Civil Engineering Questions

1. Types of foundations-

Types of Foundation and their Uses

Following are different types of foundations used in construction:

1. Shallow foundation
o Individual footing or isolated footing
o Combined footing
o Strip foundation
o Raft or mat foundation
2. Deep Foundation
o Pile foundation
o Drilled Shafts or caissons

Types of Shallow Foundations

1. Individual Footing or Isolated Footing
Individual footing or an isolated footing is the most common type of foundation used for
building construction. This foundation is constructed for a single column and also called
a pad foundation.

The shape of individual footing is square or rectangle and is used when loads from the
structure is carried by the columns. Size is calculated based on the load on the column
and the safe bearing capacity of soil.

Rectangular isolated footing is selected when the foundation experiences moments due to
the eccentricity of loads or due to horizontal forces.

For example, consider a column with a vertical load of 200 kN and a safe bearing
capacity of 100 kN/m  then the area of the footing required will be 200/100 = 2m . So, for
2 2

a square footing, the length and width of the footing will be 1.414 m x 1.414 m.
2. Combined Footing
Combined footing is constructed when two or more columns are close enough and their
isolated footings overlap each other. It is a combination of isolated footings, but their
structural design differs.

The shape of this footing is a rectangle and is used when loads from the structure is
carried by the columns.

3. Spread footings or Strip footings and Wall footings

Spread footings are those whose base is wider than a typical load-bearing wall
foundations. The wider base of this footing type spreads the weight from the building
structure over more area and provides better stability.

Spread footings

Spread footings and wall footings are used for individual columns, walls and bridge piers
where the bearing soil layer is within 3m (10 feet) from the ground surface. Soil bearing
capacity must be sufficient to support the weight of the structure over the base area of the
structure.

These should not be used on soils where there is any possibility of a ground flow of water
above bearing layer of soil which may result in scour or liquefaction.

4. Raft or Mat Foundations

Raft or mat foundations are the types of foundation which are spread across the entire
area of the building to support heavy structural loads from columns and walls.
 Raft or Mat
Foundation

The use of mat foundation is for columns and walls foundations where the loads from the
structure on columns and walls are very high. This is used to prevent differential
settlement of individual footings, thus designed as a single mat (or combined footing) of
all the load-bearing elements of the structure.

It is suitable for expansive soils whose bearing capacity is less for the suitability of
spread footings and wall footings. Raft foundation is economical when one-half area of
the structure is covered with individual footings and wall footings are provided.

These foundations should not be used where the groundwater table is above the bearing
surface of the soil. The use of foundation in such conditions may lead to scour and
liquefaction.

Types of Deep Foundation

5. Pile Foundations
Pile foundation is a type of deep foundation which is used to transfer heavy loads from
the structure to a hard rock strata much deep below the ground level.

Pile Foundation

Pile foundations are used to transfer heavy loads of structures through columns to hard
soil strata which is much below ground level where shallow foundations such as spread
footings and mat footings cannot be used. This is also used to prevent uplift of the
structure due to lateral loads such as earthquake and wind forces.

Read More on Deep Foundations

Pile foundations are generally used for soils where soil conditions near the ground
surface is not suitable for heavy loads. The depth of hard rock strata may be 5m to 50m
(15 feet to 150 feet) deep from the ground surface.

Pile foundation resists the loads from the structure by skin friction and by end bearing.
The use of pile foundations also prevents differential settlement of foundations.

Read More on Pile Foundation

6. Drilled Shafts or Caisson Foundation
Drilled shafts, also called as caissons, is a type of deep foundation and has an action
similar to pile foundations discussed above, but are high capacity cast-in-situ
foundations. It resists loads from structure through shaft resistance, toe resistance and/or
combination of both of these. The construction of drilled shafts or caissons are done
using an auger.

Fig: Drilled Shafts or Caisson Foundation (Source:

Hayward Baker)

Drilled shafts can transfer column loads larger than pile foundations. It is used where the
depth of hard strata below ground level is located within 10m to 100m (25 feet to 300
feet).

Drilled shafts or caisson foundation is not suitable when deep deposits of soft clays and
loose, water-bearing granular soils exist. It is also not suitable for soils where caving
formations are difficult to stabilize, soils made up of boulders, artesian aquifer exists.

2. How to decide which foundation to use

Soil bearing capacity
Type of soil

3. Properties of soil
 4. Bearing capacities and its test
 bearing capacity is the capacity of soil to support the loads applied to the ground.
The bearing capacity of soil is the maximum average contact pressure between the
foundation and the soil which should not produce shear failure in the soil.
250,450 KN/mm2

5. What is RMC: Ready-mix concrete, or RMC as it is also known, refers to concrete that is
specifically manufactured for customers' construction projects, and supplied to the
customer on site as a single product. It is a mixture of Portland or other cements, water
and aggregates: sand, gravel, or crushed stone.

Factor Being
Ready-Mix Concrete Site-Mixed Concrete
Considered

Slower process due to

Delivered ready to use and less time-
Time multiple steps, formulas and
consuming.
the setting time.

Requires a weigh batch

Does not require equipment at the
Equipment mixer to make concrete on-
construction site.
site.

Must be mixed at the exact

Can be delivered to multiple sites within a
Distribution point of use, to avoid
project.
contamination

Recommended
High-rise structures Low-rise structures
Application

Requires a controlled storage

Storage Does not require additional storage space for space, to manage and protect
Requirements raw materials materials like cement and
aggregates

There is some material loss

Waste Material waste at the site is minimal
during storage and mixing

Continuous supervision is for

Consistent quality, thanks to an automated consistency among batches.
Quality
and controlled environment. Setting time may vary due to
inconsistency.
 Requires more man-hours to
Skilled labor is required only to pour and
Work force prepare concrete at the
compact the concrete.
project site.

Materials must be estimated

individually, and their
Material takeoff Concrete can be calculated as a single item. purchase must be planned
separately.

Requires a suitable access for the concrete Requires space for material
Space
mixer truck. storage and batch mixers.

Mixing large amounts of

Batch Size Large amounts of concrete can be delivered.
concrete on-site is difficult.

If the batching plant is located very far from

Requires the transportation
the construction site, the concrete will require
of all materials and mixing
Site location retardants and other admixtures to prevent
equipment to the
setting. Transportation costs will increase,
construction site.
there may be quality concerns.

6. Concrete foundations and columns density: 2400 kg/m3

7. Cement density: 1600 kg/m3
8. Built-up area and carpet area: Carpet area = Area of bedroom + living room + balconies +
toilets – the thickness of the inner walls
The built-up area in your flat or apartment, is the carpet area plus the area that is
covered by the inner walls and the balcony. In housing apartments in India, nearly 30%
of a housing unit’s entire area is used in creating the inner walls and the balconies. This
means that if the developers tells you that the built-up area of the units is 1,000 sq ft, you
could assume that the net usable area or carpet area of the apartment will not exceed
700 sq ft.
9. Stress-strain graphs

10. CPM: The critical path method (CPM), also known as critical path analysis
(CPA), is a scheduling procedure that uses a network diagram to depict a
project and the sequences of tasks required to complete it, which are known as
paths. Once the paths are defined, the duration of each path is calculated by an
algorithm to identify the critical path, which determines the total duration of the
project.
11. PERT: Technique to assist in project planning when historical cost and time data are not
available or reliable. Usually associated with R&D and new product development projects where
the uncertainty is great
12. Moment in a beam: bending of the beam along the length of beam
a bending moment is the reaction induced in a structural element when an external force or
moment is applied to the element, causing the element to bend. The most common or
simplest structural element subjected to bending moments is the beam
13. Cantilever: beam connected from one side and hanging from other.

14. Slack/float: time a project can be delayed without delaying the total projects or delaying
subsequent activities
15. Test of concrete: Slump test for workability
16. Characteristic strength: The characteristic strength is defined as the strength of
the concrete below which not more than 5% of the test results are expected to fall.
17. Cantilever beam and its cross section:

18. Gaps on roads:

19. Use of ballast on tracks: Track ballast forms the trackbed upon which railroad ties (sleepers)
are laid. It is packed between, below, and around the ties.[1] It is used to bear the load from
the railroad ties, to facilitate drainage of water, and also to keep down vegetation that might
interfere with the track structure.[1] Ballast also holds the track in place as the trains roll over
it. A variety of materials have been used as track ballast, including crushed stone,
washed gravel, bank run (unwashed) gravel, torpedo gravel (a mixture of coarse sand and
small gravel), slag, chats, coal cinders, sand,[2] and burnt clay.[3] The term "ballast" comes
from a nautical term for the stones used to stabilize a ship.[1]
20. Consolidation:

21. PCC:Plain cement concrete

22. Pozzolans: As the definition implies, a pozzolan combines with calcium hydroxide in the
concrete to form calcium silicate hydrate, similar to that produced by hydration of portland
cement. This adds to the strength, impermeability, and sulfate resistance, and reduces
 expansion from the alkali-silica reaction that might otherwise take place. Use of pozzolans
may increase or decrease water demand depending on the particle shape, surface texture,
and fineness. Fly ash usually decreases water demand. Most of the other pozzolans increase
the water demand. Pozzolans reduce bleeding because of fineness; reduce the maximum rise
in temperature when used in large amounts (more than 15% by mass of cementitious
material) because of the slower rate of chemical reactions; which reduce the rise in
temperature.
23. Types of trusses- roof and bridge truss
24. Different types of bridges: Done
25. Safe against overturning, sliding, tensions, crushing:
26. How Earthquake proofs building are designed:
27. Pipe losses:
28. Navier stokes equation:
29. N-number:
30. Liquid limit:
31. Creep and shrinkage:
32. Shrinkage and plastic limit:
33. N value-Geotech:
34. SCT test:
35. Penetration test of soil:
36. Soundness of cement- Soundness of cement can be defined as its ability to retain its
volume after it gets hardened. This means that a properly sound cement will undergo
minimum volume change after it converts into the hardened state. In the soundness test
of cement, we determine the amount of excess lime.
37. Admixtures in concrete:
Water-reducing admixtures usually reduce the required water content for a concrete
mixture by about 5 to 10 percent. Consequently, concrete containing a water-reducing
admixture needs less water to reach a required slump than untreated concrete. The
treated concrete can have a lower water-cement ratio. This usually indicates that a
higher strength concrete can be produced without increasing the amount of cement.
Recent advancements in admixture technology have led to the development of mid-
range water reducers. These admixtures reduce water content by at least 8 percent and
tend to be more stable over a wider range of temperatures. Mid-range water reducers
provide more consistent setting times than standard water reducers.

Retarding admixtures, which slow the setting rate of concrete, are used to counteract the
accelerating effect of hot weather on concrete setting. High temperatures often cause an
increased rate of hardening which makes placing and finishing difficult. Retarders keep
concrete workable during placement and delay the initial set of concrete. Most retarders
also function as water reducers and may entrain some air in concrete. 

Accelerating admixtures increase the rate of early strength development, reduce the

time required for proper curing and protection, and speed up the start of finishing
operations. Accelerating admixtures are especially useful for modifying the properties of
concrete in cold weather. 

Superplasticizers, also known as plasticizers or high-range water reducers (HRWR),

 reduce water content by 12 to 30 percent and can be added to concrete with a low-to-
normal slump and water-cement ratio to make high-slump flowing concrete. Flowing
concrete is a highly fluid but workable concrete that can be placed with little or no
vibration or compaction. The effect of superplasticizers lasts only 30 to 60 minutes,
depending on the brand and dosage rate, and is followed by a rapid loss in workability.
As a result of the slump loss, superplasticizers are usually added to concrete at the
jobsite. 

Corrosion-inhibiting admixtures fall into the specialty admixture category and are used to
slow corrosion of reinforcing steel in concrete. Corrosion inhibitors can be used as a
defensive strategy for concrete structures, such as marine facilities, highway bridges,
and parking garages, that will be exposed to high concentrations of chloride. Other
specialty admixtures include shrinkage-reducing admixtures and alkali-silica reactivity
inhibitors. The shrinkage reducers are used to control drying shrinkage and minimize
cracking, while ASR inhibitors control durability problems associated with alkali-silica
reactivity.
38. Development length: A development length can be defined as the amount of
reinforcement(bar) length needed to be embedded or projected into the column to
establish the desired bond strength between the concrete and steel (or any other two
types of material).
39. Flanges and rectangle beam
The web resists shear forces, while the flanges resist most of the bending moment
experienced by the beam. The Euler–Bernoulli beam equation shows that the I-shaped
section is a very efficient form for carrying both bending and shear loads in the plane of
the web.

40. Types of joints

41. Coffer dam and other dam related questions
42. Safety against overturning and other factors of safety of dams:
43.
44. Shrinkage and creepage
45. Failures in road