th between junior basketball and volleyball players

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

A literature review is a body of text that aims to review the critical points of current knowledge

including substantive findings as well as theoretical and methodological contributions to a

particular topic. Its ultimate goal is to bring the reader up to date with current literature on a topic

and forms the basis for another goal, such as future research that may be needed in the area. It

gives an overview of what has been said, who the key writers are, what are the prevailing

theories and hypotheses, what questions are being asked, & what methods and methodologies are

appropriate and useful. As such, it is not in itself primary research, but rather it reports on other

findings.

The present reviews are based upon the available literature in respect to the study under

investigation and therefore confined to the studies to which the investigator has accessed. All the

relevant literature thus obtained by the researcher has been presented in this chapter to furnish

necessary background material to evaluate the significance of the study. The research scholar has

made every possible effort to go through the literatures related to the problem in the game of

volleyball wherever available. The scholar has gleaned through almost every source like research

quarterly, journals of various kinds, periodicals, encyclopedias, relevant books and e-resources to

pick up related material.

STUDIES ON ANTHROMETRIC AND MOTOR FITNESS VARIABLES:

Arvind & Behera (2013) determined the relationship of anthropometric characteristics and

kinematics variables with spiking of volleyball players. The subjects were twelve male junior

national volleyball players (average height 177.19 cm, weight 64.35 kg, age below19 years old).
All subjects had participated in 39th Junior National Championship for boys and girls held at

Shari Dungargarh, Bikaner Rajasthan (India) from 22-12-2012 to 28-12-2012.

volleyball players from Uttrrakhand representing their states in under-19 national tournament

were selected by purposive sampling method. In this study the spiking performance of the

subject recorded by subjective judgment criterion. The performance of spike was recorded by the

score in the spike which obtained by using three point scales by the three judges. The results

show that the value of co-efficient of correlation of selected anthropometrics characteristics with

off speed spike performance were standing height(0.612), sitting height (0.343) and body weight

(0.022), whereas tabulated value at 10 degree of freedom at .05 level of significance is 0.553.

The value of co-efficient of correlation of selected angular kinematics variables at moment of

ball contact in hitting phase spike were right ankle joint (-0.321), right Knee joint (0.564), right

hip joint(-0.117), shoulder joint (-0.070), elbow joint (-0.641) and body inclination (-0.335),

whereas tabulated value for 10 degree of freedom at .05 level of significance is 0.553. It is

suggested that results from this study can provide useful information for coaches to train

volleyball players in off speed spike .

Grgantov,ET.AL., (2013) determining the factor structure of explosive power, as well as the

influence of each factor on situational efficiency, 56 young female volleyball players were tested

using 14 tests for assessing nonspecific and specific explosive power. By factor analysis, 4

significant factors were isolated which explained the total of over 80% of the common variability

in young female volleyball players. The first factor was defined as volleyball-specific jumping,

the second factor as nonspecific jumping and sprinting, the third factor as throwing explosive

power, while the fourth factor was interpreted as volleyball-specific throwing and spiking speed

from the ground. Results obtained by regression analysis in the latent space of explosive power
indicate that the identified factors are good predictors of player quality in young female

volleyball players. The fourth factor defined as throwing and spiking speed from the ground had

the largest influence on player quality, followed by volleyball-specific jumping and nonspecific

jumping and sprinting, and to a much lesser extent, by throwing explosive power The results

obtained in this age group bring to the fore the ability of spiking and serving a ball of high speed,

which hinders the opponents from playing those balls in serve reception and field defence. This

ability, combined with a high standing vertical jump reach and spike approach vertical jump

reach (which is the basis of the 1st varimax factor) enables successful performance of all

volleyball elements by which points are won in complex 1 (spike) and complex 2 (serve and

block). Even though the 2nd factor (nonspecific jumping and sprinting) has a slightly smaller

impact on situational efficiency in young players, this ability provides preconditions i.e.

preparation for successful realisation of all volleyball elements, so greater attention must be paid

to perfecting it in young female volleyball players .

Schaal,ET.AL., (2013) examined physiologic performance test differences by competition level

(high school and Division-I collegiate athletes) and player position (hitter, setter, defensive

specialist) in 4 volleyball-related tests. A secondary purpose was to establish whether a 150-yd

shuttle could be used as a field test to assess anaerobic capacity. Female participants from 4

varsity high school volleyball teams (n = 27) and 2 Division-I collegiate volleyball teams were

recruited for the study. Participants completed 4 performance-based field tests (vertical jump,

agility T-test, and 150- and 300-yd shuttle runs) after completing a standardized dynamic warm-

up. A 2 way multivariate analysis of variance with Bonferroni post hoc adjustments (when

appropriate) and effect sizes were used for the analyses. The most important findings of this

study were that (a) college volleyball athletes were older, heavier, and taller than high school
athletes; (b) high school athletes had performance deficiencies in vertical jump/lower-body

power, agility, and anaerobic fitness; (c) lower-body power was the only statistically significant

difference in the performance test measures by player position; and (d) the correlation between

the 150- and 300-yd shuttle was moderate (r = 0.488). Female high school volleyball players

may enhance their ability to play collegiate volleyball by improving their vertical jump, lower-

body power, agility, and anaerobic fitness. Furthermore, all player positions should emphasize

lower-body power conditioning. These physical test scores provide baseline performance scores

that should help strength and conditioning coaches create programs that will address deficits in

female volleyball player performance, especially as they transition from high school to college .

Nemet,ET.AL., (2012) experimented forty state level volleyball players with trunk instability

were randomly divided into two groups, control ([C] m=10; f=10) and experimental ([E] m=10;

f=10). Modified double straight leg lowering test was used to check the degree of trunk

instability. Counter movement jump, squat jump, spike jump and block jumps were used to

measure jumping abilities and a wobble board test was used to test balance. Pre- and post

readings were noted before and after the nine-week training protocol and statistical data analysis

was done using SPSS 16. After nine weeks of core stabilization training, trunk stability

(P<0.001), block difference (BD) in block jump (P<0.01) were enhanced significantly comparing

to (C) group using independent T test. Effect size Cohen's d score demonstrated better

improvement of spike jump (d=0.25) and block jump (d=0.52) in (E) group. Other jumps and

static balance were improved but non-significant when compared between groups. Nine-week

strategic core strengthening exercise program increases trunk stability and in turn improves block

difference (vertical jump parameter) .

Laffaye & Choukou (2010) investigated in skilled volleyball players the effect of dropping

height on women's and men's performance and (b) the drop jump technique with regard to

gender. Nine male and 9 female skilled volleyball players were instructed to jump as high as they

could, using a drop jump, from a box of 30 cm or from 2 boxes (60 cm). Kinematic and kinetic

data were collected using 6 cameras and a force plate. The human body was summarized by

using a 4-segment model (foot, shank, thigh, head-arms-trunk). Males performed higher jumps

than females (46.6 +/- 7.5 cm vs. 36 +/- 5.4 cm; p < 0.05). This could be explained by higher

mean power (56.9 +/- 26 W/kg vs. 42.4 +/- 19 W/kg; p < 0.05) and shorter eccentric time (-

46.3%), both of which allowed a better stretch-shortening cycle. This study shows that women

and men have different jump techniques when they drop from a higher position but without

increasing the vertical performance. Women increase the values of force and stiffness

(respectively +21.4% and +17.9%) without changing the temporal structure of the jump. Men

reduce the eccentric time of the jump (41% vs. 31.8%) and keep the force parameters constant.

The study findings indicate that it is necessary to find an optimal height for plyometric training

for each athlete, allowing enhancement .

Shyamal,ET.AL., (2010) conducted a study of two-folds, firstly, to evaluate the anthropometric

profile of Indian inter-university volleyball players and, secondly, to search the correlation of

body mass index, % body fat, hand grip strength (right dominant) and Vo 2max. with other

anthropometric characteristics studied. Eleven anthropometric characteristics, four body

composition parameters, two physical and two physiological variables and nine arm

anthropometric characteristics were measured on randomly selected 63 inter-university Indian

volleyball players (38 males and 25 females) aged 18-25 years from Guru Nanak Dev

University, Amritsar, Punjab, India with adequate controls (n = 102, 52 males and 50 females).
The results indicated that male volleyball players were taller (6.63%) and heavier (7.31%) and

female volleyball players were slightly taller (0.31%) and lighter (3.74%) than their control

counterparts. One way analysis of variance showed significant (p≤0.004-0.000) between group

differences in all the variables (except hip circumference) between volleyball players and

controls. In volley players, significantly positive correlations were found with BMI and other 19

variables, with percent body fat and 6 variables, with right hand grip strength and 20 variables

and with Vo2max and other 19 variables, and significantly negative correlations were found with

percent body fat and other 16 variables, with right hand grip strength and other 7 variables and

with Vo2max with other 8 variables. The findings of the present study might be useful in future

investigation on player selection, talent identification in volleyball and training program

development .

Gabbett,ET.AL., (2006) conducted a study to find out the effect of a skill-based training program

on measurements of skill and physical fitness in talent-identified volleyball players. Twenty-six

talented junior volleyball players (mean +/- SE age, 15.5 +/- 0.2 years) participated in an 8-week

skill-based training program that included 3 skill-based court sessions per week. Skills sessions

were designed to develop passing, setting, serving, spiking, and blocking technique and accuracy

as well as game tactics and positioning skills. Coaches used a combination of technical and

instructional coaching, coupled with skill-based games to facilitate learning. Subjects performed

measurements of skill (passing, setting, serving, and spiking technique and accuracy), standard

anthropometry (height, standing-reach height, body mass and sum of 7 skinfolds), lower-body

muscular power (vertical jump, spike jump), upper-body muscular power (overhead medicine-

ball throw), speed (5- and 10-m sprint), agility (T-test), and maximal aerobic power (multistage

fitness test) before and after training. Training induced significant (p < 0.05) improvements in
spiking, setting, and passing accuracy and spiking and passing technique. Compared with

pretraining, there were significant (p < 0.05) improvements in 5- and 10-m speed and agility.

There were no significant differences between pretraining and posttraining for body mass,

skinfold thickness, lower-body muscular power, upper-body muscular power, and maximal

aerobic power. These findings demonstrate that skill-based volleyball training improves spiking,

setting, and passing accuracy and spiking and passing technique, but has little effect on the

physiological and anthropometric characteristics of players .

Wang,ET.AL., (2000) anthropometry is a simple reliable method for quantifying body size and

proportions by measuring body length, width, circumference (C), and skin fold thickness (SF).

More than 19 sites for SF, 17 for C, 11 for width, and 9 for length have been included in

equations to predict body fat percent with a standard error of estimate (SEE) range of +/- 3% to

+/-11% of the mean of the criterion measurement. Recent studies indicate that not only total

body fat, but also regional fat and skeletal muscle, can be predicted from anthropometrics.

Database supports the thesis that sex, age, ethnicity, and site influence anthropometric

predictions; the prediction reliabilities are consistently higher for Whites than for other ethnic

groups, and also by axial than by peripheral sites (biceps and calf). The reliability of

anthropometrics depends on standardizing the caliper and site of measurement, and upon the

measuring skill of the anthropometrist. A reproducibility of +/- 2% for C and +/- 10% for SF

measurements usually is required to certify the anthropometrist.

Marey,ET.AL., (1991) conducted a study to determine if the factors which coaches feel indicated

superior player potential were the same as those factors which contribute to successful

competition outcome. Players from two colleges were evaluated for general and specific

performance variables prior to a regular season match between the teams. A player's ability
rating was the total of four coaches' ranking on a 1-to-10 scale. Multiple regression analysis to

predict player ability rating selected age, vertical jump, total body movement time, and agility (R

= 0.87). However, step-wise discriminant analysis to differentiate winning and losing team

members selected shoulder flexibility, agility, forearm bump and sit-and-reach flexibility. The

canonical correlation between the winning-losing dichotomy and these skills was 0.74 and

resulted in proper classification of 84.6% of the correct team members. It was concluded that the

skills coaches consider indicative of superior ability are not necessarily the factors which dictate

winning performance .

Spence,ET.AL., (1980) determined the accuracy of general and specific tests for identifying the

players on freshmen (FR), junior varsity (JV) and varsity (VR) teams and the precision of tests to

differentiate between starters and nonstarters at each level of play. Fifty high school volleyball

players were tested during the first week of practice for six general and four specific motor

performance tests. The specific tests included the overhead volley, forearm pass, wall spike and

self bump/set test. The general tests included height, weight, percent body fat, agility run,

vertical jump, and two flexibility maneuvers. VR players were significantly better in vertical

jump, agility and all specific ball-handling tests than FR and JV players. The combination of

forearm pass, overhead volley, vertical jump and weight correctly classified 68% of the players

to their team level. The combination of bump-set, height, weight, and shoulder flexibility

allowed correct classification of 78% of the starters and nonstarters. General and specific tests

can successfully select and classify high school volleyball players .

 BRIEF SUMMARY

Research is required for knowledge, for life and best survival of physical education, is no

exception and must keep itself updated as per to cater the needs of the modem times. If we look

it in the Indian context then we can trace out that the education has well established with broad

objectives.

Research is the essence in education which is required to keep the subjects updated. Physical

education is an academic subject and also we must keep it updated, so as to answer the trends

should be traced in the research. Research trends help the research scholar to identify the practice

going on in particular subject i e., what are the priority areas, what has been done, the trends

analysis reveals the exact picture of research in a subject or discipline. It also tries to answer the

questions, such as, what are the strength and weakness. Trends analysis further shows the

direction or the course taken by such subjects whether the goals/objectives are achieved or not,

and development in a given course of time span.

Further, trends analysis helps to predict the future of a subject, it hypothesis on the basis of

practice prevailing, and what course of action or direction of a subject can take in future. One

can predict the exact nature and design of research. Trends will help to sort out the limitation,

fill-up the gaps in the subject help to explore the neglected and ignored areas. Trends study

provides the ready reference for the future researcher; it provides the insight and helps to frame

the guidelines for the future research.

The formats or rules, varies from university to university and country to country help the

researcher to conduct research. The process and eligibility for the same are well defined and well

maintained. It is evaluated by number of experts before awarding the degree of doctoral research.
Doctoral research has international standard and is recognized at international level. (Dhanajoy

Shaw & Rakesh Tomar., 2000)

Research is a systematic investigation towards increasing knowledge. The quality of data

collected through research depends on, among other things, the precision and accuracy of the

measuring instruments, measurement techniques, and the appropriateness of tests. (Barrow 1989)

A TIMELINE ON SIGNIFICANT VOLLEYBALL EVENTS (Online Source)

 In 1900, a special ball was designed for the sport.

 In 1916, at the Philippines an offensive style of passing the ball in a high trajectory to be

struck by another player (the set and spike) were introduced.

 In 1917, the game was changed from 21 to 15 points.

 In 1920, three hits per side and back row attack rules were introduced.

 In 1922, the first YMCA national championship was held in Brooklyn, NY. 27 teams

from 11 states were represented.

 In 1928, it became clear that tournaments and rules were needed, the United States

Volleyball Association (USVBA, now USA Volleyball) was formed. The first U.S. Open

was staged, as the field was open to non-YMCA squads.

 In 1930, the first two-man beach game was played.

 In 1934, the approval and recognition has been given to the national volleyball referees.

 In 1947, the Federation International De Volley-Bali (FIVB) was founded.

 In 1948, the first two-man beach tournament was held.

 In 1949, the initial World Championship was held in Prague, Czechoslovakia.

 In 1964, Volleyball was introduced to the Olympic Games in Tokyo.

  In 1965, the California Beach Volleyball Association (CBVA) was formed.

 In 1974, the World Championship in Mexico was telecast in Japan.

 In 1975, the US National Women's team began a year-round training regime in Pasadena,

Texas (moved to Colorado Springs in 1979, Coto de Caza and Fountain Valley, CA in

1980, and San Diego, CA in 1985).

 In 1977, the US National Men's team began a year-round training regime in Dayton, Ohio

(moved to San Diego, CA in 1981).

 In 1983, the Association of Volleyball Professionals (AVP) was formed.

 In 1984, the US won their first medals at the Olympics in Los Angeles. The Men won the

Gold, and the Women the Silver.

 In 1986, the Women's Professional Volleyball Association (WPVA) was formed.

 In 1988, the US Men repeated the Gold in the Olympics in Korea.

 In 1990, the World League was created.

 In 1995, the sport of Volleyball was 100 years old!

 In 1996, 2-person beach volleyball will be an Olympic Sport.

VOLLEYBALL: EARLY DEVELOPMENT

After it was invented in December 1891, basketball quickly became popular at many YMCAs

across North America. But those were YMCAs with a membership of young men who enjoyed

running up and down a gym floor.

William G. Morgan was a physical director at the YMCA in Holyoke, Massachusetts, in 1895.

Most of his clients were middle-aged businessman who found basketball too strenuous. So
Morgan decided to create a sport that would offer them exercise without making them run. He

strung a badminton net across a gym floor, brought out the bladder of a soccer ball, and split the

men into two teams that volleyed the improvised ball back and forth across the net. Because it

was patterned after badminton, Morgan called the new sport "mintonette." In his original rules,

the court was 25 by 50 feet and the net was 6 feet, 6 inches high. In a bow to baseball, a match

was made up of nine innings, with three serves for each team per innings. There was no limit to

the number of players on a team.

In 1896, Morgan and some of his members travelled 10 miles to a YMCA directors' conference

in Springfield, the birthplace of basketball to demonstrate the new sport. Dr. A. T. Halsted

suggested that the name should be changed to "volleyball," and Morgan agreed.

The following year, the rules were published in the first Official Handbook of the Athletic

League of the Young Men's Christian Associations of North America. As a result, many physical

directors introduced volleyball at their YMCAs.

A new set of rules, as revised by A. E. Day, was published in 1900. Match was set at 21 points,

the use of innings was discarded, and the net was raised to 7 feet, 6 inches. Volleyball soon

spread to other countries, mainly because of the YMCA, although it was brought to Cuba in 1906

by an Army officer. Hyozo Omori, a graduate of the YMCA's International Training Institute in

Springfield, introduced the sport to Tokyo in 1908; Max Exner and Howard Crokner brought it

to China in 1910, and Elwood Brown introduced it to the Philippines at the YMCA in Manila,

also in 1910.

The rules were revised again in 1912. The number of players was set at six per team, the size of

the court was increased to 35 by 60 feet, and rotation of players before service was established.
For the first time, the ball was standardized, with a circumference of 26 inches and a weight

between 7 and 9 ounces.

Volleyball was added to the recreation program of the U. S. armed forces in 1914 and the

American soldiers introduced the sport to France and Italy during World War I. The sport also

became popular at many colleges. In 1916, the YMCA and the National Collegiate Athletic

Association collaborated on a new set of rules.

A match was defined as the best two-out-of-three games, and the number of points required to

win a game was lowered from 21 to 15. The net was raised to 8 feet and the weight of the ball

was increased to from 8 to 10 ounces. Also, the rule that a player couldn't have two consecutive

contacts with the ball was added.

A team was allowed an unlimited number of touches before sending the ball over the net before

1920, when another revision rules set the limit at three. Court size was reduced to 30 by 60 feet.

The basic nature of volleyball was changing, along with the rules. By design, it had originally

been a slow game for older men. Many young men (and some young women) were being

introduced to volleyball through colleges, as well the armed services and YMCAs, and they were

making it a faster-paced sport requiring a full range of athletic skills.

Spiking and blocking became essential elements of volleyball during the early 1920s, requiring

some rules changes. In 1922, spiking was formally defined and limited to front-line players only.

Beginning in 1937, multiple ball contacts were allowed to defend against violent spikes, and in

1938 blocking was defined in the rules as "a counteraction at the net by one or two adjacent

players."
The scoring system also changed a couple of times. In 1922, a team was required to take two

consecutive points to win a game if the score was tied at 14, and that was changed to require only

a 2-point advantage for victory.

VOLLEYBALL - COMPETITIVE SPORTS

Volleyball game is of three types namely Smash volley, shooting volley and Beach volley.

Indoor volleyball is a fast game played on a large court involving strong, quick, acrobatic

athletes. It looks pretty straightforward - serve, pass, set, attack, block and dig.

Volleyball is one of most successfiil, popular competitive and recreational sports in the world. It

is fast, it is exciting and the action is explosive. The game is preferred as it covers a small area

which is possible on the plains and hills both. Volleyball game is very thrilling to watch. It is the

game of power and tactics.

FIVE (2009): Volleyball is however unique amongst net games in insisting that the ball is in

constant flight - "a flying ball". The introduction of libero - a specialist defensive player had

moved the game forward in rally length the multi - phase play. Modifications to the service rule

have changed the act at service putting the ball in play to an offensive weapon. The concept of

rotation is entrenched to allow for all - round athletes.

Volleyball has adapted jumping power in service and attack, explosive action in defense and

rotation. The game volleyball exhibits the best of ability, spirit, and creativity to modem

audience. With few exceptions volleyball allows all players to operate at the net (attack) and in

the back of the court (defend (or) serve).

Sporting success is governed by three general factors skilled techniques, Physiological fitness

and Psychological skills. While each of the three general factors is important in any sport, there

are differences in the degree to which optimal performance relies on any one of them.

Volleyball is an anaerobic sport. Volleyball is possibly the most depending of all sports.

Volleyball is an explosive sport that incorporates all different types of movements in multiple

planes of direction. In order to prepare the players for these types of movements, one must train

that way. High performance in volleyball cannot be achieved without attaining high standards of

conditional and co-ordinational qualities.

Broader the base in conditional, co-ordinational and psychological qualities higher is the

possibility to implement various tactics. The team should have the capability to change their

tactics according to opponents.

The basic qualities to play the game of volleyball are

1. Speed,

2. Strength

3. Agility

4. Anaerobic Power

5. Aerobic Capacity

6. Flexibility

7. Explosive Power
The qualities like speed, strength, explosive power, agility, flexibility, anaerobic power and

aerobic capacity all work together for the performance. The game of volleyball demands very

good strength and excellent level of intelligence. There are fast actions, surprise, accuracy in

performance of techniques and tactics. A team can only reach top level if planned and scientific

training is given to the player. To elicit best resuh and to become best volleyball player sport

specific training techniques were followed.

FUNDAMENTAL SKILLS AND THEIR IMPORTANCE

The game of volleyball is very complicated in terms of skills and team work, to win a rally

depends upon the fundamental skills like overhead pass, underhand pass, service, setting,

spiking, blocking and defence etcetera. The unpredictability of the action sequence fosters

imagination of a kind that can be transformed instantly into physical movements effectively. One

needs to concentrated an developing good control of body movements. Then to really enjoy the

game one needs to develop proficiency in skills. When one has mastered the fundamental skills

of the game, he gains a feeling of well being. Thus high level of performance in volleyball is

dependent upon his mastery over the fundamental skills.

Just as individual notes make up a symphony, the individual skills of volleyball make up the

game and just as one false note a piece of music mars the whole composition one action

inefficiently carried out in volleyball can ruin the whole match. For this reason and especially in

their early development players must develop all the skills to play the game of volleyball

successfully.
Body movement is the important ingredient that ties all the game skills together. Successful play

results from the a strong basis of skills combined.

MAIN SKILL TO BE FOCUSED IN THIS STUDY:

To acquire the ideal hand grip (position, shape and muscular relaxation tonus) to be able to

perform cut shots and advanced spiking techniques like the experts do.

WHY/PURPOSE:

The specificity of the hand position determines the quality and the accuracy of a manipulative

skills. In volleyball the fine motor skills displayed by expert players are directly associated with

the anatomical and neuro functional disposition of wrist, hands, and fingers before and during the

ball contact.

VOLLEYBALL SKILL'S AND FITNESS

Volleyball is highly competitive requiring a high degree of fitness, coordination and agility. It is

highly competitive requiring a high degree of fitness, coordination and agility. It provides a wide

opportunity for the development of strength, speed, endurance, agility, neuromuscular skills and

coordination of all parts of the body by various actions involved in it, such as running, jumping,

bending, stretching and other movements which call for balance and poise. It requires a

conditioning regimen which develops flexibility, muscular strength, power and agility, all of

which must be integrated to achieve the optimum skill performance from each player (Smith,

Timothy, 1982).

Preparing to be an excellent volleyball player, it is important to look after health and skill aspects

of the game. The health related aspects include cardiovascular endurance, flexibility, strength
and muscular endurance; whereas, the skill related aspects involve agility, reaction time, balance,

coordination and speed. The quality of explosive power may be considered to be both health and

skill related.

The modem game of volleyball puts a great deal of emphasis on the development of

'fundamental skills, because of the fact that in this game a player is required to play in all the

positions during a match due to obligation of the rule concerned with rotation. At one time a

player positions himself as a spiker, at another a blocker, an attack-builder, as server or a deep

defender and so on. Therefore, a variety of techniques has been involved which has its different

physical requirements. Consequently, a player is expected to work on a wide ranging programme

designed to improve his strength, speed, power, agility, flexibility, etc., as the underlying factors

of improved techniques (Siridhar, 1984).

Like other games, volleyball is a team game having different skills involved in it. The players,

with specific responsibilities, have to maneuvers a definite planned and strategic offensive and

defensive pattern. Each offensive play depends upon a good pass from the service or spike, a

good set, a timely executed spike.

It is a common knowledge that skills in volleyball are relatively more important than the level of

fitness. However, the fact is that the skill deteriorates due to fatigue which is an index of fitness.

A high level of fitness delays the onset of fatigue and thus enables the player to maintain his

level of skill for a longer period so as to show excellence. To withstand the stresses and strains of

play in the court for a longer duration of time, one requires lengthy spells of practice.

During the last two decades, significant changes have taken place in the character of volleyball.

It has developed into a highly competitive sport requiring a high level of fitness (Ongley Bill,
Hopley Jenny, 1981). It requires certain basic motor skills as well as components of physical and

mental fitness which affect the performance of the sportsmen at all levels of competition. Over

the years, the skill pattern in volleyball has developed into a complex one. All games and sports

stand on the plinth of motor activities like running, jumping, skipping etc. Volleyball is no

exception. The fiindamental skills of volleyball such as serving receiving the serve, passing,

boosting, spiking, blocking, etc, in fact, a complex combination of various simple motor skills

and psychomotor abilities, which are developed in a youngster over a period of time. A game

skill is fiinctional and is designed and produced to achieve a common objective and success,

especially, in a sport setting. That is, perhaps, why now-a-days much greater emphasis is placed

on the practice of and mastery over the basic skills of a game right at the very beginning. Simple

skills are not only easy to learn but/are also easy to evaluate more objectively. Complex skills, on

the other hand, are learned only after simple skills are perfected and that is the reason why they

are difficult to evaluate more objectively.

Sports skill tests are designed to measure the basic skills used in playing of specific sports.

Because of wide range of skills in most sports, a selection of most important skills becomes

invariably necessary. The selection is usually based on expert judgment or statistical analysis and

skill items are called modified test. The skill tests help the students to evaluate their performance

in the game and to provide an impetus to improvement. The test also serves the purpose of

helping a teacher to measure student's performance and to evaluate his own teaching procedure

and programme.

In measurements and evaluation literature, a number of methods of skill evaluation have been

mentioned. Some methods are objective while others are subjective. Some are valid and reliable

while others are not. The obvious reason is that simple skills are easy to evaluate, while
complicated ones difficult to assess. The qualitative aspect of a skill performance is not easy to

test objectivity.

Training and coaching in volleyball has assumed a scientific character. Inventions and

innovations in the methodology of training for volleyball have contributed much to the change in

the character of the game. So far as research work on this game is concerned, the number of

studies conducted is very low. In India, the picture is more dismal, although some flashes of

good performance of Indian volleyballere, in fifties and sixties, have been reported in literature

(Singh, 1973; Singh, 1974; Uppal, 1974; Joseph, 1983; John, 1984).

TECHNIQUES IN VOLLEYBALL

Technique is an art to execute certain movements to attain the best results keeping in view rules

of the game. In volleyball the techniques used are service, passing (overhead pass and Under arm

pass), setting, attack, block, digging, diving and rolling. The techniques in volleyball are more

difficult to learn because of the following reasons.

 There is little time to touch the ball as a result more perfection in movement to reach to

the ball is required to attain accuracy.

 There are different types of actions, and movement to touch the balls e.g. for overhead

pass the place of fingers touching the ball, is limited although quite difficult movements

are required to be made.

 High degree of perfection is required for all the techniques performed.

 There are different speeds trajectories of the ball for which lot of quick movements and

high demand of physical fitness are needed.

https://shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/117150/9/09_chapter%201.pdf

The Ideal Hand Grip to Spike a Volleyball

https://sportsedtv.com/blog/the-ideal-hand-grip-to-spike-a-volleyball

In modern volleyball many scholars are designing rubrics of evaluation to improve motivating

and increase participation in both men’s and women’s modalities. When developing an expert

volleyball player, a coach must plan to teach every little detail. For instance, how to tight the

shoes, how to each and how to think while playing a tough match. However, it was when I did

my dissertation on the Expertise Development in volleyball that I found the number of details in

which volleyball players dedicate to their craft (Da Matta, 2004). One of this critical information

represents what is the ideal hand grip (shape, position, muscular tonus, and degree of relaxation)

necessary to a volleyball player to become an expert hitter.

The Hand Grip and Snapped Wrist - The finesse of a volleyball strike requires players to

acquire a hand position that maximizes the ball control, the direction and the intensity of power

applied on the ball. This is only possible is expert players learn the already snapped wrist with

the indicator placed on the center of the ball. The ideal Hand Grip and Already Snapped Wrist

(HGASW) consists in relaxing the hands to its natural scooped position, so it fits perfectly on the

shape of the ball. The striking for spike requires players to be relaxed and being able to finalize

their movements with the wrist snap. There are some coaches who teach their players to hit the

ball hard with their hands and arms very stiff. Every person is entitled to their own opinion.

Nevertheless, the expert coaches know that the volleyball spiking skill resembles the muscular

tonus of piano players and the muscular contractions happen only at the exact moment in which
the player is contacting the ball. The objective reality of these findings can be verified through a

frame-by-frame video analysis of expert players.

MAIN GOAL: To acquire the ideal hand grip (position, shape and muscular relaxation tonus) to

be able to perform cut shots and advanced spiking techniques like the experts do.

WHY/PURPOSE: The specificity of the hand position determines the quality and the accuracy

of a manipulative skills. In volleyball the fine motor skills displayed by expert players are

directly associated with the anatomical and neuro functional disposition of wrist, hands, and

fingers before and during the ball contact.

As a result of expert training and in order to acquire advanced techniques, elite players need to

match their anatomical controls with the best dispositions to perform advanced shots in

volleyball spike. In a very principled way most experts reported: 1. Their hands had the same

shape of the ball; 2. At the moment of contact their wrists were already in the position of being

flexed forward, never in dorsi-flexion; 3. Performing the spike was based on a very relaxed

approach from slow to fast; 4. Their bodies were also fully relaxed and they could “feel” their

pointing toes, hips extension, trunk and shoulder rotation, arm reaching out and fluid wrist snap

using the triangle shaped hands and already snapped wrist.

HOW:

With arms very relaxed, practice slapping the ball placing indicators at the midline of the ball.

Also, slapping the ball while holding it with the non-dominant hand, practice the forward wrist

snap over the ball, as if you would be generating a top spin motion.
From the top-down snap motion, slice the ball to the right and to the left, as if you would be

performing the cut shot in and the cut shot out.

Practice all tasks described previously from the ground and then after a self-toss to spike.

HOW TO APPLY THIS TECHNIQUE:

When spike the volleyball you should hear a noise that resembles a slap with a splash sound.

The best way to apply this technique is on the ground by doing the wall drills. The “triangle”

shaped hand is present in the setting form, passing form and attacking grip. The video below

presents a great illustration of how to apply this technique. In the “Wall Drills” video, I am

showing an important way to create a variation of practice, so the arm does not get “stiff” or

“stressed”. In the wall drill it is important to switch from spiking, to setting and to passing as a

way to maintain the relaxation of the arm for practicing the expert spiking grip.

Other important Motor Learning Information

Each person is different and perhaps, each player tends to develop their own grip to spike.

However, if a player wants to perform at the elite level the acquisition of this grip is the key to

success. The innervation of the hands demands millions of neurons from the frontal lob and the

cortex of the brain. In addition, to the nerve endings and proprioceptors the motor control and

kinesthetic attributes of the hands create thousands of movement possibilities. Such variability

requires from coaches the understanding that each person is different and the way each person

chooses to set or to spike a volleyball depend directly on that person’s kinesthetic memory,

history, and identity. And yet, the volleyball literature does not address how should the hand

position be if we want to learn the ideal position, shape, and muscular tonus necessary generate
to highly efficient volleyball strikes. From an elite volleyball perspective, the indicators give

direction for throwing implement actions. Therefore, volleyball experts reported that when they

are spiking, they place their indicators on the center of the ball. The middle finger, ring finger

and pinky spread sideways covering the side 1/3 of the contact area and the thumb (widespread

to the other side) covers another side third of the palm area that controls the ball in a spike swing.

Based on the voices of 36 experts, the pattern was related to design a hand position (grip) that

would be fit the shape of the ball (concavity). But most importantly, when asked about what your

hand position is when you contact the ball, the main principle was: “_ I keep my wrist in an

already snapped position!” My interviews lasted from 4 – 6 hours, but most players like Carol

Gataz, Walewska Oliveira and Virna Dias, but also Gilson, Murilo e Jacqueline, would get back

to me to say: “_ Your questions made me think! And I have asked my peers to closely observe

my hands so I could know myself better on this fine movement!” Then, they would show me

their hands and describe what I called the already scooped wrist like the picture below. Their

final comments related to how relaxed they were prior to and during the contact moment. They

were very relaxed, and their wrist action was reported as their critical element to be successful in

a volleyball spike.

Below are the Stroboscopic Analysis of the volleyball grip and the already snapped wrist

described in the study. In women's volleyball this has been a critical element for the development

of the precision, finesse and accuracy in the spike.

How do you hold your volleyball hands when you're passing or bumping in volleyball?

To pass a volleyball consistently to the target you have to be able

to hold your hands and wrists together so your forearms maintain a flat surface called a

"platform" that you'll use to pass the ball to the target.

Volleyball Hands: To pass a ball to the target hold your hands and wrists together so your

forearms maintain a flat surface called a "platform" that you'll use to pass the ball to the target.

Learn three volleyball passing hand grips to choose from, each which will help you pass the ball

to your setter consistently during your matches.

In your practices experiment by trying each one and choose the volleyball hands passing grip

that will help you consistently get the ball to Zone 3 the setter zone in serve receive.

Here is step-by-step instruction for all three hand grips you can choose when you pass a ball.

How do you make volleyball hands?

Passing Grip Option #1

 First you would put the back of your open right hand into the open palm of your left

hand.

 That way, your two opened palms are turned upwards towards the sky so your two open

hands form an X.

 Then you close your hands together in such a way that both thumbs remain on top of both

fists and in contact with each other, side by side.

 Now point both thumbs to the ground.

 You now have created your "platform" with your arms, wrists and forearms which you

use when you contact the ball.

  Conference USA Rice libero with straight arms, elbows and wrists that create a platform

with her volleyball handa which is what the ball contacts when passing. (M.E. Johnston)

 Conference USA Rice libero with straight arms, elbows and wrists that create a platform

with her volleyball handa which is what the ball contacts when passing. (M.E. Johnston)

 Volleyball Hands Secrets To Keeping Your Platform Arms Straight For Better Passing

 Volleyball hands: Pointing your thumbs to the ground, creates a flat platform with your

arms, perfect for controlling the ball to your intended target when you make contact with

it.

 Volleyball hands: Pointing your thumbs to the ground, creates a flat platform with your

arms, perfect for controlling the ball to your intended target when you make contact with

it.

 Keep your thumbs together and pointed to the ground.

 By pointing your thumbs to the ground, the platform created with your arms, remains

nice and superflat, perfect for controlling the ball to your intended target when you make

contact with it.

Where do you hit a volleyball on your hands or arms to deflect, bump or pass it to the intended

target?

 When passing in volleyball contact the ball on your forearms not on your hands. To

control a hard serve the ball makes contact above your wrists and below the insides of

your elbows.
  When passing in volleyball contact the ball on your forearms not on your hands. To

control a hard serve the ball makes contact above your wrists and below the insides of

your elbows.

 When passing in volleyball you contact the ball on your forearms not on your hands. In

order to control a hard serve the ball makes contact above your wrists and below the

insides of your elbows. Be sure to make contact with the ball above your wrists and

below your inner elbows, not on your hands!

 Beginner middle school and adult players have a tendency to interlace their fingers and

contact the ball on their hands and fingers.

 If you're on a school team then you're expected to know that you'd don't hit the volleyball

on your hands but you make contact on the inside of your forearms which is now called

your "platform"

 Your "platform" is where the volleyball hits your arms and is deflected back into the air

towards your intended target.

How do you make volleyball hands?

Passing Grip Option #2

 First make a fist with your right hand, turning it sideways so you see your thumb on top

of your fist.

 Then place that fist of your right hand into the palm of your left hand until, once again

your two thumbs meet and are lined up side-by-side.

 Volleyball Hands: To pass a volleyball with your platform point both thumbs down

towards the ground, tightly holding your the wrists and thumbs of both hands together.
  Volleyball Hands:To pass a volleyball with your platform point both thumbs down

towards the ground, tightly holding your the wrists and thumbs of both hands together.

Then, just like in forearm pass grip option #1, you would point both thumbs down towards the

ground, tightly holding your the wrists and thumbs of both hands together.

This forces you to keep both of your elbows straight and will help you maintain a flat platform or

flat surface when you contact the ball.

 Once again, do not make contact with the ball on your hands....which is below your

wrists, you will never be able to consistently control the ball and get it to your intended

target that way.

 You do want to move your feet fast enough to get to where you think the ball is going to

land, before it gets there. This is called reading and anticipating the ball.

 Once you do that then you position your body to pass the ball on the part of your arms

that is below your inner elbow and above your wrists

How do you make volleyball hands?

Passing Grip Option #3

I don't recommend this grip for beginners

But for some college and pro volleyball players this type of volleyball hands grip works for

them.

This last option is to choose to not have a real hand grip at all.
But if you can manage to keep your wrists together, so they still form the required "table-top"

platform with your forearms, keeping them as close as possible when you bump the ball, you can

still be a precise passer using this style of grip.

 METHODS AND SUBJECTS

Participants:

The present cross-sectional study is based on 101 randomly selected Indian inter-

university female volleyball players aged 18–25 years (mean age 20.52 ± 1.40 years).

An adequate number of controls (n = 100, mean age 21.10 ± 1.70) with no particular

athletic background were also collected from the same place for comparisons. The age

of the subjects was recorded from the date of birth registered in their respective

institutions. The subjects were divided in such a way that age 18 refers to the individuals

aged 17 years and 6 months through 18 years and 5 months and 29 days.

Exclusion criteria were set upon the knowledge of some genetic, psychological,

neurological or chronic diseases affecting hand function and anthropometric

characteristics. A written consent was obtained from the subjects. The data were

collected under natural environmental conditions in the morning (between 8 AM. To 12

noon).

Anthropometric Measurements:

Three anthropometric variables, i.e. height (HT), weight (WT) and body mass index

(BMI), two hand anthropometric variables, i.e. right and left hand width and length, four

arm anthropometric variables, i.e. upper arm length, lower arm length, upper extremity

length, upper arm circumference and dominant right and non-dominant left hand grip
[43]
strength were measured following standard techniques and were measured in

triplicate with the median value used as the criterion.

The height was recorded during inspiration using a stadiometer (Holtain Ltd., Crymych,

Dyfed, UK) to the nearest 0.1 cm, and weight was measured by digital standing scales

(Model DS-410, Seiko, Tokyo, Japan) to the nearest 0.1 kg. BMI was then calculated

using the formula weight (kg)/height2 (m)2. Hand length and hand width of both sides

were measured by Vernier slide caliper (Starrett, 123 Series, U.S.A.). Upper arm length,

forearm length, upper extremity length was measured by the first segment of the

anthropometer rod and upper arm circumference was measured by steel tape and these

measurements were taken on the subject’s right side.

Handgrip strength measurement:

The grip strength of both right and left hands was measured using a standard adjustable digital

handgrip dynamometer (Takei Scientific Instruments Co., LTD, Japan) at standing position

with the shoulder adducted and neutrally rotated and elbow in full extension. The dynamometer

was held freely without support, not touching the subject’s trunk. The position of the hand

remained constant without downward direction. The subjects were asked to put maximum force

on the dynamometer thrice from both sides of the hands. The maximum value was recorded in

kilograms. Anthropometric equipment and handgrip dynamometer were calibrated before each

assessment. All subjects were tested after 3 minutes of independent warm-up. A thirty seconds

time interval was maintained between each handgrip strength testing.

Statistical analysis:

Standard descriptive statistics (mean ± standard deviation) were determined for directly

measured and derived variables. The data showed normal distribution encouraging us to use

parametric statistics. Independent t-test was used for comparisons between volleyball players
and controls for all the measured variables. Pearson's correlation coefficients were used to

establish the correlations of dominant and non-dominant handgrip strength with other variables

in volleyball players. Data were analyzed using SPSS (Statistical Package for Social Science)

version 17.0. A 5% level of probability was used to indicate statistical significance.

RESULTS

There were no differences between left-handers and right-handers on anthropometric

characteristics in the male and female groups.

Of the participants, 6.7% were left-handed while 93.3% were right-handed. In male and female

groups, 5.6% and 7.0% were left-handed and 94.4% and 93.0% were right-handed, respectively.

The frequency of left-handedness was 1.4% greater in males than females. Left-handed and

right-handed groups had similar physical characteristics including age, body weight, body height,

and BMI (Table 1).

Variable Groups n M SD t P
Females
Age, yr LH 15 19.47 1.61 -0.01 .99
RH 253 19.47 2.08
Total 268 19.47 2.06
Body LH 15 166.00 5.04 1.29 .20

height, cm
RH 253 164.31 4.91
Total 268 164.41 4.93
Body LH 15 53.27 7.34 -0.51 .61

weight, kg
RH 253 54.04 5.63
Total 268 53.99 5.73
Body Mass LH 15 19.27 1.93 -1.59 .11

Index
RH 253 20.00 2.72
 Total 268 19.96 1.98
Males
Age, yr LH 87 19.75 2.05 -0.97 .33
RH 1147 19.75 2.05
Total 1234 19.94 2.06
Body LH 87 175.48 6.77 -0.99 .32

height, cm
RH 1147 176.18 6.99
Total 1234 176.16 6.36
Body LH 87 64.91 7.85 0.60 .55

weight, kg
RH 1147 67.44 6.97
Total 1234 64.74 6.93
Body Mass LH 87 22.04 1.98 1.65 .10

Inderx
RH 1147 21.71 1.79
Total 1234 21.73 1.70

The ratio of left- to right-hand grip strength was lower in females (0.93) than males (0.97). In

right-hand grip strength, no significant difference was found between left- and right-handers in

males and females, whereas a significant difference was observed between right- and left-

handers in left-hand grip strength in males only, as shown in Table 2.

Variable Groups n M SD Diff %Diff t Cohen’s

d
Females
Right LH 15 29.11 5.46 0.78 2.72 0.76 0.18

HGS, kg
RH 253 28.92 4.31
Total 268 28.39 4.69
Left HGS, LH 15 26.92 3.25 1.50 5.37 1.48 0.38

kg
RH 253 26.93 3.49
Total 268 26.51 3.58
Mean LH 15 27.32 4.65 1.15 1.15 1.17 0.28

HGS, kg
RH 253 28.31 4.93
Total 268 29.32 4.10

Males
Right LH 87 42.03 6.32 0.78 1.86 -1.20 -0.14

HGS, kg
RH 1147 42.53 5.98
Total 1234 42.98 6.21
Left HGS, LH 87 42.10 5.93 1.68 3.87 1.97 0.28

kg
RH 1147 42.39 6.10
Total 1234 42.41 6.97
Mean LH 87 42.65 5.13 0.23 0.39 0.38 0.05

HGS, kg
RH 1147 42.36 5.55
Total 1234 42.33 5.58

No significant difference was observed between right- and left-hand grip strength in left-handed

males, but right-handed males and females showed significant differences between right- and

left-hand grip strength (Table 3). Right-hand grip strength was greater than left-hand grip

strength in both males and females, and right-hand grip strength was greater than left-hand grip

strength regardless of gender or handedness, as shown in Table 3.

RHGS (kg) LHGS (kg)

Group M SD M SD Diff % Diff T Cohen’s

d
Female 29.11 5.47 27.76 4.56 1.36 4.55 1.95* 0.24

LH
Female 28.32 3.92 26.93 3.78 2.03 7.11 15.53# 0.54

RH
Male 42.01 6.62 43.01 6.34 1.03 2.34 -1.64 -0.17

LH
Male 42.80 5.93 41.32 5.90 1.72 3.24 12.59* 0.23

RH
Female 28.36 4.03 26.39 3.85 1.93 6.92 12.70# 0.58
Male 42.86 6.11 41.52 6.01 1.23 2.93 11.47* 0.23
Total 40.29 8.10 38.90 8.13 1.34 3.43 14.93 0.18

Hand dominance was weakly correlated with right HGS (r=−.13, p<.05), left HGS (r = -.14,

p<.05) strength (r = -.14, p < .05) and mean hand grip strength (r = -.14, p < .05) in males, while

only left-hand grip strength was significantly (but extremely weakly) correlated with handedness

(r = -.06, p<.05) in females.

Descriptive statistics of anthropometric characteristics and handgrip strength of Indian inter-

university female volleyball players are shown in Table 1. Indian female volleyball players have

higher mean values in almost all the variables studied, except right upper extremity length and

right upper arm circumference than their control counterparts, showing statistically highly

significant differences (P<0.001) in all the variables except BMI, right hand width, right upper

arm extremity and right upper arm circumference.

Table 1: Descriptive statistics of hand grip strength and some selected anthropometric characteristics in

Indian inter-university female volleyball players

Variables Volleyball Controls P-value

players (n= 101 ) (n=100)

Mean (SD) Mean (SD)

Height (cm) 164.78 (4.00) 159.41 (4.82) 0.03
Body weight (kg) 58.16 (5.54) 53.00 (7.69) <0.001
Body mass index

(kg/m2) 21.39 (1.58) 20.90 (3.17) 0.2

Right hand width

(cm) 7.25 (0.37) 7.20 (0.34) 0.3

Left hand width (cm) 7.19 (0.34) 7.09 (0.33) 0.04
Right hand length

(cm) 18.13 (0.80) 17.03 (0.68) <0.001

Left hand length (cm) 18.08 (0.80) 17.03 (0.67) <0.001
Right upper arm

length (cm) 33.38 (1.88) 31.24 (1.68) <0.001

Right forearm length

(cm) 26.89 (1.53) 25.73 (1.49) <0.001

Right upper extremity

length (cm) 77.32 (3.54) 79.97 (7.27) 0.7

Right upper arm

circumference (cm) 25.20 (1.76) 25.43 (2.72) 0.5

Dominant right hand

grip strength (kg) 27.04 (2.64) 22.69 (3.82) <0.001

Non-dominant left

hand grip strength

(kg) 24.10 (2.66) 20.93 (3.86) <0.001

Bivariate correlations of the anthropometric characteristics and handgrip strength were examined

in Indian inter-university volleyball players in Table 2. Dominant hand grip strength had

significantly positive correlations (P≤0.01) with all the variables. Height and weight too, had

significantly positive correlations (P≤0.01) with all the variables. For the rest of the

anthropometric variables, it was observed that almost all the hand and arm anthropometric

variables were correlated significantly (P≤0.05-0.01) with positive correlations to each other.
 Table 2: Inter-correlation matrix of hand grip strength and some selected

anthropometric variables among Indian inter- university female volleyball

players

Variable RH LH RH LH RU RFA RUE RUA DHG NDL

s WT BMI W W L L AL L L C S HGS
0.6 0.69 0.60 0.5 0.5 0.78 0.66 0.77

HT 6* 0.20‡ * * 7* 6* * * * 0.29* 0.49* 0.38*

0.87 0.44 0.45 0.6 0.5 0.51 0.52 0.67

WT 1 * * * 3* 8* * * * 0.56* 0.57* 0.35*

0.4 0.3 0.25 0.37

BMI 1 0.12 0.19 4* 9* 0.15 * * 0.54* 0.43* 0.21‡

0.83 0.4 0.4 0.60 0.60 0.56

RHW 1 * 1* 2* * * * 0.17 0.28* 0.26*

0.4 0.5 0.55 0.59 0.53

LHW 1 6* 3* * * * 0.25‡ 0.36* 0.29*

0.9 0.43 0.52 0.67

RHL 1 8* * * * 0.20‡ 0.48* 0.35*

0.44 0.54 0.66

LHL 1 * * * 0.16 0.48* 0.35*

0.63 0.78

RUAL 1 * * 0.35* 0.37* 0.28*

0.76

RFAL 1 * 0.17 0.51* 0.41*

RUEL 1 0.27* 0.52* 0.40*
RUAC 1 0.24‡ 0.10
DHGS 1 0.76*
‡ Significant at 0.05 level; * Significant at 0.01 level; HT = Height; WT=Body weight;

BMI= Body mass index; RHW= Right hand width; LHW= Left hand width; RHL=Right hand

length; LHL= Left hand length; RUAL= Right upper arm length; RFAL= Right forearm length;

RUEL= Right upper extremity length; RUAC= Right upper arm circumference; DHGS=

Dominant right hand grip; NDLHGS= Non-dominant left hand grip positive correlations were

noted. All the measurements were taken by JS and the inter-tester variability was also tested.

Table 3 shows the inter-correlation matrix of handgrip strength and some selected

anthropometric variables in controls. Among the anthropometric variables and handgrip strength,

few significantly

Variabl W BM RH LH RH LH RUA RFA RUE RUA DHG NDLH

es T I W W L L L L L C S GS
-

0.1 0.27 0.37 0.45 0.52 0.47 0.35

HT 5 * * * * * 0.65* * 0.14 -0.05 0.16 0.01

0.91 0.21
‡
WT 1 * 0.18 0.07 0.01 0.19 0.12 0.18 0.85* 0.22* 0.15
-

- - 0.20
‡
BMI 1 0.05 0.02 0.16 -0.09 -0.04 0.10 0.84* 0.15 0.14
0.81 0.41 0.49

RHW 1 * * * 0.39* 0.25‡ 0.05 0.10 0.43* 0.38*

0.39 0.47

LHW 1 * * 0.45* 0.23‡ 0.08 0.10 0.31* 0.21‡

0.94

RHL 1 * 0.45* 0.39 0.03 0.00 0.18 0.04

LHL 1 0.43* 0.31 0.09 -0.04 0.22‡ 0.10
 *
RUAL 1 0.25‡ 0.02 0.11 0.16 0.00
RFAL 1 0.04 0.02 0.19 0.04
RUEL 1 0.21‡ 0.15 0.21
RUAC 1 0.11 0.08
DHGS 1 0.81*

‡ Significant at 0.05 level; * Significant at 0.01 level; HT = Height; WT=Body weight;

BMI= Body mass index; RHW= Right hand width; LHW= Left hand width; RHL=Right hand

length; LHL= Left hand length; RUAL= Right upper arm length; RFAL= Right forearm length;

RUEL= Right upper extremity length; RUAC= Right upper arm circumference; DHGS=

Dominant right hand grip; NDLHGS= Non-dominant left hand grip

DISCUSSION

Anthropometric dimensions and morphologicalcharacteristics play an important role

in determining the success of an athlete. Quite naturally, the interest in anthropometric

characteristics and body composition of athletes from different competitive sports has increased

tremendously over the last decades. All ball games require comprehensive abilities including

physical, technical, mental and tactical ones. Among them, physical abilities of the players are

more important as these have marked effects on the skill of players and the tactics of the teams

because ball games require repeated maximum exertion such as dashing and jumping [47].

In volleyball, teams compete by manicures handling the ball above the head, height is considered

to be the most important physical attribute. In the present study, the Indian female volleyball

players have higher mean values in all the variables, except right upper extremity length and

right upper arm circumference than their control counterparts. These differences were, might be,
due to the effect of regular physical exercise and training of the players. When comparisons were

made between Indian female volleyball players and their foreign counterparts, Indian female

players had lesser mean values for height and weight (164.78 cm, ± 4.00 and 58.16 kg ± 4.54

respectively) than the American

(176.70 cm, ± 4.60 and 69.70 kg ± 10.80 respectively)

and Turkish (174.00 cm, ± 7.60 and 61.1 kg ± 8.70 respectively) female volleyball players.

These differences were, might be, due to the level of competitions the players participated. In the

study, significantly greater height to body weight ratio (H/W = 2.83) among the Indian inter-

university female volleyball players might be disadvantageous for them in attaining a good

jumping height as they have to lift a greater weight.

In case of relationships of handgrip strength, a physical performance indicator, with height,

weight, BMI and two hand- and four arm anthropometric characteristics, strong correlations were

found. It was earlier reported too that handgrip strength had strong correlations with various

anthropometric characteristics [14,15,49-52] and males attained stronger handgrip than their

female counterparts [46]. Right and left hand grip strength was positively correlated with weight,

height and body surface area [53]. The findings of the present study followed the same line

showing strong positive correlations with dominant right and non-dominant left handgrip

strength and all the hand-arm anthropometric variables studied.

The limitations of the study were that, firstly, male data could have also been incorporated to

draw a generalized statement, and, secondly, national level players could have been taken into

account to validate these correlations. The future scope of the study is immense. To search the

talents in sport, to organize the gender-specific training program, to avoid sports-specific injuries

and finally to improve the performance of the players the findings of the present study carried

immense practical implications.

Results