Art and Culture Themes – Thematic Session 1,2
Theme
1. Architecture
2. Literature
3. Visual Arts ( Painting,
Sculpture, Coins etc)
4. Performing Arts
5. Misc.
PYQs
Chola, Rock Cut, IVC, Buddhist
Sangam, Krishna Deva
Raya(Vijayanagar) , Persian
(New NCERT)
Gandhara (twice)
Mesolithic Paintings
Gupta Coins (New NCERT)
Tandava Dance
Bhaktism-Sufism (New NCERT)
Travellers (New NCERT)
Other Important Areas based
on those themes
Temple, Mosque, Caves,
Buddhist, Jain, Misc.
Vedic Literature,
Buddhist, Jain literature, South
Indian literature, Misc.
Brief discussion on sculpture,
Bronze sculpture, coins;
Cave Paintings, Mughal
Paintings, Regional Paintings,
Misc.
Brief discussion on dances,
Music and its types;
Some General points for any
general answer;
Optimum discussion on
Bhaktism-Sufism and travelers;
Other Small Misc. Discussions
like – Indian Philosophy,
Contribution of S&T etc.
[A] Architecture:

Topics asked

1) IVC
2) Rock Cut Architecture
3) Chola Architecture
4) Buddhist Architecture

Probable Next Areas

Temple Architecture :

 Generally, you can focus on these dimensions -> Origin, Specific Features, Location, Diagram,
Particular sculptures.
 Beginning : With Gupta Period, due to gradual coming of Bhagvatism -> people started
worshiping images of Vishnu (most), Shiva , Durga etc.
 Phases (Broad Idea)
o Gradual Progression of Temples- > from flat roofed monolithic temples to elaborate
sculptured architecture.
o Five Stages ->
 1st -> flat roof + square shape + low platforms + No Shikhara . Eg- Temple No.
17 at Sanchi.
 Then gradually -> platforms raised, passageways (for pradakshinapatha),
garbhagriha,
 3rd -> Shikhara added, panchyatan style (5 shrines) [ Diagram] . Eg->
Dashavatar Temple (UP), Durga Temple at Aihol e
 4th -> Shrines become rectangular.
 5th -> introduction of circular temples.
[Relevant Diagrams]

Types :
1)Nagara – ( above discussed is Nagara)
 Started with Gupta -> then developed in Post Gupta and then in Early Medieval India.
 Structure – Mandapa (Hall), Garbagriha (Sanctum Sanctorum), Shikhara (mountain like
spire)(variations of Shikhara – Rekha, Phamsana, Valabhi), Vahana (vehicle of main diety) ,
Amalaka[draw diagram]
 Other Imp Feature – No water Tanks, built on upraised platforms, pillared approach (diff
sculptures carved on pillars)
 Regional Variations –
o Odisha – By Ganga Dynasty ; Shikhara -> Deul ; Mandapa -> Jagmohana ; lavish
decorated exterior walls; square plan instead of rectangular (as in Nagara); Boundary
wall like in Dravidian.
  Eg – Jagannatha Puri Temple (Images of Krishna, Balram, Subhadra found);
Chaitanya Mahaprabhu associated with this temple ; Also called White
Pagoda
 Eg – Sun Temple at Konark – Black Pagoda;
o Khajuraho (World Heritage Site)- Chandela Rulers ; Erotic Sculptures (Kamasutra by
Vatsayana); Also decorated interior walls; Hindu, Jain religion temples found here;
Panchyatan style, Built on relatively raised platform; Eg –Kandariya Mahadeo
Temple, Lakshman Temple at Khajuraho;
o Solanki School (GJ, RJ)(Maru-Gurjara Style) – Solanki rulers; devoid of carvings;
Toranas found; Many Sun-Temples found;

2)Dravida (South India)

 Origin -> Pallava Dynasty (6th-9th CE) ;
 Features : High boundary walls , Gopuram (Gateway), Vimana (instead of Shikhara), Water
Body (ritual bath, functional purpose), not on platforms, dwarapala, yaksha, yakshini on entry
walls; panchyatan style also found here.
 Pallava : Cave Temples (having Mandapa;Rock Cut Arch; ) (by Mahendravarman) -> Ratha
Temples (chariot) (Narsimhavarman) (At Mahabalipuram) -> Structural Temples(Actual
Dravidian) (Eg – Shore Temple at Mahabalipuram, Kailashnatha Temple at Kanchipuram)
o Mahabalipuram Architecture – Rock cut caves (Varaha), Sculpture(Arjuna’s Penance/
Descent of Ganges , Panch Ratha)
 Chola : Climax during Cholas;
o Rajarajeshwara Temple – Thanjavur – tallest Vimana amongst the temples of its time
(Height of Vimana was often correlated with the prestige of the King); Significant
because name of ruler and God are very similar, so that king could appear like God;
Very Large Gopurams;
o Gangaikondacholapuram temple by Rajendra
 Significance : nuclei of settlements + emergence of temple towns ; centres of craft
production, given land grants -> thus, not only worship purpose, but also the hub of
economic, social and cultural life.

3)Vesara Architecture (KN School)–

 Nagara,Dravida fusion (hybrid arch); by Chalukyas of BAdami, Rashtrakutas (8th c. CE)
(Kailashnatha Temple in Ellora), Hoysala (11th c. CE) at Halebid, Belur
 Nagara influence-> Curvilinear Shikhara, Square Base
 Dravida Influence -> Carvings, Sculptures, Vimana Design, Stepped Vimana in some temples.
 Eg -> Ladkhan Temple at Aihole;

4) Others
 Hoysala Art – Near Mysore ; Halebid, Belur; Stellate Plan (Star like) [Diagram] ; lesser in
height; Hoyasaleshwara Temple at Halebid;
 Vijayanagar – 14th c. CE; Hampi; combined features of Chola, Hoysala, Pandyas, Chalukyas;
Influenced by Deccan Sultanate Arch.;
o Features – Raigopurams (extremely large gateways), musical pillars, Kalyana
Mandapa, Boundaries, Horse Images, Secular buildings.
o Vitthalaswami Temple, Virupaksha Temple, Lotus Mahal.
  Nayaka School/ Madurai School – 16th-17th c. CE; similar to Dravidian; Unique features =
Prakarms/ Huge corridors + large gopurams ; Eg – Meenakshi Temple at Madurai.
 Pala and Sena School –
o Pala – 8th – 12th c. ; Buddhist ; lots of chaityas, viharas, stupas built; style adopted by
Mughal rulers (Eg – Bangla Dome style was adopted). Universities of Nalanda,
Vikramshila;
o Sena – both Hindu, Buddhist Architecture; sloping roof – their imp style ; Eg –
Siddhesvara Mahadeva Temple.
 Outside India : 1) Angkor vat in Cambodia – Hindu Temple, due to chola and other dynasties
influence 2) Pashupatinath Temple – Kathmandu 3)Anand Temple in Bagan (Myanmar) 4)
Aditya Sun Temple of Multan.

[B] – Literature

Topics asked
1) Sangam
2) Krishna Deva Raya(Vijayanagar)
3) Persian (New NCERT)

Next Imp Topics based on this theme :

2 ways –
 Kingdom/chronology wise
 Language wise (Sanskrit, Buddhist, Jain etc)

Vedic literature : (Sanskrit)

 Vedas – signifies knowledge + direction to humans on how to conduct themselves +
philosophy of vasudhaiv kutumbkam.
o Rig Veda – Earliest + 1028 hymns(Sukta) + Sung in praise of God like Indra, Agni ,
Usha, Aditi etc for seeking Godly pleasures or Soma.
o Yajur Veda – details of rules to be observed at the time of sacrifice.
o Soma Veda – tune for the purpose of chants during sacrifice. Origin of Indian Music
traced to it.
o Atharva Veda – Charms and spells to ward off evils.
 Brahmanas – Treatises related to prayer, sacrificial ceremony.
 Upanishads – Philosophical texts (about soul, absolute, origin of world, mysteries of nature)
 Aranakyas – Forest Books (Rites, Rituals, Sacrifices, Mysticism)

Mauryan Empire:
 Mudrakraksha - Vishkadatta ; Sanskrit Drama written during Gupta Period; about how C.
Maurya, Kautilya overthrew Nandas + about socio-economic conditions
 Arthashastra – Chanakya ; 3 parts (King, council + Civil, criminal law + Diplomacy and war) ;
Most imp source of Mauryan history.
 Megasthanese Indica – about social life + admn. + military org.
 Others –
o Jatakas, Puranas
o Ceylonese chronicles Dipavamsa, Mahavamsa throw light on role of Ashoka in
spreading Buddhism in Srilanka.
o Ashokan inscriptions called Dhammalipi covering religion, morality, social and admn
matter can be compared to Dharmashastras (lawbooks) of Sanskrit.

Post-Mauryan Literature :
 Satvahana – Sattasai by Hala (Prakrit)
 Kushana –
o Patronized Sanskrit literature. Inscriptions in Chaste Sanskrit.
o Secular literature – Kamasutra by Vatsayana
o Buddhist –
 Development of Mahayana Buddhism -> composition of Avadanas (life history
and teachings. Eg- Mahavastu, Divyadana.
 Ashvaghosha wrote Buddhacharita.
 Patronized Buddhist scholars like Vasumitra, Ashvaghosa, Nagarjuna.
 Sangam literature – in South; (Already asked ; But do read about it..was asked in 2013..can be
repeated)

Guptas :
 Sources –
o Puranas -> tell about geneology of Guptas.
o Devichandraguptam, Mudrakrakshasa by Visakadatta – about rise of Guptas
o Fa-Hein – left valuable account of scoio-religious condition of empire.
 Main – Sanskrit lang, NAgari script.
 Samudragupta – patron of poets and scholars (Eg -> Harisena)
 C.Gupta II – patronized literary figures like Kalidasa, scholars like Amarsimha
 Kumaragupta – laid Nalanda University foundation
 Major literature – (remember 4-5)
o Kalidasa – Abhijanashakuntalam (love story), Malvikaagnimitra, Vikramavasiya,
Raghuvamsa, Kumarasambhava, Ritusamhara, Meghdutta
o Sudraka – Mrichkatika
o Bharavi – wrote Kritarjuniya (story of conflict b/w Arjuna and Shiva)
o Vishnusharma – Panchtantra stories.
o Amarsimha (Buddhist scholar) - Amarkosha
o Ramayana, Mahabharat -> given final touches
o Bhagavadgita -> teaches obeyance of Dharma (duties)
o Compilation of Smritis (Law books).
o Skt Grammar works of Panini and Patanjali.
 Scientific literature
o Aryabhatta (Astronomy, Mathematician) -> Aryabhatiya – explaining scientific
occurrence of solar and lunar eclipse. First to declare Earth was Spherical. Had
knowledge of zero and decimal system. Calculated position of planets.
 o Varahamihira –
 Panchsiddhantika – 5 Astronomical systems
 Brihadsamhita – variety of subjects (Astronomy, Astrology, Geography , Arch.
Etc)
o Medicine
 Vagabhata (one of the medical trio ; other two -> Charaka, Shushruta during
Kushanas). He wrote Ashtangsamgraha (8 branches of medicine)
o Romak Siddhanta on Astronomy. Indicated Roman, Greek influence.

South Indian Literature

 Pallava
o Main Lang – Sanskrit;
o Great patrons ; Kanchi -> ancient centre of learning; Dharmapala -> Head of Nalanda
university belonged to Kanchi.
o Sanskrit Scholar DANDIN adorned Rajasimha court.
o Mahendravarman-1 – wrote MATTAVILASAPRAHASANAM
o DEVARAM composed by Nayanars, NALAYRADIVYAPRABHANDAM by Alwars ->
religious literature of the period.
o Perundavanar – translated Mahabharata as Bharatavemba in Tamil.

 Cholas
o Tamil literature reached peak during Cholas
o Sivakasintamani by Thiruthakkadevar
o Ramayana composed by Kamban, Periyapuranam by Sekkilar -> masterpieces of this
age.
o Tamil Grammar -> Kalladam, Yapperungalam, Nannul.

 Chalukyas -> Architecture more imp.

 Rashtrakutas – (IMP)
o Sanskrit literature- TRIVIKRAMA wrote NALACHAMPU; HALAYUDHA wrote
Kavirahasya; Viracharya (Mathematician) -> Ganitasaram. [Cram as much as
possible]
o Jain literature flourished
 Amoghavarsha Patronised Jain Scholar
 Jinasena composed Parsvbhaudaya (Biography of Parsava)
 Gunabhadra wrote Adipurana (Life stories of various Jain Saints)
o Kannada literature saw beginning
 Kavirajamarga -> by Amoghavarsha -> 1st poetic work in Kannada
 Pampa (Kannada poet)- wrote Vikramsenavijaya
 Poona (Kannada poet) – wrote Santipurana.
Medieval Literature
 During Mahmud of Ghazni – Firdausi -> SHAHNAMAH ;

DELHI SULTANATE
o Patronized learning and literarure. Learned men from PERSIA got encouragement.
o Theology, poetry, history -> encouraged
o Sanskrit and Persian -> Imp link languages.
o Regional languages : (this will be updated with few more points)
 Hindi – Chand Bardai famous poet.
 Bengali literature developed
 Bhakti cult -> development of GJ, Marathi.
 Vijayanagar -> patronized Telugu and Kannada.
 Kalhana -> Rajatarangini.
Amir Khusrao  Persian writer
 Created new style of poetry -> Sabaq-i-
hindi or Indian style
 Wrote Hindi verses.
 Khazain-ul-Fatuh -> speaks about
Alauddin’s conquests.
 Tughlaq Nama
Minhas-i-Siraj  Tabaqat-i-Nasari – general history of
Muslim Dynasties upto 1260.
Zia Nakshabi  Tutu Nama – Book of the Parrot
 1st to translate Sanskrit stories into
Persian.
Barani  Tarikh-i-Firoz Shahi -> contains Tughlaq
dynasty history.

Travelers and their literature – will be updated.

o Alberuni -> Kitab-i-Hind.

Vijayanagar (Already asked in 2016 ; but can be repeated)

 Literary sources –
o KDR’s Amukthamalyada
o Gangadevi’s Madurvijayam
o Allarani Peddana’s Manucharitram
 KDR and his court
o Great Patron ; Known as Andhra Bhoja
o 8 eminent scholars -> Ashtadiggajas
 Imp amongst them -> Pedanna. His works -> Manucharitram, Harikathasaram.
o Tenali Ramakrishna -> imp scholar ;
o Amukhtamalyada (Telugu work) , Jambavatikalyanam (Sanskrit work), Ushaparinayam
(Sanskrit work)
Mughal Literature
 Persian Language -> more famous;
 Mughals -> great patrons of manuscript and chronicles. Eg : Tuzuk-i-Babari (Babar), tuzuk-i-
Jahangiri, Ain-i-Akbari
 Akbar’s Navratna -> great literary figures.
 Abul Fazl -> scholar and historian ; Ain-i-Akbari, Akbar Nama
 Abul Faizi – translation of Mahabharat into Persian in his supervision.
 Shah Jahan reign –
o Padshahnamah – Abdul Hamid Lohari
o Dara Shikoh – translated Bhagavada Gita, Upnishads into Persian.
 Regional Languages-
o Bengali, Oriya, RJ, GJ developed.
o Devotional works including Ramayana, Mahabharata translated into regional
languages;
o Hindi poets during Akbar in court. Eg -> Tulsidas (Ramcharitmanas -> hindi version
of Ramayana) ; Sur Sagar by Surdas
o Bhakti mvt. Reached zenith. [mention names if need acc. To Q]
[C] -Visual Art

 Sculpture
o Chola Sculpture – Nataraja Images; Lost Wax Technique; These images found in SE Asia
as well -> which shows that Chola Architecture was famous in other nations as well. (due
to naval capability)

Other Misc :

 Gupta Period – Golden Period ? How ? -> Temple Architecture, Buddhist Arch, Cave Arch etc.