 4 - 15 ö
15 ç ÷ - 5 I4 = -20 Þ I4 = 0.373 Amp.
è 5 ø
Potential at node '4' =15-20 I 4 =15-20 ´ 0.373=7.46 volt
Hence V1 =20v,, V2 =7.9v, V3 =15v V4 =46v

Q.11 In the following circuit, find the
Thevenin's and Norton's equivalent A
circuit. 5W 10W
3A 5W
B
Solution Fig-2.122
Equivalent resistance across a
&b=Rab=5+10=15W A
{Current source open circiuted} 5W 10W
Thevenin's voltage Vth=3 ´ 5=15volt 5W
Now Thevenin's equivalent circuit and
Norton's circuit shown in fig.2.124(a) B
and fig-2.124(b) respectively. Fig-2.123
Network Theorems 87
A A
+ R Th = 15W
15
VTh = 15V = 1A 15W
- 15
B B
Fig-2.124 (a) Fig.2.124 (b)
Q.12 Find the Norton's Equivalent of the following cicuit.

a
10W 25W
+
50V 10A
- 20W
b
Fig-2.125
Solution
Step-1 : a
Calculation of Norton's equivalent 10 W 25W
resistance between a & b. 50 V source is
short ckt, 10amp. source is open 20W
ckted.Now ckt. is of the form -
b
æ 10 ´ 45 ö Fig.2.126
Rth = Rab= 10 | | (20+25) = ç ÷ = 8.18 ohm.
è 10 + 45 ø
Step - 2 : Calculation of short circuit current (ISC) across a & b.
(I1 + 10 - I 2 )
a
I1
10W 25W I sc
(10 - I 2 )
+ I2
50V 10A
- 20W
b
Fig-2.127
88 Network Theory
Here ISC = I1 + 10 - I2 ...(A)
50 - 10I1 + 25(10-I2) - 20I2 = 0
Þ 10I1 + 45I2 = 300 ...(B)
And 50 - 10I1 = 0 such that I1 = 5 amp. , the value of I1 put in equation (B),
we get : 300 = 10 x 5 + 45I2 A
250
Þ I2 = = 5.5 amp. 9.5A 8.18W
45
Now ISC = I1 + 10 - I2 = 5 + 10 - 5.5 = 9.5 amp.
Norton's equivalent circuit is shown in fig.2.128 B
Fig-2.128
Q.13 Using superposition theorem, calculate the current flowing through 3 + 4j ohm impedance
of the following circuit.
5W 5jW
+ 3W -
V1 = 50Ð90 0
V2 = 50Ð00
- +
4jW
Fig.2.129
Solution :
Step-1 : Consider V1 source, V2 source is short circuited.
50Ð90 0 50Ð 900 I1 5W 5jW

I1 = 5 + [5j (3 + 4j)] = + 3W
5.83 + 2.5j
V1 = 50Ð90 0 I2
= 7.87Ð 66.80 Amp-
4jW
æ 5j ö
I2 = I1 çç ÷÷ = 4.15Ð 85.30 Amp
è 3 + 5 j + 4 j ø Fig.2.130
Step - 2 : Consider V2 source, V1 source is short circuited.
5W 5jW
3W -
I¢2 V2 = 50Ð0 0
+
4jW
I3
Fig. 2.131
Network Theorems 89
50Ð0
0
I3 = = 7.42Ð - 68.2 0 Amp

5j + [(3 + 4j) 5]
æ 5 ö 0 æ 5 ö
I¢2 = I 3 çç ÷÷ = 7.42Ð - 68.2 ´ çç 8 + 4j ÷÷
è 8 + 4j ø è ø
= - 4.15Ð 85.30 Amp

Current flowing through (3+4j) impedance
= I2 - I2/ = 4.15Ð 85.30 + 4.15Ð 85.30 = 8.3Ð 85.30 Amp
Q.14 In the following circuit (fig.2.132)

calculate the voltage across
I = 5Ð90 0
capacitor. 2W
5W
- 2 jW
5jW
I I1
Solution : Fig-2.132
æ 5 + 5j ö
Now I1 = I ´ çç ÷
è 5 + 5j + 2 - 2j ÷ø
æ 5 + 5j ö
= 50Ð90 0 ´ çç ÷÷ = 4.64Ð 110.50 Amp
è 7 + 3j ø
0
Voltage across capacitor = I1 × (-2j) = 4.64 Ð 110.5 (-2j)
= 9.28Ð 20.50 Volt
Q.15 In the following fig.2.133, find the value of RL which results in maximum power transfer.
Calculate the value of the maximum power.
5W 10 j
~ 100Ð00
RL
Fig-2. 133
90 Network Theory
Solution :
Condition of maximumpower transfer is internal impedance of circuit is equal to load
impedance.
HereZi = 5+10j
ZL = RL = 5-10j , R L = 102 + 52 = 11.18 ohm
V2 100x100
Maximum power consumed by RL = = = 223.6 Watt.
4R L 4x11.18
2.11 TELLEGEN'S THEOREM
Tellegen’s theorem is one of the most powerful theorems in network theory. Most
of the energy distribution theorems and extremum principles in network theory can be
derived from it. It was published in 1952 by Bernard Tellegen. Fundamentally, Tellegen’s
theorem gives a simple relation between magnitudes that satisfy the Kirchhoff’s laws of
electrical circuit theory.The Tellegen theorem is applicable to a multitude of network
systems. The basic assumptions for the systems are the conservation of flow of extensive
quantities (Kirchhoff’s current law, KCL) and the uniqueness of the potentials at the
network nodes (Kirchhoff’s voltage law, KVL). The Tellegen theorem provides a useful
tool to analyze complex network systems among them electrical circuits, biological and
metabolic networks, pipeline flow networks, and chemical process networks.
Consider an arbitrary lumped network whose graph G has b branches and nt nodes.
Suppose that to each branch of the graph we assign arbitrarily a branch potential difference
WK and a branch current FK for K=1,2,3....b and suppose that they are measured with
respect to arbitrarily picked associated reference directions. If the branch potential
differences satisfy all the constraints imposed by KVL and if the branch currents
F1, F2, ...Fb satisfy all the contraints imposed by KCL, then
b
åW
k =1
K FK = 0
We need to introduce a few necessary network definitions to provide a compact proof.

Incident matrix: The nt × nf matrix is called node-to-branch incidence matrix for the
matrix elements aij being
ì 1, if flow j leaves node i
ï
aij = í - 1 , if flow j enter node i
ï0 , if flow j is not incedent with node i
î
A reference or datum node P0 is introduced to represent the environment and
connected to all dynamic nodes and terminals. The (nt – 1)×nf matrix A , where the row
that contains the elements a0j of the reference node P0 is eliminated, is called reducence
incidence matrix.The conservation laws (KCL) in vector-matrix form:
Network Theorems 91
AF = 0
The uniqueness condition for the potentials (KVL) in vector-matrix form:
W = ATW
where WK are the absolute potentials at the nodes to the reference node P0.
Proof: Starting with Tellegen's Theorem,
b
åW
k =1
K FK = W T F = 0
By using KVL, W T F = AT W ( ) F = (W A) F = W
T T T T
AF = 0
Since, (AF=0)using KCL.
f0
Example:
i2
V1 - + V2
+
i0 + -
i1
V3
V0 f1
+ - f2
i3
- i4
+ -
V4 - V5
+
i5
f3
Fig-2. 134
By Using KVL to the above circuit,we get
v0 = f0 - f3 , v1 = f1 - f0 , v2 = f0 - f2
v3 = f3 - f2 , v4 = f1 - f3 , v5 = f3 - f2
The incedent matrix(A) Node 0 1 2 3
Element
0 é+ 1 0 0 - 1ù
ê- 1 + 1 0 0 ú
1
ê ú
2 ê+ 1 0 - 1 0 ú
A= ê ú
3 ê 0 +1 -1 0 ú
4 ê 0 + 1 0 - 1ú
ê ú
5 êë 0 0 - 1 + 1úû
92 Network Theory
Now transpose of Matrix A is given as
Element 0 1 2 3 4 5
Node
0 é+ 1 - 1 + 1 0 0 0 ù
ê
1 0 +1 0 +1 +1 0
ú
AT = ê ú
2 ê0 0 - 1 - 1 0 - 1ú
ê ú
3 ë- 1 0 0 0 - 1 + 1û
The potential, Voltage and Current vectors are as follows:
év0 ù éi0 ù
êv ú êi ú
éf0 ù ê 1ú ê 1ú
êf ú êv ú êi ú
f = ê 1ú , v = ê 2ú , i = ê 2ú
êf2 ú êv3 ú êi3 ú
ê ú êv4 ú êi4 ú
ëf3 û
ê ú ê ú
ëêv5 ûú ëêi5 ûú
5
Then , v = Af , i.Af = i.v = å in vn

n=0
Also by using KCL,
é0 ù
ê0 ú
ATi = ê ú , fAT i = 0
ê0 ú
ê ú
ë0 û
But , i.Af = f . A i , leading to Tellegen's Therorem,

T
åi v
n =0
n n =0
The only requirement is that all the in be for one set a of elements in the circuit so
that KCL holds, and all the vn be for another set b of elements in the circuit so that KVL
holds (a set of potentials f can be assigned). When set a is the same as set b, the result
is simply the conservation of power. But Tellegen’s Theorem is more general and leads
to many other results such as reciprocity theorems.
2.12 SUBSTITUTION THEOREM
Substitution theorem states that components can be interchanged, so long as the terminal
current and voltage are maintained.
Network Theorems 93
+ +
i (t )
+
i (t ) V(t)
- V(t)
- -
A Current Source A Voltage source
Fig.-2.135
For example, a 5 Ampere current source with a terminal voltage of 20 Volts, can be
replaced by a voltage source of 20 volts, delivering 5 amperes, as shown by the circuit in
Fig. 2.135. This theorem is used sparingly.
2.13 COMPENSATION THEOREM
Statement:
Compensation theorem is a very useful theorem. It reflects the changes that can occur
due to incremental changes in the value of a component. This theorem is illustrated by
the circuit in Fig. 2.136.
I I + DI
DI R + DR
+ V + V
- S R
- S R + DR
VC
+
-
VS = I .R Vs = ( I + DI )( R + DR) VC = I.(DR )
Fig.-2.136
Let the resistance change by a small amount. Its effect can be computed as shown. The
effect can be computed by the response due to a voltage source V c, the value of which
is obtained as shown below.From Above fig.2.136
Vs = I .R = ( I + DI )( R + DR) ...(A)
QVs = I .R , ( I.DR ) + DI ( R + DR) = 0 ...(B)
Vc
Vc = ( I.DR) , DR = - ...(C)
( R + DR )
From equation (A), cancel the common term on both sides of equation. Then we obtain
equation (B). The value of compensating voltageVc is obtained as shown by equation(C).
The change in current is also obtained, as shown Fig. 2.137.
94 Network Theory
R3 + DR3
+ R1
+
VS R2 R3
-
R1 R2
I3
DI 3 VC
-
Fig.-2.137
Compensation theorem is illustrated by an example. For the circuit in Fig. 2.136,obtain

current I3. Let the value of resistor R3 change by a small value. Compute the change in
current I3.
Let , VS = 50V , R1 = 4W , R2 = 15W , R3 = 10W , DR3 = 5W
R2
Hence, I 3 = Vs . = 3A
R1 R2 + R2 R3 + R1 R3
VC 19
Vc = ( I 3.DI 3 ) = 50V, DI 3 = =- A
R1 R2 23
( R3 + DR3 ) +
R1 + R2
The values of components are specified. The value of current I3 is obtained as shown.
The value of compensating source Vc is then obtained and the change in current I3,
denoted by DI3, is obtained and its value has been shown above.
NUMERICAL PROBLEMS
Q.1. Find the current flowing 2W 5W

through each branch using 2W 4W 6W +
Mesh Current method of the
45V
following circuit. + -
30V
-
Fig-2. 138
Q.2. Using Nodal analysis method 3W

calculate the current (I 0 ) 2W 5W
flowing through 5W resistor..
2W 4W 6W
+
30V I0
-
Fig-2. 139
Network Theorems 95
Q.3. Calculate the short circuit current a
and open circuit voltage across
a & b of the following circuit. 10 W 25 W
5A 10A
20 W
b
Fig-2. 140
Q.4. Find the Norton's and Thevenin's equivalent circuit across AB of the following network.
A
10Ω
Isc = 2Amp 5Ω 2Ω I 2 = 6A
B
Fig-2. 141
n
Q.5. Using Superposition theorem calculate the current flowing through 6 W resistor..
2W 6W
10V 2W
1W
15V 4W
5A 5A
4W 2W
Fig-2. 142
Q6. Calculate, how much maximum power is consumed by RW resistor, using Maximum
Power Transfer theorem. Calculate the value of R and also how much power supplied
by voltage source.
4W
2W
4W 4W
30V
2W R
Fig-2. 143
96 Network Theory
Q.7. State Thevenin's theorem and show how Thevenin's theorem related to Nortons' theorem.
Q.8. Using Millman theorem, find Norton's and Thevenin's equivalen t circuit across a & b of
the following network.
A
3W 2 W 4 W
20V
15V 5A
3W
B
Fig-2.144
V1
Q.9. Calculate the node voltage V1
at node-1 w.r.t. the reference 2W
node of the following circuit. 5W
20Ð45 0 A 8W
- 2 jW
5jW
Fig-2.145
A
Q.10. Calculate the Thevenin's equivalent 3W
voltage and short circuit current + 8W
20V
across a & b of the following circuit. -
10V
B
Fig-2.146
Q.11. Find the Star and Delta equivalent

circuits of the following netowrk. 2W 9W 2W
9W 9W
Q.12. Write short notes on -

Fig-2.147
(a) Node
(b) Superposition Theorem
(c) Mesh and Loop
(d) Maximum Power Transfer Theorem.
(e) Thevenin's Theorem
Q.13. How to get Thevenin's equivalent circuit from Norton's equivalent circuit and vice-versa.
Q.14. How much maximum power can be transferred from source to load ?
ppp
Chapter 3
RESONANCE
3.1 INTRODUCTION
Suppose any network (series or Parallel) consisting of resistance, inductance
and capaitance supplied by A.C. voltage source. At a particular frequency when
reactive part of the circuit becomes Zero, that particular frequency is called resonance
frequency.
Type of resonance Circuits.
i. Series Resonance
ii. Parallel Resonance.
3.2 SERIES RESONANCE
Let R = Resistance
L = Inductance I
R L
C = Capacitance
V = Supplied voltage ~ V C
Total impedance of the circuit = Z= R + j (X L - XC)
V V
Current I = = ...(A) Fig.-3.1
Z R + j(X L + X C )
But inductive Reactance = XL = w L = 2 p fL
1 1
Capacitive Reactance = Xc = =
wC 2 p fC
Where w = angular frequency of applied voltage in rad/sec.
At resonance the impedance Z becomes purely resistive i, e rectance part becomes zero.
Þ XL – XC = 0 Þ XL = XC (Condition for series resonance).
1
Þ wL = ( w value coorresponds to w 0 )
wC
i.e. w 0 = Angular frequency at resonance.
98 Network Theory
1 1 1 1
Þ w 0L = Þ w 02 = Þ w0 = Þ 2 p fo =
w0 C LC LC LC
1
Þ f0 =
2p LC
Where f0 = Called resonance Frequency in Hertz.
Example-3.1
A series RLC circuit consists of a resistance 10 W , an inductance of 0.1 Henry and
capacitance of 0.001 m F . Calculate the frequency of resonance in Hertz and in radian/
sec.
Solution: Given Data R= 10 W , L= 0.1H. = 10-1H
C= 0.001 m F = 0.001 x 10-6F = 1 x 10-9F
1 1 1
Frequency in rad/sec ( w 0)= = = = 105 rad/sec
LC 10 -10
x 10 -9 10-5
w0 105
Resonance Frequency in Hertz = fo = = = 15920 Hertz.
2p 2p
Example-3.2
A series RLC circuit resonates at 104Hz. The value of inductance is 0.02 Henry.
Calculate the value of capacitance.
Solution : Given dataf0 = 104Hz L = 0.02 H
1 1
f0 = Þ 104 =
2 p LC 2 p 0.02 xC
1
Þ C=
4 2
= 1.2 X 10-8 farad.
(2 p X 10 ) X 0.02
3.2.1 Phasor Diagram of RLC Series Circuits
The nature of phase or diagram depends upon
supplied frequency (f) with resonance frequency (fo) VL
Case-1 At f = fo, Rectance part = 0
i.e inductive reactance is equal to I V=Vr
capacitive reactance, i.e circuit is purely
resistive in nature, which is shown in
fig.3.2 VC
Fig.-3.2
Network Theory 99
Case-II At f < fo, Indicates reactance is -ve i.e
(XL – Xc) = –ve
Þ XC - XL = + Vee VL
In this case capacitance
reactance (X C) is greater then
I VR
inductive reactance. Hence, the
overall reactance is capacitive in
(VC – VL)
nature. Current leads the applied
voltage (V), VL leads the current >
by 90 0 while voltage V C lags
behind current (I) by 900 and it is VC
shown in fig.3.3 Fig.3.3
Case-III At f > fo(Indicates reactiance is

+Ve) VL V
In this case inductive (V C – V L )
reactance X L is greater than

capacitive reactance (XC). I
i.e X L - XC = +Ve,So network is V
inductive in nature. Current I
VC
Lags behinds the
applied voltage ‘V’and it is Fig.-3.4
shown in fig.3.4
Example-3.3
A series RLC circuit consists of resistance R = 10 W L = 0.3H and C = 0.2 m F
calculate the resonant frequency. A 10V sinusoidal voltage at the frequency of
resonance is applied across the circuit. Draw the phase or diagram showing the value
of each phaseor. Also calculate value of (i) current and (ii) voltage across R, C and L
and draw the phasor diagram when 10 volts & 850 Hz voltages are applied to the
circuit.
Solution : Given data
R = 10 W
L = 0.3H
C = 0.2 m F = 0.2 x 10-6F V L = 10 3 V
1
Resonant frequency fo = 1 am p
2 p LC
V =V r = 10V
1 V C =10 3 V
= = 796Hz
2 p 0.3 x 0.2 x 10-6 Fig.3.5
At f = fo
100 Network Theory
V 10
I= = = 1 Amp. , V = IR = 1 x 10 = 10 volt
R 10
VL = I w L = 1 x 2 p x 796 x 0.3 = 1500 volt = 1.5 x 103 volt.
But VC = VL = 1.5 x 103 volt (At resonance)
At f = 850Hz
XL = w L = 2 p fL = 2 x 3.14 x 850 x 0.3 = 1601.1 W
1 1 1
XC = = = = 936.5 W
wC 2 p fC 2 x 3.14 x 850 x 0.2 x 10-6
V 10
I= =
R + j (X L - X C ) 10 + j (16 - 936.5)
10
= = 15 x 10-3 Amp.
10 + j664.5
10 10
Magnitude = = = 15 x 10—3Amp
10 2
+ (664.5) 2 664.57
Let q be the phase angle of current I relative to voltage V..
æ 664.5 ö
Then q = -tan-1 çè 10 ÷ø = -89.130
Vr = IR = 15 x 10-3 x 10 = 15 x 10-2 V
I
Vc = = 71.32 volts.
wC
VL = I x w L = 15 x 10-3 x 1601.1 = 24.015 v
I æ I ö
VC = = 15 x 10-3 x ç wC ÷ = 15 x 10-3 x 936.5 = 14.047 Volt.
wC è ø
Hence, VL - VC = 24.95 - 14.047 = 9.968Volt. Ans.
3.2.2 Veriation of current and voltage with frequency in series RLC Circuit.
I
In series ckt Z = R + j (XL - XC) = R + j ( w L - )
wC
Hence current I in the series ckt is given by
V V V
I= = and magnitude of I =
Z æ 1 ö
æ 1 ö
2
R + jç ωL - ÷ R 2 + jç ωL -
è ωC ø ÷
è ωC ø
Network Theory 101
I
At resonance, w L = , so that Z = R = indicates minimum impedance.
wC
V
Hence at resonance I = is maximum, because impedance is minimum. At frequency
R
below or above the resonance frequency, Z is greater than R so that. I is smaller
V
than . Curved marked In the following fig.3.6
R
VL , VC , I VC VL
I
fC fo fL
Fig.-3.6: Variation of I, VC and VL with frequency in series RLC Circuit.

The voltage across capacitor is given by
1 V 1
VC = I x XC = I x = ´
jw C æ 1 ö jw c
R + j ç ωL - ÷
è ωC ø
V
Magnitude of VC =
2
æ 1 ö 2
wc R + jç wL - ÷
è wC ø
Curve maked VC in the fig.3.6 gives the variation of voltage with frequency.The
frequency fC at which VC is maximum may be obtained by
dVc 1 1 R2
= 0, by differentiating VC we get, fC = -
dw 2p LC 2L2
But in case of fc < fo, Voltage across inductor L is given by
VL = I x XL = I x j w L
V
= x jwL
R + j(X L - X C )
102 Network Theory
Vw L
Magnitude of VL =
[R 2 + (w L - w C )2 ]1 / 2
The relation between V L and w shown in above fig.3.6.
The frequency fL at which VL is maximum may be obtained by equating -
dVL
= 0, here w is corresponding to w L = 2 p fL. Hence,
dw
1
fL =
C2 R 2
2 p LC -
2
Here also we found fL > f0.Voltage VC and VL have equal value and opposite phases at
thefrequency of resonance as shown by the point of intersection.If R is very small,
both fL and fc tends to signal to RO.
Example-3.4
A series RLC circuit consists of R = 25 W inductance L = 0.01H and capocitance
C = 0.04 m F. Calculate the frequency of resonance wf a 10 volts voltage of frequency
equal to the frequency of voltage Vc and VL across C and L respectively. Find the
frequency at which these voltages VC and VL are minimum.
1
Solution : Given date fo = = 7960 Hz
2 p 0.01 x 0.04 x 10-6
V 10
At f = f0 I= = = 0.4 Amp
R 25
Hence VL = I w0 L = 0.4 x 2 p x 7960 x 0.01 = 200 volts.
æ 1 ö
Voltage across capacitor = VC = I x çç ÷÷
è w0C ø
1
= 0.04 x = 200 volts
2p > 960 ´ 0.04 ´ 10-6
The frequency at which VC is maximum, is given by
1 1 R2 1 1 (25)2
fC = - = - = 7958HZ
2p LC 2 L2 2p 0.01 x 1.04 x 10-6 2(0.01)2
Network Theory 103
1
The frequency at which VL is maximum is given by fL =
C2 R 2
2 p LC -
2
1
= = 7968Hz
-6 2
(0.04 x 10 x 25)
2 p (0.01 x 0.04 x 10-6 ) -
2
3.2.3 Calculation of Selectivity & Bandwidth
At resonant frequency impedance is minimum and the current in maximum. Fig.3.7
shows the current at various frequencies curve of a series RLC circuit for small
1
value of R. The frequencies f1 and f2at which current of falls to (or 0.707) of its
2p
V
maximum value Im (= ) are called half power frequencies or 3dB frequencies. The
R
bandwidth (f2 - f1) is called the half power band width or 3dB bandwidth or simply
band width of the circuit.
Im
0.707 Im
Current
f1 fo f2 Frequency
Fig.-3.7
Derivation :
1
As we know Z = R + j ( w L - ) --------(A)
wC
Where w is any frequency. But the value of w closed to resonant frequency w 0.
The equation (A) does not yield very accurate results.
Now equation ‘A’ can be written as
é æ ωL 1 öù é æ ω0 L ω 1 ω öù
Z = R ê1 + jç - ÷ú = R ê1 + jçç ´ - ´ 0 ÷÷ú
ë è R ωCR øû ë è R ω0 ω0 CR ω øû
104 Network Theory
ω0 L 1
At resonance = = Q0
R w o CR
But Q0 is the value of Q at resonance.Where Q is called quality factor of the circuit.
é æ ω ω 0 öù é æ ω ω 0 öù
Hence Z = R ê1 + jç
ç Q 0 ´ - Q 0 ´ ÷
÷ ú = R ê1 + jQ 0
çç - ÷÷ú -----(B)
ë è ω 0 ω øû ë ω
è 0 ω øû
w - w0 w w
But d = Þ d = -1 Þ
w0 d
= +1
w0 w0
w0 1
Þ = put in above equation (B)
w 1 + d
é æ 1 öù é æ (d + 1) 2 - 1 öù
Z = R ê1 + jQ ç
0ç (δ + 1) - ÷ ú = R ê1 + j Q çç ÷÷ú
(δ + 1)) ÷ø û
We get, = 0
ë è ë è (d + 1) øû
é æ (d 2 + 2d + 1 - 1 öù é æ (δ 2 + 2δ ö ù
= R ê1 + jQ 0 ç ÷ ú = R ê1 + jQ 0 çç ÷ú
êë ç (d + 1) ÷ (δ + 1) ÷ú
è øúû êë è øû
But d < < 1, i.e 2 + d @ 2, 1 + d @ 1
é æ (δ + 2 öù
Þ Z = R ê1 + jδ Q0 çç ÷÷ú = R [1 + j Q 2 d ]
ë è (δ + 1) øû 0
Hence, Z = R[1 + j Q02 d ] -----(C)
V V
Hence current I= = R 1 + j2Q d
Z [ 0 ]
But at resonance d = 0 [Q w = w0 ]
V V
Hence current (maximum) I0 = =
z R
At half power frequency f1 and f2 the magnitude of reactive component of impedance
equals the resistance
æ 1 ö
i,e ç wL - ÷ = ±R
è wC ø
Network Theory 105
3.2.3.1 Calculation of lower half power frequency (f 1)
Here, R - jR = R[1 + j Q0 2 d ]
Equating real and imaging part. we get, -1 = 2Qo d
1 w - w0 1
d = 2Q Þ =- (Here angular frequency w corresponding to lower
0 w0 2Q 0
half power angular frequency w 1) (i.e. w ® w 1)
w1 - w 0 1 2 p f1 - 2 p f0 1 f1 - f0 1
Þ =- Þ =- Þ =-
w0 2Q 0 2 p f0 2Q 0 f0 2Q 0
fig.3.9
f1 1 f1 1 1
Þ -1=- Þ =1- Þ f1 = f0 (1 - )
f0 2Q 0 f0 2Q 0 2Q 0
3.2.3.2 Calculation of upper half power frequency (f 2)
As we know, Z = R[1 + j2 d Q0]
But upper half power freuency Z = R + jR
Þ R + jR = R[1 + j2 d Q0]
Equating real and imaginary part of above equation. We get,
1 w - w0 1
2 d Q0 = 1 Þ d = Þ =
2Q 0 w0 2Q 0
Here, w ® w2 (upper half power angular frequency)
w2 - w0 1
Þ =
w0 2Q0
2 p f 2 - 2 p f0 1 f 2 - f0 1
Þ = Þ =
2 p f0 2Q 0 f0 2Q 0
f2 æ 1 ö æ ö
Þ = çç1 + ÷÷ Þ f 2 = f 0 ç1 + 1 ÷
f 0 è 2Q0 ø ç ÷
è 2Q 0 ø
Bandwidth (B.W.) = f2 - f1
æ 1 ö æ 1 ö f0
= f 0 çç1 + ÷÷ - f 0 çç1 - ÷÷ =
è 2Q0 ø è 2Q0 ø Q 0
f0 f0
B.W. = f2 - f1 = Selectivity = = Q0
Q0 f2 - f1
Hence selectivtiy is equal to quality factor.
106 Network Theory
3.2.3.3 Quality Factor (Q)
Every inductor (L) is having a small resistance
R. Lower the value of resistance (R), better is L
the quality of the coil. Quality factor of a coil at ~ VV == VVmm sin
s in wt
wt
the operating frequency ' w ' is defined as the

R
ratio of reactance of the coil to it's resistance.
wL
Mathematically, Q = ® Dimnension less
R Fig.-3.8
where, L = Effective inductance of coil in Henery
R = Effective resistance of the coil in ohms.
Otherwise,
Maximum Energy stored per cycle
Quality Factor Q = 2 p ´
Energy dissipated per cycle
Let V = Sinusoidal voltage of frequency in Rad / Sec.
L = Effective inductance
R = Effective resistance of the coil
1
Maximum energy stored in inductor = L I 2m
2
2
æI ö
Energy dissipated by resistance = I 2 =ç m ÷ ´R
rms R çè 2 ÷ø
I2m I2 1
Hence Energy dissiputed in inductor percycle = ´R´t = m x R x
2 2 f
1 2
LI m wL
2 2 pfL ωL
Hence Q = 2π = = Þ Q=
I 2m 1 R R R
´R´
2 f
1
Similarly for Capacitance Q =
ωCR
3.2.3.4 Selectivity of Series RLC Ckt. Varies with Capacitance
If we vary the capacitance of the circuit
IO
we get resonance conditions. Following
curve show the relation between current
and capacitance. I0
DC
2
D C1
D C2
C1 Co C2
Capacitance
Fig.-3.9
Network Theory 107
The maximum current response is reached when the value of C is such that the
circuit resonates at the frequency of the applied signal.
Let CO be the value of C at resonance and C1 and C2 be the value of capocitance C
1
at which the magniude of reactance ( w L- ) equals to the resistance R.
wC
1
Then wL - = -R --------(A)
w C1
1
wL- = +R --------(B)
w C2
1
At resonance w L =
w C0
1 1
Substract equation (A) from (B) - = 2R
w C1 w C2
1é1 1ù 1 é C - C1 ù
Þ - = 2R Þ ê 2 ú = 2R --------(C)
ê ú w ë C1C 2 û
w ë C1 C2 û
Here C2 = C0 + D C2 » C0 [ Q D C2<< C0]
C1 = C0 + D C1 » C0 [ Q D C1<< C0]
For highly selective circuit D C1 and D C2 are small and almost equal.
Then C1 + C2 » 2C0
And C1C2 » C02 when substituted in equation (C)
1 é C2 - C1 ù C2 - C1
Þ ê ú = 2R Þ 2
= 2R
w ë C0 û2
C0 w
C2 - C1
= 2R --------(D)
w C20
1
But we know w L = , put in equation (D)
w C0
(C2 - C1 ) 2 2
We get, x w L = 2R Þ C2 - C1 = 2R = =
C20 wL æ ωL ö Q
C20 ç ÷ 0
è R ø
C 2 - C1 2 C0 Q0
= Þ =
C 20 Q0 C 2 - C1 2
108 Network Theory
C0 Q0
Þ selectivity = =
C 2 - C1 2
Where (C2 - C1) gives total variation in ‘C’ in moving from one half power conditions
to the other.
I, V L , V C VL
VC
Co C a p a c ita n c e C
Fig.3.10
Above curve shows the variation of current I, VL as C is varied. VL = I w L varies in

the same manner as current I and becomes maximum at resonance.
i.e. C = C0, at resonance VL = VC
I0 1
i.e. Iw L =
w L0
so that Þ w L =
w L0
[Q I = I 0 ]
3.2.3.5 Selectivity of series RLC Circuit with L-Variable
In this case resistance and capacitance are of fixed value and inductor is variable in
nature. Then how current and voltage vary with inductance which is described below.
Let L0 be the value of L at resonance and let L1 and L2 be the values of L at which the
1
magnitude of reactance ( w L - ) is equal to the resistance R
wC
1
Then w L1 - = -R --------(A)
wC
1
and w L2 - =R --------(B)
wC
1
At resonance w L0 = --------(C)
wC
Now substracting equation (B) from equation (A)
w L2 - w L1 = 2R --------(D)
2R L2 - L1 2R
Þ L2 - L1 = Þ =
w L0 w L0
Network Theory 109
2 2 L2 - L1 2
Þ = =
æ ωL0 ö Q0 L0 Q0
ç ÷
è R ø
Here (L 2 - L 1 ) gives the total
deviation in L ranging from one-half
power condition to the other the
æ L0 ö VL
quantity çç L - L ÷÷ . Thus gives the
è 2 1 ø
selectivity of the series RLC circuit VC

I, VL , VC
L0 Q0 I
with L variable & =
L2 - L1 2
Following curve shows the variation LO Inductance L
of current I, voltage VL and VC as L Fig:3.11
is varied.
When L = L0 indicates resonance condition i.e. current is maximum.
3.3 PARALLEL RESONANCE (ANTI RESONANCE)
C A
In this case the circuit consists of
inductor ‘L’ having small resistance
+ L
‘R’ Parallel with capacitance C. C
In this case branch AB and CD are
- R
Parallel to each other
D B
For branch AB, impedance Z1 = R
+jwL
Fig.-3.12
1 1 R - jw L
AdmittanceY1 = = =
Z1 R + jw L
R 2 + (w L) 2
1
For Branch CD, impedance Z2 =
jw C
1
Admittance Y2 = = jwC
Z2
Now Total admittance of the CKT (Y)
R - jw L
Y = Y1 + Y2 = + jwC
R 2 + w 2 L2
110 Network Theory
R æ ωL ö
= + j ç ωC - 2 ÷
R 2 + w 2 L2 è R + ω 2 L2 ø
At resonance condition imaginary part of Y = 0
wL
Þ wC - = 0 [ Q w ® w 0]
R 2 + w 2 L2
w0 L
Þ = w 0C Þ R2 + w 02L2 = L/C --------(A)
R 2 + w 20 L2
L 1 R2 1 R2
Þ w 02L2 = - R2 Þ w 02 = -
2
Þ (2 p f0)2 = -
C LC L LC L2
1 1 R2
Þ f0 = f 0s = - --------(B)
2p LC L2
Where f0 = Resonance frequency of parallel circuit. Now above equation can be
written as
1 R2 1 R 2C
f0 = 1- x LC = 1-
2 p LC L2 2 p LC L
R 2C
f op = fos 1 - --------(C)
L
Where f op = Resonance frequency of series RLC circuit.
f os = Resonance frequency of parallel RLC circuit.
But we know
w os L 1
Quality factor Q0 = (for Inductor), Q0 = (for Capacitor)
R w os CR
æ ω0s L ö 1 L
Þ Q2 = ç R ÷ x =
è ø w os CR CR 2
CR 2 1
Þ Hence = put in equation (B)
L Q 20
Network Theory 111
æ 1 ö
Then f 0 p = f 0 s çç1 - 2 ÷÷ --------(D)
è Q0 ø
Hence, the equation ‘D’ shows the relation between parallel resonance frequency
(fop) differs from the frequency of series resonance (fos) and quality factor Q.
N.B : We find the resonance frequency of parallel ckt (fop) differs from the frequency
of series resonance fos.
1
However if Q0 > 10, then the factor 1- » 1. That implies
2
Q
f0 p = f0s
3.3.1 Calculation of impedance at resonance conditions
R æ ωL ö
As we know, Net admittance Y = + jç ωC - 2 2 2 ÷
è R +ω L ø
R 2 + w 2 L2
At resonance imaginary part = 0
R R
At resonance Y = [Q w ® w 0 ]
2 2 2 = R 2 + w 2 L2 ----(E)
R +w L 0
But from equation (A), we get, R2 + w 02L2 = L/C Put in equation (E)
R 1
Y= =
L æ L ö
C ç ÷ ----(F)
è CR ø
1 1 L
Impedence Z= = = ----(G)
Y æ 1 ö CR
çç ÷÷
è L CR ø
L
Where Z = = Ra , This impedance is purely resistive in nature and also called
CR
dynamic resistance (Ra) of parallel tuned ckt. Lower the resistance R, greater is the
resistance Ra at resonance.At resonance condition
Current I = V VCR ----(H)

=
L L
RC
112 Network Theory
The current drawn from supply source is called make up current (I). And the current
flowing through inductor branch and capacitor branch is called forced osicllatory
current
V0
= V w 0C.
(1 / w 0 C)
Oscillatory current V w0 C w0 L
Hence, = = = Q0
Make up current drawn from the source VCR R
L
From the above we conclude that quality factor of parallel resonance ckt is equal to
quality factor of series resonance ckt.
L 1
We know dynamic resistance R a = = ´ (Lω0 ) = Q 0 Lω0
CR ω0CR
Q0
Hence Ra = --------(I)
w0 C
w0 L
Where = Q0 quality factor of inductor
R
L 1
AlsoRa = = x (L x w 0) Þ Ra = Q0L w 0 --------(J)
CR w 0 CR
1
Where Q 0 = for capacitor
w 0 CR
Above two equations‘I’ & ‘J’ indicate the relationship between dynamic resistance
(Ra) and quality factor Q0.
3.3.2 Calculation of impedance when frequency is close to resonance frequency
Z1Z2 1
Impedance Z = Z1 || Z2 = , Where Z1 = (R + j w L) and Z2 =
Z1 + Z2 jw C
æ 1 L ö
(R + jwL )æçç
1 ö
÷÷ çç + ÷
è j wC ø è jwC CR ÷ø
Þ Z= ÞZ = ---------(K)
æ 1 ö wL æ 1 ö
(R + jwL ) + çç ÷÷ 1+ j ç1 - 2
R è w LC ø
÷
è jw C ø
Network Theory 113
w - w0 w
As we know fractional deviation d = Þ =1+ d
w0 w0
wL w0 L w wL
We can write = x Þ = Q0 x (1 + d ) --------(L)
R R w0 R
1 w 20 1 1
Also = x , For Q > 10, w o »
w 0 LC w2 w 20 LC LC
1 w 20
Hence = --------(M)
w 2 LC w2
Put equation (L) & (M) in equation (K), we get
L æ R ö æ 1 ö
ç1 - j ÷ çç1 - j ÷
Z=
CR è ωL ø L è Q 0 (1 + d ) ÷ø
æ ω 2 ö Þ Z = CR ´ æ 2 +d ö --------(N)
1 + Q 0 (1 + δ)çç1 - 02 ÷÷ 1 + Q 0 δ)ç ÷
è ω ø è 1+ d ø
At parallel resonance w = w 0 and d = 0
æ j ö
çç1 - ÷
L è Q 0 ÷ø L æ j ö
Hence at resonance Z 0 = Þ Z0 = çç1 - ÷ -------(O)
CR (1 + 0) CR è Q 0 ÷ø
1 L
For Q ³ 10; is small or neglected. Hence Z0 @ The impedance is purely
Q0 CR
resistive in nature and it may be denoted by (Ra).
If the signal frequency is close to resonance, i.e. d << 1, Hence d is small as campared
to 1 or neglected. Thus equation (N) can be written as
æ 1 ö
çç1 - j ÷÷
L è Q 0 ø , If Q > 10, 1 << 1
Z= ´ 0
Q0
CR 1 + j 2Q 0 δ
L 1 1 L
Hence Z = x = Ra ´ ,Where Ra =
CR 1 + j2 Q0 d 1 + j 2Q 0 δ CR
114 Network Theory
Z 1
Þ = --------(P)
Ra 1 + j2 Q0 d
Z
Graph verses frequency (f)
Ra
0.707
Relative
Impedance
f1 fo f2
Frequency f
Fig.-3.13
The magnitude of impedance is maximum at resonance, and it falls down after and
before the resonance frequency. The f 1 and f2 indicate lower and upper half power
æ Ra ö
frequency at which impedance falls to ç ÷
è 2ø
3.3.3 Calculation of Bandwidth & Selectivity of Parallel Circuit
As we know 2 d Q0 = +1
For upper half power frequency f2
1 w - w0 1
d = + 2Q Þ = w ® w2
0 w0 2Q0
f 2 - f0 1 æ 1 ö
= Þ f 2 = f 0 çç1 + ÷÷ --------(Q)
f0 2Q0 è 2Q0 ø
For lower half power frequency (f1)
1 w - w0 1
d = - 2Q Þ =- ( w ® w1 )
0 w0 2Q0
w1 - w 0 1 f1 - f0 1
=- Þ =-
w0 2Q0 f0 2Q0
Network Theory 115
1
f1 = f0 (1 - ) --------(R)
2Q 0
æ 1 ö æ 1 ö f0
Band width ( B. W) [B] = f2 - f1 = = f 0 çç1 + ÷÷ - f 0 çç1 - ÷÷ =
è 2Q 0 ø è 2Q 0 ø Q 0
f2 - f1 1 f
Þ = Þ 0 = Q0
f0 Q0 B
f0
Selectivity = Q0 [ Q Selecting = ]
B
Hence the Q0 is a measure of the selectivity of parallel resonant ckt.
SOLVED PROBLEMS
Q.1 For a series R.L.C circuit the inductor is variable. Source voltage is 200 2 sin
100 p t . Maximum current obtainable by varying the inductance is 0.314 Amp. and
the voltage across the capacitor is 300 Volt. Find the circuit element values.
Ans : Under resonance conditions, given data V = 200 2 sin 100 p t , I = 0.314 Amp., VL
= VC = 300Volt.
Im = V/R and R = V/Im = 200/0.3144 = 637 W , Vc = Im x XC = Im/ w 0C
Im 0.314
Þ C= = = 3.33 m F
w 0 VC 100 p x 300
VL 300
V L = Im x X L = Im w 0 L Þ L = = = 3.03H
w0 Im 100 p x 0.314
Q.2 A coil having an inductance of 50 mH and resistance 10 W is connected in series with
a 25 m F capacitor across a 200 V ac supply. Calculate (a) resonance frequency of
the circuit (b) current flowing at resonance and (c) value of Q0 by using different
parameter.
Ans : Given data L = 50 mH, R = 10 W , C = 25 m F , V=200V
1 1
(a) Resonance frequencyf0 = = = 142.3 Hz
2 p LC 2 p 50 x 10 -3
x 25 x 10 -6
V 200
(b) At Resonance Z=R , I0 = = = 20A
R 10
116 Network Theory
w0 L 2 p x 142.3 x 50 x 10-3
(c) Quality factor (Q0) = = = 4.47 (for inductor)
R 10
1 1
Q0 = = = 4.47 (for capacitor)
w 0 CR 2 p x 142.3 x 25 x 10-6 x 10
1 L 1 50 x 10-3
Q0 = = = 4.47 Ans.
R C 10 25 x 10-6
Q.3 An R-L-C series circuit is connected to a 20-V variable frequency supply.
If R = 20 W , L = 20 mH and C = 0.5 m F , calculate the following :
(a) resonant frequency f 0 (b) resonant circuit Q0 using L/C ratio (c) half-power
bandwidth using f0 and Q0 (d) half-power bandwidth using the general formula for
any bandwidth (e) half-power bandwidth (f) maximum power dissipated at f0.
Ans : (a) Resonance Frequency
1 1
=
(f0) = = 1591 HZ
2 p LC 2 p (20 x 10-3 x 0.5 x 10-6
1 L 1 20 x 10-3
(b) Quality Factor (Q0) = = = 10
R C 20 0.5 x 10-6
(c) Half Power Bandwidth = f0/Q0 = 1591/10 = 159.1 Hz
(d) Maximum power dissipated = V2/R = 202/20 = 20 W
Q.4 An R-L-C series resonant circuit has the following parametes :
Resonance frequency = 5000/ 2 p Hz; impedance at resonance = 56 W and Q-factor
= 25.
Calculate the capacitance of the capacitor and the inductance of the inductor.
Assuming that these values are independent of the frequency, find the two
frequencies at which the circuit impedance has a phase angle of p /4 radian.
Ans : Here w 0 = 2 p f0 = 2 p x 5000/2 p = 5000 rad/s
w0 L 5000L
Now, Q= or 25 = or L = 0.28H
R 56
Also at resonance w 0L = 1/ w 0C or 5000 x 0.28 = 1/5000 x C Þ C = 0.143 m F
The circuit impedance has a phase shift of 450 and the two half-power frequencies
which can be found as follows :
Network Theory 117
f0 5000 / 2 p
BW = = = 31.83 Hz
Q 25
Therefore lower half-power frequency = (f0-31.83/2) = 5000/ 2 p -15.9 = 779.8 Hz.
Upper half-power frequency = (f0+31.83/2) = 5000/ 2 p + 15.9 = 811.7 Hz.
Q.5 Calculate the impedance of the parallel-tuned circuit as shown in
Fig. 3.12 at a frequency of 500 kHz and for bandwidth of operation equal to 20
kHz. The resistance of the coil is 5 W .
Ans : At resonance, circuit impedance (z) = L/CR. We have been given the value of R but
that of L and C has to be found from the given data.
R R 20 x 103
BW = ÞL = = = 39 m H
2pL 2 p xBW 3
2 p x 500 x 10
1 R2 1 1 52
1 - = -
f0 = LC L2 2 p 39 x 10-6 C (39 x 10-6 )2
2p
Þ C = 2.6 x 10-9F,,
Z = L/CR = 39 x 10-6/2.6 x 10-9 x 5 = 3 x 103 W
NUMERICAL PROBLEMS
1. A coil is represented by a series combination of L = 50m H and R = 15 W calculate
the quality factor at (a) 15kHz (b) 20kHz.
V2 (S)
2. In the following circuit at what value of frequency the function is real.
V1(S)
2F
2W 3H
V1 (S) 4W V2 (S)
3F
Fig.3. 14
3. Campare the resonant frequency in the following circuit for R = 0 to that for
R = 60 W .
118 Network Theory
3H R
30V 0.4 μF
Fig.3.15
4. A variable frequency source of voltage V = 50 Ð 00 is applied to a series RL circuit
having R = 20 W nd L = 10mH. Compute I for w = 0, 500, 725 rad/Sec. Plot all the
current on the same phaser diagram and note the locus of the current.
5. A 20 m F capacitor is in parallel with a practical inductor represented by L = 1mH in
series with R = 7 W . Find resonant frequency in rad/sec and in Hz of the Circuit.
6. What must be the relationship between the values of RL & RC, of the network shown
in fig.3.16, is to be resonant at all frequencies.
R1 L1
RC
0 RL
VÐ0
C1
Fi.g-3.16
7. A250-V circuit, consisting of a resistor, an inductor and a capacitor in series, resonates

at 50 Hz. The current is then 2 Amp. potential difference across the capacitor is 600
Volt. Calculate (i) the resistance (ii) the inductance and (iii) the capacitance. Draw
the vector diagram for this condition and sketch a graph showing how the current
would vary in a circuit of this kind if the frequency were varied over a wide range, the
applied voltage remaining constant.
8. A circuit consists of a resistance of 12 ohms, a capacitance of 160 m F and an
inductance of 0.04 H, all in series. A supply of 220 Volt, 50 Hz is applied to the ends
of the circuit, Calculate :
a. the current in the coil.
b. the potential differences across each element of the circuit.
c. the frequency at which the current would have unity power-factor.
9. A sinusoidal 50 Hz voltage of 200 Volt (r.m.s.) supplies the following three circuits
which are in parallel : (a) a coil of inductance 0.04 H and resistance 6 W (b) a capacitor
of 200 m F in series with a resistance of 100 W (c) a coil of inductance 0.01 H and
Network Theory 119
resistance 6 W in series with a 300 m F capacitor. Find the total current supplied and
draw a complete vector diagram.
10. A coil of resistance 15 W and inductance 0.03 H is connected in parallel with a non-
inductive resistance of 15 W . Find (a) the current in each branch (b) the total current
(c) the phase angle of whole arrangement for an applied voltage of 200 Volt at 50 Hz.
N.B. : In any Circuit (Series / Parallel Resonance Circuit) Power Factor (Cos f ) at
resonance condition is one. As at resonance condition circuit is purely resistive
in nature.
ppp
120 Network Theory
Chapter 4
COUPLED CIRCUITS
4.1 INTRODUCTION
In this chapter, the aim is to analyze magnetically coupled circuits (the
interconnected loops of an electric network through magnetic fields), it also gives the
brief idea about self inductance, mutual inductance, coupling co-efficient & tuned
circuit. When the interaction between two loops takes place through a magnetic field
instead of through common elements, the loops are said to be inductively or magnetically
coupled. Two ckts are said to be coupled when one common parameter plays same
function for each circuit. That common parameter is called mutual inductance.
4.2 SELF INDUCTANCE
When current changes in a circuit, the magnetic flux L
linking the same circuit changes. The emf induced in the coil i
is directly proportional to rate of charge of current. Fig.4.1
di di
MathematicallyV a Þ V=L --------(A)
dt dt
Where, L = Constant of proportionality or self inductance of the coil.
V = Voltage across inductor
i = Current flowing through inductor
Let, N = Nos of turns of coils and N f = Total flux
d (Total flux ) d (Nφ ) dφ

V= = =N ..........(B)
dt dt dt
Now equating equation (A) and (B)
dφ di Nd f Nf
N =L Þ L= Þ L= --------(C)
dt dt di i
Network Theory 121
N1 f1
or L1 = (Case-1, for coil - 1) --------(D)
i1
N 2 f2
L2 = (Case-2, for coil-2) --------(E)
i2
4.3 MUTUAL INDUCTANCE
Let two coils having inductances L1 and L2 of coil-1 and coil-2 respectively. Similarly
N1 & N2 are no of turns of coil-1 and coil-2, respectively.
Case-1 First of all the voltage is supplied to primary coil.
Coil - 1 Coil - 2
f21
i1 i2
f12
f12
L1 , N1 L 2 , N2
f11
Fig.-4.2
The current i1 is flowing due to impedance (Z1 = R1 + j w L1) of the coil-1
The current i1, set up the flux f1 . Again

f1
f1 1 f1 2
Fig.-4.3
f11 =Flux link itself within the coil(called leakage flux)
f12 = Flux links from coil-1 to coil-2 (known as link flux).
The flux f12 in responsible for produce voltage in 2nd coil.
Here voltage is V1 produces current I1. Also I1 current produces flux f1 . The flux
f12 is part of flux f1 produces voltage in secondary side.

i.e. V1 Þ i1 Þ f1 ® f12 Þ V2
d f12
Mathematically : V 2 = N2 --------(F)
dt
122 Network Theory
di
Again V2 =M --------(G)
dt
Where M = called mutual inductance of the circuit.
Now Equating (F) & (G) we get,
d f12 di1
We get N2 =M
dt dt
d f12
M = N2
di1
N 2 f12
In limiting case M= --------(H)
i1
Case-2: When supplied voltage is given to secondary side.
i.e. V2 ® I2 ® f2 ® f21
φ2
In this f21 flux links from coil-2 to coil-1 which
is responsible for produce a voltage in coil-1.
Here
d f21 φ 22 φ 21
i.e. V2 = N1 --------(I) Fig.4.4
dt
di2
and V2 =M --------(J)
dt
Equating Equations (I) & (J)
d f21 di2 d f21

We get N1 =M Þ M = N1
dt dt di 2
N1 f21
In Limiting case M= --------(K)
i2
Here we conclude that ‘M’ is common parameter for both the coils.
4.3.1 Coefficient of Coupling
Here f11 , f22 = Leakage flux, which are not responsible to produce emf in other ckt.
f12 , f21 =Link flux, which are responsible to produce voltage in other circuit.
Network Theory 123
f12 f21 Link Flux

Coefficient of coupling (K) = = = <1
f1 f2 Leakage Flux
But f12 < f1 and f21 < f2

So K is less than 1.
4.3.2 Relation between L1, L2, K & M
N 2 f12 N 2 f21
As we know M= from equation (H), M = from equation (K)
i1 i2
Now multiply the above two equations
M 2=
N 2 f12
i1
x
N1 f21
i2
=
N 2 K f1
i1
x
N1K f2
i2
( )( )
Nφ N φ
= K2 1 1 2 2
i1 i2
Hence = M2 = K 2 L1 L2 Þ M = K L1L2
4.4 CALCULATION OF EQUIVALENT INDUCTANCE

4.4.1 Series Addition of Coil
M
L1 L2
VL1 VL2
Fig.4.5
Voltage across two inductors (V) = VL1 + VL2

Now VL1 =Voltage across inductance 1 due to self inductance L1+ Voltage drop across
L1 due to mutual inductance of coil - 2.
di1 di2
= L1 +M ( Here i1 = i2 = same for series circuit)
dt dt
di
VLI =(L1 + M)
dt
di di
Similarly, Voltage across L2 = VL2 = L2 di + M = L2 + M
dt dt dt
Here sign of M depends upon direction of flux. If two flux are in same direction, then
M is +Ve. If two flux are in opposite direction, then M is -Ve in above case M is +Ve.
124 Network Theory
di di
V =V + VL2 = (L1 + M) + (L2 + M)
L1 dt dt
di di
Þ Lq = (L1 + L2 + 2M) Þ Leq = L1 + L2 + 2M. For series addition
dt dt
4.4.2 Series Opposition of coil
M
L1
L2
i
- - +
+ VL1 VL2
Fig.4.6
[Flux are in opposite direction So, M = -Ve (Arrow head indicate the direction of
flux).
Total Voltage V= VL1 + VL2
æ di di ö æ di di ö
= ç L1 - M ÷ + ç L 2 - M ÷
è dt dt ø è dt dt ø
di di
Leq = (L1 + L2 - 2M) Þ Leq = L1 + L2 - 2M For series opposition
dt dt
4.5 MODELLING OF COUPLED CIRCUIT
M
i1 i2
+ +
~ V L1 L2 V ~ -
-
C o il - 1 C o il - 2
Fig 4.7
Apply KVL for Coil-1
di1 di2
V 1 = R1i 1 + L1 +M --------(A)
dt dt
For Coil-2
di2 di1
V 2 = R2i 2 + L2 + M --------(B)
dt dt
Network Theory 125
In above circuit direction of I1 and I2 produces flux f 12 and f 21 oppose each other..
So M is -Ve. Hence the above equation can be written as
di1 di2
V 1 = L1R1 + L1 -M --------(C)
dt dt
di2 di1
V L = i 2R2 + i 2 -M --------(D)
dt dt
Let V1 and V2 are two sinusoidal voltage. Then above equation can written as follows.
V1 = I1RR1 + j w L1 I1 - j w MI2
V1 = I1 (RR1 + j w L1) - j w M I2 --------(E)
Similarly V 2 = I2 R 2 + j w L 2 I2 - j w M I1
V 2 = I2 R 2 + j w L 2 I2 - j w M I1 --------(F)
From equation (E) & (F)
é V1 ù éR 1 + jωω1 - jωω ù é I1 ù é Z11 Z12 ù é I1 ù

=
êV ú ê - jωω =
ë 2û ë R 2 + jωω2 úû êëI 2 úû êë Z 21 Z 22 úû êëI 2 úû
Here Z 11 = R1 + j w L1 ® coil - 1
Z 22 = R2 + j w L2 ® coil - 2
Z 12 = Z21 = j w M ® For both coil-1 and coil-2.
In this case Z12 = Z21 = -j w M is common impedance for both the circuit.
Suppose two partners are having common view, other wise one common part shared
by two partner are called coupling. In this case common impendance is same for
both (Partners) ckt is called coupled circuit.
4.6 DOT CONVENTION FOR REPRESENTING COUPLED CIRCUIT.
Dot may be like ® O , D , .
Case-1 For series connected mutually coupled coils
Rule-1 When the current through each of the mutually coupled coils are going away
from the dot or towards the dot, the mutual inductance taken as +Ve.
M i i
i i
L1 L2 L1 L2
M
( M = +ve )
( M = +ve )
( Both current entering )
( B oth current leaving )
Fig. 4.8
Rule-2 When one current is entering into dot and other current flowing away from
the dot, the mutual inductance taken as -Ve.
126 Network Theory
i M
i
L1 L2
Fig. 4.9
Case-2 For Mutually coupled transformer coil
Rule-1 : M is +Ve (Both currents are entering to dot)
M M
i2
i1 i2 i1
( + M )
(+M) Fig.4.10
Rule-2 : M is -Ve (One is entering, other one leaving)

M
M
i2
i2
i1 i1
(-M ) ( - M )
Fig .4.11
Example-4.1
Two coils have self inductances L1 = 10 x 10-3 H and L2 = 20 x 10-3 H. The
coefficient of coupling (K) is 0.80 in air. find the voltage in the 2nd coil and flux in the
1st coil provided the 2nd coil has 500 turns and the circuit current is given by i1 = 4 sin
314t amp.
Solution
Given data L1 = 10 x 10-3H, L2 = 20 x 10-3H, K = 0.80, N2= 500, i1 = 4 Sin 314 t
M = K L1L2 = 0.80 x 20 x 10-3 x 10 x 10-3 = 11.31 x 10 H

-3
di1 d
VL2 = M = 11.31 x 10-3 (4 sin 314t)
dt dt
= 4 x 314 Cos 314 t x 11.31 x 10-3 =14.21 Cos 314t
N 2 f12 N 2 k f1 Mi1 11.31 x 10-3 x 4 Sin 314 t
M= = Þ f1 = =
i1 i1 KN 2 0.08 x 500
f1 = 11.31 x 10-5 Sin 314t.
Network Theory 127
Example-4.2 Find the total inductance between terminals A & B.

M 14
M 12 M 23 M 34
I L1 L2 L3 L4
A B
Fig.4. 12
Given L1 = 1H, L2 = 2H, L3 = 5H, L4 = 6H, M12 = 0.5H, M23 = 1H,

M34 = 0.5H, M14 = 1H
Solution: Suppose total voltage across A & B = V
V = VL1 + VL2 + VL 3 + VL4

Here, M12 = +Ve, M23 = +Ve, M34 = -Ve, M14 = -Ve
di di di di di di
VL1 = L1 + M12 - M14 = (L1 + M12 - M14) = (1 + 0.5 - 1) = 0.5
dt dt dt dt dt dt
di di di di di di
VL2 = L2 + M12 + M23 = (L2 + M12 + M23) = (2 + 0.5 + 1) = 3.5
dt dt dt dt dt dt
di di di di di di di
VL 3 = L3 + M23 - M34 =5 +1 - 0.5 = 5.5
dt dt dt dt dt dt dt
di di di di di di di
VL4 = L4 - M34 - M14 =6 - 0.5 -1 = 4.5
dt dt dt dt dt dt dt
di di di di di
Hence, V = 0.5 + 3.5 + 5.5 + 4.5 = (0.5 + 3.5 + 5.5 + 4.5)
dt dt dt dt dt
di di di
Þ V= 14 Þ Leq = 14 Hence Leq = 14H
dt dt dt
Example-4.3
In the following coupled circuit find the input impedance as well as total inductance
between the terminals.
f = 0. 5
L 1= 0.2 H
+
~ L1 L2 L 2= 0.5 H
-
Fig.4.13
128 Network Theory
Solution : Above Ckt can redrawn as :
+
I1 I2
-
K = 0 .5
Fig-4.14
Apply KVL to the circuit

For Loop-1 V1 = (I1 - I2) j w L1 + j w MI2
= j w L1I1 + I2 (j w M - j w L1)
Here L1 = 0.2 H, M = K L1L2 = 0.5 0.2 x 0.5 = 0.158 H

Now V1 = j w (0.2) I1 - j w (0.042) I2 --------(A)
Again for 2nd loop
0= (I2 - I1) j w L1 + j w L2I2 + j w MI1 Þ 0= j w I1 (M-L1) + j w I2 (L1 + L2)
Þ 0 = j w I1 (0.158 - 0.2) + j w I2 (0.2 + 0.5) Þ 0= -0.042 j w I1 + j w I2
jw x 0.042
Þ j w I2 = I1 put in equation (A)
0.7
0.0242
We get, V1 = j w (0.2) I1 - 0.042 x j w x I1
0.7
= j w I1 (0.2 - 0.00252) = 0.1975j w I1
V1
Input impedance Zin= = j w 0.1975 Þ Zin = j w L = j w 0.1975 Þ L = 0.1975 H
I1
Example-4.4
Find V2 inthe following circuit such that current in the left hand loop (Loop-1) in zero
Assume V1 = 5 Ð 00 volt.
2W j1 W
j2
+ +
~ j4 ~
- V 1 I1 j3 W I2 V 2 -
L oop - 1 Fig-4.15 L oop - 2
Solution :
Apply KVL to Loop-1
Network Theory 129
2I1 + j4I1 + j2I2 = 5 < 0
I1 (2 + 4j) + 2jI2 = 3 + j0 --------(A)
For Loop-2
j1.I2 + j3I2 + 2j I1 = V2
2j I2 + (1 + 3j) I2 = V2 --------(B)
From equation (A) & (B)
é5 + j0ù é2 + 4 j 2 j ù é I1 ù
ê V ú = ê 2 j 1 + 3 jú êI ú
ë 2 û ë ûë 2 û
Using cramer's rule
é5 + j0 2j ù
ê V 1 + 3 júû = 0
I1 = ë 2 (Where I1 = 0)
D
é5 + j0 2 j ù
Þ ê V ú = 0 Þ 5(1 + 3j) - 2j V2 = 0
ë 2 1 + 3 jû
5 + 15j
V2 = = 7.90 Ð -18.43 Volt Ans.
2j
Example-4.5 In the following circuit calculate the voltage drop across RL.
K = 0.5
L L
2jΩ 1jΩ
- 3jΩ
10 Ð0 0 V I1 I2 R L = 5W
Fig.4.16
Solution : In the above circuit having two coils i.e.
j w L1 = j2 W and j w L2 = j1 W , k = 0.5
j w M = XM = K j w L1 x j w L2 = 0.5 2 j x 1j = j0.707 W
Applying K.V.L. to loop-1
10 + j0 = I1 x 2j + (I1 - I2) (-3j) - j 0.707 I2 Þ -j + I2 x j2.293 = 10 -----(A)
130 Network Theory
Applying KVL to loop-2
jI2 + 5I2 + (-3j) (I2 - I1) - j 0.707 1 = 0 Þ 2.293 I1 + (5 - 2j) I2 = 0--------(B)
é10ù é -j 2.293ù é I ù
From equation A & B, we get ê ú = ê 1
ú êI ú
0
ë û ë 2.293 5 - 2 jûë 2 û
é - j 10 ù
ê 2.293 0 ú
22.93
I2 = ë û
= = 2.6 Ð -34.60 Amp.
é -j 2.293ù 7.25 + 5j
ê 2.293 5 - 2 jú
ë û
The voltage drop across RL = I2 x RL= 2.6 Ð -34.60 x 5 = 13 Ð -34.60 Volt. Ans.
Example 4.6 Find the mesh equation of the following coupled circuit.
R1 R2
M
+
V1 I1 I2
- L1 L2
Fig.4.17
Solution : Consider Loop-1
I1 R 1 + j w L 1 I1 + j w M I2 = V 1
Here mutual inductance is +Ve because in both sides of the coil current I1 & I2 are
entering into the dot .
Þ (R1 + j w L1) I1 + j w MI2 = V1 --------(A)
For Loop-2, I2R2 + j w MI2 + j w MI1 = 0
Þ j w MI1 + (R2 + j w L2)I2 = 0 --------(B)
From equation A & B, we get
(R1 + j w L1) I1 + j w MI2 = V1
And j w MI1 + (R2 + j w L2)I2 = 0 Ans.
Example-4.7
Two coils A & B of 1200 turns and 1500 turns respectively lie in parallel planes so
that 60% of the flux produced by coil A links with coil B. A current of 5 ampere in coil
A produces 0.5 x 10-4 wb. While the same current in coil B produces 0.75 x 10-4
wb. Calculate (i) self inductance of each coil and mutual inductance (ii) the coefficient
of coupling.
Network Theory 131
N1 = 1200, N2 = 1500, f 1 = 0.5 x 10-4wb, f 1 = 0.75 x 10-4wb, I1 = 5A., I2 = 5A.
N1 f1 1200 x 0.5 x 10-4

(i) Now L1 = = = 12 mH.
i1 5
N 2 f2 1500 x 0.75 x 10-4

L2 = = = 22.5 mH
i2 5
N 2 f12 1500 x 60% x 0.5 x 10-4

And M21 = = = 9 mH.
i1 5
M 9
(ii) Coefficient of coupling K = = = 0.55 Ans.
L1L2 12 x 22.5
Example-4.8
Two coils P & S having resistance of 1.5 W and 5 W and self inductane of 5H
and 20 H respectively have mutual inductance of 9.8H. Coil P is connected to 100 V,
50Hz supply.Find(a)Primary current and 2ndary voltage the secondary terminals being
open ckted.(b)Primary current and 2ndary current, the 2ndary terminal short short
ckted.
R1 R2
M
+ -
V1 I1 L1 L2 I2
-
V2
+
Fig.4.18
Solution : Applying KVL to Loop-1
V1 = (R1 + j w L1) I1 - j w MI2 --------(A)
For Loop-2 V2 = -j w M I1 + (R2 + j w L2)I2 --------(B)
(a) Secondary side open ckted i.e. I2 = 0, Put in equation (A) & (B).we get,
V1 100 100
I1 = = Þ |I1| = =0.0637 A.
R1 + jw L1 . + j 2 p x 50 x 5
15 2 2
. + (1570)
15
(b) Secondary side is short Ckted.
i.e.V2 = 0 put in equation (B)
132 Network Theory
I1 R 2 + jw L2 I1 25 + (2 x p x 50 x 20) 2
We get = Þ I = = 2.04
I2 jw M 2 (2 p x 50 x 9.8) 2
Þ I2 = 0.49 I1 put in equation (A)
We get 100 = [1.5 + j314 x 5 - j314 x 9.8 x 0.49]
= (1.5 + j0.21 x 314) I1
100
I1 = = 1.515 Amp.
. )2 + (314 x 0.21) 2
(15
I 2 = 0.49 x I1 = 0.49 x 1.515 = 0.743 Amp.
Example-4.9
In the following fig represents coupled coil circuit whereL1 = 15mH, L2 = 60mH.If the
co-efficient of mutual inductance is 0.8, Find the value of mutual inductance and
write down the equation in differential form.
R1 I1 I2 R
M 2
+ -
V1 L1 V2
- L2
+
Fig.4. 19
Solution: Given data L1 =15mH, L2 =60mH, K=0.8
Mutal inductance M= K L1L2 = 0.8 15 ´ 10-3 ´ 60 ´ 10-3 =0.024H

Here mutual inductance is -ve, because at the 1st coil current entering into dot, in
other coil current is leaving away from the dot.
di1 di 2 di di
Hence, V1 = R1i1 + L1 -M Þ V1 = R1i1 + 0.2 1 - 0.024 2 ....(A)
dt dt dt dt
Similarly, for coil-2,
di 2 di di di
V2 = - R 2 i 2 - L2 + M 1 Þ V2 = - R 2i 2 - 0.05 2 + 0.024 1 ....(B)
dt dt dt dt
Example-4.10
Using following data, Find the self and mutual inductance of coil-1&coil-2 of a
coupled circuit operating in a linear zone.
N1 = 1000, N2 = 800, I1 = 2 Amp., f 1 = 10mwb, f 12 = 6mwb
Network Theory 133
Solution :
f12 6
Co-efficient of coupling (K) = = = 0.6
f1 10
N 1 f1 1000 x 0.01
Self inductance of coil 1 = L1 = = =5H
I1 2
N 2 f12 0.006
Mutual inductanceM = = 800 x = 2.4 H
I1 2.0
M2 2.252
However, M = k L1L2 Þ L2 = = = 1.25H.
K 2 L1 0.36 x 5
4.7 TUNED COUPLED CIRCUIT
Generally amplification of signals is done by tuned coupled circuit. There are two
types of tuned circuit
a.Single tuned Circuit.
b.Doubled Tuned Circuit.
4.7.1 Single tuned circuited
In single tuned circuit, the secondary coil is only tuned. Tuned circuit generally used
broadcasting receivers, TV receiver to couple the different antenna to radio frequency
range. Single tuned Ckts. are also used in band stop filter.
Circuit Diagram :
R0 I1 I2
M
RP RS
E1 CS V0
LP LS
Fig.4.20
Input impedanceZ11 = (R0 + Rp) + j w Lp= R1 + j w X1 » R1

Where R1 = Ro + Rp ,But X1 is negligible
Also secondary side (output side) impedance
æ 1 ö
Z22 = R2 + j çç wLS - ÷÷ = R + jX
è w C S ø
2 2
134 Network Theory
where Z11 = Driving point impedance of input side
R0 = Source resistance , E1 = Source voltage
Rp, Lp = Resistance and Inductance of primary side coil.
Z22 = D.P.I. at output , Z12, Z21= Transfer impedance
Here Z12 = Z21 = j w M
Consider primary side and 2ndary side, its loop equation is given by
Z11 I1 - Z12 I2 = E1
-Z21 I1 + Z22 I2 = 0
Using cramer's rule, we get
Z11 E1
- Z12 0 E1Z12 E1 (jwM)
I2 = = =
Z11 - Z12 2
Z11Z22 - Z12 R 1 (R 2 + jX 2 ) + ω 2 M 2
- Z12 Z22
E1 jwM
Þ I2 =
é æ 1 öù
R1 ê R2 + j çç wLS - ÷÷ú + w 2 M 2
ë è wC S øû
I2 1 E1 jwM
This gives V0 = = ´
j w CS jw C S é æ 1 öù
R 1 êR 2 + jçç ωL S - ÷÷ú + ω 2 M 2
ë è ωCS øû
V0 1 wM
Amplification factor, A = = ´
E1 CS é æ 1 öù
R1 ê R2 + j çç wLS - ÷÷ú + w 2 M 2
ë è wC S øû
1
By varying CS , for any specified value of M, when w Ls =
w Cs
The relation between w and V0 as follows.
V0
Where V0 = Peak value of output,
Wr = resonance frequency.
Output
Voltage
Fig.4.21 Frequency
wr
Network Theory 135
4.7.2 Double-Tuned coupled circuit
In double tuned circuit, both the primary and secondary of coupled coils are tuned.
These circuits are used in tuned amplifier.
Circuit Diagram :
I1 R0 I2
CP M
~ E1
RP
LP
RS
LS
CS V0
Fig.4.22
1
Primary side D.P.I = R0 + RP + j( w pLp - ) = R1 + jX1 ---(A)
w CP
Where, R 1 = R 0 + R P
1
Secondary side D.P.I. = RS + j( w LS - ) = R2 + jX2 ---(B)
w CS
But Z12 = Z21 = j w M ---(C)
Applying KVL to the primary and secondary side, we get.
E1Z12 E1 ( j w M )
I2 = 2 =
Z11Z12 - Z12 ( R1 + jX1 ) ( R 2 + jX 2 ) + w 2 M 2
I2 E1M
V0 = =
j w CS Cs[( R1 + jX1) ( R 2 + jX2 ) + w 2 M 2 ]
V0 M
Amplification factor A= =
E1 Cs[( R1 + jX1) ( R 2 + jX2 ) + w 2 M 2 ]
1 1
At resonant frequency ( w r) =
LP C P LSCS
E1 w r M E1M / C
I2res= , V0 res (Voltage at resonance) =
R1R 2 + w 2r M 2 R1R 2 + w 2r M 2
136 Network Theory
M / Cs R1R 2
Ares = , V0 res is to be maximum, When = w2 M
R1R 2 + w 22 M 2 M r
R1R 2 R1R 2
M= Þ M= =k R1R 2
wr wr
The coupled impedance is maximum at resonance. It is inductive below resonance
and capacitive above resonance.
NUMERICAL PROBLEMS
Q.1. Two coils, of self-inductances L1 = 1.5 H ; L2 = 3.5 H are coupled in such a way that
M = 1.5 H. Assuming the mutual inductance to be +Ve as per the dot convention, find
the amount of energy stored after 0.2 sec for the circuit connected to a d.c. sourc of
12 V.
Q.2. Two coupled coils have K = 0.6, N1 = 300 turns, N2 = 600 turns and the mutual flux
being 0.7 wb, find the primary coil flux. If the the primary current be 10 A, find the
primary coil inductance. Also obtain the secondary inductance.
Q.3. What are the values of the self and mutual inductances for the two coupled coils 1
and 2 if K = 1 and N1 = 400 turns, N2 = 850 turns, I1 = 5 A, f 1 = 50 m wb, f 2 = 60 m
wb.
Q.4 Two coupled coils with turns N1 = 175 and N2 = 650 have a coupling coefficient of
0.53. With coil 1 open and a current of 2 amperes in coil 2, the flux j 2 is 0.40 mWb.
Find L1, L2 and M.
Q.5. Two coils with inductances L1 = 7.5 mH and L2 = 3.2 mH are connected in series
aiding and series opposing. The equivalent inductances of these connections are 20.4
and 4 mH respectively. Find M and k.
Q.6. Two coupled coils with L1 = 0.01 H, L2 = 0.05 H and k = 0.3 arre connected in four
different ways ; series aiding, series opposing, and parallel with both arrangements of
the winding sense. What are the four equivalent inductances .
Q.7. Sketch the dotted equivalent circuit for the coupled coils shown in Fig.4.23 and
find the equivalent inductance rectance.
4j
2j 3j
3j 5j 6j
A B
Fig.4.23
Network Theory 137
Q.8. Two coupled coils have self-inductances L1 = 30 mH and L2 = 50 mH. The coefficient
of coupling (K) being 0.45 in the air, find voltage in the second coil and the flux of the
first coil provided the second coil has 350 turns and the circuit current is given by
i1 = 3 sin 223 Amps.
Q.9. Find the conductively coupled equivalent circuit of the network shown in Fig.4.24.
I1 2j
(4 - 2j) 4j
5Ð 20 0 2j 4j Z L = 10Ð30 0
Fig.4.24
Q.10. Obtain the dotted equivalent circuit for the three coupled coils shown in Fig.4.25 and
find the equivalent impedance at the terminals AB. All coupling coefficients are
0.6.
0.1H
0.2H 0.1H
0.3H 0.4H
0.05H
A B
Fig.4.25
Q.11. Determine the value of k in the coupled circuit of Fig. 4.26 if the power in the 10
ohm resistor is 30 watts.
5j
K
+
20Ð0 0 8j 10W
-
Fig.4.26
Q12. For the coupled circuit shown in Fig. 4.27 , find the voltage ratio V2/V1 which results
in zero current I1. Repeat for a zero current I2.
138 Network Theory
I1 I2 2W
6W 2j
~ V1 1j 4j ~ V2
Fig.4.27
Q.13. Find the drop across the capacitor and the resistor in the following (Fig.4.28)
3W 4j
2j - 5j
~ 10 Ð30 0 V 2j
Fig.4.28
Q.14. Two coils have a coupling coefficient k = 0.85 and coil I has 250 turns. With a current
i1 = 2 A in coil 1, the total flux j is 0.3 mWb. When i1 is reduced linearly to zero in
two milliseconds the voltage induced in coil 2 is 63.75 volts. find L1, L2, M and N2
ppp
Chapter 5
LAPLACE TRANSFORM &
ITS APPLICATION
5.1 INTRODUCTION
Suppose an electrical circuit consists of switch, voltage supply and electric
parameters. At the time of switching (ON/OFF) some physical change takes place
in the circuit. It means either current or voltage is high value or tends to zero
depending upon circuit parameter. This phenomenon is called transient phenomenon.
5.2 INITIAL CONDITION
Now, before switching action takes place, the various elements of the network
may already have voltage across their terminals or current through them. Initial
values of these voltages or currrents before switching (i,e t = 0-) have to be evaluated.
Next we must know how each voltage and current changes when switching is done.
Knowing the values of voltage and currents at t = 0 and knowing the changes
introduced by switching action. We can find the initial values of current and voltages
just after switching i.e at time t = 0+. Initial condition for different parameters given
below.
1. Resistance :There is no physical change takes place across the resistor. Voltage
across a resistor changes instantaneously, the current through it also change
instantaneously and vice-versa.
2. Inductor :The current through an inductor cannot change instantaneously. The
inductor acts as an open circuit at the time of switching. However, any current I0
already flowing in the inductor before the switching action will continue to flow.
Hence initially at time t = 0+, the inductor may be considered as a current source of
current I0.
3. Capacitor : In a system of fixed capacitance, the voltage cannot change
instantaneously, since V = q/C. Zero charge correspond to zero voltage. Thus for
suddenly applied energy source a capacitor in equivalent to a short circuit. Further
with an initial charge say q0 in the system, the capacitor equivalent to a voltage
source of value V0 = q0/C.
140 Network Theory
5.2.1 Procedure for Evaluting Initial Condition

a. Solving for the initial values of the variable like current and voltages at t = 0+.
b. Solving for initial values of variables at t = 0+. This may be done by obtaining
from the network (Equivalent network for t = 0+) According to the following
rules.
i. Replace every inductor by an open circuit or by a current generator having
current source equal to that flowing at time t = 0+.
ii. Replace every capacitor by a short circuit or by a voltage generator having
source voltage equal to q0/C if. There is an initial charge (q0).
Summary
Element Symbol Initial condition Steadystate condition

(t = 0) (t = ¥ )
Resistor
I I
Inductor
I = 0J ,=V0 = Vmax I = I max
Capacitor
q
V = 0, I = I max I = 0, V = Vmax
For Resistance there is no change of resistance at t = 0 and t = ¥ sec.

For Inductor :
2pL 1
Inductive reactance X L = 2 p fL = [Q f = ]
t t
At, t = 0 sec. XL = ¥ ® Inductor is open circuit in nature
At, t = ¥ sec. XL = 0 ® Inductor short circuit in a nature (Acts. as current source)
For Capacitor :
1 1 t
Capacitive reactance XC = = =
wC 2 p fC 2pC
At, t = 0, XC = 0 ® Capacitor short Ckted.
At, t = ¥ XC = ¥ ® Capacitor is open circuit in nature (It acts as voltage source.)
Type of Transient :
1. A.C Transient 2) D.C Transient
Laplace Transform & its Application 141
AC Transient :
If the input voltages/current source to the Ckt is alternating in nature. It's response
is called AC Transient response.
5.3 DC TRANSIENT
If the input voltage/ current source is independent of time i.e frequency = 0. It's
responc is called DC transient response.
Type of Circuit Involved in Transient :-
1. R-L Circuit
2. R-C Circuit
3. R-L-C Circuit.
Time :
Switching time plays an important rule in transient analysis.
At t = 0 (Known as switch is just closed)
t = 0– (Known as just before switching)
t=0 +
(Known as just after switching)
t=0
( After
t=0 + Switching )
t = 0-
t>0
- ¥ + ¥
t<0 t=0
Before Switching Just Switching
Fig.5.1
Let an integer is 1. The value nearly less than 1 is 0.999. The value just greater than
1 is 1.00001
i.e 0.999 » 1 » 1.0001. This indicates that, the physical significant of the circuit at
t(0) = t(0-) = t(0+)
5.4 DC TRANSIENT OF R-L CIRCUIT
Type-1 Circuit Diagram:
At time t = 0 (switch is closed).Applying R

KVL to the above circuit.
di di R V V i L
V= Ri + L Þ + i= ....(A)
dt dt L L
The above equation is 1st order differential
equation compared to ist order equation Fig.5.2
142 Network Theory
di
+ Px = Q.
dt
The Solution of the above equation done by integrating factor method.
I.F = e ò p.dx = e px
R R
ò .dt t
For equation (A), I.F = e L
=e L multiplying both sides in equation .
R t di R R t 1 R t
Þe L + i. e L = Ve L
dt L L
d æ RL t ö 1 R
t
ç ÷
Þ ç e .i ÷ = .V.e L .dt
dt è ø L
Now integrating both sides w.r.t ‘t’
V Rt
Þ i.e L t = ò e L .dt + K
R
L
Where, K = Constant of integration
R t V R t
i. e L = e L +K
R
R t
Dividing both sides by e L
V -R t
We get i= +K e L ...(B)
R
Calculation of value of ‘K’
Using initial condition, At t = 0, i = 0 ,substitute in equation (B). We get ,
V
0= +K [L ® open Ckt] .
R
Hence the value of K = - V put inequation (B),

R
V æç1 - e - L t ö÷
R
V V -R t
we get i = - e L , Hence i = ç ÷
R R R è ø
V æç1 - e -t ö
t
÷
i= ç ÷ ...(C)
R è ø
Where, τ = L/R =Time constant of R-L circuit.

Calculation of steady state current
At steady state , t = ¥ , Put in equation (B),
V V V V -R t
we get i = (1 - e- ¥ ) = , Hence i= - e L
R R R R
V V -t
= -
R R e t
Part-1 Part-2
Where t = Time constant of R.L circuit = L

R
Part-1 is called steady state part and Part-2 is called transient part. Transient part
must contain exponential term .
t i(t)
Graph ~ i
t V
i=
R
V
0.864
R
V
0.632
R
Væ - ö
t
V i(t) = ç1 - e τ ÷
0.5
R
R çè ÷
ø
Current
1 2 3 4 5
t
V æ -
R
t ö Fig.5.3 t
As we know i = ç1 - e L ÷
R çè ÷
ø
V
At t = 0, i= (1 - e-0) = 0
t R
V V
At t (1 - e- ¥ ) =
t ¥
= , i= (Steady state current)
R R
t V V æ e -1 ö V V
= 1, i = (1 - e-1) = ç ÷ = 0.632 = 63.2% [ Q e = 2.718]
t R R è e ø R R
V æç e - 1 ö÷
2
t V V V
t
= 2, i = (1 - e ) = ç 2 ÷
-2
= 0.864 = 86.4% of
R R è e ø R R
144 Network Theory
Calculation of Voltage across Resistor ( VR)
V æç1 - e - L t ö÷ æ - tö
R R
ç1 - e L ÷
V R= i R = ç ÷ x R= V ç ÷ VR
R è ø è ø V
Graphycally Voltage across resister (VR ) and

VR = Væç1 - e τ ö÷
-t
t
τ shown in fig 5.4 è ø
1 2 3 4
t
p
Fig.5.4
Calculation of Voltageacross inductor (VL)
d V æç1 - e -t
t
ö éV æ -
t
öù Væ -
t
ö æ 1ö
÷= L x ç
ê ç1 - e t ÷ú = L ´ ç - e t ÷´ç- ÷
VL = L ç ÷ ÷ R çè ÷ è tø
dt R è ø ëê R è øûú ø
LV - t t 1 - t V
= e x = Ve t
R L
R
If t = 0, VL = V
p 0.367 V
V
If t = 1, VL = Ve1 = = 0.367V
p 2.718 0 1 2 3 4
Graphycally Voltage across resister (VL ) and t

Fig.5.5 p
τ shown in fig 5.5.
t
Example-5.1
In series R.L circuit consists of resistance
R = 4 ohm, L = 2H closed. Switch is closed S R = 4W
at t=0 sec. Calculate the
(a) Transient current equation 2H
200 V
(b) Steady state current
(c) Time constant
(d) Voltage across resistance Fig.5.6
(e) Voltage across inductor
(f) At what time current of 45 amp, if the applied voltage to the circuit is 200V dc.
But switching takes place at t=0 sec.
Solution :
At t = 0, L ® open ckted, i = 0 (initial condition)
V æç1 - e - L t ö÷ 200 æç1 - e - 2 ö÷

R 4t
÷ = 50(1 - e ) Amp
- 2t
(a) Now Transient curent i = ç ÷ = 4 ç
R è ø è ø
V 200
(b) Steady state current, i= = = 50 amp.
R 4
L 2
(c) Time constant ( t ) = = = 0.5 sec.
R 4
æ - tö
R
ç 50(1 - e -2t ) Volt
L ÷
(d) Voltage across resistor (VR) = iR = V ç 1 - e ÷ =200
è ø
(e) Voltage across inductor VL = Ve-2t = 200 e-2t volt.
V æç1 - e - L t ö÷
R
45 4.5
÷ Þ 45 = 50(1 - e ) Þ 1 - e-2t =
- 2t
(f) i = ç Þ 1- = e-2t
R è ø 50 5
5 - 4.5 1
Þ = e-25 Þ = e-2tTaking log of both the sides
5 10
æ1ö æ1ö
Þ Ln e-2t = Ln ç ÷ Þ -2t = Ln ç ÷
è 10 ø è 10 ø
1 2.3025
t= Ln 10 = = 1.15 sec. Ans.
2 2
Type-II R.L. CKT.
In the following circuit switch ‘S’ a
indicates two points ‘a’ & ‘b’. Before b S
R
switching switch was at point ‘a’ for
V2
long time. At time t = t ' sec position V1 L
of swich changes from a to b.
C a l c u l a t e t h e t r a n s i e n t current
equation. Fig.5.7
Step-I Initially switch is connected to
a
point "a" i.e. Ckt. is of the form.
But according to question, switch is at V1 b R
point ‘a’ for long time indicates steady
state condition of the circuit. Now at V2 L
steady state condition inductor L is short

ckted. circuit is of the form Shown in
fig.5.9 Fig.5.8
146 Network Theory
V1 b i (00)
R
V2
Fig.5.9
V
Now before switching current i0 =
R
S teady State C ond ition
t=0 t = t/
S w itch is at p osition ‘a’ P osition of Sw itch

chan ges from ‘a’ to ‘b ’
Fig.5.10
Step-II At t = t1 (t' = 0 sec. for the Ckt. given below)
b S R
V1 V2 L
i
Fig 5.11
di di R V2
Applying KVL, V2 = Ri + L Þ + i=
dt dt L L
Solving the above equation, we get
i = V2
t
+ ke - R / L ... (A)
R
Where, K = Proportionality constant.
Calculation of k:
Using inital condition At t = t' sec switch is closed. At that time current flowing
through inductor is i0- = i(t' = 0-) = V1 [i,e t = t1 = 0sec]

R
[Current at just switching = Current just before switching]

Hence at that time inductor acts as a current source.
V1 V2
Hence = + ke-0
R R
æ V2 - V1 ö V2 æ V2 - V1 ö -R / Lt
Þ k = ç R ÷ putting in equation (A) We get, i= +ç ÷ e
è ø R è R ø
V2 V1 V2 V1 V2
i= + - -R / Lt Þ i= + + (1 - e -R / Lt )
R R R e R R
Above equation is called transient equation of type - II R.L circuit.
5.4.1 Solution of R-L circuit by using Laplace Transformation method
V L
Fig.5.12
At t = 0 Sec switch is just closed .Applying KVL to the above circuit
di
We get, V = Ri + L
dt
Take laplace Transformation both sides.
V
We get, = R I(S) + L [S I(S) - I(0+)],
S
æ di ö
As we know, L ç ÷ = sI ( s ) - I O +
è dt ø
Here Io+ indicates current just after switching.
But I0 = I0+ = I0- = o [L ® open Ckted.]
V
Þ = R I(S) + LS I(S) = I(S) [R + LS]
S
V V V/L
I(S) = = =
S( R + LS) LS (S + R ) S (S + R )
L L
148 Network Theory
V é1 1 ù 1
= ê - ú´
ë
(
L êS S + R ú R
Lû L
)
é æ öù
ê V ç 1 - 1 ÷ú
Þ I(S) = ê R ç S S + R ÷ú
ë è L øû
é æ ù
-1 ê V ç 1 1 ö÷ú Vé - R Lt ù
i(t) = L - i ( t ) = 1 - e
Hence i(t)= ç
êR S S+ R ÷ ú
ë è L øû R êë úû
é 1 ù é1ù
= e - at , L ê ú = 1
-1 -1
As we know, L ê ú
ëS + a û ëS û
Example-5.2
In the following R.L circuit having
a L = 2H
resistance R = 5 Ohm, Inductance L = 2H b

connected by two way switch. The switching
action takes place to point ‘a’ at t = 0 Sec. After 30 V R = 5W
1 Sec. The position of switch changes from ‘a’ 20 V
to ‘b’.Calculate the transient current, voltage
across inductor and resistor.
Fig. -5.13
Solution :
Case-I : At t = 0 Sec, switch at point ‘a’.In above circuit, transiet current equation
is given by
V æç1 - e - L t ö÷ 30 æç1 - e - 2 t ö÷ æ - tö
R 5 5
ç 2 ÷
i= ç ÷= ç ÷ = 6 ç1 - e ÷
R è ø 5 è ø è ø
Case-II : Position of the switch changes from ‘a’ to ‘b’.
a R = 5W
30 V
L = 2H
20 V
Fig.5.14
æ - ´1 ö
5
ç
At time t = 1 sec., curent flowing through inductor is i = 6 ç 1 - e 2 ÷
÷ = 0.550 Amp.
è ø
i.e i = i0- = 0.550 Amp [Current Before switching condition]
di
Applying KVL, 20 = 5i + 2
dt
Taking Laplace Transformation both sides.
20
We get, = 5I(S) + 2 [SI(S) - I0+] = I(S) [5 + 2S] - 2 x 0.550
S
But I0+ - = I0- = I0 = 0.55 Amp.
20
Þ I(S) [5 + 2S] = + 1.1
S
10 10 0.550
Þ I(S) (S+2.5) = + 0.550 Þ I ( S ) = +
S S ( S + 2.5) S + 2.5
10 æ 1 1 ö 0.55
I(S) = ç - ÷ +
2.5 è S S + 2.5 ø 5 + 2.5
é1 1 ù é 0.55 ù
-1
i(t)= L-1[I(S)] = 4 L ê -
ë S S + 2 . 5 û
-1
ú + L ê S + 2 .5 ú = 4 1 - e
ë û
- 2.5 t
( )
+ 0.55e - 2.5t
Þ i(t) = 4 - 3.45 e-2.5t

di d
Voltage across inductor VL =L =2 (4 - 3.45 e-2.5t) = 2[0-3.45 x (-2.5) e-2.5t]
dt dt
= 17.25 e-2.5t Volt
Voltage across resistor VR = Ri = 5(4 - 3.45 e-2.5t) = 20 - 17.25 e-2.5t
5.5 DC TRANSIENT OF R.C. CIRCUIT
Type-1 : At t = 0 Sec., switch is just closed.

Applying KVL,
t 0 t
1 1 1
V = Ri + ò
C -¥
i.dt Þ V = Ri + ò
C -¥
i.dt + ò i.dt
C0
R +
0
Here, q 0 = ò i.dt
-¥
= Charge stored in capacitor
V C
-
before switching conditions.
q0 1
t
Fig.5.15
C ò0
Þ V = Ri + + i.dt ,
C
150 Network Theory
-¥ +¥
After Switching Condn
Before Switching Condn
0
Fig.5.16
q0
where = V(0-) = Voltage across capacitor, if charge is stored before switching
C
condition.Taking Laplace Transformation both sides, we get,
V q0 1 I(S)
= RI(S) + +
S CS C S
V é
q0 1 ù ét ù I(S)
Þ - = I(S) êR + But ê ò i.dt ú =
S CS ë CS úû ë0 û S
æ ö
ç ÷
CV - q 0 RCS + 1 CV - q 0 CV - q 0 ç 1 ÷
Þ = I(S) Þ I(S) = = ç 1 ÷
CS CS RCS + 1 RC ç S + ÷
è RC ø
æ ö
ç ÷ æ CV - q ö
-1 æ CV - q0 ö 1
Hence, i(t) = a -1 I(S) = L ç ç ÷´ ÷ = ç ÷ e - t RC
0
ç è RC ø S + 1 ÷ è RC ø
ç ÷
è RC ø
æ CV - q 0 ö t
Now i(t) = ç RC ÷ e t Where t = Time constant of RC circuit.
è ø
V t
If initial charge stored by capacitor q0 = 0, then i(t) = e t
R
GRAPH :
V
R
V - t
i= e t
R
V
0.367 R
0
1 2 3 4
t
t
Fig.5.17
t V V
If t = 0, i(t) = e-0 = (maximum value) ,
R R
t V
If t = ¥ , i(t) = R e ¥ = 0 (minimum value)
-
t V V
If t = 1, i(t) = e-1 = 0.367
R R
From the above graph we found that the maximum value of i(t), when t = 0.
And i(t) is minimum, when t = ¥ .
V - tt - t
Now the voltage across resistor VR = i.R = e x R = V e t Volt
R
1 é i.dt ù
t
1 t V - t RC
Voltage across capacitor VC = êò ú = ò e .dt
C ë0 û C 0 R
= Væç1 - e τ ö÷ Volt
-t
è ø
Type-II :Initially switch at position ‘a’
a
indicates steady state condition of the R
circuit. At t = 0 sec, position of the switch b

V1 S
changes form ‘a’ to ‘b’. Calculate the +
C
equation for transient current when -
V2
switch at position ‘b’. q0 = 0
Fig.5.18
Case-1 Before switching condition (t < 0 » to-) switch is at position ‘a’ indicates
steady state conditions. At steady state condition, capacitor is open ckted. So voltage
across capacitor is equal to supply voltage.
a
R
b
V1 S
( Open )
C
V2
Fig.5.19
VC(0-) = V1 [Current flowing in the Ckt. is equal to 0, so voltage V1 = VR + VC ,
But VR = 0, Hence V1 = VC]
152 Network Theory
Case-II At t = 0Sec, position of switch changes from ‘a’ to ‘b’.

a
R
b
V1 S
C
V2
Fig.5.20
Applying KVL to the above circuit, we get
t 0 t
1 1 1
V2 = Ri + ò
C -¥
i.dt = Ri + ò
C -¥
i.dt + ò i.dt
C0
t t t
q( 0- ) 1 1 1
= Ri + +
C0ò i.dt = Ri + V (0-) + ò i.dt = Ri + V +
C C0 1 C ò0
i.dt
C
t
1
Þ V2 - V1 = Ri + C ò i.dt
0
Taking Laplace Transformation both sides,
V2 - V1 1 I(S)
we get , = R I(S) +
S C S
é ù
ê 1 ú
V2 - V1 é RCS + 1 ù V2 - V1 ê
Þ = I(S) ê ú Þ I(S) = 1 ú
S ë CS û R êS + ú
ë RC û
é ù
V2 - V1 ê 1 ú V2 - V1 - t
Hence i(t) = L-1 [I(S)] = ´ L-1 ê e t
1 ú
=
R êS + ú R
ë RC û
Where t = RC = Time constant of RC circuit.
Example-5.3
In the given circuit, if switch 'k' is closed at time t = 0. Obtain particular solution for
current i(t) after the switch is closed. Assume there is no charge in capacitor ‘C’
before switching.
R = 2W
K +
10 V
C = 0.1 F
-
i (t)
Fig.5.21
Solution : Applying KVL, for t > 0
t 0 t t
1 1 1 1
10 = Ri + ò i.dt = Ri + ò i.dt + ò i.dt = Ri + q 0 + ò i.dt
C -¥ C -¥ C0 C C0
[Initial charge stored by capacitor is 0, so q0 = 0, putting in above equation]
t
1
Þ 10 = Ri + C ò i.dt Taking Laplace Transformation both sides,
0
10 I(S) é RCS + 1 ù
we get, = R I(S) + = I(S) ê ú
S CS ë CS û
æ ö æ ö
ç ÷ ç ÷
10C 10 ç 1 ÷ 10 ç 1
÷ 5
Þ I(S) = = x ç 1 ÷ = x ç 1 ÷ =
RCS + 1 R çS+ ÷ 2 çS+ ÷ S + 5
è RC ø è 2 ´ 0.1 ø
-1 é 5 ù
Þ i(t) = L [I(S) ] = L ê s + 5 ú = 5 e-5t
-1
Ans.
ë û
5.6 R-L-C SERIES CIRCUIT
K R L
C
V
Fig. -5.22
At the time t=0 sec., switch is just closed.For t>0, Applying KVL,
t
1
di
C -ò¥
V = Ri + L + i.dt
dt
154 Network Theory
0 t t
di 1 1 q 1
Þ V = Ri + L + ò i.dt + ò i.dt = Ri + L di + 0 + ò i.dt
dt C -¥ C0 dt C C0
Let initial charge stored by capacitor is zero,
t
1 di
then V = Ri + L
dt
+
C ò
0
i.dt
Taking Laplace Transformation of both sides,

V I(s)
we get, = R I(s) + L [S I(s) - I0+] +
S Cs
At t=0, inductor is open circuited. So current flowing through inductor is equal to
zero. It means I0+=0.
V é LCS 2 + RCS + 1ù
1
Hence, = I(s) [R + LS + ] = I(s) ê ú
s Cs ë CS û
V
CV L
Þ I(S) = = ...(A)
LCs2 + RCs + 1 2
s + R s +
1
L LC
1
Now, s2 + R s + =0
L LC
S1, S2 =
-R ±
L
(R L) - LC4
2
=
R
+j
R 4L
- 1 = a + jb
2 2L 2L R 2C
-R R 4L
Where a = , b = - 1
2L 2L R 2C
Hence roots are S1 = a + j b , S2 = a - j b , now the equation (A) can be written as
follows.
V L V é 1 1 ù 1
I(S) = = ê - ú x
(s - s1 ) (s - s2 ) L ë S - S1 S - S 2 û (S1 - S2 )
é 1 1 ù
Now i(t) = a -1[I(S)] =
V
L[S1 - S2 ]
L-1 ê S - S - S - S ú =
V
2 jb L
[
x e s1t - e s2t ]
ë 1 2û
V
Hence i(t) =
2 jb L
[
x e s1t - e s2t ] ...(B)
Above equation (B) is known as transient current response of R-L-C series ciricuiit.
Example-5.4
In the following series R-L-C circuit
has R = 5Ohm, L = 1 H, C = 0.25 Farad. K R = 5W L = 1H
Driving voltage V = 60V. Switch k is
closed at time t = 0. Obtain the complete 60 V C = 0.25 F
transient equation using Laplace

Transformation method. Asume zero
current through inductor L and zero charge Fig .-5.23
across capacitor (C) before closing the switch
K.
Solution : At t = 0, switch is just closed. Applying KVL to the above circuit.
0 t t
1
di 1 1
60 = Ri + L + ò i.dt + ò i.dt = Ri + L di + q 0 + ò i.dt
dt C -¥ C0 dt C C0
But initial charge stored by capacitor is zero.
t
1 di
C ò0
So, 60 = Ri + L + i.dt
dt
Taking a Laplace Transformation of above equation.
60 1 I(S)
We get = R I(S) + L [S I1(S) - I 0 + ] +
S C S
But current flowing through inductor I 0 + = 0
60 1 1 é S 2 + 5S + 4 ù
Hence = I(S) [R + LS + ] = I(S) [5 + S + ] = I(S) ê ú
S CS 0.25S ë S û
60
Þ I(S) =
S2 + 5S + 4
But S2 + 5S + 4 = 0 , Solving this equation, we get
- 5 ± 25 - 16 -5 ± 3
S1, S2 = = ,
2 2
-5 + 3 -5 - 3
so that S1 = = -1, S2 = = -4
2 2
60 60 é 1 1 ù
Now I(S) =
(S + 1) (S + 4)
= ê S +1 - S + 4 ú
3 ë û
156 Network Theory
é 1 1 ù
i(t) = L-1 [I(S)] = 20 L ê
-1
- ú Þ i(t) = 20 [e-t - e-4t] Ans.
ë S +1 S + 4û
5.7 A.C. TRANSIENT
In AC transient, input voltage is depends on time. So its output response also
time dependent. Solution procedure of A.C. transient is same as that of D.C. transient.
Only difference from D.C. is to input (excitation) is time dependent.
Example-5.5
An exponential voltage V(t) = 8e-2t
is applied at time t = 0 to series R-L Ckt. K R = 5W
having resistance R = 5 Ohm, inductance
L = 3 H. Calculate the transient current +
equation. Also calculate voltage across V( t ) = 8 e - 2 t
L = 3H
resistor and inductor. -
Solution : Fig.5.24
At t = 0, switch is just closed, For t > 0
applying kirchoff's voltage law.
di di
V(t) = Ri + L Þ 8 e-2t = 5i + 3
dt dt
Taking laplacew transformation both the side
8
Þ = 5 I(S) + 3 [S I(S) - I0+], At t = 0 Sec., inductor is open ckted.
S + 2
So current flowing thrugh inductor at t=0sec is I0+ = 0
8
= I(S)[5 + 3S]
S + 2
8 é 1 1 ùú éê 1 ùú
Þ I(S) = = ê - ´
(S + 2) (3S + 5) êS + 2 S + 5 ú ê 5 - 2 ú
ë 3 û ë 3 û
é 1 1 ùú ée -5 t 3 - e - 2 t ù
Now i(t) = a -1 [I(S)]=-8 L-1 ê - =8 êë úû
êS + 2 S + 5 ú
ë 3û
é -5 t 3 - e - 2 t ù ée -5t 3 - e -2t ù
Voltage across resistor VR = i x R = 8 êe úû x 5 = 40 êë úû Volt.
ë
d é -5t 3
- e -2t ù = 24 é- 53 e 3 - (-2)e - 2t ù
di -5t
Voltage across inductor VL = L =3x8 e
dt dt êë úû êë úû
= - 72 ´ é5e + 2e - 2t ù
- 5t
3
êë úû
5.7.1 Sinusoidal voltage applied to the R.L. Circuit
Example-5.6
A sinusoidal voltage 25 Sin 10t is
applied at time t = 0 to a series R-L circuit
K R = 5W
campraising of a resistor R = 5W and
inductor L = 2H. By using laplace +
transformation method .calculate i(t). L = 2H
V( t) = 25 sin 10t
Assume zero current though inductor -
before application of voltage.
Solution : At t = 0 switch is just closed. Fig.-5.25

di
For t>0, Applying KVL.We get, 25Sin10t=5i+2
dt
Taking Laplace transfomation both the sides.
di Þ 250
L{25Sin10t}=L{5i+2 } =5I(s)+2[sI(s)- I 0 + ]
dt s2 + 100
At t=0Sec, Inductor is open circuited, So current flowing through circuit is I 0 + =0.
Hence above equation can be written as follows.
250 250 125

Þ =I(s){5+2s} Þ I(s)= =
s2 + 100 (s2 + 100)(5 + 2s) (s2 + 100)(s + 2.5)
Now, we have to calculate the different constant values by using partial fraction
method
1 A Bs + C
i.e = +
(s2 + 100)(s + 2.5) (s + 2.5) s2 + 100
Þ 1 = A( s2 + 100 ) + (Bs + C) (S + 2.5)

Now Equating the co-efficient of Power of ‘S’. We get,
1 -2.5
A = -B = ,C= Hence,
106.25 106.25
125 1 1 S 25 10
I(S) = x - - x
106.25 (S + 2.5) 106.25 S2 + 100 106.25 x 10 (s2 + 100)
i(t) = a–1[I(S)] = 1.176 e-2.5t - 0.0094 Cos 10t - 0.023 Sin 10
158 Network Theory
5.7.2 Step input voltage applied to the R.C. circuit.

Example-5.7
When step input voltagew V(t) is applied
to series R.c. circuit having resistance K R = 2W
R = 2W, capacitance C = 2F. At time
+
t = 0, switch is closed. Calculate the
V (t) C = 2F
transient current equation. Also calculate -
time constant & voltage across resistor.
Fig.5.26
Solution : At t = 0sec. switch is just closed
For t > 0, Applying KVL
t 0 t
1 1 1
V(t) = Ri + ò
C -¥
i.dt = Ri + ò
C -¥
i.dt + ò i.dt
C0
0
1
C -ò¥
Here initial charge store by capacitor is 0, so the term i.dt = 0
Taking the laplace transformation both the side. We get,
1 I(S) C 0.5
= R I(S) + Þ I(S) = =
S CS RCS +1 S + 0.25
æ 0 .5 ö
Hence i(t) = L-1 [I(S)] = L-1 ç ÷ = 0.5 e-0.25t
è S + 0.25 ø
Time constant T.C = R x C = 2 x 2 = 4 Sec.
Voltage acros resistor = VR = i x R = 0.5 e-2.5t x 2 = e-0.25t Ans.
Example-5.8
In the given circuit switch ‘K’ is
opened at time t = 0, obtain the complete K L = 0.5H
solution for voltage V(t) across the 2 Amp
parallel circuit.Asume that there is no I0
R = 0.5 W
C = 1F
charge across the capacitor C and no

current in inductor L before switching. Fig.5.27
Solution : At t = 0, switch is just open.

I
IR IL IC
K
V (t) L = 0.5H
2 Amp
I0 R = 0. 5 W C = 1F
Fig.5.28
According to KCL, I0 = IR + IL + IC .....(A)

t
v(t) 1
Here I R =
R
= GV(t), IL =
L
ò v(t).dt ,
-¥
dv(t)
IC = C putting in above equation.
dt
t
1 dv(t)
We get, I0 = GV(t) +
L
ò v(t).dt
-¥
+C
dt
1é ù
0 t
dv(t)
ÞC + GV(t) + L ê ò +
v(t).dt ò v(t).dtú = I
dt ë-¥ 0 û 0
Taking laplace transformation both the side.
1 α é v(t).dt ù V(S)
0
I0
We get, C[SV(S) - V(0+)] + GV(S) + êò ú + =
L ë-¥ û LS S
But initial charge store by capacitor V 0+ = V0- = 0 and current flowing through circuit
before switching condition at time t = 0- is zero.
1 é0 ù
i.e. α ê ò v(t).dt ú = 0, Hence the above equation can be written as ,
L ë -¥ û
é 1 ù I0
V(S) êCS + G + ú =
ë LS û S
I0L I0
Þ V(S) = =
LCS2 + LGS + 1 CS2 + GS +
1
L
The values of R, L & C put in above equation, we get.
2
Hence, V(S) =
S2 + 2S + 2
-2 ± 4 - 8
But S2 + 2S + 2 = 0 Þ S1, S2 = = -1 + j
2
Hence, S1 = -1 + j, S2 = -1 - j
2 é 1 1 ù 1
The equation V(S) = =2 ê - ú x
(S - S1 ) (S - S2 ) ë S - S1 S - S 2 û S1 - S2
160 Network Theory
Here, S1 - S2 = -1 + j +1 + j = 2j
2
V(t) = L-1 [V(S)] =
2j
[e s1t
- e s 2t ] 1
j
[
= e ( -1+ j)t - e ( -1- j)t ]
5.7.3 When we applied Ramp input voltage to the electrical circuit.
A
Ramp function r(t)=A.t Þ a {A.t} = 2
s
Example-5.9
When ramp input voltage applied
to the R-L circuit ,having resistanceR=2 K R L
ohm,L=3H. At time t=1 sec. switct is just
closed.Calculate the trransient current V(t) = 4t C
equatoin and time constant
Fig.5.29
Solution : Given date R = 2 Ohm., L = 3H At t = 0Sec.,
swtich is just closed.
di
Applying KVL to the circuit, we get V(t) = Ri + L
dt
Taking laplace transformation of above equation.
é di ù
We get a [V(t)] = L êRi + L ú Þ L[4.t] = R I(s) + L [S I(S) - I0+]
ë dt û
At t = 0, switch is just closed. At that time inductor open Ckted. So current flowing through
2 æ1 ö
4 4 = - 3ç - 1 ÷
Ckt. is zero.Then I(S) = = S2 çS S+ 2 ÷
S2 x (R + Ls) S2 x (2 + 3s) è 3ø
i(t) = a -1[V(t)] = 2t - 3 (1 - e-2/3t) Ans.
5.7.4 When impulse input voltage V(t) = d (t) applied to the any electrical Circuit
Impulse function V(t) = d (t), laplace transformation of V(t) is given as
L[V(t) = L[ d (t)] = 1
R = 5W
Example-5.10
When impulse input voltage 2d(t)
applied to series R-L Ckt. having V ( t) = 2 d( t) i (t) L = 8H
resistance R = 5W, L = 8H. Switch is
closed at time t = 0 Sec. Calculate the
transient current equation. Fig.5.30
Solution : At = 0 sec., switch is just closed.
di
Applying KVL, 2 d (t) = 5i + 8
dt
Taking laplace transformation both side
é di ù
Þ 2 a [ d (t)]=5 a [i]+8 α ê dt ú Þ 2=5I(s)+8[sI(s)-I0+]
ë û
At t = 0Sec. I0+ = 0, due to inductor open circuited
2 2 8
I(S) = =
5 + 8S S + 58
æ 1 ö
-1 ç ÷ 2 - 58 t
L
Þ i(t) = a -1 [I(s)] = 2 8 L-1 [I(s)] = 2 8 çS+ 5 ÷ = e
è 8ø 8
Example-5.11
1 500 W
In the following circuit shown in
2
below fig-5.31. The switch is moved from VR
1 to 2 at t = 0 sec. find VC and VR for + 100V VC
> 0. 50V
2m F
Fig.5.31
fig -a
Solution :
500 W
According to question at t = 0 sec. 1
position of switch changes from 1 to 2. 2
and its circuit diagram shown in fig.-5.32
Before that switch is at position 1 100V VC
50V
indicates steady state condition of the
circuit. At this conditions capacitor is
open circuited. So current flowing int he fig -b
Fig.5.32
circuit is zero.
So voltage across capacitor is equal to 1 500W

to supply voltage. i.e. i.e V C(0 -) = 100 2
Colt.
100V + VC
Now , for t < 0, VC(0-) = 100 Volt. 50V
2mF
At t = 0, Switch ‘K’ moves from 1 to 2. -
Now ckt. is shown in fig.-5.33.
fig - c
Fig.5.33
162 Network Theory
Applying K.V.L to the above circuit

t
1
C -ò¥
We get, 50 + i.dt + 500i = 0
0 t
1 1
50 + ò
C -¥
i . dt + ò i . dt = 0
C0
t t
1 1
Þ 50 + VC(0-) + C ò i.dt + 500i = 0 Þ 50 + 100 + ò i.dt + 500i = 0
C0
0
Taking laplace transformation both the side we get,
50 100 I(S) 150 é 1 ù

+ + + 500I(S) = 0 Þ + I(S) ê -6
+ 500ú = 0
s s CS S ë 2 ´ 10 S û
150 é 5 ´105 + 500S ù

Þ + I(S) ê ú =0
S ë S û
150 S 150 é 1 ù 3 é 1 ù
Þ I(S) = - x = - ê ú = - ê
S 5
(5 x 10 + 500S) 500 ë S + 1000 û 10 ë S + 1000 úû
3 -1 é 1 ù 3 -1000t
i(t) = L-1 [I(s) ] = - L ê ú = - e
10 ë S + 1000 û 10
3
VR = i(t).R = - ´ e -1000t ´ 500 = -150 e -1000t
10
As we know 50 + VC + VR = 0
(
Voltage across capacitor VC = -(50 + VR ) = - 50 - 150 e -1000t )
= 150 e -1000 t - 50 Ans.
Example-5.12
1 20 W
In the following fig.5.34, the switch is at
2
position-1 for a long time and it moved to
position-2 at t = 0 Sec. Find the 40V
expression for current i(t) for t > 0. 10V 10m H
fig - D
Fig.5.34
Solution :
Case-1 20 W
1
Before switching switch at position-1, for
2
long time so circuit is at steady state
40V
condition, i.e. Inductor is short circuited.
Now circuit is of the form(Fig.-6.35) 10V
Fig.5.35
40
Hence current is flowing before switching condition is I(0-) = = 2 Amp.
20
Case-2 At t = 0 Sec. Position of switch 1 20 W

changes from 1 to 2. Now circuit is
2
shown in fig. 5.36
40V
Applying KVL to the circuit 10V 10m H

di
10 = 20i + 10 x 10-3 dt
Fig.5.36
fig -F
Taking laplace transformation both the side
10
= 20 I(S) + 10-2 [S I(S) - I0+], But I0 - = I0+ = I0 = 2 amp.
5
= 20 I(S) + 10-2S I(S) - 10-2 x 2
10 10 + 0.02S é 1 ù
= I(S) [20 + 10-2S] Þ I(S) = ´ê ú
5 S ë 20 + 10 S û
-2
10 + 0.02S
= 100
S(S + 2000)
1000 +2
= +
S ( S + 2000) ( S + 2000)
1000 é 1 1 ù 2 0 .5 1 .5
I(S) = ê - ú + = +
2000 ë S S + 2000 û S + 2000 S S + 2000
-1 é 0 .5 1 .5 ù
i(t) = L-1 [I(S)] = L ê + ú= - 2000 t Ans.
ë S S + 2000 û 0.5 + 1.5e
164 Network Theory
Example-5.13
Just before switching, voltage
across capacitor is 150V. Obtain
the current equation i(t). Also 400W
calculate charge transient. VC 40mF
fig -G
Fig.5.37
Solution :
Given data, Before switching conditions voltage across capacitor is 150V.
At t = 0 Sec, switch is just closed
t
1
C -ò¥
Applying KVL to above Ckt.,We get i.dt + 400i = 0
0 t t
1 1 q0 1
Þ ò
C -¥
i.dt + ò i.dt + 400i = 0 Þ
C0 C
+ ò i.dt + 400i = 0
C0
t t
1 1
Þ VC(0-) + C ò i.dt + 400i = 0 Þ 150 + C ò i.dt + 400 i = 0
0 0
150 I(S)
Taking laplace transformation both the side. We get, + + 400 I(S) = 0
S CS
é1 + 400CS ù 150
Þ I(S) ê CS ú =-
ë û S
150C - 150C 3 1
I(S) = = = - ´
400CS + 1 æ 1 ö 8 æ 1 ö
400C ç S + ÷ çS + -6 ÷
è 400C ø è 400 ´ 40 ´ 10 ø
3 1
= - x
8 (S + 62.5)
3 é 1 ù
i(t) = L-1 [I(S)] = - L-1 ê ú = -0.375 e-62.5t.
8 ë (S + 62.5) û
[ ] [ ]
t t
1 1 3 1 3 1 t
q=
C0ò i.dt = ò - ´ e -62.5t .dt = -
C0 8 40 ´ 10 -6
´ ´
8 62.5
e -62.5t 0 = -150 e -62.5t - 1
= 150 - 150e -62.5t Coulomb Ans.

Example-5.14
1 2
In the following fig.6.38 R-L +

circuit, the position of switch 100 W VR
2 Amp
changes from 1 to 2 at t = 0 - +
.Calculate the value of VR & VL VL
2H
-
fig - H
Fig.5.38
Solution :
Before switching condition (t < 0), switch at position ‘1’ Applying KVL,
di di
we get Ri + L = 0 Þ 100i + 2 =0
dt dt
Taking Laplace Transformation both the side.
100 I(S) + 2[S I(S) - I0+] = 0 Þ 100 I(S) + 2[S I(S) - 2] = 0
Þ 100 I(S) + 2S I(S) - 4 = 0
4 2
Þ I(S) [100 + 2S] = 4 Þ I(S) = =
2[S + 50] S + 50
é 2 ù
i(t) = L-1 [I(S)] = L-1 ê ú = 2e-50t
ë S + 50 û
Voltage across resistor VR = i x R = 2 x e-50t x 100 = 200 e-50t Volt
di d
Voltage across inductor VL = L =2 (2 x 10-50t) = -200 e-50t Volt Ans.
dt dt
Example-5.15
A serries RC circuit fig. 5.39 with K 5K W

R = 5K W and C = 30 m F has
a constant voltage source of 100V 30 m F
applied at t = 0 sec. there is no 100 V
initial charge in the capacitor. Find
i, VR, VC and q for t > 0.
Fig.5.39
fig - I
Solution :
At t = 0 sec., Switch is just closed
Applying KVL to the Ckt.
t
1
C -ò¥
100 = 5 x 103i + i.dt
166 Network Theory
0 t t
1 1 1
= 5 x 103 i + ò i.dt + ò i.dt = 5 x 103 i + q o + ò i.dt
C -¥ C0 C C0
Taking Laplace Transformation both sides of above equation
100 I(s)
= 5 x 103 I(s) + ,Where q0 = 0
S Cs
100
= I(s) é 5 ´ 10 ´ CS + 1ù
3
Þ
S ê ú
ë CS û
100 x C 100 x 30 x 10-6 0.02

I(S) = = = =
5 x 103 x 30 x 10-6 S + 1 15 x 10-2 S + 1 S + 6.66
é 0.02 ù
i (t ) = L-1 ê ú = 0.02e -6.66 t
ë S + 6.66 û
Voltage across resistor VR = i x R = 0.02 e-6.66t x 5 x 103 = 100 e-6.66t
But VR + VC= 100 Þ VC= 100 - VR = 100 - 100 e-6.66t volt. Ans.
Example-5.16 25W
In the circuit shown in fig.5.40,
switch-1 is closed at t = 0 sec, and 1
2
then t = t1 = 2 m sec. switch 2 is 100W
open.Find the transient current in 100 V
the intervals 0 < t < t1 and t1 < t. 0.1 H
fig - J
Fig.5.40
Solution :
At t = 0 sec. (Switch - 1, Switch-2 closed) Now circuit is shown in fig. 5.41.
25W
i 1 i
100W
100 V
0.1 H
Fig.5.41
Applying K.V.L to the circuit
di
100 = 25i + 0.1
dt
Taking laplace transformation of both the side.
100
We,get = 25 I(S) + 0.1 [S I(S) - I0+]
S
At t = 0 sec, Inductor is open circuited. so current flowing through circuit is zero
i.e. I0+ = I0- = I0 = 0
100
= I(S) [25 + 0.1S]
S
100 1000
Þ I(S) = =
S(0.1S + 25) S (S + 250)
1000 é 1 1 ù é1 1 ù
= ê - ú = 4 -
ê S S + 250 ú
250 ë S S + 250 û ë û
é1 1 ù
Þ i(t) = L-1 [I(S)] = 4 L-1 ê S - S + 250 ú Þ i(t) = 4(1 - e-250t)
ë û
At t = t1 = 2 msec, switch-2 is open circuited. Now circuit shown in fig. 5.42

25 W
1
2
100 W
100 V
0.1 H
figFig.5.42
-L
di
Applying K.V.L., 100 = 125i + 0.1
dt
Taking laplace transformation both sides
100
= 125 I(S) + 0.1 [S I(S) - I0+]
S
Here I0+ = 4 (1 - e-250t) | t = 2 msec (
. = 4 1 - e -250´2´10
-3
) = 1.573 Amp.
168 Network Theory
100 100
Þ = 125 I(S) + 0.1 S I(S) - 0.1 x 1.573 Þ + 0.1573 = I(S) [125 + 0.1S]
S S
100 + 0.1573S
Þ = I(S) [125 + 0.1S]
S
100 + 0.1573S 1000 + 1.573S
Þ I(S) = S ( S + 1250) ´ 0.1 = S ( S + 1250)
1000 é 1 1 ù 1.573
= ê - ú +
1250 ë S S + 1250 û S + 1250
é1 1 ù 1.573 0 .8 0.77
Þ I(S) = 0.8 ê S - S + 1250 ú + = +
ë û S + 1250 S S + 1250
-1 é 0 .8 0.77 ù
Hence i(t) = L ê + ú
-1250( t¢-t )
= 0.8+ 0.77e Ans.
ë S S + 1250 û
Example-5.17
1
2000W
In the series R-L cirrcuit
shown in fig.5.43 ,Switch is closed 2
to position-1 at t = 0 sec and then
at t=t 1=40 m Sec it is moved to 100 V 50 V
position-2. Find the trasient curent 1H
in the intervals 0< t < t1 and t > t1.
Solution : Fig.5.43
fig - M
At t=0sec, Switch at position-1(Just closed).Now the circuit is shown in fig.5.44.
1
2000W
2
50 V
100 V
1H
Applying KVL ,We get, fig - N

Fig.5.44
di
100=2000i + .Taking transformation both the side.
dt
100
We get, =2000I(s)+[sI(s)-I+0]
s
Here I0+ = I0- = I0 = 0, Because at t = 0sec. inductor is open circuited.
100
Hence = I(S) [2000 + S]
s
100 é1 1 ù
Þ I(S) = = 0.05 ê - ú
s(s + 2000) ë S S + 2000 û
-1 é1 1 ù
i(t)= L-1 [I(S)] = 0.05L ê - ú = 0.05 (1 - e-2000t), for 0 < t < t'
ë S S + 2000 û
At t = 40 m Sec., Position of switch chsanges from 1 to 2, now circuit is shown in
fig. 5.45.
1
2000 W
2
50 V
100 V
1H
Fig.5.45
di
By applying K.V.L. 50 = 2000i + .....(A)
dt
Taking laplace transformation both the side.
50
We get, = 2000 I(S) + [S I(S) - I0+] .....(B)
S
Here I0+ = It=40 m Sec. = 0.05 (1 - e-2000t) | -6
t = 40 x 10 Sec.
= 0.00384
50
The value of I0+ put in equation (B). We get, = I(S) [2000 + s] - 0.00384
S
50
Þ + 0.00384 = I(s) [2000 + s]
S
170 Network Theory
50 + 0.00384s 50 é1 1 ù 0.00384
I(s) = = ê S - S + 2000 ú +
s(s + 2000) 2000 ë û s + 2000
é1 1 ù 0.00384
= 0.025 ê - ú +
ë S S + 2000 û s + 2000
é1 1 ù 1
i(t) = a -1 [I(s)] = 0.025 L-1 ê - ú + 0.00384 L-1 S + 2000
ë S S + 2000 û
= 0.025 [1 - e-2002t] + 0.00384 e-2000t
-2000( t - t ¢)
Hence i(t) = 0.025 + 0.02284 e , (for t > t', here we are putting t = t - t'
Example-5.18
Find the inverse Laplace transformation of each function.
3 2s
(i) F (s)= (ii) F (s) =
s(s2 + 6s + 9) (s2 + 4)(s + 5)
1 s+5
(iii) F (s) = 2 (iv) F(s) = 2
s + 7s + 12 s + 2s + 5
2s + 4
(v) F (s) =
s2 + 4s + 13
Solution :
3 3
(i) Given function F (s) = 2 =
s(s + 6s + 9) s(s + 3)(s + 3)
é 1 1 ù 1 1 1 é1 1 ù 1
Now F (s)=3 ê ´ ú = - = ê - ú -
ë S ( S + 3) ( S + 3) û s(s + 3) (s + 3)2 3 ë S ( S + 3) û ( S + 3)
2
1
Þ f (t) = a -1 [F(S)] = (1-e-3t) - te-3t Ans.
3
2s
(ii) Given F (s) = ,
(s2 + 4)(s + 5)
2s A Bs + C
Here = + ....(A)
(s2 + 4)(s + 5) s+5 s2 + 4
Þ s = As2 + 4A + (Bs + C) (s+5)
Þ s = (A+B) S2 + (5B+C)s + 4A + 5C
Equating the Co-efficient of Power of 's'
A+B = 0 Þ A = - B ....(1)
5B+C = 1 ....(2)
4A+5C =0 ....(3)
Solving equation 1, 2 & 3, we get, A = -5/29,B= 5/29, C=4/29, Put in above
equation (A).
é-5 5 S+4
ê 29 + 29 2 29
( )ùú
We get F(s) =2 ê S + 5 S +4 ú
ë û
-10 1 5 s 2 2
= x + x + x
29 s + 5 29 s2 + 4 29 s2 + 4
-1 -10 5 2
Þ f(t)= a F(s) = e-5t + Cos2t + Sin 2t
29 29 29
1 1 1 1
(iii) Given F (s) = 2 = = -
s + 7s + 12 (s + 3)(s + 4) s+ 3 s+ 4
-1 é 1 1 ù
f (t) = L-1F(S) = L ê - ú = e-3t -e-4t Ans
ëS + 3 S + 4û
s+5 S+5 S 5
(iv) Given F (s) = 2 = 2 = 2 + 2
s + 2s + 5 (s + 1) + 4 (s + 1) + 4 (s + 1) + 4
Hence f (t) = a -1 F(s) = = e-t Cos 2t + 2.5 e-t Sin 2t Ans.
2s + 4 2s + 4
(v) Given function F (s) = 2 = 2 2
s + 4s + 13 (s + 2) + 3
s 4 3
=2x + x
(s + 2)2 + 32 3 (s + 2)2 + 32
172 Network Theory
Hence
é S 3 ù
f(t) = L-1 [F(s)] = L-1 ê + 2 ú = 2 e Cos 3t + 4/3 e
-2t -2t
Sin 3t
ë (S + 2) 2
+ 3 2
(S + 2) 2
+ 3 û
Example-5.19
A series RC circuit(Fig-5.46) with 8W
R = 10ohm and C = 4 m F has an initial K
change q0 = 800 x 10 -6 coulombs on the 4m F
capacitor at the time. The switch is closed,
applying a constant voltage V = 100 volts. 100 V
q0 = 800x10 -6 C
Find the resulting current transient if the
charge is (a) of the same polarity as that
deposited by the sourse and (b) of the Fig.5.46
opposite polarity.
Solution : Now the switching takes place at time t = 0 sec.

(i) For t > 0,Applying KVL to the circuit
t 0 t t
1 1 1 1
ò i.dt + ò i.dt = 10i + q 0 + ò i.dt
C -ò¥
100 = 10i + i.dt = 10i +
C -¥ C0 C C0
800 x 10-6
t
1
= 10i + + ò i.dt
4 x 10 -6 4 x 10-6 0
Taking laplace Transformation both the side.
100 106 I(S)

200 100 200 é 2.5 ´105 ù
Þ = 10I(S) + + Þ - = I(S) ê10 + ú
S S 4 S S S ë S û
-100
Þ I(S) =
10(S + 2.5 x 104 )
-1 é - 10 ù -25 x 103 t
Þ i(t) = L-1 [I(S)] = L ê S + 25 ´ 103 ú = -10 e Ans.
ë û
(ii) For opposite polarity
t 0 t
1 1 1
100 = 10i + ò i.dt = 10i - ò i.dt + ò i.dt
C -¥ C -¥ C0
é1 0 ù
ê ò i.dt = - Ve , For opposite polarityú
ë C -¥ û
800 x 10-6
t t
1 q0 1
Þ 100 = 10i - + ò i.dt = 10i - + ò i.dt
C C0 4 x 10-6 C0
t
1
Þ 300 = 10i + C ò i.dt
0
Taking laplace Transformation both the sides.
300 I(s) é 1 ù
= 10 I(s) + = I(s) ê10 +
S Cs ë CS ú û
300 x C 300 x 4 x 10-6

Þ I(s) = =
10Cs + 1 10 x 4 x 10-6 s + 1
1
= 30 x
(s + 25 x 103 )
-1 é 1 ù -25 x 103 t
Þ i(t) = L-1 [I(s)] = 30 L ê S + 25 ´ 103 ú = 30 e Ans.
ë û
Example-5.20 5W
A series R.L.C. circuit shown in 0.2 H
fig. 5.47 with R = 5 ohms, L = 0.2H +
and C = 1 F has a voltage source v 10 -100 t
- 1F
= 10e-100t volts. applied at t = 0 sec.
find the resulting current.
Solution : At t = 0 sec, switch is just closed fig Fig.5.47

-Q
t
di 1
C -ò¥
Applying K.V.L., 10 e-100t = 5i + 0.2 + i.dt
dt
0 t
di 1 1
Þ 10 e -100t
= 5i + 0.2 + ò i.dt + ò i.dt
dt C -¥ C0
0
Initial charge stored by capacitor q0 = ò i.dt

-¥
=0
174 Network Theory
t
1 di
C ò0
Þ 10 e-100t = 5i + 0.2 + i.dt
dt
Taking laplace transformation of above equation.
10 I(s)
We get, = 5 I(s) + 0.2 [sI(s) - I0+] +
(s + 100) Cs
At t = 0 sec, L-is open circuited i.e. I0+ = I0- = I0 = 0
10 é 1 ù
Þ = I(s) ê5 + 0.2s + (Here C = 1F)
(s + 100) ë CS ú û
10s 50s
Þ I(s) = =
(s + 100) (0.2s2 + 5s + 1) (s + 100) (s2 + 25s + 5)
Here s2 + 25s + 5 = 0
Þ s1, s2 = -25 ± (-25) 2 - 4 x 5 , hence s = -0.20, s = 24.795

1 2
2
50s
Then I(s) =
(s + 100) (s - s1 ) (s - s2 )
50s
=
(s + 100) (s + 0.20) (s + 24.795)
50[(s + 100) - 100]
=
( s + 100)( s + 0.20)( s + 24.795)
50 5000
= -
( s + 0.20)( s + 24.795) ( s + 100)( s + 0.20)( s + 24.795)
é 1 1 ù é 1 1 ù
=2 ê - ú - 20 x 10-3 ê S + 0.2 - S + 100 ú
ë S + 0.2 S + 24.795 û ë û
é 1 1 ù
- 27 x 10-3 ê - ú
ë S + 24.795 S + 100 û
Hence i(t) = L-1 [I(s)]
é 1 1 ù é 1 1 ù
=2 L-1 ê - ú +0.020 L-1 ê S + 0.2 - S + 100 ú
ë S + 0.2 S + 24.795 û ë û
é 1 1 ù
+ 0.027 L-1 ê - ú
ë S + 24.795 S + 100 û
Hence, i(t)= 2.02 e-0.2t - 0.027 e-24.795t - 0.007 e-100t
20 W
Example-5.21
In the two-mesh network shown
in fig.6.48 here is no initial charge 40 W
50 V
on the capacitor. find the mesh 0.2F
current i1 and i2 which results when i1 i2
the switch is closed at t = 0 sec.
Loop-1 fig -R
Fig.5.48 Loop-2
Solution : Consider Loop-1:
t
1
50 = 20(i1 + i2) +
0.2
ò i .dt
0
1 [ Q Initial charge q0 = 0]
Taking laplace transformation both sides
50 I1(s) 50 é 20 S + 5 ù
= 20 I1(s) + 20 I2(s) + Þ = I1(s) ê ú + 20 I2(s) ... (A)
s 0.2s
s ë S û
For loop-2 : 50 = 20(i1 + i2) + 40 i2 Þ 50 = 20i1 + 60 i2, taking laplace transformation
both the side.
50
= 20 I1(s) + 60 I2(s) ....(B)
s
5 I1(s)
From equation (B), I2(s) = - , putting in equation (A)
6s 3
50 é 20 S + 5 ù é 5 I1 (S) ù
-
We get, = I1(s) ê
S ú + 20 êë 6S 3 úû
s ë û
200 5
Þ I1(s) = =
40s + 15 s + 0.375
é 5 ù
Then i1(t) = L-1 [I1(s)] = L-1 ê ú = 5 e-0.375t
ë S + 0.375 û
5
But I1(s) = , putting in equation (A),
s + 0.375
176 Network Theory
5 1 5
We get, I2(s) = -
6s 3 s + 0.375
é5 1 5 ù 5 5 -0.375t
ê - ´ ú =
Þ i2(t) = L -1 [I
2
(s)] = L ë
-1
6S 3 (S + 0.375 ) û -
6 3
e
5.8 LAPLACE TRANSFORM OF PERIODIC FUNCTION

1. Unit step function U(t)
V (t)
Mathematically U(t) = 1, t ³ 0
=0 t<0
Laplace Transformation of
0 Time (t)
1
U(t) = L[U(t)] = Fig.5.49
s
2. Shifted unit function U(t - a) = 1 t ³ a
V (t)
=0 t<a V (t-a )
0 a
e - as T im e (t )
Hence L[U(t - a)] =
s Fig.5.50
If the function is U(a - t), the graph will change in reverse way.
V (t)
V (a-t)
e + as
Hence , L[U(t + a)] =
s
0 a
Time (t)
3. Unit Ramp function
r(t) = At t>0 fig -U
Fig.5.51
=0 t<0
r (t)
A
Hence L[r(t)] = L[A t] = 2
s
Time (t)
Fig.5.52
T0 + ¥
4. Unit impulse function d (t)

Hence L[ d (t)] = 1
t = 0
Fig.5.53
5. Unit Doublet function
d
[ d (t - t1)] = + ¥ and - ¥ , t = t1
dt
=0 0, t ¹ t1
d
Where [ d (t - t1)] is called unit doublet function.
dt
éd ù - t 1s
Hence L[ d (t - t1)] = L-1 ê U (t - t1 )ú = sL[U(t - t )] = s. e = e - t 1s
ë dt û 1
s
Summary :
Unit function Symbol Laplace Transform
1
Unit Parabolic P(t)
s3
1
Unit ramp function r(t)
s2
1
Unit step U(t)
s
Unit Impulse d (t) 1
Unit doublet d '(t) s
Unit Triplet d "(t) s2
178 Network Theory
Delayed Unit Function Symbol Laplace Transform
1
Unit Parabolic function P(t - a) 2
e-as
s
1
Unit Ramp function r(t - a) 2
e-as
s
1
Unit step function U(t - a) e-as
s
Unit Impulse function d (t - a) e -as
Unit Doublet function d '(t - a) s e-as
Unit Triplet function d "(t - a) s2 e -as
5.9 SHIFTING THEOREM
Let the function f(t) be delayed by time a. Then this time function f(t) be delayed
may be expressed as f(t -a). U(t - a).
¥ ¥
ò .dt = ò f( t ¢).e - st ¢ .d t ¢
- st
Now laplace transform of f(t) = F(s) = f(t).e
0 0
Where t' = New variable

Suppose t ' = t - a = Delay time
¥ ¥
ò f(t - a).e .d(t - a) = ò f(t - a).e - st .dt

- s(t - a)
Now F(s) =
0 0
The lower limit of above integrating function may changes form a to 0, if f(t - a)
multiply by u(t - a)
¥
Then F(s)= e .ò f(t - a).u(t - a)e .dt = e L [f(t - a).u(t - a) ]

as - st as
or L [f(t - a). U(t - a)] = e-asf(t)

Þ L-1 [e-as F(s)] = f(t - a). U(t - a)]
Above equation indicates that laplace transform of any function delayed by time
interval a is e-as times the transform of the function. Hence this result is called the
real translation theorem or the shifting theorem.
5.10 INITIAL VALUE THEOREM

Let f(t) is the function. And its variable is t. The value of t = 0 or s ® ¥ put in
function f(t). results initial value of the function. That can be expressed as follows :
¥
é df ù
L ê ú = ò e .dt = sF(s) - f(0+)
-st
ë dt û 0
Taking limit s ® ¥ , we get
Lim {sF(s) - f(0 + )} = 0

S®¥
Hence f(0+) = Lim {s F(s)} is called the statement of initial value theorem.
S®¥
5.11 FINAL VALUE THEOREM
Let f(t) in the function and its variable is ‘t’. The value t = ¥ or s = 0, put in function
f(t), results the final value of function f(t).
¥
é df ù æ df ö -st
Mathematically L ê ú = ò ç ÷e .dt =sF(s)- F(0+ )
ë dt û 0 è dt ø
¥¥
æ df ö -st
Taking the S ® ¥ ,We have Lim ò ç ÷e .dt = Lim {sF(s) ´ F(0 + )} --------(A)
s® 0 0 è dt ø s®0
¥ ¥
Lim ò æç ö÷e .dt = ò df =f( ¥ ) - f(0) and Lim f( + )=f( + )
df -st
But ,
s®0 0 è dt ø 0 s®0 0 0
Hence above equation can be written as f( ¥ ) - f(0)=-f( 0+ ) + Lim {sF(s)}

s®0
Or, f( ¥ )= Lim {sF(s)} , This statement is called Final value Theorem.

s®0
NUMERICAL PROBLEMS
Q.1 A 50Hz, 400V(Peak value) sinusoidal voltage is applied at t=o, to a series R-L circuit
having resistance 8W and inductance 3H.Obtain an expression of current at any
instant 't' .Calculate the value of the trasient current 0.03 Sec after switching on.
Q.2 An A.C voltage V(t)=200Sin500 p t is applied to a series R-L circuit has R = 8W and
L = 0.1 H. Calculate the ratio of maximum value to which the current rise to the
steady state maximum value when the voltage is applied at any instant t = 0.004 sec.
180 Network Theory
Q.3 A 5 m F capacitor is connected through a 100kW resistor to a d.c. source 100V. After
being charged for half minutes, the capacitor is disconnected and discharged through
a resistor (R). Determine the energy dissipated in R.
Q.4 A constant voltage of 100V is applied at t = 0 to a series RC circuit having R = 4 kW
and C = 30 m F. Assuming no initial chargestored in the capacitor, find expression for
voltage across resistor and capacitor.
1
Q.5 In the following fig. 5.54 switch ‘S’ 10W
is closed to position-1 at t = 0. After 2
one time constant,the switch is moved 40 V
to position-2. Obtain the current 0.5mF
expression for 0 < t < T and t > T. 60 V
T is time constant of the circuit.
Fig.5.54
4W
Q.6 A constant voltage of 100V is applied
at t = 0 to a RLC circuit shown in 5W
following fig.6.55 network, find the
expresion of discharging voltage of
100V 5F 3W
3H
the capacitor at t = 0+, switching takes
place at t = 0 sec.
Fig.5.55
Væ - tö
R
ç
Derive an expression for i(t) = ç 1 - e L ÷
Q.7
Rè ÷ . Also draw its graph between i(t) versus
ø
time constant. 5W
Q.8 Find the expression for current of the
following circuit. Switching takes
+ q 0 = 800 x10 -3 C +
place at t = 0 sec. Initial charge stored C = 6m F
100V
by capacitor is 800 x 10 -3 C. Also - -
calculate voltage across resistor and
capacitor having R = 5W, L = 6 m F..
Fig.5.56
Q.9 In the following circuit, at t = 0 sec.,

1 2W
position of switch changes from 1 to
2. Before that it indicates steady state 2
condition of the circuit.Calculate the
60V
current i(t) at switch-2. Also calculate 90V 3H
current i(t) at time t = 2 msec.
Fig.5.57
40W
Q.10 In the following circuit, the switch is
closed at t = 0 sec. When the 5 m F
capacitor has charge q 0 = 400 m C.
6m F 1m F 0.5 m F
Obtain the expression for the transient
q0 = 400 m C
voltage across resistor.
Fig.5.58
10W
Q.11 In the following circuit, the switch is
closed at t = 0 sec. Obtain the +
currenti(t) and capacitor voltage VC
for t > 0. 50V 4mF VC
10W -
Fig.5. 59
2W 3W
Q.12 Find current i 1 (t and i 2 (t) for

thefollowing circuit for t > 0, switch 6H
is closed at time t = 0 sec. 30 V 6W
i1(t)
i2(t)
Fig.5. 60
Q.13 A voltage of 100V is applied at t = 0 sec to a series RLC circuit with R = 10W, L =
0.2 H, C = 500F. Find the transient voltage across the resistance.
Q.14 Find the solyution i(t) of the following equation.
d 2i di
+5 + 500i = 600
dt 2 dt
Where i(0+) = 0.5 amp and i'(0+) = 0.4 amp.
Q.15 A series RC circuit with R = 80 ohms and C = 25mF has a sinusoidal voltage source
V = 250 sin (400t + f) volts applied at time when f = 00. Find the current, assuming
there is no initial charge on the capacitor.
ppp
Chapter 6
TWO PORT NETWORK
6.1 INTRODUCTION
In any electrical system there are two types of network
a) Single port network
b) Two port network
6.1.1 Single Port Network
Single port network consists of two
a
terminals.One terminal is positive with respect I
to other terminals.The following diagram fig- V1 ZL
6.1 shows the single port network,where current I
b
enter into network taken as -ve.
Fig.-6.1
6.1.2 Two-port network
This types of network has 4 terminals.Out of these, two terminals are +ve others two
are -ve.The diagram (fig-6.2) shows the example of twoport network where 1&1'
indicates primary side and 2&2' indicates secondary side.
1 2
I1 TWO - P0RT I2
V2 V1
NETWORK
1¢ 2¢
Fig.6.2
Description
Consider the example of transmission of power from one place to
another.Suppose we want to transmit a power from Hirakud to Bhubaneswar by
means of two wires.The sending end voltage at Hirakud is V1 and its corresponding
current is I1.Similarly, receiving end voltage at Bhubaneswar isV2 and its corresponding
Two Port Network 183
current is I2.In this case current is flowing in outgoing path and also in return patha.So
there will be space in between two paths.So that capacitance arises in between two
conductors.The line conductor has resistance and inductance shown in fig;6.3.
I1 L I2
R
V1 C V2
Fig.6.3
So that primary side voltage and current differ from secondary side voltage and
current.Hence there will be bunch of parameters between primary side and secondary
side. Actually, I1 currents entering to the bunch of parameters,but I2 flowing away
from the parameter.But we are considering that all currents entering to the junction.So
that I1 current is exporting in nature and I2 current is importing in nature.That means
exporting and importing takes place in single place is called port.
The network bunches consist of so many parameter like
i) Z-Parameter (Open circuit parameter)
ii) Y-Parameter (Short circuit parameter)
iii) H-parameter (Combination of short circuit and open circuit parameter)
iv) ABCD parameter(Transmission parameter)
6.2 Z-PARAMETER
In Z-parameter analysis the input voltage V1 and current I1 and output voltage V2
and I2 are expressed as follows
V1 = Z11I1 + Z12 I 2 ...(A)
V2 = Z21I1 + Z22 I 2 ...(B)
Step-1: Calculation of Z11 and Z21 .Put I 2 = 0 (Secondary side open circuited).
V1
From equation (A) V1 = Z11I1 Þ Z11 =
I1 I 2 =0
V2
From equation (B) V2 = Z21I1 Þ Z 21 =
I1 I2 =0
Step-2: Calculation of Z12 and Z22 .Put I1 = 0 (Primary side open circuited)
V1
From equation (A) V1 = Z12 I 2 Þ Z12 =
I2 I1 = 0
184 Network Theory
V2
From equation (B) V2 = Z22 I 2 Þ Z 22 =
I2 I1 = 0
Example-6.1 Calculate the Z-pamareter of the following fig-6.4
I1 7W I2
3W
V1 6W V2
Solution: Fig.-6.4
Step-1: Calculation of Z11 and Z21 .Put I 2 = 0 (Secondary side open circuited).
I1 3W I1 7W I2 = 0
V1 6W V2
Fig.-6. 5
By applying KVL to the above circuit, We get

V1 9I1
V1 - 9I1 = 0 Þ Z11 = = =9W
I1 I2 =0
I1
Similarly , Z 21 = V2 =
6I1
=6W
I1 I1 = 0
I1
Step-2: Calculation of Z12 and Z22 .Put I1 = 0 (Primary side open circuited)
I1 = 0 3W I2 7W I2
V1 6W V2
Fig.6.6
By applying KVL to the above circuit, We get
V2 13I 2
V2 = (7 + 6)I 2 Þ Z 22 = = = 13 W
I2 I1 = 0
I2
V1 6I 2
Similarly, Z12 = = =6W
I2 I1 = 0
I2
Example-6.2
Calculate the Z-pamareter of the following fig-6.7
I1 1W 3W I2
V1 2W V2
4W
Soluton: Fig.-6.7
Step-1: Calculation of Z11 and Z21 .Put I 2 = 0

(Secondary side open circuited and shown in fig-6.8).
I1 1W I3 3W I2 = 0
V1 2W V2
4W
I4 I3
Fig.-6.8
By applying KVL to above fig.We get,
23
I1
V1 = [1 + {2 (3 + 4)}]I1 =
23 V 9 23
I1 Þ Z11 = 1 = = W
9 I1 I 2 =0
I1 9
2
By applying Current division rule, I 3 = 4 ´ I1 ´
2+3+ 4
2
4 ´ I1 ´
V 4I 2+ 3+ 4 = 8 W
Z 21 = 2 = 3 =
I1 I 2 =0
I1 I1 9
Step-2: Calculation of Z12 and Z22 .Put I1 = 0 (Primary side open circuited and
shown fig-6.9)
I1 = 0 1W I1¢ 3W I2
V1 2W 4W
V2
Fig.6.9
186 Network Theory
Z22 =
V2
=
[4 (2 + 3)]I 2
=
20
W
I2 I1 = 0
I2 9
But , V 1 = 2 I 1¢
4 4
Where, I1¢ = I 2 = I 2 (By using current division rule)
2+3+ 4 9
4
2 ´ I2
V 2I¢ 9 =8W
Hence Z12 = 1 = 1=
I2 I1 = 0
I2 I2 9
Example-6.3
Calculate the Z-pamareter of the following fig-6.10
2W
I1 I2
3W 4W
V1 6W V2
Fig.6.10
Solution:
Step-1: Calculation of Z11 and Z21 .Put I 2 = 0 (Secondary side open circuited )
Now circiut is of the form shown in fig-6.11.
I2 = 0
2W 4W
I1¢
I1 3W I1 V2
V1 6W
Fig.6.11
V1 = I1 [{(2 + 4) 3}+ 6] = (2 + 6)I1 = 8I1
V1 8I1
Hence, Z11 = = =8W
I1 I 2 =0
I1
But, V2 - 4I1¢ - 6I1 = 0 Þ V2 = 4I1¢ + 6I1 ...(A)
æ 3 ö I1
Here, I1¢ = I1 ç ÷= ,Put in above equation (A)
è3+ 2+ 4ø 3
22
I1 22 I1
V 22
We get , Þ V2 = 4 ´ + 6I1 = I1 . Hence , Z21 = 2 = 3 = W
3 3 I1 I 2 =0
I1 3
shown fig-6.12)
2W
I¢2
I1 = 0 I2
3W 4W
V1 6W V2
I2
Fig.6.12
74
I2
V2 = [6 + {4 (3 + 2)}]I 2 =
74 V 74
Here, I 2 Þ Z 22 = 2 = 9 = W
9 I2 I1 = 0
I2 9
4 4
But , V1 = 3I¢2 + 6I 2 = 3 ´ 4 I 2 + 6I 2 = 22 I 2 W ,Where, I¢2 = I 2 ´ = I2
9 3 3+ 4+ 2 9
22
I2
V1 22
Hence, Z12 = = 3 = W
I2 I1 = 0
I2 3
6.3 Y-PARAMETER
Genralize equation of Y-parameter is given as follows
I1 = Y11V1 + Y12V2 ...(A)
I 2 = Y21V1 + Y22 V2 ...(B)
Step-1 Calculation of Y11 and Y21 .Put V2 = 0 (Secondary side short circuited)
I1
From equation (A) I1 = Y11V1 Þ Y11 =
V1 V2 = 0
188 Network Theory
From equation (B) I 2 = Y21V1 I2

Þ Y21 =
V1 V2 = 0
Step-2 Calculation of Y12 and Y22 .Put V1 = 0 (Primary side short circuited)
I1
From equation (A) I1 = Y12V2 Þ Y12 =
V2 V1 = 0
From equation (B) I 2 = Y22V2 I2

Þ Y22 =
V2 V1 = 0
Example-6.4 Calculate Y-parameter of the following fig 6.13
I1 3W 7W I2
V1 6W V2
Fig.-6. 13
Solution:
Step-1 Calculation of Y11 and Y21 .Put V2 = 0 (Secondary side short circuited
and its circuit diagram shown in fig-6.14)
I1 7W I2
3W
V1 6W
Fig.-6. 14
V1 = [(6 7) + 3]I1 =
81 I I 13
I1 Þ Y11 = 1 = 1 = Mho
13 V1 V =0 81 I 81
2 1
13
æ 6 ö 6
By using current division rule, I 2 = - I1 ´ ç ÷ = - I1
è6+7ø 13
é 6 ù
- I1 ê
I2 6 + 7 úû 6
Y21 = = ë = - Mho
V1 81 81
V2 = 0 I1
13
Step-2 Calculation of Y12 and Y22 .Put V1 = 0 (Primary side short circuited and
its circuit diagram shown in fig-6.15).
I1 7W I2
3W
6W V2
Fig.-6. 15
By applying KVL to the above equation, We get,
I2 I2 1
V2 = I 2 [(3 6 ) + 7] = 9I 2 Þ Y22 =
V2
= = Mho
9I 2 9
V1 = 0
2
- I2 æ 6 ö 2
I1 2
Now Y12 = = 3 =- Mho . Since, I1 = - I 2 ´ ç ÷ = - I2
V2 V1 = 0
9I 2 27 è 6+3ø 3
Example-6.5
Calculate Z-parameter of the following fig 6.16.
7W
I1 3W I2
6W
V1 2W 1W V2
Fig.-6. 16
Solution:
Step-1: Calculation of Z11 and Z21 .Put I 2 = 0 (Secondary side open circuited and
7W
I1 3W 6W I¢2 I 2 = 0
V1 2W 1W V2
Fig.-6. 17
190 Network Theory
V1 = 3I1 + {[(7 6 ) + 1] 2}I1 = 3I1 + éæç 42 + 1ö÷ 2ù I1 = 353 I1

ê ú
ëè 13 ø û 81
353 26
I1 I
V1 353 V2 1´ I¢2 81 1 26
Þ Z11 = = 81 = W And Z 21 = = = = W
I1 I 2 =0
I1 81 I1 I2 =0
I1 I1 81
2 26
Where, I¢2 = I1 =
[2 + (7 6) + 1] 81 I1 (By using current division rule)
7W
I1 = 0 3W I3 I2
6W
V1 2W 1W V2
Fig.-6. 18
13
2 ´ I2 é 1 ù 13I 2
V1 2I3 81 = 26 W ,
Z12 = = = Where, I3 = I 2 ´ ê ú=
I2 I2 I2 81 ëê1 + 2 + (6 7 )ûú 81
ìæ 42 ö ü 68
By applying KVL, V2 = I 2 [{(7 6 ) + 2}1] = I 2 íç + 2 ÷ 1ý = I 2 ,
îè 13 ø þ 81
68
I
V2 81 2 68
Hence, Z 22 = = = W
I2 I2 81
Example-6.6
Calculate Z11 Parameter of the following fig-6.19.
I1
2W 3F I2
V1 3H 4H V2
Fig.-6. 19
Solution:
If there are R,L.C in a circuit,that types of problem can be soloved by using
laplace transform of R,L&C. For calculation of Z11 , Put I 2 = 0 and its circuit
diagram shown in fig-6.20
I1 1 I2 = 0
2W W
3s
V1 3sW 4sW V2
Fig.-6. 20
é ì 1 üù é 36s 3 + 42s 2 + 3s + 2 ù
Here V1 = I1 ê2 + íæç + 4s ö÷ 3s ýú = ê ú I1
ë îè 3s ø þû ë 1 + 21s 2 û
V1 36s 3 + 42 s 2 + 3s + 2
Þ Z11 = = W
I1 1 + 21s 2
Example-6.7 a 7W b
I1 I2
6W
Calculate Z-Parameter of the following
fig-6.21. V1 V2
3W
c d
2W
Fig.-6. 21
Solution:
Step-1:
Calculation of Z 11 and Z 21. Put I2 = 0 a
(Secondary side open circuited and its I1 I3 I4
circuit diagram shown in fig-6.22).
6W 7W
Here
V1 d V2 b
V1 = I1 [(2 + 6) (7 + 3) ] = (8 10 )I1 =
40
I1 I2 = 0
9 2W 3W
Hence I3 I4
40 c
I1
V1 9 40 Fig.-6. 22
Þ Z11 = = = W
I1 I1 9
192 Network Theory
By using current division rule .we can calculate the values of I 3 and I 4
(3 + 7 ) 10 5 ( 6 + 2) 8 4
I 3 = I1 = I1 = I1 and I 4 = I1 = I1 = I1
(3 + 7) + (6 + 2) 18 9 (3 + 7) + (6 + 2) 18 9
4 5 2
Also V2 = Vd - Vb = [V1 - 6I3 ] - [V1 - 7 I 4 ] = 7I 4 - 6I 3 = 7 ´ I1 - 6 I1 = - I1
9 9 9
2
- I1
V 2
Finally Z 21 = 2 = 9 = - W
I1 I1 9 a
I1 = 0 I3 I3
Step-2:
Calculation of Z 12 and Z 22 .Put I 2 = 0 6W 7W
(Primary side open circuited and its circuit
diagram shown in fig-6.23). d V2 b
I2
By applying KVL to the above circuit.We get, 2W 3W

I4 I4
V2 = I 2 [(7 + 6) (2 + 3)] = (13 5)I 2 =
65
I2
18 c
Fig.-6.23
65
I
V2 18 2 65
Þ Z 22 = = = W
I2 I2 18
By using current division rule to the above circuit. We get
(3 + 2) 5 (6 + 7 13
I3 = I 2 = I 2 And I 4 = I 2 = I2
(3 + 2) + (6 + 7) 18 (3 + 2) + (6 + 7) 18
Similarly, V1 = Va - Vc = [V2 - 7 I3 ] - [V2 - 3I 4 ] = 3I 4 - 7 I3
13 5 4 2
= 3I 4 - 7 I 3 = 3 ´ I2 - 7 I2 = I2 = I2
18 18 18 9
2
I
V2 9 2 2
Hence Z12 = = = W
I2 I2 9
6.4 A,B,C,D (TRANSMETER)PARAMETER
Generalize equation for ABCD parameter as follows,
V1 = AV2 - BI2 ....(A)
I1 = CV2 - DI2 ....(B)
Where V1 -Sending end voltage, I1 -Sending end current.
V2 -Receiving end voltage, I 2 -Receiving end current.

Step-1 Calculation of A & C.Put I 2 = 0 (Secondary side open circuitrd)
V1
From equation (A) V1 = AV2 Þ A=
V2 I 2 =0
I1
From equation (B) I1 = CV2 ÞC =
V2 I =0
2
Step-2 Calculation of B & D.Put V2 = 0 (Secondary side short crcuited)
V1
From equation (A) V1 = -BI2 ÞB= -
I2 V =0
2
I
From equation (B) I1 = -DI2 ÞD=- 1
I2 V =0
2
Example-6.8
Calculate the ABCD parameter of the following fig-6.24.
I1 6W
I2
2W
V1 7W 7W V2
Fig.-6. 24
Solution:
Step-1 Calculation of A & C.Put I2 = 0 (Secondary side open circuitrd and its
circuit diagram shown in fig-6.25).
I1 2W 6W I2 = 0
V1 7W 7W V2
Fig.-6. 25
By applying KVL to the above circuit.We get

V1 = [{(6 + 7) 7}+ 2]I1 = 6.55I1
7 7 7
and V2 = 7 I 3 = 7 ´ I1 ´ = 2.45I1 Where, I 3 = I1 ´ = I1
7+6+7 7 + 6 + 7 20
194 Network Theory
V1 6.55I1 I I1
Hence, A = = = 2.67 ,similarly C = 1 = = 0.408 Mho
V2 I2 =0
2.45I1 V2 I 2 =0
2.45I1
Step-2 Calculation of B & D.Put V2 = 0 (Secondary side short crcuited and its
circuit diagram shown in fig-6.26)
I1 2W I2
6W
V1 7W 7W
Fig.-6. 26
Here short circiut takes place across 7W. So it is effectiveless and its circuit diagram
shown in fig-6.27.
I1 2W 6W I2
V1 7W
Fig.-6.27
By Applying KVL to the above circuit, We get,

æ 42 ö
V1 = 2I1 + (6 7 )I1 = ç 2 + ÷ I1 =
50 7 7
I1 And - I 2 = I1 = I1
è 13 ø 13 6 + 7 13
68
I1 I1 I 13
V
Hence, B = - 1 = 13 = 9.71 W And D = - =- 1 =
7 I2 7
I2 I1 - I1 7
13 13
6.4.1 Interconnection of Two-Port network
Cosider two separate transmission network having parameter A1,B 1,C1,D 1 And
A2,B2,C2,D2 respectively and its circuit diagram shown in fig 6.28 and fig 6.29
I1 A1 B1 I2
V1 Network-1 V2
C1 D1
Fig.-6.28
Mathematically, For network -1
V1 = A1 V2 - B1I 2 ....(A)
I1 = C1V2 - D1I2 ....(B)
Above equations can be written as
éV1 ù éA1 B1 ù é V2 ù
ê I ú = ê C D ú ê- I ú ....(C)
ë 1û ë 1 1ûë 2 û
Similarly, For network-2
I1¢ A2 B2 I¢2
V1¢ Network-2 V2¢
C2 D2
Fig.-6. 29
V1¢ = A2V2¢ - B2I¢2 ....(D)

I1¢ = C2V2¢ - D2I¢2 ....(E)
Above equations can be written as
éV1¢ù éA 2 B2 ù é V2¢ ù
ê I¢ ú = ê C D2 úû êë- I¢2 úû
ë 1û ë 2 ....(F)
When two networks connected in cascaded manner then its circuit shown in fig.6.30
I1 A1 B1 I2 I1¢ A2
V1
B2 I¢2
Network-1 V2 V1¢ Network-2 V2¢
C1 D1 C2 D2
Fig.-6. 30
Above cascaded connection satisfy the following conditions.
i) I 2 = -I1¢
ii) V2 = V1¢
Above these two conditions put in equation (C), we get
éV1 ù éA1 B1 ù éV1¢ù
ê I ú = ê C D ú ê I¢ ú ....(G)
ë 1û ë 1 1ûë 1 û
éV ù éA B1 ù éA 2 B2 ù é V2¢ ù
Þ ê 1ú = ê 1 úê
ë I1 û ë C1 D1 û ë C 2 D 2 úû êë- I¢2 úû
196 Network Theory
éV ù éA A + B1C 2 A1B2 + B1D 2 ù é V2¢ ù

Þ ê 1ú = ê 1 2
ë I1 û ëC1A 2 + D1C 2 C1B 2 + D1D 2 úû êë- I¢2 úû ....(H)
Above equation (H) campare with transmission parameter equation, we get

A = A1A 2 + B1C2 , B = A1B2 + B1D 2 , C = C1A 2 + D1C2 , D = C1B2 + D1D 2
6.5 H-PARAMETER
Generalize equation of hybrid parameter is gien by
V1 = h11I1 + h12 V2 ....(A)
I 2 = h 21I1 + h 22 V2 ....(B)
Above equations (A) and (B) written as
éV1 ù é h11 h12 ù é I1 ù

ê I ú = êh úê ú ....(C)
ë 2 û ë 21 h 22 û ëV2 û
Step-1: Calculation of h11 and h 21 .Put V2 = 0 (Secondary side short circuited)
From equation (A) V1 = h11I1

V1
Þ h11 =
I1 V =0
2
I2
From equation (B) I2 = h 21I1 Þh21 =
I1 V =0
2
Step-2: Calculation of h 21 and h 22 .Put I1 = 0 (Secondary side open circuited)
From equation (A) V1 = h12V2

V1
Þ h12 =
V2 I1 =0
I2
From equation (B) I2 = h22V2 Þh22 =
V2 I =0
1
In above step-1 and step-2 parameter calculation, we conformed that both short
circuit and open circuit takes place in same network.That is why it is called hybrid
parameter.
Example-6.9 Calculate H-parameter of the following fig-6.31.
I1 I2
4W 2W
V1 6W 4H V2
Fig.-6. 31
Solution:
The above circuit consists of two parameters like resistance(ohm) and
inductance( henry).It arises a problem for calculating the parameter.This can be can
be avoided by using laplace and its circuit shown in fig-6.32.
I1 I2
4W 2W
V1 6W 4s V2
Fig.-6. 32
1
As a [L] = Ls and a [C] =
Cs
Step-1: Calculation of h11 and h21.Put V2 = 0 (Secondary side short circuited and
its circuit diagran shown in fig -6.33).
I1 I3 I2
4W 2W
V1 6W 4s
Fig.-6. 33
By applying KVL to the above circiut, We get,
12 + 36s V1 12 + 36 s
V1 = [ {(2 4s) + 4 } 6]I1 = I1 Þ h11 = = Ohm
5 + 12s I1 5 + 12 s
é 6 ù é 12 + 24 s ù
I 3 = I1 ´ ê ú = I1 ê
êë 4 + 6 + (4 s 2 )úû
ú
ë 20 + 48s û
é 4s ù é 12 + 24 s ù é 4 s ù 24 s
and - I 2 = I 3 ´ ê ú = I1 ê ú ´ê ú = I1
ë 2 + 4s û ë 20 + 48s û ë 2 + 4 s û 20 + 48s
24 s
- I1
I2 20 + 48s = - 24 s
Finally, h 21 = =
I1 I1 20 + 48s
Step-2:
I4 I2
I1 = 0 4W 2W
Calculation of h 11 and h 22 .Put 4s
V1 6W V2
I1 = 0 (Primary side open circuited
and its circuit diagram shown in
fig.6.34). Fig.-6. 34
198 Network Theory
By applying KVL to the above circuit,We get
48s + 20
V2 = [ {(6 + 4) 4s }+ 2] I 2 = ç
æ 40s ö
+ 2 ÷I 2 = I2
è 10 + 4s ø 10 + 4s
4s 24s
V1 = 6I 4 = 6 ´ ´ I2 = I2 ,
6 + 4 + 4s 10 + 4 s
Where,
4s 4s
I4 = ´ I2 = I2
6 + 4 + 4s 10 + 4 s
4s
I2
V1 4s s
h12 = = 10 + 4 s = =
V2 48s + 20 I 48s + 20 12 s + 5
2
10 + 4 s
I2 I2 10 + 4 s
h 22 = = = Mho
V2 48s + 20 I 48s + 20 Ans
2
10 + 4 s
Example-6.10
Calculate the Z-parameter of I1 1W I2
the following fig-6.35. 1W
V1 2W V2
0.5 W
Fig.-6. 35
Solution:
Step-1: Calculation of Z11 and Z21.Put I2 = 0 (Secondary side open circuited and
I1 1W I3 1W I2 = 0
V1 2W V2
0.5 W
Fig.-6. 36
V1 = [ {(1 + 0.5) 2 }+ 1] I1
æ 1 .5 ´ 2 ö 6 .5 13
Þ Z11 =
V1 11
= W
=ç + 1÷ I1 = I1 = I1
è 1 .5 + 2 ø 3.5 7 I1 5
2
2 1 2 I
V2 7 1 2
V2 = 0.5I 3 = 0.5 ´ ´ I1 = I1 = I1 Þ Z21 = = = W
2 + 1 + 0.5 3.5 7 I1 I1 7
Step-2: Calculation of Z12 and Z22.Put I1 = 0 (Primary side open circuited and its
I1 = 0 1W 1W I4 I2
V1 2W V2
0.5 W
Fig.-6. 37
By applying KVL to the above circuit. We get,
V2 = [( 2 + 1) 0.5]I 2 =
1.5 3 V 3
I 2 = I 2 Ü Z 22 = 2 = W
3.5 7 I2 I1 = 0
7
æ 0.5 ö
2´ç ´ I2 ÷
Z12 =
V1 2I
= 4 = è 0.5 + 1 + 2 ø=2W
I2 I1 = 0
I2 I2 2
0.5 1
where I 4 = ´ I2 = I2
0.5 + 1 + 2 7
6.6 SPECIAL NETWORK(PARALLEL NETWORK)
Suppose the one parallel network R1 R2
shown in following fig-6.38 and its
Y-parameter calculation procedure I1 I2
R3 R4
as follows:
V1 V2
R5 R6
Fig.-6. 38
below figure reduced to fig-6.39
Network-1
I1¢ R1 R2 I¢2
V1¢ V¢2
R5
I1 I2
V1 V2
R3 R4
I1¢¢ I¢2¢
V1¢¢ R6 V2¢¢
Fig.-6. 39 Network-2
200 Network Theory
In above circuit +ve and-ve terminal divided into two parts.So that the circuit satisfies
the following conditions.
i) V1 = V1¢ = V¢¢ ii) V2 = V2¢ = V2¢¢ iii) I1 = I1¢ + I1¢¢ iv) I 2 = I¢2 + I¢2¢
Cosider network-1
I1¢ R1 R2 I¢2
V1¢ R5 V2¢
Fig.-6. 40
Form above network Y- parameters( Y11¢ , Y12¢ , Y21

¢ , Y22
¢ ) can be calculated by using
following equation-(A) and (B).
I1¢ = Y11¢ V1¢ + Y12¢ V2¢ ...(A)
I¢2 = Y21
¢ V1¢ + Y22
¢ V¢ ...(B)
Consider network-2
I1¢¢ I¢2¢
R3 R4
V1¢¢ R6 V2¢¢
Fig.-6. 41
Form above network Y- parameters( Y11¢¢ , Y12¢¢ , Y21

¢¢ , Y22
¢¢ ) can be calculated by using
following equation-(A) and (B).
I1¢¢ = Y11¢¢ V1¢¢+ Y12¢¢ V2¢¢ ....(C)
I¢2¢ = Y21
¢¢ V1¢¢+ Y22
¢¢ V2¢¢ ....(D)
Above network fig-6.40 and fig-6.41 arranged as follows:
I1¢ V1¢ Network - 1 V2¢

I¢2
I1 I2
I1¢¢
V1 I¢2¢ V2
V1¢¢ Network - 2 V2¢¢
Fig.-6. 42
From the above circuit we conformed that, the network-1 and network-2 are parallel
to each other.
Now I1 = I1¢ + I1¢¢ = Equation - (A) + Equation - (C)
Þ I1 = Y11¢ V1¢ + Y12¢ V2¢ + Y11¢¢ V1¢¢+ Y12¢¢ V2¢¢ .....(E)
But i) V1 = V1¢ = V1¢¢ ii) V2 = V2¢ = V2¢¢ , Put in above equation, we get
Þ I1 = (Y11¢ + Y11¢¢ )V1 + (Y12¢ + + Y12¢¢ )V2 ,
¢ +Y11¢ ,
Hence Y11 = Y11 Y12 = Y12¢ ++Y12¢
Similarly , I 2 = I¢2 + I¢2¢ = Equation - (B) + Equation - (D)
¢ V1¢ + Y22
Þ I 2 = Y21 ¢ V2¢ + Y21
¢¢ V1¢¢+ Y22
¢¢ V2¢¢ . ....(E)
But i) V1 = V1¢ = V1¢¢ ii) V2 = V2¢ = V2¢¢ , Put in above equation, we get
Þ I2 = (Y21 ¢¢ )V1 + (Y21
¢ + Y22 ¢¢ )V2 ,
¢ + + Y22
Hence Y21 = Y21¢ +Y21
¢ , ¢ ++Y22
Y22 =Y22 ¢
From above calculation,we conformed that when two admittance parameters
connected in parallel.Then net admittance is addition of two individual parameters.
N.B For Z-parameter calculation of above circuit we have to obey following
steps.
i) First calculate Y-parameter
ii) Then Z-parameter is inverse matrix of Y-Parameter.
Example-6.11 Calculate Y-Parameter of the following fig-6.43
2W 2W 2W
I1 2W 2W 2W I2
V1 V2
4W 4W 4W 4W
Fig.-6. 43
Solution: Simplifed diagram of above circuit shown in fig-6.44

2W 2W 2W
I¢2
I¢1
4W 4W V¢2
I1 I2
V1 V2
2W 2W 2W
I1¢¢ I¢2¢
V1¢¢ 4W 4W V2¢¢
Fig.-6.44
202 Network Theory
For network-1 ( fig-6.45)
2W 2W 2W
I1¢ I¢2
V1¢ 4W 4W V2¢
Fig.-6. 45
Step-1 Calculation of Y11¢ and Y21

¢ .Put V2 = 0 (Secondary side short circuited and
its circuit diagram shown in fig-6.46)
2W 2W 2W
I1¢ I3 I¢2
V1¢ 4W 4W
Fig.-6.46
éæ 8 ö ù
V1¢ = I1¢ [ {(2 4) + 2 } 4] + 2 I1¢ = êç + 2 ÷ 4úI1¢ + 2I1¢ = I¢
20
ëè 6 ø û 11
I1¢ I¢ 11
Hence, Y11¢ = = 1 = Mho
V1¢ 20 I¢ 20
11
4 6 4 2 2 6 4
Here , I 3 = I1¢ ¢ I¢2 = I3 = I3 = ´ I1¢ = I1¢
[ ( 2 4) + 2 + 4] = 11 I1 And [2 + 4] 3 3 11 11
4
- I1¢
I¢2 2
¢ =
Y21 = 11 = - Mho
V1¢ 42
I1¢ 21
11
Step-2 Calculation of Y21 ¢ and Y22
¢ .Put V1 = 0 (Primary side short circuited and
2W 2W 2W
I1¢ I¢2
4W 4W V2¢
Fig.-6. 47
V2¢ = [ {(2 4 )+ 2 } 4 ]
+ 2 I¢2 =
20
11
I¢2 Þ Y22
I¢ I¢
¢ = 2 = 2 =
11
V2¢ 20 I¢ 20
Mho
2
11
2
¢ = Y12¢ = -
Y21 Mho
21
For network-II
2W 2W 2W
The circuit shown in fig-6.48 similar to I1¢¢ I¢2¢
circuit as network-1(Fig-6.45). V1¢¢ V2¢¢
4W 4W
Fig.-6.48
Hence Y-parameter of above network same as Y-parameter of fig-6.44

Hence overall Y-parameter of the network as follows
11 11 2 4
Y11 = Y11¢ + Y11¢¢ = 2 ´ ¢ + Y21
= W , Y21 = Y12 = Y21 ¢¢ = - ´ 2 = - Mho
20 10 21 21
11 11
¢ + Y22
Y22 = Y22 ¢¢ = 2 ´ = Mho
20 10
6.7 p AND T NETWORK
6.7.1 p Network: It is looks like a p -structure having 3-parameters as follows.
I1 ZA I2
V1 ZB ZC V2
Fig.-6.49
It is also known as delta network.We can change the above N/W into T-N/W (star),-
using delta-Star conversion.
6.7.2 T-Network
I1 Z1 Z2
I2
V1 Z3 V2
Fig.-6.50
204 Network Theory
We can change the above p - N/W into T-N/W (star),-using Star -delta conversion.
Example-6.12
Find T & p equivalent of the following fig-7.51.
I1 I2
3W 3W 3W
V1 3W V2
3W
Fig.-6. 51
Solution:
3W 3W 3W
I1 I2
R1 R3
V1 V2
3W 3W
R2
Fig.-6. 52
3´ 3
Fig- 6.51 reduced to fig-6.52 having R 1 = R 2 = R 3 = = 1W
3+ 3+ 3
3W 3W
I1 I1 4W I2
I2 4W
1W 1W
ÞV 1 1W V2 V1
1W
V2
Fig.-6. 53 Fig.-6. 54
Z1
I1 I2 24 W
4W I1 I2
4W
Þ V1 Z2 V2 V1 6W 6W V2
Z3
1W
Fig.-6. 56( p -Network)

Fig.-6. 55
Here the fig-6.55 converted into fig-6.56(delt) in following way.

(4 ´ 1) + (1´ 4) + ( 4 ´ 4) 24 24
Z1 = = W Z 2 = Z3 = =6W
1 1 4
6.8 IMAGE IMPEDANCE
Consider Transmission parameter ABCD of the the two-port network.The sending
end voltage and current related to receiving end voltage and current as follows.
A C
I1 I2
V1 V2
B D
Fig.-6. 57
V1 = AV2 - BI2 ....(A)

I1 = CV2 - DI2 ....(B)
Image impedance of twoport network are two types:
i) Primary side image impedance( Z1i )
ii) Secondary side image impedance( Z2i )
6.8.1 Calculation of Primary side image impedance( Z1i )
Consider following network(fig-6.58)and its image impedance of primary can be
calculated in terms of secondary side image impedance as follows
A C
I1 I2
V1 V2 Z 2i
B D
Fig.-6. 58
V1 -Input voltage to the network ,

I1 -Input side current , and V2 = - I 2 Z 2i
V1 AV2 - BI 2
Hence , Z1i = =
I1 CV2 - DI 2
A (- I 2 Z 2 i ) - BI 2 AZ 2i + B
= =
C(- I 2 Z 2 i ) - DI 2 CZ 2i + D .....(C)
206 Network Theory
6.8.2 Calculation of Secondary side image impedance( Z2i )

As we know,
V1 = AV2 - BI2 .....(D)
I1 = CV2 - DI2 .....(E)
A C
I1 I2
Z1i V1 V2
B D
Fig.-6. 59
Above equation shows the relationship V1 , I1 in terms of V2 , I2 .But our requirement

is V2 , I2 in terms of V1 , I1 and its procedure shown belows.
V1 + BI 2 1 BI
From equation (D), We get, V2 = = V1 + 2 ...(F)
A A A
CV2 - I1
`The value of I 2 = From equation-(E) ,put in equation (F).We get,
D
1 B æ CV2 - I1 ö 1 BC B
V2 = V1 + ç ÷ Þ V2 = V1 + V2 - I1
A Aè D ø A AD AD
é AD - BC ù 1 B
Þ V2 ê ú = V1 - I1
ë AD û A AD
D B
Þ V2 = V1 - I1 ...(G)
AD - BC AD - BC
But V1 = -I1Z1i put in equation (G). We get
é DZ1i + B ù
V2 = - I1 ê ú ...(H)
ë AD - BC û
CV2 - I1
Similarly ,from equation(E) I 2 = ...(I)
D
V1 + BI 2
From equation (D), V2 = , Put in equatio (I),we get
A
C é V1 + BI 2 ù I1
I2 = -
D êë A úû D
C BC I
Þ I2 = V1 + I2 - 1
AD AD D
æ AD - BC ö C I
Þç ÷I 2 = V1 - 1
è AD ø AD D
C A
Þ I2 = V1 - I1 = AI1 - CV1 ....(J)
AD - BC AD - BC BC - AD
But the value V1 = -I1Z1i .Put in equation (J),We get,
éC(- Z1iI1 ) - AI1 ù é CZ1i + A ù

Þ I2 = -ê ú = = - I1 ê ú ....(K)
ë AD- BC û ë AD - BC û
é DZ1i + B ù
- I1 ê
V2 ë AD - BC úû = DZ1i + B
But Z 2i = = .....(L)
I2 é CZ + A ù CZ1i + A
- I1 ê 1i
ë AD - BC úû
The value of Z2i put in equation(C).We get
é DZ + B ù
A ê 1i +B
ë CZ1i + A úû
Z1i = ADZ1i + AB + BCZ1i + AB ( AD + BC ) Z1i + 2 AB
é DZ1i + B ù = =
Cê + D CDZ1i + BC + CDZ1i + AD 2CDZ1i + AD + BC
CZ + A ú
ë 1i û
Þ ( AD + BC ) Z1i + 2 AB = 2CDZ 12i + ( BC + + AD ) Z1i
AB
Þ Z1i =
CD
The value of Z1i put in equation (L),we get
BD
Þ Z 2i =
AC
6.9 CLCULATION OF CHARACTERISTICS-IMPEDANCE(Z0)
Mathematically.characteristics-impedance is same for both primary side of T-and
p -network.The primary side characteristics impedance Z 0 = Z OC1 ´ Z SC1
where, Z OC1 =Open .impedance of primary side,when secondary side open circuited
208 Network Theory
Z SC 1 = Short impedance of primary side,when secondary side short circuited.

Similarly ,the secondary side characteristics impedanc Z = Z OC 2 ´ Z SC 2
0
Where , Z OC 2 = open ckt.impedance of secondary side , when primary side is open

circuited.
And Z SC 2 = Short ckt.impedance of secondary side, when primary side is short
circuited.
The ratio of voltage applied to the current flowing will gives the input impedance.This
input impedance is known as the characteristice impedance of the line and it is denoted
by ( Z 0 )
Example-6.13
Calculate the characteristic impedance of the following fig-6.60.
I1 I2
1W 3W
V1 2W V2
Fig.-6. 60
Solution:
Calculation of primary side characteristic impedance
Step-1: Calculation of primary side impedance( Z OC1 ).Put I 2 = 0 (Secondary side
open circuited and its circuit shown in fig-6.61)
I1 1W 3W I2 = 0
V1 2W V2
Fig.-6. 61
V1
V1 = ( 2 + 1) I1 Þ Z OC1 = = 3W
I1
Step-1: I2
I1 1W 3W
Calculation of primary impedance. V1 2W
When V2 = 0 (Secondary side short
circuited and its circuit shown in
fig.6.62) Fig.-6. 62
V1 11
V1 = [ (2 3 ) + 1 ] I1 = ê + 1ú I1
é 6 ù 11 Þ Z SC1 = = W
ë5 û 5 I1 5
11
Hence, Characteristic -impedance Z 0 = Z OC1 ´ Z SC1 = 3 ´ = 2.56 W
5
Secondary side characteristic impedance( Z 0 )
Step-1: Calculation of secondary side impedance.When I1 = 0 (Primary side open
circuited and its circuit shown in fig-6.63)
I1 = 0 I2
1W 3W
V1 2W V2
Fig.-6. 63
V1
V2 = [2 + 3] I1 = 5I 2 Þ ZOC2 = =5W
I1
Step-1: Calculation of secondary side impedance.When V1 = 0 (Primary side
short circuited and its circuit shown in fig-6.64)
I1 I2
1W 3W
2W V2
Fig.-6. 64
V2 11
V2 = [ (1 2) + 3 ] I 2 = ê + 3ú = I 2
é 2 ù 11 Þ Z SC 2 = = W
ë3 û 3 I2 3
11
Hence, Characteristic -impedance Z 0 = Z OC 2 ´ Z SC 2 = 5 ´ = 4.28 W
3
6.10 INTERRELATION OF TWO PARAMETERS
6.10.1 Y-Parameters in terms of Z-parameters
Equation for Z-parameter
V1 = Z11I1 + Z12 I 2 ...(A)
V2 = Z21I1 + Z22 I 2 ...(B)
Equation for Y-parameter
210 Network Theory
I1 = Y11V1 + Y12V2 ....(C)

I 2 = Y21V1 + Y22 V2 ....(D)
V2 - Z 21I1
From equation (B), the value of I 2 = Put in equation (A),We get
Z 22
æ V - Z21I1 ö Z11I1Z 22 + Z12 V2 - Z12 Z 21I1

V1 = Z11I1 + Z12 çç 2 ÷÷ =
è Z 22 ø Z22
Þ V1Z22 = Z11I1Z22 + Z12 V2 - Z12 Z21I1 Þ I1 (Z11Z22 - Z12 Z21 ) = V1Z22 - Z12 V2
Z 22 Z12
Þ I1 = V1 - V
(Z11Z 22 - Z12 Z 21 ) (Z11Z 22 - Z12 Z 21 ) 1 ....(E)
Now the equation (E) campare with equation (C)

Z 22 Z12
We get, Y11 = Y12 = -
(Z11Z 22 - Z12 Z 21 ) (Z11Z 22 - Z12 Z 21 )
V2 - Z 22 I 2
Again from equation (B),the value of I1 = ,Put in equation (A),We get
Z 21
æ V - Z 22 I 2 ö Z V - Z11Z 22 I 2 + Z21Z12 I 2
V1 = Z11 çç 2 ÷÷ + Z12 I 2 = 11 2
è Z 21 ø Z 21
Þ V1Z21 = Z11V2 - Z11Z22 I 2 + Z21Z12 I 2 , Þ I 2 (Z21Z12 - Z11Z22 ) = V1Z21 - Z11V2

Þ I2 (Z11Z22 - Z21Z12 ) = -V1Z21 + Z11V2
Z 21 Z11
Þ I2 = - V1 + V
(Z11Z 22 - Z 21Z12 ) (Z11Z 22 - Z 21Z12 ) 2 ....(F)
The above equation(F) compare with equation (C).We get
Z 21 Z11
Y21 = - Y22 =
(Z11Z 22 - Z 21Z12 ) And
(Z11Z 22 - Z 21Z12 )
6.10.2 Z-Parameters in terms of Y-parameters
I1 = Y11V1 + Y12V2 .....(i)
I 2 = Y21V1 + Y22 V2 .....(ii)
V1 = Z11I1 + Z12 I 2 ....(iii)

V2 = Z21I1 + Z22 I 2 ....(iv)
I1 - Y21V1
From equation (ii), the value of V2 = Put in equation (i),We get
Y22
æ I - Y21V1 ö Y Y V + Y12 I 2 - Y12 Y21V1

I1 = Y11V1 + Y12 çç 2 ÷÷ Þ I1 = 22 11 1
è Y22 ø Y22
Þ I1Y22 = Y22 Y11V1 + Y12 I1 - Y12 Y21V1

Þ V1 [Y22 Y11 - Y12 Y21 ] = Y22 I1 - Y12 I 2
Y22 Y12
Þ V1 = I1 - I
[Y22Y11 - Y12Y21] [Y22Y11 - Y12Y21] 2 ....(v)
Hence above equation compare with equation (iii),We get

Y22 Y12
Z11 = And Z12 = -
[Y22 Y11 - Y12 Y21 ] [Y22 Y11 - Y12 Y21 ]
I1 - Y11V1
From equation(i) V2 = ....(vi)
Y12
I 2 - Y22 V2
From equation (ii),the value of V1 = put in equation (VI), We get,
Y21
æ I - Y22 V2 ö
I1 - Y11 çç 2 ÷÷
è Y21 ø Þ V Y Y = Y I -Y I +Y Y V
V2 = 2 12 21 21 1 11 2 11 22 2
Y12
Þ V2 (Y11Y22 - Y12 Y21 ) = -Y21I1 + Y11I 2

Y21 Y11
Þ V2 = - I1 + I
(Y11Y22 - Y12 Y21 ) (Y11Y22 - Y12 Y21 ) 2 ....(vii)
Comparing equation (vii) with equation (iv),We get
Y21 Y11
Z12 = - Z 22 =
(Y11Y22 - Y12 Y21 ) And
(Y11Y22 - Y12 Y21 )
6.10.3 Y-Parameters in terms of H-parameters
I1 = Y11V1 + Y12V2 ...................(i)
212 Network Theory
I 2 = Y21V1 + Y22 V2 ....(ii)

Equation for H-parameter
V1 = h11I1 + h12V2 ....(iii)
I 2 = h 21I1 + h 22 V2 ....(iv)
V1 - h12 V2 1 h
From equation(iv) I1 = = V1 - 12 V2 ....(v)
h11 h11 h11
The above equation comparing with equation(i),We get
1 h 12
Y11 = And Y12 = -
h11 h 11
V1 - h12 V2
Again from equation(iii), the value of I1 = put in equation (iv)
h11
æV -h V ö
We get, I 2 = h 21 çç 1 12 2 ÷÷ + h 22 V2
è h11 ø
h 21 h h V h 21V1 - h 21h12 V2 + h11h 22 V2
Þ I2 = V1 - 21 12 2 + h 22 V2 Þ I2 =
h11 h11 h11
Þ I 2 h11 = h 21V1 - h 21h12 V2 + h11h 22 V2 Þ I 2 h11 = h 21V1 + (h11h 22 - h 21h12 )V2
h 21 æh h -h h ö
Þ I2 = V1 + çç 11 22 21 12 ÷÷V2 ....(vi)
h11 è h11 ø
The above equation (vii) compare with equation (ii),We get,
h 21 æ h h - h 21h12 ö
Y21 = And Y22 = çç 11 22 ÷÷
h11 è h11 ø
6.10.4 ABCD-Parameters in terms of Z-parameters
V1 = Z11I1 + Z12 I 2 .....(A)
V2 = Z21I1 + Z22 I 2 .....(B)
Generalize equation for ABCD parameter as follows,
V1 = AV2 - BI2 .....(C)
I1 = CV2 - DI2 ....(D)
Taking V2 from equation (B) and replacing in equation (C),We get
V1 = A(Z21I1 + Z22 I 2 ) - BI2

Þ V1 = AZ21I1 + (AZ22 - B)I 2 ....(E)
Comparing above equation(E) with equation (A)
Z11
Z11 = AZ21 Þ A=
Z 21
Z11 Z Z + Z11Z 22
and Z12 = AZ22 - B Þ B = Z12 + Z 22 = 12 21
Z 21 Z 21
1 D
From equation(D) V2 = I1 + I 2 ....(F)
C C
The above equation (F) compare with equation (B),We get,
1 D 1 Z
C= And = Z 22 Þ D = Z 22 ´ C = Z 22 ´ Z Þ D = 22
Z 21 C 21 Z 21
Example-6.14
Find Z-parameter of the following fig-6.65
I1 1W I2
1W
V1 2W 0.5 W V2
Fig.-6.65
Solution:
its circuit diagram shown in fig-6.66 ).
I1 I3 1 W I2 = 0
1W
V1 2W 0.5 W V2
Fig.-6. 66
Applying KVL to the above circuit. We get

13
I
V1 = [1 + {2 (1 + 0.5) }] I1 = [1 + ( 2 1.5) ] I1 = I1
13 V1 7 1 13
Þ Z11 = = = W
7 I1 I1 7
214 Network Theory
2 2 2
But V2 = 0.5I3 = 0.5´ I3 = 0.5´ I1 = I1 ,Where I 3 = I1
2 +1.5 7 2 + 1.5
2
I
V2 7 1 2
Hence, Z 21 = = = W
I1 I1 7
its circuit shown in fig-6.67)
I1 = 0 1 W 1W I4 I2
2W 0.5 W V2
Fig.-6. 67
By applying KVL to the above circuit,We get,
V2 = [ {0.5 (1 + 2) }] I2 = I2 Þ Z22 = 2 = W
3 V 3
7 I2 7
1
0.5 2 ´ I2
V 2 I 7 = 2W
Here, I 4 = I 2 and Z12 = 1 = 4 =
2 + 1.5 I2 I2 I2 7
Example-6.15
Calculate Z & Y-parameter of the following fig-6.68
I1 I2
2W
V1 1W 2W 3I1 V2
Fig.-6.68
Solution:
its circuit diagram shown in fig-6.69 ).
I1 I3
2W (I3 - 3I1 ) I2 = 0
V1 1W 2W 3I1 V2
(I1 - I3 )
Fig.-6. 69
Applying KVL to the above circuit
V1 = I1 - I 3 ...(A)
( )
V1 = 2I 3 + 2 I 3 - 3I1 = 6I 3 - 6I1 ....(B)
From equation (A) I 3 = I1 - V1 ,put in equation (B)

We, get V1 = 4(I1 - V1 ) - 6I1 = -2I1 - 4V1 Þ 5V1 = -2I1
V1 2
Þ Z11 = =- W
I1 5
Similarly, V2 = 2(I3 - 3I1 ) = 2I 3 - 6I1 ....(C)
The value of I 3 = I1 - V1 from equation (A) ,Put in equation (C),We get
V2 = 2(I1 - V1 ) - 6I1 = -4I1 - 2V1
V2 - 4I1 - 2V1 æV ö
Hence Z 21 = = = -4 - 2çç 1 ÷÷
I1 I1 è I1 ø
æ 2ö 2 18
= -4 - 2 Z11 = -4 - ç - ÷ = -4 + = - W
è 5ø 5 5
I1 = 0 I4 I2 I2
2W
V1 1W 2W V2
3I1 = 0
(I 2 - I 4 )
Fig.-6. 70
Applying KVL to the above circuit.We get,

6
I
V2 = [ ( 2 + 1) 2] I 2 = I 2 Þ Z 22 =
6 V2 5 2 6
= = W
5 I2 I2 5
2
I2
æ 2 ö 2 V 1´ I 4 2
Here, I 4 = I 2 ç ÷ = I 2 Hence Z12 = 1 = =5 = W
è 2 + 2 +1ø 5 I2 I2 I2 5
1
= [Z] .
-1
Similarly for Y-Parameter calculation Y =
Z
216 Network Theory
Example-6.16
Calculation of Y-parameter of the following fig-6.71
+ -
I1 I2
1W 3V1
V1 2W 1W V2
Fig.-6.71
Solution:
and its circuit shown in fig-6.72)
I1 - I 3 + -
I1 I2
I3 1W 3V1
V1 2W 1W
0 Amp
Fig.-6.72
Applying KVL to the above circuit,We get

V1 = 2I 3 ...(A)
V1 = (I1 - I3 ) + 3V1 Þ -2V1 = I1 - I 3 ....(B)
By solving equation(A) and (B), We get,
3
- V1 = I1 Þ Y11 = I1 = - 3 Mho
2 V1 2
Similarly
é V1 ù
I [I - I ] ê - I1 úû 1 I1
Þ Y21 = 2 = 3 1 = ë 2
V1 V1 = -
V1 2 V1
1 1 æ 3ö
= - Y11 = - ç - ÷ = 2 Mho
2 2 è 2ø
its circuit shown in fig-6.73)
+ -
I1 I2 I1 I2
1W 3V1 = 0 1W
2W 1W V2 1W V2
Þ
I1 + I 2
Fig.-6.73
Applying KVL to the above circuit.We get,

I I
V2 = [1 1] I 2 = I 2 Þ Y22 = 2 = 2
1
= 2 Mho
2 V2 1 I2
2
æ 1 ö
I2 ´ ç ÷
Similarly,
I
Y12 = 1 = è 1 + 1 ø = 1 Mho Ans
V2 1
I2
2
Example-6.17 Find ABCD parameters of the following network.
I1 I2
1F 1F
V1 V2
1W 1W
Fig-6.74
Solution :
Step-I : Calculation of A & C (Put I2=0, secondary side open ckted)
Now Ckt is shown in fig-6.75.
I1 1 I2=0
1 i3
S S
V1 1W V2
1W
Fig-6.75
V1 éìæ 1 ö ü 1 ù S2 + 3S +1
A= , but V1 = ê íç 1 + ÷ 1ý + I
ú 1 = I1
V2 ëîè S ø þ S û 2S2 + S
218 Network Theory
æ ö
ç 1 ÷ S
Here, V2 = 1 x i3 = 1´ I1 ´ ç ÷ = I1
1
ç1+1+ ÷ 2S +1
ç ÷
è Sø
V1 S2 + 3S +1 I1 I1 2S + 1
Hence A = = ,C= = = mho.
V2 S2 V2 æ S ö S
ç ÷ I1
è 2S + 1 ø
Step-II : Calculation of B&D (Put V2=0, secondary side short ckted). Now the
circuit. is shown in fig-6.76.
I1 1 I2
1
S S
V1 1W
1W
Fig-6. 76
éæ 1 ö ù
êç ÷ 1ú
S ÷+ I
V1 éæ 1 ö 1 ù êç ú1
B= - , but V1 = êç 1÷ + ú I1 = êç 1 ÷ S ú
I2 ëè S ø S û ç +1÷
ëêè S ø ûú
æ 2S + 1 ö - I1
-ç 2 ÷I1
V1
èS +Sø 2S + 1 I1 S S +1
Now B = - = = ohm. , D = - = - I1 =
I2 æ S ö S2 I2 S +1 S
-ç ÷I1
è S +1ø
Example-6.18
Following measurements are obtained on a two terminal network.
(a) When a voltage of 120Ð 00 volts applied at input port with output open,
I1 = 20Ð 00 amp. and V2 = 30Ð 00 volt.
(b) When a voltage 120Ð 00 applied at outpur port with input open, I2 = 12Ð 00
and V1 = 60Ð 00 volt. Write the loop equation for the network and determine
the driving point and transfer impedance.
Solution :
(a) When output port is open circuited,
V1 = 120Ð 00 Volt , I1 = 20Ð 00 Amp, V2 = 60Ð 00 Volt.
V1 120Ð 00 V2 60Ð 00
Z11 = = = 6 W , Z21 = = = 3W
I1 20Ð 00 I1 20Ð 00
(b) When input port is open circuited,
then V2 = 120Ð 00 Volt , I2 = 12Ð 00 Amp. , V1 = 60Ð 00 Volt
V2 120Ð 00 V1 60Ð 00
Z22 = = = 10W , Z22 = = = 5W
I2 12Ð 00 I2 12 Ð 00
Hence loop equations V1 = 6I1 + 5I2 , V2 = 3I1 + 10I2
Example-6.19
An p -attenuator has been shown in fig-6.77
I1 I2
1K W
V1 V2
5K W 3K W
Fig-6.77
Find Y-Parameter and draw the equivalent Y-parameter circuit.

Solution
I1 I2
1K W
V1
5K W 3K W
Fig-6.78
Here short circuit takes place across 3KΩ resistance.So the 3KΩ resistance is not
active in the network. By applying KVL to the above circuit,We get
V1 = I1 (5 1) =
5
KI1 Þ Y11 = I1 = I1 = 6 ´ 10 -3 Mho
6 V1 5 KI1 5
6
5
I 2 - 6 I1
Similarly, Y21 = = = -1 ´ 10 -3 Mho
V1 5 KI1
6
220 Network Theory
I1 I2
1K W
V2
5K W 3K W
Fig-6.79
Here short circuit takes place across 5KΩ resistance.So the 5KΩ resistance is not
active in the network. By applying KVL to the above circuit,We get
I2 I 4
V2 = I 2 (3 1) =
3
KI1 Þ Y22 = = 2 = ´10 -3 Mho
V2 3
4 KI1 3
4
3
- I2
æ 3 ö 3 I1
But, - I1 = I 2 ç ÷ = I 2 Hence, Y12 = = 4 = -1 ´10 -3 Mho
è 3 +1ø 4 V2 3 KI
2
4
Here Y-parameter equivalent circuit is shown in fig-6.80
I1 I2
V1 V1
-3 3
1. 2x10-3 mho - 10 mho 2 x10-3 mho
- 10-3 mho 4
3
Fig-6.80
Example-6.20
On short circuit test,the current and voltages were determined experimentally for
unknown two port network as:-
Case-I Secondary side short circuited( V2 = 0 )
I1 = 1 m A , I 2 = -0.5 m A , V1 = 50 V
Case-II Secondary side short circuited( V1 = 0 )
I1 = -2 m A , I 2 = -20 m A , V1 = 100V
Solution: For Calculation of Y11 and Y21 .Put V2 = 0 (Secondary side short circuited)
I1 1 ´ 10 -3 I - 0.5 ´ 10 -3
Y11 = = = 20 m Mho and Y21 = 2 = = -10 m Mho
V1 50 V1 50
For Calculation of Y22 and Y12 .Put V1 = 0 (Secondary side short circuited)
I2 - 20´10-3 I - 2 ´ 10 -3
Y22 = = = -200m Mho and Y12 = 1 = = -20 m Mho
V2 100 V2 100
But loop equation of Y-Parameter as follows
I1 = Y11V1 + Y12V2 (
Þ I1 = 20 ´ 10 -6 V1 + - 20 ´ 10 -6 V2 )
I 2 = Y21V1 + Y22 V2 (
Þ I 2 = -10 ´ 10 - 6 V1 + - 200 ´ 10 - 6 V2 )
Example-6.21
Find Hybride parameter of the following fig-6.81.
2I1 +
I1 I2
2W 4W
V1 V2
6W
Fig-6.81 -
Solution:
Step-1: Calculation of h11 and h 21 .Put V2 = 0 (Secondary side short circuited
( I1 -I3 -2I1 )
= ( - I1 -I3 )
( I1 -I3 )
2I1
I1 I2
2W 4W
V1
6W
I3
Fig-6.82
By applying KVL to the above circuit.We get,

V1 = 2I1 + 6I 3 ....(A)
And V1 = 2I1 + 4(- I1 - I3 ) = -2I1 - 4I3 ....(B)
æ V + 2I1 ö
From equation (B), the value of I3 = -ç 1 ÷ ,Put in equation (A).we get
è 4 ø
æ V + 2I1 ö 3
V1 = 2I1 - 6ç 1 ÷ = 2I1 - V1 - 3I1
è 4 ø 2
222 Network Theory
2
3 2 - I1
V 2
Þ V1 = -I1 - V1 Þ V1 = - I1 , Þ h11 = 1 = 5 =- W
2 5 I1 V2 = 0
I1 5
Applying KCL to the right side of the above circuit.
We get, - I1 - I 3 + 2I1 = - I 2
Þ I1 - I3 = - I 2 ...(C)
æ V + 2I1 ö
From equation (B), the value of I 3 = -ç 1 ÷ ,Put in equation (C).we get
è 4 ø
æ V + 2I1 ö 3 1
I1 + ç 1 ÷ = -I2 Þ I1 + V1 = - I 2 .....(D)
è 4 ø 2 4
2
But the value of V 1 = - I 1 ,Put in equation (D).
5
3 1æ 2 ö 7
We get, I1 + ç - I1 ÷ = -I 2 , Þ I 2 = - I1 ´
2 4è 5 ø 5
I2 - I1 ´ 7
Þ h 21 = = 5=7
Hence , I1 I1 5
V2 = 0
Step-2: Calculation of h12 and h 22 .Put I1 = 0 (Primary side open circuited and
2I1
I1=0 2W 4W (I 2I2 1)) I2

(I12 ++2I
V2
6W
I2
Fig-6.83
Applying KVL to the above circuit, we get
V2 = 4(I 2 + 2I1 ) + 6I 2 (Here I1 = 0 )
V1 6I 2
Þ V2 = 10I 2 and V1 = 6I 2 Hence h12 = = = 0. 6
V2 I1 = 0
10I 2
I2 I2
Similarly, h 22 = = = 0.10 Mho
v2 V2 = 0
10I 2
Example-6.22
Calculate Z-parameter of the following fig-6.84
I1 I2
2W 4W
V1 V2
2W 2V 1 2W
Fig-6.84
Solution:
I1 - i3 (I1 - i3 - 2V1 )
I1 I2=0
2W 4W
V1 2W 2V1 2W
i3
Fig-6. 85
Applying KVL to the above circuit. We get,
V1 = 2I 3 ....(A)
And V1 = 2(I1 - I3 ) + (4 + 2)(I1 - I3 - 2V1 )
Þ 13V1 = 8I1 - 8I3 ....(B)
The value of V1 = 2I 3 from equation (A) put in equation (B).
8
æ V1 ö 8 I1
We get, 13V1 = 8I1 - 8ç ÷ Þ V1 = I1 Þ Z = 1 = 17 = 8 W
V
è 2ø 17 11
I1 I1 17
But, V2 = 2(I1 - I 3 - 2V1 ) ....(C)
V1
The value of I 3 = from equation (A), put in equation (C)
2
V1
We get, V2 = 2( I1 - - 2V1 ) Þ V2 = 2I1 - 5V1 .....(D)
2
8
The value of V1 = I1 ,put in equation (D),We get,
17
224 Network Theory
6
- I1
æ 8 ö 6 V2 17 = - 6 W
V2 = 2I1 - 5ç I1 ÷ Þ V2 = - I1 W Þ Z 21 = =
è 17 ø 17 I1 I1 17
Step-2: Calculation of Z12 and Z22 .Put I1 = 0 (Primary side open circuited Ans
(I2 - I4 - 2V2) (I2 - I4)
I1 =0 I2
2W 4W
2W V2
2V1 2W
I4
Fig-6.86
Applying KVL to the above circuit. we get,

V2 = 4(I1 - I 4 ) + 4(I2 - I 4 - 2V1 )
Þ V2 = 8I2 - 8I4 - 2V1 .....(E)
V2
But the value of V2 = 2I 4 Þ I 4 = put in equation (E). We get,
2
æV ö
V2 = 8I 2 - 8ç 2 ÷ - 2V1 = 5V = 8I - 8V .....(F)
è 2ø 2 2 1
æ V2 ö
Again V1 = 2(I 2 - I 4 - 2V1 ) = 2I 2 - 2ç ÷ - 4V1
è 2ø
2 1
Þ V1 = I1 - V2 ,Put in equation (F),
5 5
æ2 1 ö 24
We get 5V2 = 8I 2 - 8ç I1 - V2 ÷ Þ V2 = I2
è5 5 ø 17
24
I
V2 17 2 24
Hence, Z 22 = = = Ω
I2 I2 17
æ2 1 ö
ç I 2 - V2 ÷
V
Finally Z12 = 1 = è 5 5 ø 2 1 2 1 æ 24 ö 2
= - Z 22 = - ç ÷ = W Ans.
I2 I2 5 5 5 5 è 17 ø 17
Example-6.23
The current I1 and I 2 at input port respectively of two-port network can be expressed
as
I1 = 6V1 - V2 And I 2 = -V1 + 2V2 ,Then
a) Find the equivalent p -network.
b) Find the input impedance when aload of (2+5j) ohm is connected across the
output port.
Solution:
The given equation I1 = 6V1 - V2 And I 2 = -V1 + 2V2 compare with Y-parameter
equation as
I1 = Y11V1 + Y12V2 and I 2 = Y21V1 + Y22 V2 respectively..
We get, Y11 = 6 , Y12 = -1 , Y21 = -1 And Y22 = 2
Hence its Y-equivalent p -network shown in fig-6.87
I1 I2
Y3
V1 V2
Y1 Y2
Fig-6.87
Step-1 I1 I2
Calculation of Y11 and Y21 .Put V2 = 0 Y3
V1 Y1 Y2
(Secondary side short circuited and its
fig-6.88
I
Here, Y11 = 1 = Y1 + Y3 Þ Y1 + Y3 = 6 .....(A)
V1
I2
And Y21 = = - Y3 Þ Y3 = 1 .....(B)
V1
Step-11 I1 I2
Y3
Y
Calculation of Y12 and Y22 .Put V1 = 0
Y1 Y2 V2
(Primary side short circuited And its circuit
diagram shown in fig-6.89)
Fig-6. 89
226 Network Theory
I2
Y22 = = Y2 + Y3 Þ Y2 + Y3 = 2 ....(C)
V2
I1
Y12 = = - Y3 Þ Y3 = 1 ....(D)
V2
Solving equation (A),(B),(C) and(D), We get,
Y1 = 5 Mho, Y2 = 1 Mho, Y3 = 1 Mho
b) When a load of (2+5j) ohm is connected across output.
I1 I2
Y
1 Mho
V1
5 Mho -1Mho V1 (2 + 5j) W
Fig-6. 90
We have V2 = -I 2 ZL = -I 2 (2 + 5 j )
Hence , I1 = 6V1 - [- I 2 (2 + 5 j )] Þ I1 = 6V1 + I 2 (2 + 5 j ) ....(E)
Similarly, I 2 = -V1 + 2V2 = -V1 + 2[- I 2 (2 + 5 j )] ....(F)
- V1
From equation (F),the value of I 2 = ,Put in equation (E),
5 + 10j
æ - V1 ö é (2 + 5j) ù é 28 + 55j ù
We get, I1 = 6V1 + çç ÷÷(2 + 5 j ) Þ I1 = V1 ê6 - ú = V1 ê ú
è 5 + 10j ø ë 5 + 10j û ë 5 + 10j û
V1 28 + 55j
Hence input impedance Zin1 = = W Ans
I1 5 + 10j
NUMERICAL PROBLEMS
Q.1 Find Y & Z-parameter of the following Fig-6.91
I1 I2
3W 3W
5W
V1
2V 2
Fig-6.91
Q.2 Find Z-parameters of the following Fig-6.92
2W
I1 I2
3W 2W 2W
V1 V2
3W
Fig-6. 92
Q.3 Find Y -parameter of the following Fig-6.93
I1
+ - I2
1W 4W 3V 1
V1 2W V2
4W
Fig-6.93
Q.4 Find H-parameter of the following Fig-6.94
I1 I2
2F 3H
1W
V1 V2
3W
1H
Fig-6. 94
Q.5 Find ABCD parameter of the following Fig-6.95
I1 I2
2W 2W
3W
V1 4W V2
2V1
Fig-6. 95
Q.6 Find Y parameter of the following Fig-6.96
I1 I2
4W 6W
+
V1 2W V2
2W 3V1
-
Fig-6.96
228 Network Theory
Q.7 Find T and p equivalent of the following Fig-6.97
I1 I2
1W 3W 2W
V1 3W 3W V2
Fig-6.97
Q.8 Find T-equivalent and Y-parameter of the following Fig-6.98
I1 I2
2F 2F
1H
V1 V2
2W
Fig-6.98
Q.9 Find Y-parameter in terms of Z-parameters.
Q.10 Find Z-parameter in terms of ABCD-parameters.
Q.11 Find Z-parameter in terms of H-parameters And vice versa.
Q.12 Find Y-parameter in terms of H-parameters and vice versa .
Q.13 Using Principle of Open circuit,calculate the Z-parameter of two-port network.
Q.14 How to define two-port network.
Q.15 The current I1 & I 2 at input and output port respectively of a two port network can
be expressed as I1 = 6V1 - V2 And I 2 = V1 - V2 .Find
a) T-equivalent network.
b) Find the input impedance when load of (3+5j)ohm is connected across the
output port.
Q.16 Find Y & Z-parameter of the following Fig-6.99
I1 I2
1W
2W
V1 V2
2W
1W
Fig-6. 99
Q.17 Find T and p equivalent of the following Fig-6.100 using star-delta conversion.
I1 I2
2W
V1 2W 2W V2
1H
1H
Fig-6.100
Q.18 Find Y -parameter of the following Fig-6.101
2W
I1 I2
1W 3W
V1 V2
3W 3W
2W 2W 4W
Fig-6. 101
Q.19 What are the relationship between two-port and single-port network.
Q.20 Find image parameter of the two-port network using ABCD parameter.
ppp
Chapter 7
NETWORK FUNCTIONS & RESPONSES
7.1 INTRODUCTION
Network function exhibits the relationship between input(excitation) and output(response)
for electrical network. It plays an impotant role in two port network. It shows behaviour
of the network.
7.1.1 Driving point impedance Z(S)
It is defined as the ratio of applied voltage to its corresponding current.
V(S)
For single port network Z(s) =
I(S)
For two port network,
V1 (S)
Primary side driving point impedance Z11 (S) =
I1 (S)
V2 (S)
Secondary side driving point impedance Z22 (s) =
I 2 (S)
7.1.2 Driving point Admittance Y(S)
I1(S)
Primary side admittance Y11(S) = (Secondary side short circuited)
V1 (S)
I 2 (S)
Secondary side driving point admittance Y22 (S) = (Primary side short circuited)
V2 (S)
7.1.3 Transfer impedance

It is defined as the ratio of transfer voltage at one port to the transfer current of other
port of two port network.
Network Functions & Responses 231
V1 (S)
Primary (input) side transfer impedance Z12 (S) =
I 2 (S)
V2 (S)
Secondary (output) side transfer impedance Z21 (S) =
I1 (S)
7.1.4 Transfer Admittance
It is defined as the ratio of transfer current at one port to transfer voltage at the other port
of two-port network.
I1 (S)
Primary (input) side admittance Y12 (S) = (Primary side short circuited)
V2 (S)
I 2 (S)
Secondary (output) side admittance Y21 (S) = (Secondry side short circuited)
V1(S)
7.1.5 Voltage Trans fer function
It is defined as the ratio of voltage in one port to the voltage in other port. It is denoted by
V2 (S)
symbol G(S).Mathematically G 21 (S) = (Secondary side open circuited)
V1 (S)
V1 (S)
G12 (S) = (Primary side open circuited)
V2 (S)
7.1.6 Current Transfer Function
It is defined as ratio of current in one port to the current in the second port of the same
network. It is denoted by symbol a(s) .
I 2 (s)
Mathematically a 21 (s) = (Secondary side short circuited)
I1 (s)
I1 (s)
a12 (s) = (Primary side short circuited)
I 2 (s)
7.2 PROCEDURE FOR CALCULATION OF DRIVING POINT IMPEDANCE
Step-1 Applay Kirchoff’s voltage law or Kirchoff’s current law,andWrite it’s equation
Step-2 Find laplace transformation of above equation,Provided initial condition taken
as zero .
Step-3 Here input act as excition and out put act as response.Finally Driving point
function is defined as the ratio of out put (response) to the input (Excitation)
232 Network Theory
Example-7.1
I1 I2
2W 4W
Calculate the (i) Driving point impedance
V1 V2
(ii)Current transfer function (iii)Voltage 3H
transfer function of the following network.
figFig.7.1
- 2.1
Solution :
(i) Calculation of Driving point impedance(Put I2, Secondary side open circuited)
VI (S) (2 + 3s)I1 (s)

Z11 = = = (2 + 3s) Ohm
I1 (S) I1 (s)
V2 (S)
Z22 = (Put I1 = 0 ,Primary side open circuited )
I 2 (S)
(4 + 3s)I 2 (S)
= = (4 + 3S)Ohm
I 2 (S)
(ii) Calculation of Current transfer function. (V2 = 0,Secondary side short circuited)
I1 I2
2W 4W
V1
3H
fig
Fig- 2.2
7..2
é 3s ù
I (S) - I1 (s)ê 4 + 3s ú
a 21 (S) = 2 = ë û = - 3s
I1 (S) I1 (s) 4 + 3s
(iii) Calculation of voltage transfer function. (Put I2 = 0, Secondary side open circuited)
V2 (S) ,
G 21 (S) =
V1 (S) I1 I2=0
2W 4W
But, V1 (S) = I1 (s)(2 + 3S) V1 3H
V2 (S) = 3SI1 (S) ,
V2 (S) figFig.7.3
- 2.3
G 21 (S) = = 3SI1 (s) = 3S
V1 (S) I1 (s)(2 + 3S) (2 + 3S)
V1(S)
Similarlly G12 (S) = (Put, I1 = 0 Primary side open circuited)
V2 (S)
3SI 2 (s) 3S
= =
I 2 (s)(4 + 3S) (4 + 3S)
Example-7.2
Calculate the (i) Driving point impedance
(ii) Voltage gain
(iii) Current gain of the following network.
2W
2H
I1 3H I2
5F
V1 6W V2
Fig.7.4
fig - 2.4
Solution : (i) Calculation of Z11 (Put I2 = 0, Secondary side open circuited)
2W
i3 2S
I1 3S 1 I2=0
S
5
V1
6W
fig - 2.5
Fig.7.5
é 1 ö ù é 90S 2 + 180S + 9 ù
Now, V1 (S) = I1 (s) êæç 2 + 2S + ÷ 3S = I1 (s) ê ú
ëè 5S ø úû ë 10S + 25S + 1 û
2
V1 (S) 90S2 + 180S + 9

Hence Z11 (S) = = Ohm
I1 (S) 10S2 + 25S + 1
(ii) Calculation of Voltage gain G (S) =

V2 (S)
21
V1 (S)
1
Now, V2 (S) = I 3 (S) + 6I1 (S) ,
5S
234 Network Theory
3S 15S2
I 3 (S) = I1 (S) = I1 (S)
1 25S2 + 10S + 1
3S + 2S + 2 +
5S
1 15S2 é150S 2 + 63S + 6 ù

Hence V2 (S) = ´ I1 (S) + 6I 1 (S) I1 (s) ê ú
ë 25S + 10S + 1 û
2
5S 25S2 + 10S + 1
Now,
é150S 2 + 63S + 6 ù
I1 (s) ê ú
ë 25S + 10S + 1 û
2
V (S)
G 21 (S) = 2 =
V1 (S) é 90S 2 + 180S + 9 ù
I1 (s) ê ú
ë 10S + 25S + 1 û
2
æ 150 S 2 + 63S + 6 öæ 10 S 2 + 25S + 1 ö

= çç ÷÷çç ÷÷
è 25 S 2
+ 10 S + 1 øè 90 S 2
+ 180 S + 9 ø
Example-7.3 Calculate the driving point impedance of the following fig.7.6
1F
2W 2W
Fig. 7.6
Solution : Driving point impedance
éæ 1ö ù 4 + 4S
Z(S) = êçç {2 + 2S} ÷÷ 2ú =
ëè S ø û 2S2 + 2S + 3
7.3 POLES & ZEROS CONCEPT OF DRIVING POINT IMPEDANCE FUNCTION
Let the network function N(S) = P(S) = a 0S + a1S + a 2S +......+ a n

n n -1 n-2
Q(S) b 0Sm + b1Sm-1 + b 2Sm-2 +......+ b m

Where a0,a1,a2.........anknown as coefficients of numerator polynomial.And “n” indicates
no. of root in numerator polynomial. And b0, b1, b2,..........bm, known as coefficent of
denomenator polynomial And “m” indicate nos of roots in denominator polymomial.
Now above polynomial
é a a a ù
a 0 ês n + 1 s n -1 + 2 s n -2 + ............. + n s n -1 ú
ë a0 a0 a0 û
can be written as N(S) =
é b b b ù
b 0 ês m + 1 s m -1 + 2 s m -2 + ............. + m s m -1 ú
ë a 0 a 0 a 0 û
[s ]
+ a1¢s n -1 + a¢2 s n - 2 + ............. + a¢n s n -1
= H.
n
H
P¢(S)
m
[s
+ b1¢s + b2¢ s + ............. + bm¢ s
m -1 m- 2
]
m -1 =
Q¢(S)
a
Where H is known as scale factor i.e, H = 0
b0
(s - z1 )(s - z 2 )(s - z 3 )...........(s - z n )
Otherwise, N(s) = H.
(s - p1 )(s - p 2 )(s - p 3 ).........(s - p m )
Where Z1,Z2,Z3......Zn called zero values of numerator polynominal and P1, P2, P3.......Pm,
known as poles values of denominator polynominal
7.3.1 Calcutaion of zero values
As we known P ¢(S)
N (S) = H
Q ¢(S)
For zero value calculation , function value N(S)=0,it means
P ¢(S)
0=H Þ P¢(S) = 0
Q ¢(S)
Þ (s - z1 )(s - z 2 )(s - z 3 )...........(s - z n ) = 0
(s - z1 ) = 0 , Þ S = Z1
(s - z2 ) = 0 , Þ S = Z2
( s - z3 ) = 0 Þ S = Z3
(s - zn ) = 0 , Þ S =Zn .
Where Z1, Z2, Z3.... Zn are called zeros values of function N(S).
7.3.2 Calculation of poles value
P ¢(S)
As we know N(s) = H
Q ¢(S)
For pole value calculation , function value N(S)=Infinite
P ¢(S)
Þ¥=H Þ Q¢(S) = 0
Q ¢(S)
(s - p1 )(s - p 2 )(s - p 3 ).........(s - p m ) = 0
236 Network Theory
( s - p1 ) = 0 , Þ S = P1
(s - p2 ) = 0 Þ, S = P2
( s - p3 ) = 0 Þ, S = P3
( s - pm ) Þ S = Pm
Where p1 , p 2 , p 3 ,.... p m known as pole value of denominator polynomial
Example-7.4
Find the poles &zero values of the following driving point impedance function
Z(S) =
(S 2
+ 2 )(S2 + 6)(S + 2 )
3S(S2 + 3)(S2 + 5)
Solution : Given driving point impedance function
Z(S) =
(S 2
)( )
+ 2 S2 + 6 (S + 2) P(S)
=
( )(
3S S2 + 3 S2 + 5 Q(S) )
( )(
For zero values calculation P(S) =0 , So S2 + 2 S2 + 6 (S + 2 ) = 0 )
(S 2
+ 2) = 0 ÞS = ±j 2,
(S 2
+ 6) = 0 Þ, S = ± j 6 ,
(S + 2) = 0 Þ S = -2
For pole values calculation, Q(S)=0, 3S(S2 + 3) (S + 5) = 0
S=0
(S 2
)
+3 = 0 ÞS = ±j 3 .
S+5=0 Þ S=-5
All the pole value and zero value lies on left half of the S-Plane and imaginary axis
-6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1
fig -Fig.7.7
2.7
Example-7.5
A series R,L,C circuit having its driving point admittance function diagram shown in
figure-7.8
X 25j
-4 -3 -2 -1
X -25j
Fig.7.8
Solution : Given data from the above figure,
Pole value P1 = -1 + 25 j , P2 = -1 - 25 j , Zero value Z1 = 0
Now Y(S) = H(S) P ¢(S) ,

Q¢(S)
The zero value polynomial P¢(S) = (S - Z1 ) = S - 0 = S
SimilarlyDenominator polynomial Q¢(S) = (s - p1 )(s - p 2 )
= [s - (-1 + 25 j)] [s - ( -1 - 25 j) ]
= S2 + 2S + 626 , Scale factor H=5

P ¢(S) 5S
Now Y(S) = H(S) = 2 .....(i)
Q¢(S) S + 2S + 626
Consider SeriesR-L-C circuit
R L
Y(S) Þ C
2
1 LCs + RCs + 1
Z(S) = R + LS + =
CS Cs
fig -Fig.7.9
2.9
1
s
Cs L
Now, Y(S) = = .....(ii)
LCs2 + RCs + 1 2 R 1
s + s+
L LC
Here,Equation (ii)is compared with equation(i).We get,
1 R
= 5 Þ L =.2 H , = 2 Þ R = 2 L = 2 ´ 0.2 = 0.4Ohm
L L
238 Network Theory
1 1 1
And = 626 Þ C = = = 0.007 F (Ans)
LC 626 ´ L 626 ´ 0.2
7.4 RESTRICTION OF POLES & ZEROS IN DRIVING POINT IMPEDANC

FUNCTION
P(S)
1. The co-efficent of polynomial P(S) & Q(S) of N(S) = ,must be real & +ve
Q(S)
. Let P(S) = a 0S n + a1S n-1 + a 2S n -1 +.......+ a n ,
Q(S) = b 0S m + b1S m-1 + b 2S m-2 +......+ b m
Where co-efficient a 0 , a1 , a 2 .... a n , & b1 , b 2 ... b m must be positive and real.

2. Pole and zero values must be complex conjugate of each other.
Suppose one of the pole is P1 = – a + jb and other pole must be P2 = – a – jb .
Here -ve real value of pole indicate,all the roots lies on left half of the S-plane.
So the function is stable due to which all root are lies on left half of the S-plane.
3. The real part of poles & zero must be -ve or zero. So roots are may be either
Z1 = - a + jb or Z1 = ± jb (Real part should not be +ve)
Fig. 7.10
´ -indicates location of pole value , o - indicates location of zero value

4. The polynomial may not have any missing term between that of highest and lowest
degree of “S”
Example:-Let N(S) = S4 + 3S2 + 3S + 4 (It is not correct polynomial).Because there
will be missing power (3) of term-S. So correct form is N(S) = S4 + 4S3 + 3S2 + 3S + 4 .
5. The polynomial P(S) may have missing term between that of lowest & highest
degree and some of the co-efficent may be –ve.
6. The degree of P(S) may as small as zero independent degree of Q(S).
7.5 NECESSARY CONDITION FOR TRANSFER FUNCTION
1. The co-efficent of polynomial P(S) & Q(S) of N (S) = P(S) ,most be real & +ve.
Q(S)
But few co-efficient of P(S) may be -ve.
2. Pole and zero value must be complex conjugate of each other.
3. The real part of poles must be -ve or zero.So pole must be simple.
4. The degree of P(S) may as small as zero independent degree of Q(S).
5. For current and voltage transfer function,the degree of P(S) must be equal to degree
of Q(s).
6. For transfer admittance and impedance the maximum degree of P(S) must be equal
to the degree of Q(S) plus one.
7.6 RESPONSE OF A NETWORK
Natural response (output) occour when the excitation (input)is reduced to zero value.The
system rsponds to its initial value(condition).So it is called sourse free response or zero
state behaviour. If we applied the source of excitation with frequency (w0) applied to
network.The network is forced to react at that frequency.If excitation is impulse function,it
does not specify any frequency and simply it act as instatanous energy to the network.So
its output response will be natural .
7.6.1 Calculation of open circuit natural frequency(O.C.N.F)
Consider an impedance function
V(S) (s - z1 )(s - z 2 )(s - z 3 )...........(s - z n )
Z(s) = = H.
I(S) (s - p1 )(s - p 2 )(s - p 3 ).........(s - p m )
Now, V(S) = Z(s)I(S)
In case V(S) = 0 (Excitation is zero), That indicates input impedance iszero.If I(S) = 0 ,then
impedance is infinite.That means output side is open circuit in natur.So in order to satisfy
above condition, (s - p1 )(s - p 2 )(s - p 3 ).........(s - p m ) = 0
(s - p1 ) = 0 , Þ S = P1
(s - p2 ) = 0 Þ, S = P2
( s - p3 ) = 0 Þ, S = P3
( s - pm ) Þ, S = Pm ,
Where P1 , P2 .......... Pm are known as open circuit natural Frequency..
7.6.2 Calculation of short circuit natural frequency(SCNF)
I(S)
As we know Y(s) = , Now V(S) = 0 ,
V(S)
240 Network Theory
That indicates the short circuit takes place across port-1.So, zero value polynomials indicates
short circuit natural frequency. In order to satisfy above condition, the equation
(s - z1 )(s - z 2 )(s - z 3 )...........(s - z n ) = 0
( s - z1 ) = 0 , Þ S = Z1
(s - z2 ) = 0 , Þ S = Z2
( s - z3 ) = 0 Þ S = Z3
(s - zn ) = 0 , Þ S = Zn .
Where Z1 , Z2 ...... Z n are known as short circuit natural frequency..
Example-7.6
In the following circuit , I ISC
Vc V(~) 2W 2 VC
Find (i) S
V IR
(ii) Also draw the pole-zero location.
fig Fig.7.11
- 2.11
Solution : Here input voltage
é æ 2 öù
V(S) = I(S)ê4s + ç 2 ÷ú Þ V(S) = I(S) é4s + 4 ù = I(S)éê 8s + 8s + 4 ùú
2
è s øû êë 2 s + 2 úû
ë ë 2s + 2 û
2 2 2 4
Voltage across the capacitor ( VC ) VC = I c ´ = I(S) ´ ´ = I(S) ,
S 2+ 2 S 2S + 2
S
4I(S)
Vc 2S + 2 4
Hence = = 2
V (8S + 8S + 4)I(S)
2
8S + 8S + 4
(2S + 2)
ii) Calculation of zero value.
There is no zero value,because there will be one constant term in numerator
polynomial.For zero value calculation,the de-nomenator polynomial Q(s)=0
Þ 8S2 + 8S + 4 = 0 , the root of this equation
-2 ± 4 - 4 ´ 2 -2 ± j2 1 1
S1 , S2 = = =- ± j
2´2 4 2 2
1 1 1 1
S1 = - + j , S2 = - - j
2 2 2 2
Pole-zerodiagram shown in fig-7.12, where ´ -pole location & o -zero location
5j
4j
- 1 + 1 j 3j
2 2
2j
X 1j
-4 -3 -2 -1 X
- 1 - 1 j
2 2
Fig.-7. 12
Example-7.7 Find the Z(s) of the following network function.
3F
Z(S) Þ 2W 3H
Fig.7. 13
Solution : In the above figure, 2W resistor and 3H inductance parallel to each other..
1
a[C] = , a[ L] = LS , a[ R ] = R
CS
Hence Z(s) =
1
(
+ 2 3s = )1
+
2 x 3S
3S 3S 2 + 3S
2 + 3S + 6S x 3S 18S2 + 3S + 2
= = Ans.
3S(2 + 3S) 9S2 + 6S
Example-7.8
Find the driving point admittance of the following figure.7.14.
A B
1F 2H
3
1H
1H
4
C D
Fig.7. 14
Solution : Here impedance of branch AC and impedance BD parallel to each other.
242 Network Theory
é æ 4 öù é æ 2 s 2 + 4 öù
Z1(S) = ê ç
s 2 s + ÷ú = ê s çç ÷÷ú
ë è s ø û ëê è s øúû
2
S x 2S +4
S 2S3 + 4S
Þ Z1(S) = =
2
S + 2S +4 3S2 + 4
S
1 3 2S 3 + 4S 9S2 + 12 + 2S4 + 4S2

Total impedance Z(S) = + Z1(s) = + =
CS s 3S2 + 4 3S2 + 4
2S4 + 13S2 + 12
=
3S2 + 4
1 3S2 + 4
Hence D.P. Admittance Y(S) = = Ans.
Z(S) 2S4 + 13S2 + 12
Example-7.9
I1 I2
2W 2W
Find the poles & zero location of the current I1 3H 4H
transfer ratio I2 / I1 in S-domain in the circuit
shown in Fig- 7.15
Fig.7. 15
é 3s ù
Solution : In the ckt. shown in fig.8.15 , I2 = I1 x ê ú
ë 3s + 4 s + 2 û
I2 é 3s ù é 0.42 s ù P
Þ =ê ú = ê ú = H
I1 ë 7 s + 2 û ë s + 0.28 û Q
Here scale factor H=0.42 .
For zero value P(S) = 0 Þ S=0 jw
For pole value Q(S) = 0 Þ S + 0.28 =0 Þ S=-0.28
Here, zero value is denoted by 'O' and pole
value is denoted by 'X' in fig 7.16
-3 -2 -1 -0.28
-0.5
Fig.7. 16
Example-7.10
Show the pole-zero plot of the given network function V(S) and also obtained V(t) .
15S
V(S) =
(S + 5) (S + 2)
15S P(S)
Solution : Given function V(S) = =
(S + 5) (S + 2) Q(S)
For zero value 15S = 0 Þ S=0, For pole value (S+5) (S+2) = 0 Þ S= -5 , S = -2
Pole-Zero Location Diagram Shown in fig. 7.17
jw
3
-5 -4 -3 -2 -1
Fig. 7. 17
15S (S + 5 - 5) 15 75
Now V(S) = = 15 = -
(S + 5) (S + 2) (S + 5) (S + 2) (S + 2) (S + 5) (S + 2)
15 75 é 1 1 ù - 10 25
= - ´ê - = +
(S + 2) (5 - 2) ë s + 2 s + 5 úû s+2 s+5
é - 10 25 ù
V(t) = L-1 [V(S) ] = L-1 ê + -2t - 5t
ú = - 10e + 25e Ans.
ë s + 2 s + 5û
Example-7.11
Check the stability of the following polynomial by Routh-Harwitz criterion.
P(S) = S4 + 5S3 + 4S2 + 10S + 10
Solution : Routh array of the polynomial can be obtained from the following co-efficients.
S4 1 4 10
S3 5 10
5 x 4 - 10 x 1
S2 =2 10
5
10 x 2 - 5 x 10
S1 = -15
2
S0 10
There is a sign change in the 1st column of the array. Hence the system is not stable.
244 Network Theory
Example-7.12
What should be the value of 'L' such that Z(S) = 2 in the fig.7.18 network ?
C=1F L
ÞZ(S) = 2W 5W 2W
Fig. 7. 18
Solution :Laplace form of above circuit shown in fig. 7.19.
1 LS
S
5W 2W
Fig.7. 19
1 x5
æ1 ö
Z(S) = ç 5 ÷ + (Ls 2 ) = S 2 LS 5 2 LS
+ = +
ès ø 1 +5 2 + LS 1 + 5S 2 + LS
S
5(2 + LS) + 2LS + 10LS2

But 2=
(1 + 5S) (2 + LS)
Þ 2(2 + LS + 10S + 5LS2 ) = 10 + 5LS + 2LS + 10LS2
Þ (4-10) + (2LS-7LS) + 20S + (10LS2 -10LS2) = 0
Þ -6 -5LS + 20s=0
20 s - 6
Þ L= H Ans.
5s
Example-7.13
V2 (S)
Obtain the transfer function of the following fig. 7.20. Find V2(S) when
V1(S)
V1(t) = 10e-2t Volt. +
I
10 W
V1(t) 1F V2(t)
-
Fig. 7.20
Solution : Laplace form of the above circuit is shown in fig. 7.21
I I1(S)
10 W
V1(S) 1 V2(S)
S
Fig. 7. 21
é 1ù é10s + 1ù 1
V1(S) = I1(S) ê10 + ú = I1(S) ê ú , V (S) = I (S) X
ë sû ë s û
2 1
s
V2 (S) 1
Voltage transformation function = = =
V1(S) 10S + 1
1
Now output voltage V2(S) = V1(S) x , Given V1(t) = 10e-2t
10S + 1
10 1 10 1 æ 1 1 ö 1
Þ V2(S) = x = x =ç - ÷´
S+2 10S + 1 S+2 10(S + 0.1) è s + 0. 1 s + 2 ø ( 2 - 0.1)
æ 1 1 ö 1
Þ V2(S) = ç s + 0.1 - s + 2 ÷ ´ 1.9
è ø
1 æ 1 1 ö 1
So, V2(t) = L [V(S) ] = ´ L-1 ç -
-1
÷ = [e-0.1t - e-2t ] Ans.
1 .9 è s + 0 .1 s + 2 ø 1.9
Example-7.14 If V1 is applied at input terminal 1-1/ , then find the voltage transfer ratio
V2 (S) 1 2
G21 = of the following fig. 7.22.
V1(S) 2F 2F
V1(S) V2(S)
1H 1H
1/ 2/
Fig.7. 22
Solution : Laplace form of the above circuit is shown in fig. 7.23.

I 1 (S)
I 3 (S)
1/2s 1/2s
V2(S)
V1(S) S S
Fig 7.23
246 Network Theory
éìæ 1 ö ü 1ù é 4 S 4 + 6 S 2 + 1ù
Here, V1(S) = I1(S) êíç S + ÷ Sý + ú = I1(S) ê ú
ë 8S + 2 S û
3
ëîè 2S ø þ 2S û
S 2S2
Now I3(S) = I1(S) . = I1(S) ,
S+S+ 1 4S2 + 1
2S
2s 3
V2(S) = I3(S) x S = I (S)
4s 2 + 1 1
æ 2S3 ö
çç 2 ÷÷I1 (S)
V2 ( S ) 4S + 1 ø 4S 4
Hence, G21 ( s ) = = è4 = Ans
V1 ( S ) æ 4S + 6S2 + 1 ö 4S 4 + 6S 2 + 1
çç ÷
÷ I1 (S)
è 8S + 2S ø
3
Example-7.15
I1(S)
Find the driving point 1W
+ + 4
admittance function and
V1(S) V2(S) 20I1(S) S S
respective pole zero V2(S)
location plot of the - -
following fig.-7.24 IC
Fig. 7.24
Consider left hand side loop ,By applying KVL
V1(S) - I1(S) - V2(S) = 0
Þ I1(S) = V1(S) - V2(S) ....(A)
For right hand loop, applying KCL,
20 I1(S) + IL + IC = 0 ....(B)
V2 (S) V (S)
Þ 20 I1(S) + + 2 =0
S 4
S
æ 80s ö
Þ V2(S) = ç - s 2 - 4 I1 (S)÷
è ø
The value of V2(S) , put in equation (A) we get,
æ 80s ö é s 2 - 4 - 80s ù
-
I1(S) = V1(S) - ç 2 I1 (S) ÷ Þ I1(S) ê 2 ú = V1(S)
è s -4 ø ë s -4 û
I1(S) s2 - 4
Driving point admittance = = mho
V1(S) s 2 - 80s - 4
7.7 TIME DOMAIN BEHAVIOUR FROM POLE-ZERO PLOTS
Example-7.16
Show the Pole-zero plot of the the given function
10S
V(S) = and obtained V(t).
(S + 4)(S + 2)
Solution:
Given function, V(S) = 10S S
= H´
(S + 4)(S + 2) (S + 4)(S + 2)
The partial fraction of above function given as
K1 K
V(S) = + 2 .....(A)
S+4 S+2
é K K ù
Hence, V(t) = L-1 [V(S) ] = L-1 ê 1 + 2 ú
ëS + 4 S + 2 û
Þ V(t) = K1e - 4t + K 2 e - 2t ......(B)
jω
K2
K1 K1
P2 P1
K2
-4 -3 -2 -1 Z1
Fig.-7.25 Pole-Zero Location
Here our main aim is calculation of K1 and K 2 .

For K 2 (Related to pole at -2)
S S
K 2 = V(S)(S + 2) = H ´ ´ (S + 2) = H ´
(S + 4)(S + 2) (S + 4)
jφ
jω M Z1P1e Z1P1
Put , S = jω , K 2 = H ´ = H´
jω + 4 jφ
M P P e P2P12 1
248 Network Theory
Where,H=10=Scale factor
M Z1P1 =2=Distance between Z1 and P1
fZ1P1 =1800(Anticlockwise direction is +ve)
M P2P1 =2=Distance between P2 and P1
f P2 P1 =00[It is directed opposite to the direction of fZ1P1 as it is same(pole) root]

0
2 ´ e j180
Hence, K 2 = 10 ´ 0 = -10
2e j0
Similarly, For K1 (Related to pole at -4)
S S
K1 = V(S)(S + 4) = H ´ ´ (S + 4) = H ´
(S + 4)(S + 2) (S + 2)
jφ
jω M Z1P 2 e Z1P 2
Put , S = jω , K1 = H ´ = H´
jω + 2 jφ
M P P e P1P 2 1 2
Where, H=10=Scale factor

M Z1P 2 =4=Distance between Z1 and P2
fZ1P 2 =1800(Anticlockwise direction is +ve)
M P1P 2 =1=Distance between P1 and P2
fP1P 2 =1800(Anticlockwise direction is +ve)

0
4 ´ e j180
Hence, K 2 = 10 ´ 0 = 20
2e j180
Then the value K1 and K 2 put in equation (B).we get,
V(t) = 20e - 4t - 10K 2 e - 2t Ans.

Example-7.17
Obtained the pole-zero diagram of the given function and obtained the time domain response
2S
I(S) =
(S + 2)(S2 + 4S + 7)
Solution: Given function
2S 2S
I(S) = =
(S + 2)(S + 4S + 7) (S + 2)(S + 2 + j 3 )(S + 2 - j 3 )
2
The partial fraction of above function as follows,
K1 K2 K2
I(S) = + +
S + 2 (S + 2 + j 3 ) (S + 2 - j 3 )
é K K2 K2 ù
Hence, i (t ) = L-1 [I(S)] = L-1 ê 1 + + ú
ë S + 2 (S + 2 + j 3 ) (S + 2 - j 3 ) û
= K1e -2 t + K 2 e - (2 + j 3 )t + K 3e - (2 - j 3 )t ....(A)
For zero value, Z1 =0

For pole value, P1 =-2, P2 = - 2 + j 3 , P3 = - 2 - j 3
The pole -zero location diagram shown in fig.-7.26
P2 +j 3
φ p1p 2
φ p1p 2
φ p3p 2 φ zp 2
φ zp1
P1 -1 Z
-2 φ p3p1 φ zp 3
φ p 2 p3
φ p1p 3
P3 -j 3
Fig.-7. 26 Pole-Zero Location
Calculation of K1 , K 2 and K 2
HS
K1 = I(S) ´ (S + 2) = ´ (S + 2)
(S + 2)(S + 2 + j 3 )(S + 2 - j 3 )
HS
=
(S + 2 + j 3 )(S + 2 - j 3 )
jφ ZP1
M ZP1e
= H´ jφ P2P jφ P3P
M P2 P1e 1
´ M P3P1e 1
250 Network Theory
Where, H=2
M ZP1 =2=Distance between Z and P1
fZ P =1800(Angle betwen Z and P1 and anticlockwise direction is +ve)
1
M P2P1 = 3 =Distance between P1 and P2
f P2 P1 =-900(Angle betwen P2 and P1 )
M P3P1 = 3 =Distance between P3 and P1
f P3 P1 =900 (Opposite angle of f P2 P1 )

0
2 ´ e j180 4
Hence, K1 = 2 ´ - j90 0 j90 0
= - =-1.33
3e ´ 3e 3
For K 2 (Related to pole at - 2 - j 3 ).
HS
K 2 = I(S) ´ (S + 2 + j 3 ) = ´ (S + 2 + j 3 )
(S + 2)(S + 2 + j 3 )(S + 2 - j 3 )
jφ
HS M ZP 2 e ZP 2
= = H´ jφ jφ
(S + 2)(S + 2 - j 3 ) M P1P 2 e P1P 2 ´ M P3P 2 e P3P 2
Where, H=2
M ZP 2 = =Distance between Z and P2 = = 2 2 + ( 3)

2
= 7
é ZP ù -1 é 2 ù
fZ P =90+ tan -1 ê 1 ú =900+ tan ê ú
2
ë P1 P2 û ë 3û
= 139.330 (Angle betwen Z and P1 and anticlockwise direction is +ve)
M P1P 2 = 3 = Distance between P1 and P2
fP1P 2 =1800(Angle betwen P1 and P2 )
M P3P 2 = 3 + 3 =2 3 =Distance between P3 and P2
fP3 P 2 =1800 (Angle from P3 to P2 in anticlockwise direction.)

0
7 ´ e j139.33
Hence, K2 = 2´ 0 0
=0.33
3e j180 ´ 2 3e j180
For K 3 (Related to pole at - 2 + j 3 ).
HS
K 3 = I(S) ´ (S + 2 - j 3 ) = ´ (S + 2 - j 3 )
(S + 2)(S + 2 + j 3 )(S + 2 - j 3 )
jφ ZP 3
HS M ZP 3e
= = H´ jφ jφ
(S + 2)(S + 2 + j 3 ) M P1P 3e P1P 3 ´ M P2 P 3e P2P 3
Where, H=2
M ZP3 = =Distance between Z and P2 = = 2 2 + ( 3)

2
= 7
é ZP ù -1 é 2 ù
fZ P =900+ tan -1 ê 3 ú =900+ tan ê ú
3
ë P3 P2 û ë 3û
= 139.330 (Angle betwen Z and P1 and anticlockwise direction is +ve)
M P1P 3 = 3 = Distance between P1 and P3
f P1P 3 =900(Angle betwen P1 and P3 )
M P2P 3 = 3 + 3 =2 3 =Distance between P2 and P

3
fP2 P 3 =900 (Angle from P2 to P3 in anticlockwise direction.)

0
7 ´ e j139.33
Hence, K2 = 2´ 0 0
=0.33
3e j180 ´ 2 3e j180
The values of K1 , K 2 and K 2 ,put in equation (A)
i(t ) = -1.33e -2 t + 0.33e -(2+ j 3 )t + 0.33e -(2- j 3 )t Ans
NUMERICAL PROBLEMS
V2 (S)
Q.1. Find the voltage transfer function of the network function.
V1(S)
I1 I2
2W 0.5F
V1 V2
2H
Fig. 7.27
252 Network Theory
Q.2. Check the stability of the following system expressed
of the polynomial P(S) = S4 + S3 + 2S2 + 2S + 40 using Routh Harwitz criteria.
4S
Q.3. The transfer function of the network is given by T(S) = . Plot the pole-
(S + 3) (S 2 + 3S + 2)
zero diagram and obtain T(t) .
Q.4. What are restrictions of pole-zero location of driving point impedance function.
Q.5. Explain briefly the Routh array criteria and what you will do when one zero term arises in
the 1st column of Routh array .
Q.6. In the following fig.7.28 find 3H

2W 2W
V2 (S) I 2 (S) V1 2F 2F V2
(i) , (ii) ,
V1(S) I1(S)
V2 (S) V1(S)
(iii) (iv) Fig. 7.28
I1(S) I 2 (S)
3S
Q.7. A voltage transfer function is given by V(S) = .
(S + 3) (S + 6)
Plot the pole-zero in the s-plane and obtain the time domain response.
I1 I2
Q.8. Find the Y11(S) and Z22(S) of the 3W 4W
following fig. 7.29. V1 V2
2H
Fig. 7.29
Q.9. What do you mean by pole-zero value of a network function ?
How to calculate these two value from network function ?
5(S + 2 + 100 j) (S + 1-100j)
Q.10. A series R-L-C impedance is given by Z(S) = .
S
Find the value of R, L & C.
Q.11. The impedance
R
5 (S + 2)
Z(S) = 10 Z(S) Þ
(S + 1 + 800 j) (S + 1- 800j)S C
G
of the following fig.7.30 L
Find the value of R, L, C & G . Fig.7.30

ppp
Chapter 8
FOURIER ANALYSIS
8.1 INTRODUCTION
Consider a sinusoidal wave V( t ) = VmSin w t ,having angular frequency, w = 2pf where,
f = Frequency in Hertz. Now the wave form consists of single frequency and is of
the form shown below :
V( t )
Vm
wt
- Vm
Fig.8.1
If a wave form consists of different waves having different frequencies like
w,2 w,3w........ n w is called complex wave so that type of wave form is called
nonsinusoidal waveform since, all nonsinusoidal waves can be represented by Fou-
rier series as the sum of number of sinusoidal wave and it’s behaviour is studied by
using Superposition Theorem.
Let f (a) is the function of time period T .The Fourier expression is
n =¥
f (a) = a 0 + å (a n Cosn a + b nSinn a) ......(A)
n =1
= a 0 + a1Cos a + a 2 Cos2 a +......+a n Cosn a + b1Sin a + b2Sin2 a +...... b nSinn a

Where, a0 = Constant (D.C.value) and a1, a2,......an are known as co-efficients of
Cosine function or Even function. Similarly, b1, b2,......bnare known as co-efficient of
sine function(odd function)
254 Network Theory
8.2 EXPRESSION OF FOURIER SERIES IN TERM OF COSINE FUNCTION
As we know,
f(a) = a 0 + a n Cosn a + b nSinn a = a 0 + p(a) ...(B)
2 2
an + bn
bn
qn
an
Fig.8.2
Now, p(a) = a n Cosn a + b nSinn a
é a bn ù
= a 2n + b 2n ê n
Cosnα + Sinnα ú
êë a 2n + b 2n a 2n + b 2n úû
2 2
= an + bn Cosqn Cosna+ Sinqn Sinna ...(C)
an bn
Where , Cos q n = , Sin q n = , C = a 2 +b 2
2 2 2 2 n n n
a n + bn an + bn
Hence above equation(C) can be written as follows
p(a) = c n Cos( n a - q n ) , So equation(B) is of the form
f (a) = a 0 + cn cos(na - qn )
Where a 0 = c 0
8.3 EXPRESSION OF FOURIER SERIES IN SINE FORM
Let p(a) = a n Cosn a + b nSinn a
é a bn ù
= a 2n + b 2n ê n
Cosnα + Sinnα ú
êë a 2n + b 2n a 2n + b 2n úû a n2 + b n2 fn
bn
= Cn [Sinφ n .Cosnα + Cosφ n .Sinnα] = CnSin(nα + φ n )
Where
an
an bn Fig.8.3
2
Cn = a n + bn
2 , Sin fn = , Cos fn =
2 2 2 2
an + bn a n + bn
Fourier Analysis 255
éa ù
f(α( = C0 + C n Sin(nα + φ n ) , φ n = tan -1 ê n ú and a = c
ë bn û 0 0
Example-8.1 Express the following equation

f(α( = 5 + 2Cosα + 4Cos2α + 0.Sinα + 2Sin2α + 5Sin3α in
i) Cosine form
ii) Sine form
a 0 = 5 , a 1 = 2 , b1 = 0 , a 2 = 4 , b 2 = 2 , a 3 = 0 , b 3 = 5
2 2 2 2 2 2
C1 = a1 + b1 = 2 , C 2 = a 2 + b 2 = 16 + 4 = 2 5 , C 3 = a 3 + b 3 = 0 + 25 = 5
éa ù é2ù éa ù é4ù
And φ1 = tan -1 ê 1 ú = tan -1 ê ú = 900 , φ 2 = tan -1 ê 2 ú = tan -1 ê ú = 63.430
ë b1 û ë0û ë b2 û ë2û
éa ù é0ù
φ3 = tan -1 ê 3 ú = tan -1 ê ú = 0 0
ë b3 û ë5û
éb ù é0ù éb ù é2ù
θ1 = tan -1 ê 1 ú = tan -1 ê ú = 00 , θ 2 = tan -1 ê 2 ú = tan -1 ê ú = 26.550
ë a1 û ë2û ëa2 û ë4û
éb ù é5 ù
θ 3 = tan -1 ê 3 ú = tan -1 ê ú = 900
ë a3 û ë0 û
(i). Cosine form f(a ) = 5 + 2Cos(α - 0) + 20Cos(2α - 26.550 ) + 5Cos(3α - 900 )
(ii) Sine form f (a ) = a 0 + Sin(a + f1 ) + Sin(2a + f2 ) + Sin(3a + f3 )
Þ f (a ) = 5 + 2 Sin (a + 90 0 ) + 20 Sin ( 2a + 63.430 ) + 5 Sin (3a + 0 0 )

8.4 CALCULATION OF a0 , a n , b n
8.4.1 Calculation of a0
f (a) = a 0 + a n Cosn a + b nSinn a , Now, integrating both the sides, within the limit 0 to 2p
2p 2p 2p 2p
Þ ò
0
f (a ).da = a0 ò da + an ò Cosna .da + bn ò Sinna .da
0 0 0
2p
= a0 a + 0 + 0 = a 0 2 p - 0 = a 0 .2 p
0
2p
1
If T=Time period of f( a ) ,Then, a0 =
T ò f (a ).da
0
256 Network Theory
8.4.2 Calculation of an
f (a) = a 0 + a n Cosn a + b nSinn a
Now, multiplying both sides by Cosn a and integrating within the limit 0 to 2p ,we
get
2p 2p 2p 2p
ò
0
f (a ).Cosna .da = a0 ò Cosna .da + an ò Cosna .Cosnada + bn ò Sinna .Cosna .da
0 0 0
2p 2p
1
Þ ò
0
f (a ).Cosna .da =0+ a .p +0 Þ an =
n p ò f (a ).Cosna .da
0
But since T= 2 p ,
T
2
T ò0
Hence an = f (a ).Cosna .da
8.4.3 Calculation of bn
f (a) = a 0 + a n Cosn a + b nSinn a
Now, multiplying both sides by Sinn a and integrating within the limit 0 to 2p ,we
get
T 2p 2p
1
Þ
2p ò
0
f (a ).Sinna .da = a0 ò Sinna .da + an ò Cosna .Sinna .da
0 0
2p
+ bn ò Sinna .Sinna .da
0
2p 2p
1 1
Þ
2p ò
0
f (a ).Sinna .da = 0 + 0 + bn .p , bn =
p ò f (a ).Sinna .da
0
T
2
T ò0
But since T = 2p bn = f (a ).Sinna .da
Example-8.2
V
Find the fourier series of the

following wave form.
p 2p 3p
wt
-V
Fig.8.4
Solution : Here time period of the wave form (T)= 2 p
f(t) =V for (0 < wt < p )
=V for (p < wt < 2p )
The average values of the wave is zero,i.e a0=0.
The cosine co-efficient are abtained in following way:
1ì ü
p 2p
an = íò V .Coswt.d (wt ) + ò (-V ).Coswt.d (wt )ý
p î0 p þ
V ìïé 1 p
ù é1 ù üï
2p
= íê Sinwt ú - ê Sinwt ú ý = 0 , For all values of ‘n’

p ïîë n û0 ë n û p ïþ
1ì ü
p 2p
Similarly, bn = íò V .Sin wt.d (wt ) + ò ( -V ).Sin wt.d (wt ) ý
p î0 p þ
V ìïé 1 p
ù é1 ù üï
2p
= íê - Cosn w t -
úû êë n Cosn w t úû ýï
p ïîë n 0 p þ
V
= (- Cos pn + Cos 0 + Cosn 2p - Cosn p ) = 2V (1 - Cosn p )
np np
4V
Hence , b n = For n=1,3.5......,and b n =0for n=2,4,6.......
pn
4V 4V 4V
Hence fourier series is of the form f ( t ) = Sin w t + Sin3 w t + Sin5 w t +.....
p 3p 5p
Example-8.3
Find the fourier series of the following wave form and plot the spectrum.
-p 0 p 2p 3p
wt
Fig.8.5
Solution : Time period of thewave form T = 2 p . The wave form

is an even function,since f(t)=f(-t) .so its average value is V/2.
258 Network Theory
Case-1 ( -p < wt < 0)

f(t) = V + ( Vπ )ωt (It is the straight line equation of two point form)
Case-2 ( - < wt < p )
f(t) = V - ( Vπ )ωt
0 p
1
Now, a n = ò [V + ( Vπ )ωt]Cosnwt.d (wt ) + 1 ò [V - ( Vπ )ωt]Cosnwt.d (wt )
p -p p 0
V ìïé 1 wt ù
0
é1 wt ù üï
p
= íê 2 Cosn w t + Sinw t úû - êë n 2 Cosn w t + Sinw t úû ýï

p ïîë n p -p p 0þ
V
= [Cos 0 - Cos (-np ) - Cosnnp + Cos 0] = = 2V 2 (1 - Cosnp )
np
2 2
np
In this case ,the series contains only odd term since
a n =0 for n=2,4,6.....
4V
and a n = for n=1,35,7.......
p 2 n2
V 4V 4V 4V
Hence fourier series is f ( t ) = + Cos w t + Cos3 w t + Cos5 w t....
2 p2 (3 p)2 (5 p)2
Example 8.4 Find the fourier series of the following wave form
0 p 2p
wt
Fig 8.6
Solution :
Here average value of the above wave form is zero, because area of+ve half cycle
is equal area of-ve half cycle.i.e a0 = 0.
The fig shown in above indicates odd function,so its cosine term reduced to zero.
p
1 V
( )ωt.Sinnwt.d (wt )
p -òp π
Hence bn =
p
V é1 wt ù
= 2 êë n 2 Sinnwt - n Cosnwt úû
p -p
-2V
` = (Cosn p)
np
Hence its fourier series is given by
2V
f (t ) = [Sinwt - 12 Sin2wt + 13 Sin3wt - 14 Sin4wt + ........]
p
Example 8.5 Find fourier series of the following pulsating wave form
V( t )
50 1 2
0 p 2p 3p w t
Fig.8.7
Solution :
The time Period of the wave form T = p . But this wave form is out put of full vave
rectifier,so its time period is given by T = 2 p Equation of the above wave form is
given by
v( t ) = 50Sin w t for (0 < t < p)
p
1
T ò0
Then, a0 = 50Sinwt.d (wt )
p
1 1 p 50 50
= ò
2p 0
50Sinwt.d (wt ) =
2p
( -50) Cos w t
0
=-
2p
-1 - 1 =
p
p
2
T ò0
an = 50Sinwt.Cosnwt.d (wt )
p
2 ´ 25
2p ò0
= (2Sinwt.Cosnwt ).d (wt )
p p
25 25
=
p 0ò 2Sin(1 + n)wt.d (wt ) + ò 2Sin(1 - n)wt.d (wt )
p 0
260 Network Theory
ì 25 é Cos(1 + n)p - 1ù 25 é Cos (1 - n)p - 1ù ü 100n

=í ê ú + ê ú ý=
îp ë 1+ n û p ë 1- n û þ p (n - 1)
2
100n
When a n = 0 . if n=even value ,Then an =
p (n 2 - 1)
p
2
Again bn = ò 50Sinwt.Sinnwt.d (wt )
T 0
p
2 ´ 25
2p ò0
= 2Sinwt.Sinnwt.d (wt )
2 ´ 25 é ù
p p
= ê ò Cos (1 - n)wt.d (wt ) - ò Cos (1 + n)wt.d (wt )ú
2p ë 0 0 û
ìï 25 é Sin(1 - n)wt ù p 25 é Sin(1 + n)wt ù p üï

=í ê úû + p êë úû ýï
ïî p ë 1 + n 0 1- n 0þ
Here b n = 0 ,for n > 1 ,Only b1 = 25
50 ¥ 100n
Hence v( t ) = + 25Sin w t - å Cosn w t .
p n = 2,4 ,6 p( n
2
- 1)
Similarly the equation of wave form from p to2 p is v 2 ( t ) will be same

,but put (t - p ) in place of ‘t’.
50 ¥
é 100n ù
We get V2 (t ) = + 25Sin (t - p ) - å ê 2 úCosw (t - p )
p (
n = 2 , 4 , 6..... ë n - 1 û )
100 ¥
é 100n ù
Hence V (t ) = V1 (t ) + V2 (t ) = - å ê 2 úCosnwt
p (
n = 2 , 4 , 6..... ë n - 1 û )
8.5 FOURIER SERIES IN EXPONENTIAL FORM
As we know the general equation of fourier expansion is given as
n =¥
f (a) = a 0 + å (a n Cosn a + b nSinn a)
n =1
e ja + e - ja e jn a + e - jn a
But Cos a = Þ Cosn a =
2 2
e ja + e - ja e jn a + e - jn a
Similarly, Sin a = or Sinn a =
2j 2j
n =¥ é æ e jnα + e - jnα ö æ e jnα - e - jnα öù

Hence, f (a) = a 0 + å êa n ç ÷ + bn ç ÷ú
ç 2 ÷ ç 2j ÷
n =1 êë è ø è øúû
n =¥
é æ a - jb n ö - jnα æ a n + jb n öù
= a 0 + å êe jnα ç n ÷+e ç ÷ú
n =1 ë è 2 ø è 2 øû
æ a - jb n ö a + jb n ö
Where, Cn = ç n ÷ & C- n = æç n ÷
è 2 ø è 2 ø
n =¥
f (a) = a 0 + å C n e jn a + e - jn a C - n
n =1
8.5.1 Calculation of C n
2p 2p
æ a - jb n ö 1 1
Cn = ç n ÷= ò f (a )[Cosna - jSinna ].da = ò f (a ).e
- jnα
.da
è 2 ø 2p 0
2p 0
2p 2p
æ a + jb n ö 1 1
C- n = ç n ÷= ò f (a )[Cosna + jSinna ].da = ò f (a ).e
jnα
.da
è 2 ø 2p 0
2p 0
2p 2p
1 1
Where, a n =
p ò f (a ).Cosna .da & b n =
p ò f (a ).Sinna .da
0
0
n =¥ n =-¥
Take å C - n e - jn a = å C n e jn a .Hence exponentionals function of fourier series is
n =1 n =-1
is given
n =¥ n =-¥
f (a) = a 0 + å C n e jn a + å C n e jn a
n =1 n =-1
8.6 WAVE SYMMETRY

1. Alternation or half wave symmetry.
2. Rotation or add function symmetry.
3. Mirror or even function symmetry.
4. Quarter wave.
262 Network Theory
8.6.1 Alteration of symmetry
If for all waves of a a wave has th property that f(a)=-f(a+p)is set to a have
alternation symmetry .
f (a)
a p 2p
( p + a)
Fig.8.8 a
Let f(a)= a 0 + c1 sin( a + q1 )+LLL+ C nSin( n a + q n )
f (a + p) = a 0 - C1Sin(a + q1 )+LLL+( -1) n C nSin( n a + q n )
Now, f (a) + f (a + p) = 2(a 0 + C2Sin(2 a + q 2 )+LLL+C 2 nSin(2 n a + q n ) =0
8.6.2 Rotation or odd function symmetry

This type of symmetry is with respect to the origin.If the function possesses the
properties for all values of a , f(- a )= -f (a)
f (a)
-p p
f ( - a) a
Fig.8.9
Let f (a) = a 0 + a1Cos a + a 2 Cos2 a +LLL+ a n Cosn a
+ b1Sin a + b 2Sin2 a +LLL+ b nSinn a
f (- a) = a 0 + a1Cos a + a 2 Cos2 a +LLL+ a n Cosn a)
- b1Sin a - b 2Sin2 a -LLL- b nSinn a
\ f (a) + f ( - a) = 2(a 0 + a1Cos a + a 2 Cos2 a +LLL+a n Cosn a) = 0

Here all the co-efficients cosine term is zero .So, fourier series contains only sine
term.
8.6.3 Mirror or even symmetry
This wave form is also symmetric w.r.t. f (a)
f ( - a)
the origin. If the function is said to be even
symmetric, about the origin, the right and -p p
left hand part being mirror image of each -a a
other. -2p 2p
0
Mathematically, f (a) = f ( - a)
Þ f (a ) - f (-a ) = 2(b1Sina + b2 Sin2a + ...... + bn Sinna )
Fig. 8.10
=0
Here, all the co-efficients of Sine terms are zero , so that fourier series contains only
Cosine terms.
8.6.4 Quarter wave symmetry
This .symmetry may be regarded as a combination of all three kinds of symmetry, pro
vided that the origin is properly choosen.
f (a) f(a)
0 p 2p
p 2p
Fig. 8.11(a) Fig. 8.11(b)
Fig. (a) has alternation symmetry , rotation symmetry .So it’s Fourier series contains
only odd (Sine) terms only.Fig.(b)is a combination of mirror symmetry and alternation
symmetry.So,it’s Fourier series consists of even(Cosine)terms only.
8.7 AVERAGE AND RMS VALUE OF COMPLEX WAVE FORM
Consider a Fourier series
f (a ) = E0 + Em1Sin(a + q1 ) + Em1Sin(a + q1 ) + Em1Sin(a + q1 )........ + Emn Sin(na + q n )
Where, a is function of w t i.e. a = w t . The average value of above function is
given as follows
2p
1
Average value of f (a ) =
2p 0
f (a ).da ò
2p
1
f (a ) Avg =
2p ò (E
0
0 + Em1 Sin (a + q1 ) + Em1Sin (a + q1 ) + Em1Sin (a + q1 )......
+ Emn Sin (na + q n ).da

264 Network Theory
1 2p
= E 0 .a
= E 0 (D.C . Value.)
2p 0
The average value of complex wave form is equal to constant term of complex wave
form.RMS Value of f (a) having time period T is given by
1
é 1 2p
ù2
f (a ) Rms =ê òf (a ).e .d a ú
2 jn α
ë 2p 0 û
1
é 1 2p
ù2
f (a ) Rms
ê
= ê 2p ò0 (E 0 + E m1 Sin (a + q1 ) + E m1 Sin (a + q1 ) + E m1 Sin (a + q1 )......ú
ú
êë + Emn Sin(na + q n ).da úû
1
é 2 æ Em1 ö 2 æ Em 2 ö 2 æ Emn ö ù 2
2
= ê E0 + ç ÷ +ç ÷ + ...... + ç ÷ ú
êë è 2ø è 2ø è 2 ø úû
8.8 CALCULATION OF POWER OF COMPLEX WAVE FORM
let, e = E0 + Em1Sin(a + q1 ) + Em 2 Sin(2a + q 2 ) + ....... + Emn Sin(na + q n )

Similarly current,
i = I 0 + I m1 Sin(a + q1 + b1 ) + I m1Sin(2a + q 2 + b 2 ) + ..... + I m1Sin(na + q n + b n )
2p 2p
1 1
Power =
2p ò p(a ).da =
0
2p ò e.i.da
0
E m1I m1 E m 2 I m2 E mn I mn
= E 0I 0 + Cos b1 + Cos b 2 +....+ Cosb n
2 2 2
E m1 I m1 E m2 I m2 E mn I mn
= E 0I 0 + ´ Cos b1 + ´ Cos b 2 +.....+ ´ Cos b n
2 2 2 2 2 2
= E 0I 0 + E1I1Cos b1 + E 2 I 2 Cos b 2 +....+ E n I n Cos b n
8.9 CALCULATION OF NON SINUSOIDAL VOLTAGE

Consider current equation of complex wave
i = i1 + i 2 + i 3 +............ i n
= I m1Sin (a + q1 ) + I m1 Sin ( 2a + q 2 ) + ..... + I m1Sin (na + q n )

When above current is passing through RLC circuit
For I1 voltage component is V1 = Z 1I m1Sin(a + q1 + b1 )
For I 2 voltage component is V2 = Z 2I m 2 Sin(2a + q 2 + b 2 )
For In voltage component is Vn = Z nI mn Sin(na + q n + b n )

1
é 2 æ 1 ö ù2
2
Where, Z n = ê R + ç nwL - ÷ ú
ëê è nwC ø ûú
Finally, V = V1 + V2 + V3 +....... Vn
= Z 1I m1Sin(a + q1 + b1 ) + Z 2I m 2 Sin( 2a + q 2 + b 2 ) +...........+ Z nI mn Sin(na + q n + b n )
8.10 CALCULATION OF NON SINUSOIDAL CURRENT
Let the given voltage e(t) = e1 + e 2 + e 3 +.......+ e n
= E0 + Em1Sin(a + q1 ) + Em2 Sin(2a + q2 ) + .......+ EmnSin(na + qn )
E0 E0
Current componet I0 = =
Z0 R
Em1Sin(a + q1 - b1 )
Current componet I1 = ,
Z1
Em 2 Sin( 2a + q 2 - b 2 ) E Sin( na + q n - b n )
I2 = I n = mn
Z2 Zn
where n is an integer
1 éæ 1 öù
é 1 ö ù2
2 ê ç nwL - nwC ÷ ú
Also Z n = ê R 2 + æç nwL - ÷ ú , b n = tan -1 ê è øú
êë è nwC ø úû ê R ú
êë úû
Hence, i =i0 + i1 + i 2 + i 3 +............ i n
E0 Em1Sin(a + q1 - b1 ) Em 2 Sin( 2a + q 2 - b 2 ) E Sin( na + q n - b n )

= + + + ...... + mn
Z0 Z1 Z2 Zn
266 Network Theory
Example-8.5
In a linear circuit consisting of R=9 Ohm and L=8 mH, a current i = 5+100
Sin(1000t+45)+100Sin(3000t+60)Amp.is flowing.Find
(a) The equation of applied voltage,
(b) R.M.S.values of current and voltages and
(c) The average power.
Solution :
(a) From the equation of current, angular fundamental frequency(w)=100 Rad/
Sec.For each component of current, we have to find out the corresponding volt-
age component.
We have, Z 0 = R 2 + (w 0 L)2 = R = 9 W For w 0 corresponds to zero frequency and
hence, w 0 L =0
Z1 = 9 2 + (w L)2 = 9 2 + 82 = 12.1W
Z 3 = 9 2 + (3 w L)2 = 9 2 + 24 2 = 25.63 W
é wL ù é1000 ´ 8 ´ 10-3 ù
b1 = tan -1 ê ú = tan -1 ê ú = 41.6
0
ë ûR ë 9 û
-1 é 3 ´ 1000 ´ 8 ´ 10 ù
-3
é 3wL ù
and b 3 = tan -1 ê ú = tan ê ú = 69.5
0
ë R û ë 9 û
Thus, V0 = Z0I 0 = 9 ´ 5 = 45
V1 = Z1I1 = Z1I m1Sin(w t + q1 + b1 ) =
= 12.1´100Sin(1000t + 450 + 41.60 ) = 1210Sin(1000t + 86.60 )

V3 = Z 3i 3 = Z 3I m 3Sin(w t + q 3 + b 3 )
= 25.63 ´ 100 Sin(3000t + 600 + 69.50 ) = 3563Sin(3000t + 129.50 )

Hence, by the Superposition theorem, v = v 0 + v1 + v 3
= 45 + 1210Sin(1000t + 86.60 ) + 2563Sin(3000t + 129.50 )Volts

(b) The effective (R.M.S) values of current and voltages are
2 2
2 I m1 I m3 1002 1002
I = I0 + + = 52 + + = 100Amp.
2 2 2 2
2 2
2 v m1 v m3 12102 25032
v = v0 + + = 452 + + = 2004 Volts.
2 2 2 2
Thus, V0 = Z 0I 0 = 9 ´ 5 = 45 (c)-The average powers for the different components

are
P0 = V0I 0 = 45 ´ 5 = 225Watts.
1210 100
P1 = V1I1Cos b1 = Cos41.60 = 45,250Watts.
2 2
2563 100
P3 = V3I 3Cosb 3 = ´ Cos69.50 = 44,870Watts.
2 2
So, total power = P = P0 + P1 + P3 = 225 + 45250 + 44870 = 90345Watts.

Example-8.6
Find the fourier expression of the following waves using fourier analysis.
V(t)
5V
p 2p 3p 4p
Fig. 8.12
Solution : In above wave form, Time period T = 2 p .

5
Here, V( w t) = w t, for (0 < w t < p )
p
= 0 for ( p < w t < 2 p )
Step-I Calculation of a0
T 2p
1 1
a0 = ò V (wt ).d (wt )
2p ò0
= V (wt ).d (wt )
T 0
1 é ù
p 2p
= ê ò V (wt ).d (wt ) + ò V (wt ).d (wt )ú
2p ë 0 p û
p
1 é 5 ù
p
1 5 é (wt ) 2 ù 5
= êò wt.d (wt )ú = ´ ê ú = Volt.
2p ë 0 p û 2p p ë 2 û 0 4
268 Network Theory
Step-2 Calculation of a n
2é ù
p
an = ê ò V (wt ).Coswt.d (wt ) ú
T ë0 û
2 é 5 ù 5 é wt.Sinnwt Cosnwt ù p
p
2p ë ò0 p
= ê w t .Cos w t .d (w t ) ú= ê + =0
û pë n n 2 úû 0
Step-3 Calculation of b n
5 é ù
p
2 êò
bn = wt.Sinnwt.d (wt ) ú
p ë0 û
p
5 é - wt.Cosnwt Sinnwt ù - 5Cosnp
= 2ê + ú =
p ë n 2
n û0 n
5
If n=1, b1 =5. If n=2, b2 =0. If n=3, b3 =
3
5 5
Hence fourier series is V(w t ) = + 5Sin w t + Sin3 w t +....
4 3
Example 8.7 Find a0, an, bn of the following wave form
V(t)
6
0 p 2p 3p
w( t )
-10
Fig.8.13
Solution: Time period of above equation T= 2 p

Here V(w t ) =6 For (0< w t < p )
æ 7p ö
=0 For ç p < wt < ÷
è 4 ø
æ 7p ö
= –10 For ç < wt < 2p ÷
è 4 ø
Calculation of a0
T
1
a0 = ò V (wt ).d (wt )
T 0
1 éê ù
7p
p 4 2p
ú
2p ê ò0 òp ò
= 6.d (w t ) + 4 ´ 0 ´ d (w t ) 4 ´ 0 ´ d (w t )
7p ú
ë 4 û
1 ì 2p ü 7
í6 [wt ] 0 - 10[wt ] 7 p ý =
p
=
2p î 4þ 2
Calculation of an
1 éê ù
7p
p 4 2p
ú
2p ê ò0 ò ò
an = 6 ´ Cosnw t ´ d (wt ) + 0 ´ Cosnw t ´ d (wt ) - 10 ´ Cosnwt ´ d (wt )
7p ú
ë p
4 û
1 ìï é Sinwt ù p é Sinwt ù üï
2p
10 æ 7 np ö
= í6ê ú - 10ê ú ý = Sinç ÷
2p ïî ë p û 0 ë p û 7p 4 ïþ np è 4 ø
Calculation of bn
T
2
T ò0
bn = V (wt ).Sinnwt.d (wt )
2 éê ù
p 2p
ú
2p ê ò0 ò
= 6 ´ Sinnw t ´ d (w t ) - 10 ´ Sinnw t ´ d (w t )
7p ú
ë 4 û
1 ìï é Cosnwt ù é Cosnwt ù üï
p 2p
= í- 6 - 10 êë p úû 7p ý
p ï êë p úû 0
î 4ï
þ
=
6
1 - -
é
é Cosp ù ê Cos 2pn Cosn
-
7p
4
( )ùú
p êë n úû ê n n ú
ë û V(t)
10V
Example-8.8
Find the a0, an and bn of the following network. 5V
0 2 4 6 8 10
w( t )
Fig.8.14
270 Network Theory
Solution : Here time period of the wave form T = 6 sec.
Now v(t) = 5 volt for 0 < t < 6 sec.
Calculation of a0
T 6
1 1
a0 = ò V (t ).dt = ò V (t ).dt
T 0 6 0
1é ù 1 é2 ù
2 4 6 4 6
5
= êò V ( t ).dt + ò V ( t ).dt + ò V ( t ).dt ú = êò 5 .dt + ò t .dt + ò 0.dt ú = 25
6 ë0 2 4 û 6 ë0 2
2 4 û 6
Calculation of an
2é ù
2 4
5
an = ê ò 5Cosnt ´ dt + ò t. ´ Cosnt ´ dt + 0ú
6 ë0 2
2 û
1 ìï é Sinnt ù 5 é t.Sinnt Cosnt ù üï

2 4
= í5ê + + ý
3 ïî ë n úû 0 2 êë n n 2 úû 2 ïþ
é5 5 ù 5 5 5
= Sin 2t ê - ú + Sin 4t + 2 Cos 4t - 2 Cos 2t Ans
ë 6 p û 6p 6n 6n
Example-8.9
Fig.8.13 find the Average value &Rms Value of the following Equation
v(t)=4+2COS a +4Cos2 a +3Sin a +4Sin2 a
Solution: Average value = Constant value of above equation
2p
1
2p ò0
= V (a ).da = 4 Volt
1
é æ 2 ö æ 4 ö æ 3 ö æ 4 ö ù
2 2 2 2 2
RMS Value = ê42 + ç ÷ +ç ÷ +ç ÷ +ç ÷ ú

êë è 2 ø è 2 ø è 2 ø è 2 ø úû
= [16 + 2 + 8 + 4.5 + 8]1/2 = 6.2 Volt.

NUMERICAL PROBLEMS
Q.1. A voltage v=50+25Sin500t+10Sin1500t+5Sin2500t volts is applied to a terminals of a
passive network and the resulting current is i=5+2.23Sin(500t-26.6)+0.566Sin(1500t-
56.3)+0.186Sin(2500t-68.2) amp. and effective voltage,effective current and the
Average power.
Q.2. An alternating voltage represented by the expression V=200Sin2 p .50t+20Sin2 p .150t
is applied to a coil of 25W resistance and 0.02H inductance. Derive an expression for
the current and Calculate the power factor and power input to the circuits.
Q.3. Find the exponential fourier series for the V(a)
half wave rectified sine wave shown in
following fig.8.15
p 2p 3p
Fig.8.15 a
V (w t )
15V
Q.4 Find the exponential fourier seriesfor
the half wave rectifiedsine wave
shown in following Fig.8.16 Using p 2p 3p
co-efficient of this exponential
series, obtain a n and b n of the
trigonometric series wt
Fig.8.16
V(w t)
30V
Q.5. Find the exponential fourier series
for the saw tooth wave form shown
in fig. 8.17 below and plot the
spectrum 0 p 2p
wt
Fig.8.17
Q.6. Find (a)Trigonometric and (b)Exponential form of fourier series for the wave form
shown in fig.8.16
Q.7 A voltage e=250Sin w t+50Sin(3 w t+ p 3 +20Sin(5 w t + 5p 6 ) is applied to a circuit of
resistance 20W and inductance of 0.05.Derive (a)An expression for the current,
(b)Rms value of current and voltage (c) total power supplied (d)Power factor
(For w = 314).
ppp
Chapter 9
FILTERS
9.1 INTRODUCTION
Filter is an electrical network,that permits unattenuated (free) transmissionof electrical
signal within a specied frequency range and simultaneously supresses Signals outside this
range
9.2 TYPES OF FILTER

1. Low pass filter 2. High pass filter
3. Band pass filter 4. Band elimination filter
9.2.1 Low pass Filter
A low pass filter has a pass band extending from Atten
Attenuation
f=0 to cutt off frequency fc, where, attenuation is

equal to zero.any frequencies above this specied
range is rejected by the filter (fig. 9.1). 0 fC
Frequency
Fig. 9.1
9.2.2 High pass filter
A high pass filter has a pass band extending from
Attenuation
a given cutoff frequency to inifinite. Any Atten
frequencies below this fc is rejected by the filter.
0 fC
Frequency
9.2.3 Band pass filter Fig. 9.2

A bond pass filter passes or allows transmission of band of frequencies are rejects all
other frequencies beyond the range. Otherwise when low pass filter are cascaded,the
result is band pass filter,provided the cutoff frequency of low pass filter is higher than that
of a high pass filter (Fig.9.3).
P.B.
Attenuation
+
Atten
=
Attenuation Attenuation
Atten
Atten
0 f C1 0 f C2 fC2 fC1
0
Frequency Frequency Frequency
Fig. 9.3
9.2.4 Band Stop or, Band Elimination Filter :

A band stopor, band elimination filter rejects
P.B. P.B.
or, disallows transmission of a limited band
of frequeccies, but allows all other Atten
frequencies. Otherwise when a low pass
filter and a high pass filterare connected in
parallel, the result is a band elimination filter 0 f1 f2
, provided the cutoff frequency of low pass Frequency
filter is lower than that of high pass filter Fig. 9.4

(Fig.9.4).
9.3 DECIBEL AND NEPER

Units of attenuation are (i)decibel (ii) Neper
9.3.1 Decibel(dB)
It is a unit of power ratio. If Pi=Power at sending end and Po=Power at recieving end,
Po
Power attenuation in Bel = - Log10
Pi
æ p0 ö 10Log Pi
Hence , decibel (dB) = -10 log10 ç ÷÷ = 10 ....(A)
ç p P0
è øi
V02 Vi2
For equal impedance : Output power (P0) µ , Input power (Pi) µ
Z Z
2
V0 V0
Hence, Power gain in dB = 10Log10 = 20Log10
Vi Vi
Similarly output power P0 µ I 20 , input power (Pi) µ I 2 ,Put in equation (A)

i
274 Network Theory
2
I0 I0
Power gain in dB = 10Log10 = 20Log10 ,
Ii Ii
Vi Ii
attenuation in dB = 20Log10 or 20Log10
Vo Io
9.3.2 Neper
Neper is a unit of current ratio or, voltage ratio. Attenuation in Nepers
Ii Ii Vi Vi
Neper = Ln = Log e , Again, Nepers = Ln = Log e
Io Io Vo Vo
9.3.3 Relation between neper and decibel
Ii Ii
Attenuation in dB= 20Log10 = 8.686Ln
Io I0
Þ Attenuation in dB = 8.686 ´ Attenuation in neper
9.4 BASIC RELATION IN A FILTER
Filter may consists of T or p networks or, their half sections as shown in following
figures.
Z1/2 Z1/2
Z1/2 Z1/2
2Z2 2Z2
Z2
1st Half 2nd Half

Section Section
Fig. 9.5(a) - Symetrical T-section filter, Fig. 9.5 (b) T-section built of two
unsymetrical half section
Z1 Z1/2 Z1/2
2Z2 2Z2 2Z2 2Z2
Fig. 9.5 (c) p -section symetrical Fig. 9.5 (d) p -section made of
filter two half section.
Filters 275
Let Z1 = Impedancein series arm, Z2 = Total impedance of shunt arm.
9.4.1 Cutoff Frequency
The frequency at which, conditions change from transmission to attenuation or, viceversa
is termed as cutoff frequencies.
æ Z1 ö
The equation çç - 1 < < 0 ÷÷ defines cutoff frequency..
è 4Z 2 ø
Z1 Z1
Thus =0 and = -1 Þ Z = 0 and Z + 4 Z = 0
4 Z2 4 Z2 1 1 2
9.4.2 Characteristics Impedance

Characterstics impedance is a impedance,that must be so chosen that the filter may fit
into a given line arm, between pieces of equipments. The characterstics impedance is
given by
B 1
Z0 = Where, B = Z11Z 22 - Z12 Z 21 and C =
C Z21
Hence, Z0 = Z11Z22 - Z12 Z21

For T-Section : The transfer impedance are given as follows :
Z1
Z22 = Z11 = Z 2 + and Z12 = Z21 = Z 2
2
æ Z ö 2
Z 0T = ç Z 2 + 1 ÷ - Z 2
è 2ø
æ Z ö
Þ Z 0T = Z1Z 2 çç1 + 1 ÷÷ is the characterstics impedance of T-Section.
è 4Z 2 ø
For p -Section : The transfer impedance of p section filter is given by
Z1
+ Z2
2Z ( Z + 2Z 2 ) 2
Z12 = Z 22 = 2 1 =
Z1 + 4 Z 2 Z ,
1+ 1
4Z 2
Z2
Z12 = Z 21 =
Z1
4 Z2
276 Network Theory
2 2
æ Z1 ö æ ö
ç + Z2 ÷ ç ÷
Hence, Z 0p = ç 2 ÷ - ç Z2 ÷
ç Z1 ÷ ç Z1 ÷
ç 1 + 4Z ÷ ç 1 + 4 Z ÷
è 2 ø è 2 ø
Z1Z 2 Z1 Z 2
Onsimplificationwe get , Z0p = , Þ Z 0p =
Z 0T
æ Z ö
Z1Z 2 çç1 + 1 ÷÷
è 4Z 2 ø
Depending upon the relation between Z1 and Z2 , Filters may be classified as:-
i) Constant K or, prototype filters, ii) m-derived filters.
9.5 CONSTANT K-TYPE FILTERS
In this case, series impedance Z1 and shunt impedance Z2 arerelated by the relation
Z1Z 2 = K 2
Where , K is a constant independent of frequency.
2
Hence Z1Z 2 = K 2 = R 0
Where R 0 called design impedance of filter section.

9.5.1 Constant- K Low Pass Filter
L1/2 L1/2 L
Z1/2 Z1/2 Z1
C/2 C/2
C 2Z2 2Z2
Z2
T-section Fig.9.6 p -section

For both T and p sections,
1
Total series impedance= Z1 = j w L , Total shunt impedance= Z 2 =
jw C
æ 1 ö
Hence, Z1 Z 2 = ( jwL )çç ÷÷ Þ R 0 = Z1Z2 = L
è jwC ø C
Filters 277
L Z1 w LC2
Þ Design impedance for L.P.F= R 0 = , Again =-
C 4 Z2 4
Z1
But Pass band is given by -1 < <0
4 Z2
1 Z
Z1
So two cutoff frequencies are 4 Z = -1 and =0
2 4 Z2
Z1
When = 0 Þ Z1 = 0 Þ j w L = 0 Þ w = 0 Þ f = 0 =First Cut off frequency
4 Z2
Z1
When = -1
4 Z2
w LC 2 2 1
Þ = -1 Þ w = Þ fc = =Second Cut off frequency
4 LC p LC
1
Thus Pass band of constant K-L.P.F is from 0 to
p LC
Characterstic Impedances
æ Z ö
For T- Section it is given by, Z 0T = Z1Z 2 çç1 + 1 ÷÷
è Z2 ø
1
Now substituting the values Z1 = j w L and Z 2 =
jw C
L æ wLC 2 ö
We have, Z 0T = ç1 - ÷
C çè 4 ÷ø
2 2
L æ f ö æ f ö
or, Z 0T = ´ 1 - çç ÷÷ Þ Z 0T = R0 1 - çç ÷÷
C è fC ø è fC ø
In Passband, f < f0 Þ Z0T is real
Similarly, For p -Section ZO p = Z1Z2 = Z1Z 2

Z OT Z1
1+
4 Z2
278 Network Theory
L
C R0
Þ Z0p = =
2 2
æ f ö æ f ö
1 - çç ÷÷ 1 - çç ÷÷
è fC ø è fC ø
For f < f 0 Þ Z 0p is real.

9.5.2 Constant-K High pass filter
2C 2C Z1
Z1/2 Z1/2 C
L 2Z2 2L 2L
Fig. 9.7
T-section p -section
1 L L
Here, Z1 = and Z2 = j w L Þ Z1Z2 = Þ R 0 = Z1Z2 =
jw C C C
Z1
Passband is given by -1á á0
4 Z2
Z1
Hence,two cutoff frequency are =0 Þ Z1 = 0 Þ w = ¥ Þ f = ¥
4 Z2
Z1 1 1
and = -1 Þ w = Þ fc =
4 Z2 2 LC 4 p LC
1
Hence, for H.P.F, passband is from to ¥ .
4 p LC
Characterstic Impedance
For T-section filter,
æ Z ö
Z 0T = Z1Z 2 çç1 + 1 ÷÷
è Z2 ø
Læ 1 ö L æf ö
= ç1 - 2 ÷= ´ 1 - çç c ÷÷
C è 4w LC ø C è f ø
Filters 279
2
æ f ö
Þ Z 0T = R0 1 - çç c ÷÷
è f ø
Z1 Z 2
For p -Section Filter, Z O p =
Z OT
L
Z1 Z 2 C
= =
Z1 1
1+ 1+
4Z 2 2
4 w LC
R0
Þ Z Op =
2
æf ö
1 - çç c ÷÷
è f ø
Design of Constant K-L.P.F and H.P.F
a) Low pass filter
L 1 R0 1
R0 = , fc = , L= , C=
C p LC p fc p fc R 0
b) Highpass filter
L 1 R0 1
R0 = , fc = , L= , C=
C 4 p LC 4 p fc 4 p fc R 0
Example-9.1
Design a lowpass T and p filter having design impedance R0 = 600W and Cutoff frequency
2000Hz.
Solution : Given data R0 = 600W, fc = 2000Hz.
R0 600
Inductance L = = = 95.5 mH.
p fc p x 2000
1 1
Capacitance C = p R f = = 0.2652 m F..
0 c p x 600 x 2000
L L L
95.5mH
47.75mH 47.75mH
Z Z 0.2652
Z 0.2652
0.26mF mF mF
2 2
T-section Fig.9.8 p -section

280 Network Theory
9.5.3 Bandpass filter
A band pass filter is designed as follows :-
L1/2 2C1 2C1 L1/2
L2 C2
Fig.9.9
Let L1 = series inductance, L2 = shunt inductance,
C1 = Series Capacitance, C2 = Shunt inductance.
L1,C1,L2 and C2 are so choosen that series resonance frequency of series arm equal to
parallel resonance frequency of shunt arms.
For series arm w 20 L1C1 = 1 , For shunt arm, w 20 L2 C2 = 1
1
Hence, L1 C1 = L2 C2 =
w02
1
Shunt impedance Z1 = j w L1 + j w c ,
1
æ 1 ö
jwL2 çç ÷
è jwC2 ÷ø
Similarly shunt impedance Z 2 =
1
jwL2 +
jwC2
L2 L1
Hence Z1Z 2 = = = R02 Þ L1C1 = L2C2 = R02
C1 C2
Where, R0 is the nominal characteristic impedance of Band Pass Filter.
Calculate of Cut off frequencies :
Z1
Consider the condition -1 < < 0 Þ Z1 = + j2R0.
4Z2
So, two cut off frequencies are, f1 = -j2 R0. and f2 = j2R0.
Thus, impedance Z1 of series arm at f1 is -Ve of impedance Z1. And impedance is +Ve at
frequency f2.
Z1 æ 1 ö æ 1 ö
çç w1L1 - ÷÷ = - çç w2 L1 - ÷
It means
4Z 2 è w1C1 ø è w2C1 ÷ø
Filters 281
w1 2
Þ 1 - w12 L1C1 =
w2
(w2 L1C1 - 1) , but,L1C1 =
1
w 20
2
æ f ö f æ f2 ö
Thus, 1 - çç 1 ÷÷ = 1 çç 22 - 1÷÷ Þ f0 = f1f2
è f0 ø f 2 è f0 ø
Thus the resonant frequency of shunt arm or, series arm is geometric means of cut off
frequency.
Design of constant K Band Pass Filter :
At lower cut-off-frequency, Z1 = - j2R0
f2 - f1 1 1 R0
C1 = L1 = = =
4 p R 0f1f2 2 p( f2 - f1)
w 0 c1 4 p 2 f1f2C1
Similarly L2 = C1 R 2 ,
0
R 0 ( f 2 - f1 ) L21 1
Again L2 = , C2 = =
4 p f1f 2 p R 0 ( f 2 - f1 )
R 20
Example-9.2
Design a band pass filter having cut-off frequencies of 1000Hz and 5000Hz and design
impedance 600W.
Solution :
Given data R0 = 600W and Lower cut-off frequency f1 = 1000Hz
Uupper cut-off frequency f2 = 5000H
Now
(5000 - 1000)
C1 = = 0.106 m F ,
4 p 600 x 5000 x 1000
600 1
L1 = = 47.8 mH, C2 = = 0.133 m F ,
p (5000 -1000) p x 600(5000 -1000)
600 (5000 -1000) L (2´ 0.106)mF (2´ 0.106)mFL

L2 = = 38.2 mH
4 p x 5000 x 1000
47.8
Z mH 47.8
Z mH
The circuit diagram of band
pass filter shown in fig.9.10 2 2
0.133mF 2L
38.2mH
Fig.9.10
282 Network Theory
9.5.4 Band elimination Filter
L1/2 L1/2
2C1 L2 2C1
C2
Fig-9.11
Let L1 = Series Inductance , C1 = Series Capacitance ,
L2 = Shunt Inductance , C2 = Shunt Capacitance
Here L1 , C1 , L2 & C2 are so chosen that shunt resonance frequency of series arm
equals to the series resonance of shunt arm.
Let ths frequency may be w 0 rad/sec. Then for seres
arm w 2 L1C1 = 1 , for shunt arm w 2 L2C2 = 1 .

0 0
1
Equalizing the above two equations we get, L1C1 = L2C2 = .
w 20
Calculation of Nominal Characteristics Impedance (R0).
jwL1 æ 1 ö
´ çç ÷
2 è jw 2C1 ÷ø wL
Here Series Impedance Z1 = 2 jwL = j 2 1
1 w L1C1
1
+
2 jw 2C1
1 æ w 2 L2C2 - 1 ö
For Shunt Impedance Z2 = j w L2 + = çç
j ÷÷
j w C2 è wC2 ø
Hence, Z1Z 2 =
(
L1 w 2 L2C2 - 1
,
)
(
L2 w 2 L1C1 - 1 )
L1 L2
But L1C1 = L2C2 . So Z1Z2 = = = R 20
C2 C1
Where, R0 is the design resistance or nominal characteristic impedance of band stop
filter.
Calculation of Cut-Off Frequencies
Z1
For band pass filter, -1 < < 0 , when Z1 = -1 Þ Z1 = ± 2R0 are two cut-offf
4 Z2
Filters 283
frequencies. Accordingly, impedance Z1 of series arm at f1 is negative of impedance Z1
at f2 .
w1 L1 w 2 L1 f1
Hence, = - Þ f0 =
1- w12 L1C1 1- w 22 L1C1 f2
Design of Constant K Band Elimination Filter

For a given value of design impedance R0 and for desired cut-off frequencies f1 & f2 , the
values of circuit components are
R 0 ( f2 - f1 ) 1
L1 = C1 = ,
p f2 f1 4 p R 0 (f2 - f1 )
R0 L1 ( f2 - f1 )
L2 = C1R 20 = C2= =
4 p(f2 - f1 ) p R 0 f2 f1
R 20
9.6 M-DERIVED FILTERS
M-derived filters are advantageous than that of constant K-filters as in this case, it becomes
possible to get very rapid attenuation rise in the attenuation band just beyond cut-off
frequency.
Elements of m-derived filter section
Z1/2 Z1/2 m Z1/2 m Z1/2

Z2 Z2
/
Prototype T-Sec. M-derived T-Sec.
mZ1
Z1 4m
2Z 2 = Z2 2Z 2
2Z2 2Z2 1 - m2
m m
Prototype p -Sec. Fig-9.12 M-derived p -Sec.
Z12
For prototype T-section , Z0T = + Z1Z2 ,
4
m2 Z12
For m-derived T-section Z / = + mZ1Z¢2
0T 4
284 Network Theory
These impedances will be equal,
Z12 m2 Z12 Z 1- m2
when + Z1Z2 = + mZ1Z¢2 Þ Z¢2 = 2 + Z1 .
4 4 m 4m
Z1Z 2
For prototype p section , Z 0 p = 1+
Z1 ,
4 Z2
Z2
Z1¢ .
m
Z¢
for m-derived p section , Z0¢ p = 1+ 1
4 Z2
m
Z1¢ Z 2
Z1Z2 m
Thsese impedance will be equal when =
Z1 mZ1¢
1+ 1+
4 Z2 4 Z2
æ 4m ö
mZ1 ç 2 ÷ 2
Z
¢
Z1 = è 1- m ø
æ 4m ö
mZ1 + ç 2 ÷ 2
Z
è1- m ø
æ 4m ö
This(Z'1) represents parallel combination of mZ1 & ç 2 ÷ 2 as shown in the figure
Z
è1- m ø
above
9.6.1 M-derived Low-pass Filter
mL/2 mL/2
L1/2 L1/2
mC
C 1 - m2
.L
4m
T-sec. LPF m-derived T-Sec.

mL
L
1 - m2
.C
C/2 C/2 mC 4m mC
2 2
p Sec. LPF Fig-9.13 m-derived T-sec. LPF.

Filters 285
The m-derived low pass T & p section filter shown in above figure.
Now Z2 = shunt impedance
Z2 1 1
= , Where Z 2 =
m jw (mC ) jw C
An m-derived T-section, if the sh;unt arm in resonante at any frequency it will have zero
impedance and provided a short circuit along the transmission. Therefore, the output at
the frequency will be zero and it will conpond to an infinite attenation. In this cas inductive
reactanc is equal to capacitance rectance.
1 æ 1 - m2 ö
Mathematically = w¥ çç ÷÷ L
w¥ mC è 4m ø
4 4 1
w 2¥ = Þ (2 p f ¥ )2 = Þ f¥ = ...(A)
(1- m2 ) LC (1-m 2 ) LC p LC 1 - m2
For more accurate result , f ¥ is expressed interms of fc.
1 2
fC = Þ wC =
p LC LC
Substituting in the equation (A)for w 2

¥
w 2C 2
æ ωC ö æ f C ö
2
2
i.e. w = Þ 1 - m = çç
2
÷÷ = çç ÷÷
¥ (1 - m2 ) è ω¥ ø è f ¥ ø
2
æf ö
Þ m = 1 - çç C ÷÷ ....(B)
è f¥ ø
fc
Hence , f¥ = .....(C)
1- m2
It can be seen from equation (B), that if the ent-off frequency and frequency of infinite
attennation are specified, the necessary value ofr m camponent can be evaluated.
Example-9.3
Design m-derived T section of two low pass filter having is design impedance of 600
Ohm, a cut-off-frequency 2000 Hz and a frequency of infinite attenuation f ¥ = 3000 Hz.
Solution : Given fc = 2000 Hz, f ¥ = 3000 Hz, R0 = 6000 Ohm.
2
æ 2000 ö
m = 1- ç ÷ = 0.57
è 3000 ø
286 Network Theory
R0 600 1
L= = = = 63.69 mH,
p fc p x 3000 5p
1 1 1
C= = = x 10-5 = 1.6uF
p R 0 fc 3.14 x 600 x 2000 12 x 3.14
mL/2 mL/2
31.84 mH 31.84 mH 18.15mH 18.15mH

0.923 m F mC
1.62 m F
1 - m2
18.85mH .L
4m
Prototype Fig-9.14 m-derived

9.6.2 m-derived H.P.F.
M- derived high pass filter can be designed in a similar manner as the low pass filters.
Following figures shows the m derived H.P. filters.
2C 2C
2C 2C
Z1/2 Z1/2 L
2L
m m
L
m
4m
C
1- m2
T-sec. HPF m-derived T-sec. HPF.
4m
L
1- m2
Z1
C
2L C 2L
2Z2 2L 2L 2L 2L
m m m
p Sec. HPF
Fig-9.15 m-derived p -sec. HPF
T-section :
At frequency of infinite altemation
1 1 - m2
ω 2¥ = = ....(A)
L æ 4m ö 4LC
ç 2 ÷
C
m è1- m ø
Filters 287
1
But wc = put in equation (A)
2 LC
We get w 2 = (1 - m2) w 2 Þ f¥ = (1 - m2 ) fc
¥ c
2
æf ö
Hence m = 1 - çç ¥ ÷÷
è fc ø
For p -section :
Similarly at the frequency of infinite attenuation
1 1
w¥2 = Þ f¥ =
æ 4m ö C æ 4m ö C
ç 2 ÷
L 2p ç 2 ÷
L
è1- m ø m è1- m ø m
Example-9.4
Design m-derived T & p section of a High pass filter having design impedance of 500
Ohms, Cut off frequency of 6 kH. and m = 0.35. Find also the frequency of infinite
atteunation.
Solution : Given data, Design impedance R0 = 5000 Ohm 37.08 fc = 6kH, m = 0.35
R0 500 1
L= = = = 6.63 mH,
4 p fc 4 p x 6000 48 p
1 1 1
C= = = = 0.026uF
4 p R 0 fc 4 p x 500 x 6000 4 x 3 p x 10 -6
For m derived High Pass T-section filter f ¥ = 1 - m2 fc
= 1 - (0.35) 2 x 6 x 103 = 5.62 kHz

2C 2 x 0.026 L 6.63
Therefore = = 0.098, = = 18.94
m 0.53 m 0.35
æ 4m ö æ 4 ´ 0.35 ö
and ç 1 - m 2 ÷C = çç 1 - (0.35) 2 ÷÷ ´ 0.026 = 0.04
è ø è ø
0.052mF 0.052mF 2C 2C
=0.098mF = 0.098mF
m m
2C 2C
L
2L = 18.24mH
2L
6.63mH m
4m
C = 0.04 mF
1- m2
Prototype T-Sec. Fig.-9.16 m-derived T-sec.

288 Network Theory
For m-derived High Pass p -section filter
c 0.026
= = 0.074 uF,,
m 0.35m
æ 4m ö 4 x 0.35 x 6.63 9.282

ç 2 ÷
L = = = 10.57mH
è1- m ø 1 - (0.35) 2 0.8775
2L 2 x 6.63
= = 37.88 mH,
m 0.35
4m
L = 10.57H
1- m2
C
C
0.026H m
2L 13.26H 2L 13.26H 2L 2L 2L 37.88mH

2L
37.88mH
m m
Prototype p Sec. m-derived p Sec.

Fig.9.17
NUMERICAL PROBLEMS
Q.1. Design a constant. k low pass filter having cut. off frequency of 4000Hz and nominal
characterstic impedance R0 = 300 Ohm.Also find frequency at which this filter produces
attenuation of 37.1.dB.
Q.2. Design a T.section constant.k high pass filter having cut-off frequency fc = 4 kHz and
nominal characteristic impedance R0 = 400 Ohm. Also find its characteristic impedance
and phase constant at frequency of 6 kHz.
Q.3. Design a constant k, p section high pass filter having cut. off frequency fc = 7 kHz and
nominal characteristic impedance R0 = 600 Ohm. Find (i) its characteristic impedance
and phase constant at frequency of 13 kHz and (ii) attenuation at frequency of 600 Hz.
Q.4. Design a constant k bandpass filter section having cut-off frequencies of 1000 Hz and
5000 Hz and nominal characteristic impedance of 4500 Ohm.
Q.5. Design an m-derived T-section high pass filter having design impedance of 400 Ohm, cut
off frequency of 5 kHz and infinite attenution at 5.6 kHz.
Q.6. Design a constant k low pass filter having cut-off frequency of 3500 Hz and its design
impedance R0 = 400 Ohm. Find frequency at which this filter produces an attenuation of
32.5 dB.
ppp
Chapter 10
NETWORK SYNTHESIS
10.1 INTRODUCTION
The solutions to problems on network theory are of two distinct types. (1) Network
analysis and (2) Network synthesis. Network analysis deals with the problem of
determining the response, when the network is energised by a particular input. Network
synthesis deals with the realisation of the network for a particular response. In network
analysis, finding the response is simple and the response is generally specific. On the
otherhand, in network synthesis, realisation of the network is not so simple and the
network realised is not specific. There may be more than one realisable networks,
for a given response. In this chapter, only passive network synthesis of one port
network is discussed, that too, restricting to the synthesis of driving point immittance
(impedance or admittance) functions, containing only two elements.
P(s)
The network described by an immittance function F(s) = can be realised
Q(s)
only if, (1) F(s) is a positive real function and (2) P(s) and Q(s) are Hurwitz
Polynomials.
The immitance function F(s) may be either an impedance function Z(s) or an
admittance function Y(s).
10.2 HURWITZ POLYNOMIAL
It is a special type of polynomial like driving point admitanceand impedance is called
Hurwitz polynomial.
Properties :
The polynomial Q(S) is said to be Hurwitz,if it satisfies the following condition
1. Q(S) is real if” s” is real.
2. The roots of Q(S) has real part which is zero or -ve.
290 Network Theory
3. If Q(S) = a n Sn + a n -1Sn -1 + ...... + a 1S + a 0 ,then co-efficient , a n , a n -1 ,.......a1 , a 0

must be +ve.
4. Both the even and odd part of the Hurwitz have roots of jw axis only.This means
that Q(S)=M(S)+N(S). Where M(S) and N(S) denote even and odd function.
5. The continued fraction expansion of the ratio of even to odd parts or odd to even
parts of a Hurwitz polynomial gives all +ve quotient term.
M (S ) N (S )
Suppose f ( s ) = or
N (S ) M (S )
1
Þ f(s) = a1 s +
1
a2 s +
1
a3 s +
1
a 4 s+...
1
...+
an s
Where a1 , a 2 ,a 3,.....a n are known as quotient value of polynomial .It should be +ve for
Hurwitz polynomial.
Example-10.1
Test the following polynomial Q(S) = S4 + S3 + 5S 2 + 3S + 4 is Hurwitz or not.
Solution : Separate the odd & even terms of the above polynomial,
we get, even terms M(S) = S4 + 5S2 + 4 & odd terms N ( S ) = S3 + 3S
Hence, f ( s) = M(S) = S + 5S + 4 Þ s + 3s s + 5s + 4 s
4 2
3 4 2
] [
N (S ) S3 + 3S s 4 + 3s 2
]
2s 2 + 4 s 3 + 3s [ 12 s
s 3 + 2s
]
s 2s 2 + 4 2s [
2s 2
1
4] s [ s
M(S) 1 4
Finally, = s+ s
N(S) 1 1
s+ 0
2 1
2s +
1
s
4
Network Synthesis 291
In above division, we found all the quotient values are +ve.So, it is a Hurwitz
polynomial.
Example-10.2
Whether the following polynomial Q(S) = S4 + S3 + 2 S 2 + 3S + 1 is Hurwitz or not .
Solution : Separate the odd & even terms.
Even terms M(S) = S4 + 2S2 + 1 & Odd terms N ( S ) = S3 + 3S
M(S) S4 + 2S2 + 1 3 4 2
Now, f ( s) = = , s + 3s)s + 2s + 1(s
N (S ) S + 3S
3
s 44 + 3s 22
]
- s 2 + 1 s 3 + 3s - s[
s3 - s
] [
4s - s 2 + 1 - s
4
s2
1]4s[4s
4s
0
In above case some quotient terms are -ve,indicates that it is not Hurwitz polynomial
Example-10.3
Test the following polynomial Q(S) = s 4 + 2s 2 + 2 is Hurwitz or not.
Solution : Given polynomial
Q(S) = s 4 + 2s 2 + 2
This polynomial consist of only even term.In order get odd term we have to find the
derivative of P(S) ; Now, We have to calculate the quoitent value by using division
method.
] 1
[4
4 s 3 + 4 s s 4 + 2 s 2 + 2 s .........................................(+ve)
s4 + s2
] [
s 2 + 2 4s 3 + 4s 4s .............................(+ve)
4 s 3 + 8s
] [
- 4s s 2 + 2 - s
1
4
.............(-ve)
2
s
.......(-ve)
2]- 4s[ - 2s
- 4s
0
292 Network Theory
Here, -ve quotient term indicates that the function is not Hurwitz.
10.3 POSITIVE REAL FUNCTION
For a function F(S) to be +ve real, it has to satisfye the following conditions:-
(1) - F(S) is real for real value of ‘S’.
(2) - The real part of F(S) is greater than or equal to zero, when the real part of ‘s’ is
greater than or equal to zero.i.e.Re{F(S)}>=0 for S>=0
10.3.1 Properties of positive real function.
(1) If F(S) is positive real, then 1/F(S) is also positive real. If impedance is +ve real, then
admittance is also +ve real.
(2) The sum of +ve real functions is also +ve real. Let is F¢(S) +ve real and F¢¢(S) is
+ve real .Then F¢(S) + F¢¢(S) is also +ve real.
(3) The poles and zeros of +ve real function can not have +ve real part. It means they
can not be in the right half of the S-Plane.
(4) Only simple poles with real +ve residue can exist on the jw -axis.
(5) The highest power of numerator and denominator polynomial may differ atmost by
unity.
10.4 STABILITY ANALYSIS OF A FUNCTION BY USING ‘ROUT-HURWITZ’
METHOD.
Step-1: The array to be constructed first.
Step-2: Two rows of co-efficients are put in such a manner that, even co-efficients lie
on the first row(If highest power is even term) and second row contains co-
efficients of odd power of ‘S’(If second highest power of ‘S’ is odd term).
Step-3 Array is to be completed.
Consider the case, P(S) = a 0s n + a 1s n -1 + a 2s n - 2 + ..... + a n
If n=5 the equation P(S) = a 0s 5 + a 1s 4 + a 2s 3 + a 3s 2 + a 4s + a 5

Here, the highest power of ‘s’ is 5 and it is an odd term.So, the odd term co-efficient of ‘s’
to be placed in the first row and second row must consist of even co-efficient. It means,
total number of rows is equal to the highest power of ‘s’plus one.
Routh-Array
where , c1 = a1a 2 - a 0a 3 , c 2 = a1a 4 - a 0a 5
s5 a0 a2 a4 a1 a1
s4 a1 a3 a4
c a -a c c a -a ´0
s3 c1 c2 0 d1 = 1 3 1 2 , d 2 = 1 5 1 = a 5.
c1 c1
s2 d1 d2 0
d c -c d e d - d1 x 0
s1
e1 0 0 e1 = 1 2 1 2 and f1 = 1 2 = d2
d1 e1
s0 f1 0 0
For stability point of view, if all the co-efficients in first column of Routh-Array are +ve
(same sign) then only, the polynomial is said to be stable.
Example-10.4
Test the following polynomial,
P(S) = s 4 + 10s 3 + 35s 2 + 50s + 24 is stable or not .
Solution : Total no of rows = 4+1 = 5
Routh Array
s4 1 35 24
3
s 10 50 0
10 ´ 35 - 1 ´ 50 10 ´ 24 - 1 ´ 0
s2 = 30 = 24
10 10
50 ´ 30 - 10 ´ 24
s1 = 42 0
30
42 ´ 24 - 0 ´ 30
s0 = 24
42
Here all the co-efficients in first column of Routh Array are +ve.So, the system is stable.
Example-10.5
Test the following polynomial ,
P(S) = s 4 + s 3 + 2s 2 + s + 3 , Whether the polynomial is stable or not.
Solution: Given polynomial is P(S) = s 4 + s 3 + 2s 2 + s + 3
Total no of rows = 4 + 1 = 5
Routh- Array
s4 1 2 3
3
s 1 2 0
2-2
s2 =0 0
1
s1 ¥ 0
s0
In above array,we found third row of 1st column data is zero. So its next value is
infinite.Due to this problem we should not progress further. So, in place of zero put small
value ‘’, i.e ξ ® 0
294 Network Theory
Now modified Array given below,
s4 1 2 3
3
s 1 2 0
s 2
x > 0 0
2x - 3
s1 > 0 0
x
s0 0
2x - 3 3
For stabilily point of view x > 0 And > 0 Þ 2x > 3 Þ x >
x 2
Take the value of ‘ x ’ just greater that 3/2,i.e put x = 1.6 in above Array,,
We get modified Array is as follows
s4 1> 0 2 3
s3 1 >0 2 0
s 2
1.6 > 0 0
2 ´1.6 - 3
s1 = 0.125 > 0 0
1.6
s0 3 >0
From above Array we found all co-efficents of 1st column are +ve.So the function is
stabale.
Example-10.6
For what value of ‘K’ following polynomial is said to be stabled. Solve by using Routh-
Array criterion.
Solution : Given polynomial
Routh-Array
s4 1 35 24
3
s 10 K
35 ´10 - 1´ K 24 ´10 - 0 ´1
s2 =A = 24
10 10
A ´ K - 10 ´ 24
s1 >0
A
s0 24
For stability point of view , A > 0

35 ´10 - 1´ K
Þ > 0 Þ K < 350 .Hence the range K is (0 < K < 350) .
10
10.5 CONCEPT OF NETWORK SYNTHESIS
Network synthesis means construction of passive network using parameters ike(Resistance,
Inductance and Capacitance) by using netwok function i.e Impedance and admittance.
Following types of network are given below.
i) LC Network
ii) RC Network
iii) RL Network
10.6 METHOD OF SYNTHESIS
i) Foster-I
ii) Foster-II
iii) Cauer-I
iv) Cauer-II
Both Foster-I and Foster-II forms are analyzed by partial fraction method,But cauer-I
&Cauer-II methods are synthesized by continous fraction method.
10.7 SYNTHESIS OF LC NETWORK.
10.7.1 Properties of LC Network
i) It must be either odd/even or even /odd function.
ii) Poles & zeros alternation on j ω axis due to separation properties.
iii) The heighest degree of numerator and denominator must differ by unity and the
lowest degree of numerator and denomenator must differ by unity.
How to recognize whether it is LC network or not ?

i) In case LC -network even function occurs it means (s 2 + a 2 )(s 2 + b 2 )
Where a,b are constant terms
ii) In other function such as odd function s (s 2 + a 2 )(s 2 + b 2 )
10.7.2 Foster-I for LC Network
Suppose the impedance function Z(S) is given, then its partial fraction form is given below
K2 K 3S K 4S K S
Z(s) = K1S + + + + ........ + 2 n 2
S S2 + ω 21 S2 +ω 22 S +ω n
Z(s)
K1 = S= ¥
K 2 = Z(s)S
S S= 0
K3 =
Z(s) 2
S
(
S + ω 21 ) S2 = - ω 21
K4 =
S
(S +ω22 )
Z(s) 2
S2 = - ω 22
1 1 1 1
Hence Z(s) = K1S + + 2 + 2 + ........ + 2
1
S S +ω 1 S +ω 2 S +ωn2
2 2
K2 K 3S K 4S K nS
296 Network Theory
1 1 1 1
= K1S + + + + ........ +
1 1 ω 2
1 ω 2
1 ω2
S S+ 1 S+ 2 S+ n
K2 K3 K3S K 4 K4S Kn Kn S
As we know laplace transformation of electrical parameter like
1
L[R ] = R Ohm , L[L] = Ls Ohm L[C] = Ohm
Cs
K3 K4
H H
ω 12 ω 22
K 1H 1
F
K2 1 1
F F
K3 K4
Fig-10.1
10.7.3 Foster-II of LC Network
K2 KS KS K S
Y(s) = K 1S + + 2 3 2 + 2 4 2 + ........ + 2 n 2
S S +ω 1 S +ω2 S +ω n
Y(s)
Where K1 = S=¥ , K 2 = Y(s)S
S S= 0
K3 =
Y(s) 2
S
(
S + ω 21 ) S2 = - ω 21 , K4 =
S
(S +ω22 )
Y(s) 2
S2 = - ω 22
1 1 1 1
= K1S + + 2 + 2 + ........ + 2
1
S S +ω 1 S +ω2 S +ω n2
2 2
K2 K 3S K 4S K nS
1 1 1 1
= K1S + + + + ........ +
1 2 2
ω2
S 1 S + ω1 1 ω
S+ 2
1
S+ n
K2 K3 K 3S K 4 K4S Kn KnS
1 1
H H
1 K3 K4
K 1F H
K2
K3 K4
F F
ω12 ω22
Fig-10. 2
1
In admittance form L[L ] = , L[C] = Cs .Above circuit indicates all parameters connected
Ls
in parallel manner.
10.8 SYNTHESIS BY USING CAUER
W.cauer, in 1972 introduced realisation of one -port LC Network in two
configurtions.One of the configuration is Cauer-I and the other configuration is Cauer-
II.We can Synthesize the network by using continous fraction expansion method.In Cauer-
I,we are using impedance and its continous frraction expansion is given below.
1
Z ( s ) = Z1 ( s ) +
1
Y2 ( s ) +
1
Z 3 ( s) +
1
Y4 ( s )... +
..........
Similarly,In Cauer-II form,we are using admittance and its continous fraction expansion is
given below
1
Y ( s ) = Y1 ( s ) +
1
Z 2 ( s) +
1
Y3 ( s ) +
1
Z 4 ( s )... +
..........
10.8.1 Synthesis by Using Cauer-1
i) Polynomial to be written in decending order.
ii) Remove S term from continous fraction expansion method
iii) Capacitor to be connected in parallel and inductor in series.
L L L
C C C
Fig-10.3
10.8. 2 Synthesis by Using Cauer-1I
i) Polynomial to be written in ascending order.

ii) Remove 1S term from continous fraction expansion method
iii) Capacitor to be connected inseries and inductor in parallel.
298 Network Theory
C C C
L L L
Fig-10.4
Example-10.7 Synthesize the following driving point impedance function

S(S2 + 4)(S2 + 16)
Z(S) = . Using Foster-I & Foster-II Method.
(S2 + 1)(S2 + 9)
S(S2 + 4)(S2 + 16)

Solution: Given data , Z(S) =
(S2 + 1)(S2 + 9)
For Calculation of Zero values, P(S)=0
Þ S(S2 + 4)(S2 + 16) = 0
Hence S=0, S = ±2 j , S = ±4 j
For calculation of pole values Q(S)=0
Þ (S2 + 1)(S2 + 9) = 0
Hence S = ±1 j , S = ±3 j
Zero value S=0, S = ±2 j , S = ±4 j
Pole value S = ±1 j , S = ±3 j
5j
4j
zero
3j
2j pole
1j
- 1j
- 2j
- 3j
- 4j
- 5j
Fig-10.5(Pole-zero location)
From above pole -zero calculation we found pole-zeros are alternate on jw axis.That
indicates it is an LC network.
Foster-I
K2 K 3S K 4S K S
Z(s) = K1S + + + + ........ + 2 n 2
S S2 + ω 21 S2 + ω 22 S +ω n
K 2 K 3S KS
= K1S + + 2 + 24
S S +1 S + 9
Z(s) 1 S(S2 + 4)(S2 + 16)
K1 = = ´ =1
S S=¥
S (S2 + 1)(S2 + 9) S=¥
S(S2 + 4)(S2 + 16)

K 2 = Z(s).S = S´ =0
S= 0
(S2 + 1)(S2 + 9) S= 0
Z(s) S(S2 + 4)(S2 + 16) 45

K3 = ´ (S2 + 1) S 2 = -1
= ´ (S2 + 1) S2 = -1
=
S (S2 + 1)(S2 + 9) 8
Z(s) S(S2 + 4)(S2 + 16) 35

K4 = ´ (S2 + 9) 2 = ´ (S2 + 9) S2 = -9
=
S S = -9
(S + 1)(S + 9)
2 2
8
45 35
S S
0
Hence, Z(s) = S + + 82 + 28
S S +1 S + 9
1 1
= S+ +
8 8 8 72
S+ S+
45 45S 35 35S
45 35
H H
8 72
1H
8
F 8
45 F
35
Fig.-10.6
Foster-II
K2 KS KS K S
Y(s) = K1S + + 2 3 2 + 2 4 2 + ........ + 2 n 2
S S +ω 1 S + ω 2 S +ω n
Here (S2 + 1)(S2 + 9)

Y(S) =
S(S2 + 4)(S2 + 16)
300 Network Theory
K2 KS K 4S
= K1S + + 3 +
S S 2 + 4 S 2 + 16
Y(s) (S2 + 1)(S2 + 9) 1
K1 = = ´ =0
S S= ¥
S(S2 + 4)(S2 + 16) s S= ¥
(S2 + 1)(S2 + 9) 9
K 2 = Y(s) ´ S = ´S =
S= 0
S(S2 + 4)(S2 + 16) S= 0
64
Y(s) (S2 + 1)(S2 + 9) 5

K3 = ´ (S2 + 4) 2 = ´ (S2 + 4) S 2 = -4
=
S S = -4
S(S + 4)(S + 16)
2 2
16
Y(s) (S2 + 1)(S2 + 9) 35

K4 = ´ (S2 + 16) 2 = ´ (S2 + 16) S 2 = -16
=
S S = -16
S(S2 + 4)(S2 + 16) 64
9 5 35
S S
Hence, Y(s) = 0 + 64 + 16 + 64
S S 2 + 4 S 2 + 16
1 1 1
= 0+ + 2 + 2
64
S S + 4 S + 16
9 5 35
S S
16 64
1 1 1
= + +
64 16 64 64 1024
S S+ S+
9 5 5S 35 35S
16 65
H H
Y(S) Þ 64 5 35
H
9 5 35
F F
64 1024
Fig-10.7

S(S2 + 4)(S2 + 2)
Z(S) = . Using Cauer-I & Cauer-II Method.
(S2 + 1)(S2 + 3)
Solution: Given impedance function
S(S2 + 4)(S2 + 2)
Z(S) =
(S2 + 1)(S2 + 3)
By using continous fraction expansion
s 4 + 4s 2 + 3 s 5 + 6s 3 + 8s s
s 5 + 4s 3 + 3s
2s 3 + 5s s 4 + 4s 2 + 3 1 s
2
5
s4 + s2
2
3 2
s + 3 2s 3 + 5s 4 s
2 3
2s + 4 s
3
3 2
s s +3 3 s
2 2
3 2
1 s
Þ Z(s) = s + 2
1 1
s+ 3s s
2 4 1 3
s+
3 3 1 s
s+
2 1 0
s
2
The fig-10.8 shows the circuit of LC circuit diagram using Cauer-I method
1H 4 1
H
1 3 3 3H
Z(S) Þ F F
2 2
Fig-10.8
Cauer-II
1 s 4 + 4s 2 + 3
Here, Y ( s ) = = 5
Z ( s ) s + 4 s 3 + 8s
By using continous fraction expansion
302 Network Theory
3
8s + 4s 3 + s 5 3 + 4s 2 + s 4
8s
18 2 3 4
3+ s + s
8 8
14 2 5 4 64
s + s 8s + 4 s 3 + s 5
8 8 14 s
20 3
8s + s
7
22 3 14 2 5 4 0.55
s + s5 s + s
7 8 8 s
14 2 98 4
s + s
8 176
22 3 46 .22
0.068 s 4 s + s5
7 s
22 3
s
3 1 7
Þ Y(s) = +
8s 64 + 1 0.068
s 5 0.068 s 4
14 s 0.55 + 1 s
s 46 . 22 1 0.068s 4
+
s 0.068
0
s
14 1
F F
64 46.22
8
Y(S)Þ H 1
1
3 H
H 0.068
0.55
Fig-10. 9
10.9 SYNTHESIS OF RC NETWORK

10.9.1 Foster-I
In Foster-I method impedance plays an important role for the synthesis of network.The
partial fraction of impedance is given as follows:
K2 K3 K5 Kn
Z(s) = K1 + + + ......... +
S S + K4 S + K6 S + K n +1
Where K1 = Z(s) s =¥ K 2 = Z(s).s s =0

K 3 = Z(s) ´ (S + K 4 ) s = - K 4 K 5 = Z(s) ´ (S + K 6 ) s = - K 4
Simlifying above equation, we get
1 1 1 1
Z(s) = K1 + + + ......... +
1 1 K4 1 K6 1 K
S S+ S+ S + n +1
K2 K3 K3 K5 K5 Kn Kn
1 1
F F
K3 K5
K1W 1
F
Z(S)Þ K2 K3
W
K5
W
K4 K6
Fig-10. 10
10.9.2 Foster-II
Similarley in Foster-II method Admittance plays an important role for the synthesis of
network.The partial fraction of admittance function is given as follows:
K 3S K 5S K nS
Y(s) = K1 + K 2S + + ......... +
S + K4 S + K6 S + K n +1
Y(s)
Where, K1 = Y(s) s =0 K2 = s =¥
s
(S + K 4 ) (S + K 6 )
K 3 = Y(s) ´ s=- K 4 K 5 = Y(s) ´ s=- K 6
s s
By simplifying above equation we get,
1 1 1
Y(s) = K1 + K 2S + + ......... +
1 K4 1 K6 1 K n +1
+ + +
K 3 K 3S K 5 K 5S K n K nS
The Fig-10.11 indicates the circuit of Foster-II form of RC network.
1
Where R1 = K1Ω C 2 = K 2 Farad R 3 = Ω
K3
K5 1 R3 R4
C3 = Farad R4 = Ω
K6 K5 Y(S)Þ C2
R1
C3 C4
Fig-10.11
304 Network Theory
10.9.3 Cauer-I for RC circuit
Procedure
i) Both numerator and denominator polynomials to be written in decending order
ii) Remove constant term from Z(s) and if not possible then remove from Y(s).
iii) Resistance are connected in series and capacitor in parallel.
R1 R2 R 3
C1 C2 C3
Fig-10.12
10.9.4 Cauer-II for RC circuit
Procedure
i) Both numerator and denominator polynomials to be written in ascending order
ii) Remove constant term from Y(s) and if not possible then remove 1 s term fromY(s).
iii) Resistance are connected in parallel and capacitor in series.
C1 C2 C3
R1 R2 R3
Fig-10.13
Example-10.9 Synthesize the following impedance function

( s + 2)(s + 5)
Z ( s) = By applying Foster-I & Foster-II method.
( s + 1)(s + 3)
( s + 2)( s + 5)
Z ( s) =
( s + 1)( s + 3)
For Zero value calculation Þ ( s + 2)( s + 5) = 0
Þ S=-2 , S=-5
For Pole value calculation Þ ( s + 1)( s + 3) = 0
Þ S=-1, S=-3
From pole value and zero value calculation, we found the pole nearer to origin.So,that
indicates it is an RC network
Foster-I
K2 K3 K5 Kn
Z(s) = K1 + + + ......... +
S S + K4 S + K6 S + K n +1
K 2 K3 K
= K1 + + + 5
S S +1 S + 3
(s + 2)(s + 5)
Where, K1 = Z(s) s = ¥ = S= ¥ =1
(s + 1)(s + 3)
(s + 2)(s + 5)
K 2 = Z(s) ´ S s =0 = ´ S S= 0 = 0
(s + 1)(s + 3)
(s + 2)(s + 5)
K 3 = Z(s) ´ (s + 1) s = -1 = ´ (s + 1) S= 0 = 2
(s + 1)(s + 3)
(s + 2)(s + 5)
K 5 = Z(s) ´ (s + 3) s = -3 = ´ (s + 3) S= -3 = 1
(s + 1)(s + 3)
0 2 1 1 1
Hence, Z ( s ) = 1 + + + = 1+ +
S S +1 S + 3 1
S+
1 S +3
2 2
1
2
F 1F
1W
Z(S)Þ 2Ω 1
Ω
3
Fig-10.14
Foster-II
Consider admittance function
1 ( s + 1)( s + 3)
Y ( s) = =
Z ( s) ( s + 2)( s + 5)
The partial fraction of Y(s) is given as follows
K 3s K S KnS
Y(s) = K1 + K 2S + + 5 ......... +
S + K4 S + K6 S + K n +1
K 3s K5S
= K 1 + K 2S + + .....(A)
S+ 2 S+5
( s + 1)( s + 3) 3
K1 = Y ( s) s =0 = s =0 =
( s + 2)( s + 5) 10
306 Network Theory
Y ( s) ( s + 1)( s + 3) 1
K2 = s=¥ = ´ s =¥ =0
s ( s + 2)( s + 5) S
( S + 2) ( s + 1)( s + 3) ( S + 2) 1
K 3 = Y ( s) ´ s = -2 = ´ s = -2 =
s ( s + 2)( s + 5) S 6
( S + 5) ( s + 1)(s + 3) ( S + 5) 8
K5 = Y ( s) ´ s = -5 = ´ s = -5 =
s ( s + 2)( s + 5) S 15
The value of K1,K2,K3 and K5 put in equation (A), we get
1 8
s S
3 3 1 1
Y(s) = + 6 + 15 = + +
10 S + 2 S + 5 10 6 + 12 15 75
+
s 8 8s
15
6W W
8
10
Y(S) Þ W
3 1 8
F F
12 75
Fig-10. 15
10.10 SYNTHESIS OF R-L NETWORK

The synthesis of R-L network done by both Foster and Cauer method.
Criteria of R-L Network
i) Both pole and zero values are simple
ii) Zero value nearer to origin.
10.10.1 Foster-I for R-L
Impedance function plays an important role Foter-I form, and its partial fraction given
below
K3s K S KnS
Z(s) = K1 + K 2S + + 5 ......... +
S + K4 S + K6 S + K n +1
Z ( s)
Where, K1 = Z ( s ) s =0 K2 = s =¥
s
(S + K 4 ) (S + K 6 )
K 3 = Z ( s) ´ s =- K 4 K 5 = Z ( s) ´ s =- K 6
s s
Hence, Z(s) can be written as
1 1
Z(s) = K1 + K 2S + +
1 K4 1 K
+ + 6
K3 K3s K5 K5s
K 3W K 5W
K 1W K 2H
K3 K
H 5 H
K4 K 6
Fig-10. 16
10.10.2 Foster-II for R-L
Similarly, asmittance plays an important role in Fosters-II form.Its partial fraction is given
by
K2 K3 K5 Kn
Y(s) = K1 + + + ......... +
S S + K4 S + K6 S + K n +1
`Where , K1 = Y(s) s =¥ K 2 = Y(s).s s =0
K 3 = Z(s) ´ (S + K 4 ) s = - K 4 K 5 = Y(s) ´ (S + K 6 ) s = - K 6
Again,Y(S can be writen as follows
1 1 1
Y(s) = K1 + + + ..
1 1 K 1 K
S S+ 4 S+ 6
K2 K3 K3 K5 K5
1 1 1
Where, R1 = W L2 = H L3 = H
K1 K2 K3
K4 1 K6
R3 = W L4 = H R3 = W
K3 K5 K5
Following fig-10.17 indicates the R-L Network by using Foster-II method.
R 3W R 4W
Þ Y(S) R1W L 2H
L3H L4H
Fig-10. 17
Now impedance & admittance plays an important role in synthesis of R-L networkby
Cauer-I& Cauer-II form respectively.
10.10.3 Cauer-I for R-L Network
Procedure
i) Both numerator and denominator polynomials to be written in decending order
ii) Remove S term from Z(s) and if not possible then remove 1 s or constant from Y(s).
iii) Inductor are connected in series and Resistor in parallel.
308 Network Theory
L1 L2 L3
Z(S) Þ R1 R2 R3
Fig-10. 18
10.10.4 Cauer-II for RC circuit
Procedure
i) Both numerator and denominator polynomials to be written in ascending order
ii) Remove constant term from Y(s) and if not possible then remove 1 s term from Y(s).
iii) Inductor are connected in parallel and Resistor in series.
R1 R2 R3
Y(S)Þ L2 L3
L1
Fig-10. 19
( s + 1)( s + 3)
Z (s) = ,Using Foster-I and Foster-II method.
( s + 2)( s + 4)
Solution: Given driving point impedance function
( s + 1)( s + 3)
Z (s) =
( s + 2)( s + 4)
For Zero value calculation Þ ( s + 1)( s + 3) = 0 Þ S=-1, S=-3
For pole value calculation Þ ( s + 2)( s + 4) = 0 Þ S=-2, S=-4
From zero value and pole values calculation we found, zero value nearer to origin.That
indicates it is a R-L network.
Foster-1 Consider impedance function Z(s) and its partial fraction is given as follows.
K3s K S KnS
Z(s) = K1 + K 2S + + 5 ......... +
S + K4 S + K6 S + K n +1
K 3s K 5S
= K 1 + K 2S + +
S+ 2 S+ 4
Where, (s + 1)(s + 3) 3
K1 = Z(s) s =0 = s =0 = ,
(s + 2)(s + 4) 8
Z(s) (s + 1)(s + 3) 1
K2 = s=¥ = ´ s=¥ =0
s (s + 2)(s + 4) s
Z(s)(s + 2) (s + 1)(s + 3) (s + 2) 1
K3 = s = -2 = ´ s = -2 =
s (s + 2)(s + 4) s 4
Z(s)(s + 4) (s + 1)(s + 3) (s + 4) 3
K5 = s = -4 = ´ s = -2 =
s (s + 2)(s + 4) s 8
Put the value of constant in above equation ,we get
1 3
S S
3 4 3 1 1
Z (S ) = + + 8 = + +
8 S +2 S +4 8 4 + 8 8 + 32
S 3 8S
The following fig10.20 shows the R-L circuit
1 3
W W
4 8
3
W
8
Þ Z (S) 1 3
H H
8 32
Fig.-10.20
Foster-II: Consider admittance function Y(s) and its partial function is given as follows
1 ( s + 2)( s + 4)
Y(s) = =
Z(s) ( s + 1)( s + 3)
K2 K3 K5 Kn
Y(s) = K1 + + + ......... +
S S + K4 S + K6 S + K n +1
K 2 K3 K
= K1 + + + 5
S S +1 S + 3
( s + 2)( s + 4) ( s + 2)( s + 4)
Where K1 = Y(s) s =¥ = s =¥ = 1 , K2 = .s s =0 = 0
( s + 1)( s + 3) ( s + 1)(s + 3)
Y(s) ( s + 2)( s + 4) 3
K3 = ( s + 1) s = -1 ´ (S + 1) s = -1 =
s ( s + 1)( s + 3) 2
Y(s) ( s + 2)( s + 4) 1
K5 = ( s + 3) s =-3 ´ (S + 3) s = -3 =
s ( s + 1)( s + 3) 2
310 Network Theory
3 1
1 1
Y(s) = 1 + 2 + 2 = 1 + +
S +1 S + 3 2 2 2s + 6
s+
3 3
2 2
Here, R 1 = 1Ω , L2 = H , R1 = Ω , R 3 = 6Ω
3 3
2
W 6W
3
Þ Y(S) 1W
2
H 2H
3
Fig-10. 21

10( s 2 + 4)(s 2 + 16)
Z ( s) =
s ( s 2 + 9)
Using Foster-I and Foster-II method.
Solution: Given driving point impedance function
10( s 2 + 4)(s 2 + 16)
Z ( s) =
s ( s 2 + 9)
Foster-I
K2 K 3S K 4S K S
Z(s) = K1S + + + + ........ + 2 n 2
S S2 + ω 21 S2 + ω 22 S +ωn
K2 KS
= K1S + + 23
S S +9
Z(s) 10( s 2 + 4)(s 2 + 16) 1
Where, K1 = = 10
S S= ¥
s( s 2 + 9) S S= ¥
10( s 2 + 4)( s 2 + 16) 640

K 2 = Z(s)S = ´S =
S= 0
s ( s 2 + 9) S= 0
9
10( s 2 + 4)( s 2 + 16) 1 2

K3 =
S
(
Z(s) 2
S +9 ) 2
S = -9
=
s ( s 2 + 9)
´ S +9
s
( ) S2 = -9
=
350
9
9
F
35
10H 9
F
Z(S)Þ 640
350
H
81
Fig-10. 22
9 350 9
In above circuit , L1 = 10H , C1 = F , L2 = H , C3 = F
640 81 35
Foster-II
Cosider admittance function and applying Foster-II formula, we get
1 s(s 2 + 9)
Y(S) = =
Z(s) 10(s2 + 4)(s2 + 16)
K2 KS KS K S
Y(s) = K1S + + 2 3 2 + 2 4 2 + ........ + 2 n 2
S S +ω 1 S +ω 2 S +ω n
K2 KS KS
= K1S + + 23 + 2 4
S S + 4 S + 16
Y(s) s(s 2 + 9) 1
Where K1 = = ´ =0
S S= ¥
10(s + 4)(s + 16) s
2 2 S=¥
s(s 2 + 9)
K 2 = Y(s)S ´S =0
S= 0
10(s2 + 4)(s2 + 16) S= 0
K 3 = Y(s) ´
(S 2
+ 4)
=
s(s 2 + 9)
´
(S2 + 4) =
1
S2 = -4 S2 = -4
S 10(s2 + 4)(s2 + 16) S 14
K 3 = Y(s) ´
(S 2
+ 16 )
2 =
s(s 2 + 9)
´
(S2 + 16) =
7
S2 = -16
S S = -16
10(s2 + 4)(s2 + 16) S 120
Hence,
1 7
S
Y ( S ) = 24 + 120
120
24H H
S 2 + 4 S 2 + 16 7
1 1 1 7
= + F F
96 120 1920 96 1920
24S + S+
S 7 7S
Finally circuit diagram shown in fig-11.23 Fig 10. 23
312 Network Theory
Example-10.12 The driving point impedance of one port network is given by

4(s 2 + 4)(s2 + 25)
Z(s) = .
s(s 2 + 16)
Obtained the 1st & 2nd Foster form of equivalent network.
Solution:
Foster-I:
Given driving point impedance function Z(s) and its partial fraction is given as follows
4(s 2 + 4)(s2 + 25) K KS
Z(s) = = K1S + 2 + 2 3
s(s + 16)
2
S S + 16
Where Z(s) 4(s 2 + 4)(s 2 + 25) 1

K1 = = ´ =1
S S= ¥
s(s 2 + 16) s S= ¥
4(s 2 + 4)(s 2 + 25)

K 2 = Z(s).S ´S = 25
S= 0
s(s 2 + 16) S= 0
K 3 = Z(s) ´
(S 2
+ 16 ) 2 = ´
(
4(s 2 + 4)(s 2 + 25) S2 + 16 ) = 27
S2 = -16
S S = -16
s(s 2 + 16) S
Hence, 25 27 S = S + 1 + 1
Z (S ) = S + + 2 1 1 16
S S + 16 S S+
25 27 27 S
Following fig. 10.24 shows series circuit of LC network.
1
F
27
1H 1
F
Z(S)Þ 25
27
H
16
Fig-10. 24
Foster-II
Consider admittance function and its partial fraction is given as follows
1 s(s 2 + 16)
Y(s) = =
Z(s) 4(s 2 + 4)(s 2 + 25)
K2 KS KS K S
Y(s) = K1S + + 2 3 2 + 2 4 2 + ........ + 2 n 2
S S +ω 1 S +ω2 S +ω n
K2 KS KS
= K1S + + 23 + 2 4
S S + 4 S + 25
s(s 2 + 16)
Where, K1 = Y(s) = ´
1
=0
S S= ¥
4(s + 4)(s + 25) s
2 2 S= ¥
s(s 2 + 16)
K 2 = Y(s).S = ´S =0
S= 0
4(s 2 + 4)(s2 + 25) S= 0
s(s 2 + 16)
K3 =
S
(
Y(s) 2
S +4 ) 2
S = -4
= 2 2
1
´ S2 + 4
4(s + 4)(s + 25) s
( ) S2 = -4
=
1
7
s(s 2 + 16)
K4 =
S
(
Y(s) 2
S + 25 ) 2
S = -25
= 2 2
1
´ S2 + 25
4(s + 4)(s + 25) s
( ) S2 = -25
=
3
7
Different values of constant put in above equation. We get,
1 1 3
s s
4
Y(s) = + 24 + 2 7 1 1 1
= + +
s s + 4 s + 25 4 s 28 7 175
7s + s+
s 3 3s
Here we found
7 1 3
L1 = 4H , L 2 = 7H , L 3 = H , C2 = , C3 = F
3 28 175
7
7H H
Þ Y(S) 4H 3
1 3
F F
28 175
Fig-10.25
Example-10.13
The driving point impedance function of LC network is given by
12S 4 + 10S 2 + 1
Z (S ) = .For this impedance function, Determine
4 S 3 + 2S
a) Cauer-I configuration
b) Determine the value of element of the network
Solution:
In Cauer-I form,Consider impedance function and its continous fraction expansion given
as follows:Given impedance function,
314 Network Theory
12S 4 + 10S 2 + 1
Z (S ) = ,
4S 3 + 2S
1
Hence, Z ( S ) = 3S +
1
S+
1
4S +
S
3H 4H
Þ Z(S) 1F 1F
Fig-10. 26
b) Here we found network elements are
L1 = 3H , C1 = 1F , L 2 = 4H , C1 = 1F
Example-10.14
The driving point impedance function of an LC network is given by
6S3 + 2S
Z(S) = In the given impedance function ,
12 S 4 + 8S 2 + 1
Find the equivalent Cauer-I network.
Solution:
In the given impedance function.nos of root in the denominator polynomial is greater than
1
numerator polynomial. Here Z(S) =
Y(S)
We have to calculate the residue of Y(s) by continous fraction method.
12 S 4 + 8S 2 + 1
But Y(S) =
6S3 + 2S
6S 3 + 2S 12S 4 + 10S 2 + 1 2s.....................Y1 (s)
12S 4 + 6S 2
1 3
Hence, Z(S) = 4S 2 + 1 4S 3 + 2S s........Z2 (s)
1 2
2S + 3
3 1 4S 3 + s
S+ 2
2 1
8S + 1
S S 4S 2 + 18S.....Y3 (s)
2
2
4S 2
1 1
1 S S....Z4 (s)
2F 8F 2 2
1 1
3 H S
H 2
2 2
0
Fig.-10. 27
Example-10.15 The impedance function of an LC network is given by
8s 3 + 3s
Z ( s) = 4 .For this ,Find Cauer-11 network.
2 s + 10 s 2 + 3
Solution: Now the admittance function
1 2 s 4 + 10s 2 + 3
Y (S ) = = .
Z ( s) 8s 3 + 3s
Now we have to write polynomial in ascending order,we get
Hence, 1
3s + 8s 3 3 + 10s 2 + 2s 4 ...................................Y ( S ) 1
s
3 + 8s 2
3
2s 2 + 2s 4 3s + 8s 3 ......................Z 2 ( S )
2s
3s + 6s 3
1
2s 3 2s 2 + 2s 4 ..........Y3 ( S )
s
1 1 2s 2
Y (S ) = +
S 3 1 1
+ 2s 4 2s3 ....Z 4 ( S )
2S 1 1 s
+
S 1 2s 3
S 0
316 Network Theory
1H 1H
Þ Y(S) 2
F 1F
3
Fig-10. 28
Finally ,Fig-10.28 indicates parallel LC circuit.
Example-10.16
The driving point impedance of a one port LC network is given by
4s ( s 2 + 9)
Z ( s) = .Obtained Foster-I & Foster-II form of equivalent network.
( s 2 + 1)( s 2 + 16)
4s ( s 2 + 9)
Z ( s) =
( s 2 + 1)( s 2 + 16)
For Zero value calculation Þ 4 s ( s 2 + 9) = 0 Þ S=0, S = ±3 j
For pole value calculation Þ ( s 2 + 1)( s 2 + 16) = 0 Þ S = ±1 j , S = ±4 j
Here zero value nearer to origin,its indicate above network function is LC network.
Foster-I
K 2 K 3S KS
Z ( s ) = K1S + + 2 + 2 4
S S + 1 S + 16
Z(s) 1 4 s( s 2 + 9)
Where, K1 = = ´ 2 =0,
S S=¥
S ( s + 1)(s 2 + 16) S= ¥
4 s( s 2 + 9)
K 2 = Z(s).S = S´ =0
S= 0
( s 2 + 1)( s 2 + 16) S= 0
Z(s) 4s( s 2 + 9) 32
K3 = ´ (S2 + 1) 2 = ´ (S2 + 1) S2 = -1
=
S S = -1
( s + 1)( s + 16)
2 2
15
Z(s) 4s( s 2 + 9) 28
K4 = ´ (S2 + 16) S2 = -16
= ´ (S2 + 16) S2 = -16
=
S ( s + 1)(s + 16)
2 2
15
32 28
S S
15 15 1 1
Z(s) = 2 + 2 = +
s + 1 S + 16 15 S + 15 15
S+
240
32 32S 28 28S
15 32 15 28
Here ,we get C1 = F, L1 = H , C2 = F L2 = H.
32 15 28 240
Following fig -10.29 shows the parallel LC circuit.
32 28
H H
Þ Z(S) 15 240
15 15
F F
32 29
Fig-10.29
10.11 SIGNIFICANCE PAMRAMETER IN FOSTER FORM OF L.C CIRCUIT

Foster-1
K2
1. The capacitor (C) represents the term that corresponds to apole at origin
S
2. The inductor( L ¥ )represents the term K1 that corresponds to a pole at infinite.
3. The parallel LC network represents the term (S 2 + w n2 ) in the denominator of Z(S).
where, w n represents a pole frequency..
K2
4. If ‘s’ term is absent in denominator of Z(s) ,there will be no term in partial
S
fraction expansion of Z(s). suppose term is not present and that can be replaced by
short circuit.
Foster-II
K2
1. The inductor L represent the term in the partial fraction of Y(s) coresponding to
S
a pole at infinite A capacitor C ¥ represent the term K1S corresponding a pole at
infinite.
2. (
The parallel LC network represents the term S 2 + w n2 ) in the denominator of
Y(S).where, w n represents a pole frequency..
From above explanation we conclude that, the 1st order Foster form realization is actual
the series impedance realization of the driving point admittance Y(S).
318 Network Theory
NUMERICAL PROBLEM
Q.1. Synthesize the following driving point impedance function
5(s 2 + 4)(s 2 + 36)
Z(s) =
(s 2 + 9)(s2 + 49) using Foster-I and Foster-II method.
Q.2. Synthesize the following impedance function
s 5 + 8s 3 + 6 s
Z(s) = using Foster-I and Foster-II method.
s 4 + 4s 2 + 3
Q.3. Synthesize the following network function
s (s + 2)( s + 6)
Z(s) =
(s + 1)(s + 5) using Foster-I and Foster-II method.
Q.4. Synthesize the following network function
s (s + 4)( s + 2)
Z(s) =
(s + 1)( s + 5) Using Cauer-1 and Cauer-II method.
Q.5. The driving point impedance of a reactive network is given by
s 4 + 4s 2 + 6
Z(s) = .Find the 2nd form of Cauer network.
2 s 3 + 6s
Q.6. An impedance function is given by
Z(s) =
(s + 5)( s + 7)
(s + 4)(s + 6) .Find Cauer form of network.
Q.7. An admittance function is given by
Y(s) =
(s + 5)( s + 7)
(s + 4)(s + 6) .Find the RL network using Foster form realsation.
Q.8. An impedance function is given by
16 + 7 s + s 3
Z(s) = .Realize the 2nd form of Cauer RC network.
4s + s 2
s 2 + 9s + 8
Q.9. So that Q( s ) = can be expressed as RC admittance
s+4
function.Synthesize the functiona) Cauer 1st form b)Foster-2nd form.
Q.10. An impedance function at the input of a network is represent by
s 2 + 8s + 6
Z(s) = expressed in both Foster-I and Foster-II forms.
s 2 + 3s
Q.11. A driving point impedance function is given by
s 2 + 8s + 6
Z(s) = 2 .So that the function can be realised in both the Cauer RC and
s + 5s + 4
RL forms.
(s + 5)(2s + 6)
Q.12. Is it possible to realise Z(s) = in the 2nd form of RC cauer
(s + 1)(s + 2)
networks ?
Q.13. Realise the following impedance function in both the Cauer forms of LC network
16 s 4 + 14 s 2 + 1
given,impedance function Z(s) = .
3s 3 + 3s
s(s 2 + 6)
Realise the function Z(s) =
2(s 2 + 1)(s 2 + 16)
Q.14. in both Cauer and Foster forms of
LC networks.
(s + 4)(s + 25)
2 2
A function is given by Z(s) =

Q.15.
(s + 1)(s + 9) .
2 2
Synthesis the LC network by using Cauer form.

Q.16. For what value of K, the following function is stable,
i) s 4 + 5s 3 + 2s + K = 0
ii) s 5 + 5s 4 + Ks 3 + 8s 2 + 10s + 5 = 0
Q.17. Definse Positive real function.Writes its properties.
Q.18. Define Hurwitz polynomial and also writes its testing procedure.
Q.19. Writes stability analysis procedure of Routh-Hurwitz method.
Q.20. Test the following polynomial whether it is Hurwitz or not.
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2019 First Edition

engineering handbook p.k. ghosh

CHAPTER . 4 . COUPLED CIRCUITS

CHAPTER . 5 . LAPLACE TRANSFORM & ITS APPLICATION

CHAPTER . 6 . TWO PORT NETWORK

CHAPTER . 7 . NETWORK FUNCTIONS & RESPONSES

CHAPTER . 8 . FOURIER ANALYSIS

CHAPTER . 10 . NETWORK SYNTHESIS

1.2.1 Relation between Resistance (R) & Temperature (T)

Then 18 = R 0 (1 + a 0 ´ 20 ) ... (A)

In this case I = I1 + I2 + I3 ................. + In

By applying KVL, V = v1 + v2 + ..... + vn = IR 1 + IR 2 + ...... + IR n

Applying KVL, V(t) = VL1 + VL2

Case - 2 : When two capacitors are connected in parallel.

Fig.1.15 : Fall in potential Fig.1.16 : Rise in potential

30V Clockwise 15V

30V Anticlockwise 15V

Voltage Source Current Source

Time Dependent Time Independent

Voltage Dependent Current Dependent

From the above fig. J5 = i2 - i1 (i2 > i1)

Fig.-1.29 Graph Fig.-1.30 Tree

aij = 0 if the j th branch is not incident to the i th node.

1.9 RMS & AVERAGE VALUE CALCULATION

Solution: Time period,T = 12 Sec.

Calculate the Rms value of the

Calculate the voltage drop and power across each resistor.

Calculate the power delivered by each voltage source.

Total charge q = q1 + q2 = 50 m C -------(A)

V(t) 4W 10mH 5sec 10sec

Solution : Given voltage wavew form having time period T = 10 Sc.

= 2 x 10-3 [5 x 10-3 - 0] = 10 Amp.

0.1 x 0.2 0.2 1

100 300 - 100 40

SHORT QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS

For the star connected system, resistances are

R12 R 31 R 23R12 R 23R 31

In figure. : Branches = 7 inos.

of resistor is +ve and upper terminal is -ve

Using cramer's rule, or variable separation method calculate I1 & I2.

Loop-1 Loop-2 Loop-3

(- 35 + j)I 2 123 + 67j I 2

[Q Z =a + jb ® Rectangular form Magnitude |Z| = a 2 + b 2 = M]

Loop-1 Loop-2 Loop-3

Calculation of Current i1(Fig.-2.14) R1

5V1 - 150j 5 150j

Step-2 Calculation of voltage across a & b i.e. Vab = Vth

Step-4 The connect the Thevenins equivalent

Step-5 Connect the resistance (RL) across

Step-2 Calculation of Vth = Vab

Vth 12.5 12.5 x 6 75 Fig.-2.32

Voc Vab Vth

÷ = Isc é4 - (2 + 6j) j ù = Isc é 4 - (2j - 6 ) ù

So, voltage across a & b is Voc = Vab = Vth = 6j x i ...(A)

Voc 11.39 Ð18.43

11.39 Ð 18.430 11.39 Ð 18.430

Step-5 Connect the Load resistance (RL) across terminal a & b.

20 - 2I1 - 7(I1 - ISC ) = 0 Þ 20 - 9I1 + 7ISC = 0

Step-4 Connect RN Parallel with Isc. a

Step-4 Connect Isc Parallel with RN

is voltage source which can be replaced I1 I3

Now current flowing through R1= I1 - I'1 (if I1 > I'1)

Now current flowing through 2W resistor

2W 6.75 amp 6W 10 amp