7
Occupational educators face a curious
dilemma in connection with their treatment
of student laboratory activities. Current
educational trends, as a whole. stress the
value of independent Study or the discovery
method of learning, which allows the stu-
dent increased freedom in selecting educa-
tional experiences. In these approaches the
importance of structured instructional prac-
tices is generally lessened. Many occupa-
tional educators subscribe to these values.
However. the goals of occupational educa-
tion. including attainment of technical pro-
ficiency and development of safe and effi-
cient work habits, plus the physical limita-
tions and safety hazards in most occupa-
tional education laboratories. seriously
hinder a nonstructured approach to learn-
ing.
Regardless of the method used to utilize
personnel in the laboratory, every lab must
provide opportunities for all students to
become familiar with and use the instru-
ments. tools. and equipment deemed nec-
essary for the course. A structured approach
with periodic assignments of students to
specific work stations seems unavoidable
in laboratories where each station does not
contain a complete set of tools, instru-
mentS. and stationary equipment. A Ithough
101
increased freedom seems desirable. Such
anapproach, realistically, can lead to unac-
ceptable• lab management. While the
discovery method may be appropriate in
academic courses, a student cannot
lowed to discover the correct way to oper-
ate a $100,000 precision-built piece Of
equipment without necessary prior instruc-
tion. Instructors must neither allow valu-
able equipment to be placed in jeopardy.
nor avoid their responsibility for protect-
ing the safety and well being of their stu-
Planning student Activities
The following dialogues are designed to
highlight some of the key concepts in plan-
ning student activities in the laboratory.
While the dialogue deals with an automo-
tive-service program, the five points dis-
cussed seem equally appropriate to most
occupational education laboratories. First.
Student: "Can I tune-up my•car to-
morrow during lab time using the
Superscope Engine Analyzer?"
Instructor: "Sure, Joe, but be certain
to pick up a tune-up kit today after
school. "
This brief exchange may elicit a variety
of generally favorable comments from the
casual listener, such as: "The instructor
seems to have good rapport with the stu-
"The students probably like the instruc-
tor because he is so accommodating."
"That instructor seems to be meeting the
student •s needs."
"That student will enjoy working on his
car instead of doing routine lab work."
Here is the same scene with different
dialogue:
Student: "Can I tune-up my car to-
morrow during lab time using the
Superscope Engine Analyzer?"
Instructor: "That depends."
Student: "Depends on what?"
Instructor: "It depends on whether
you have completed the perfor-
mance objectives on basic elec-
tricity. automotive ignition sys-
terns, and the Superscope Engine
Analyzer: whether you have any
work scheduled tomorrow: and
whether you have made an appoint-
ment with Bob. the scrvicc man-
ager. If you arc clear on the above,
be sure to let Sam, the parts man,
know in advarEe that you will need
a tune-up kit for your car."
In the second dialogue the instructor
dcmdnstrates some Of the essential ingredi-
entS of effective management. which may
also help him gain the respect Of his stu-
dents. This brief exchange raises five sig-
nificant issues:
l. Students may utilize an automotive
service course for such benefits as
servicing their own cars, but they
may not do so before attaining the
skil necessary.
2. If students are allowed to use ex-
pensive equipment for such Scr-
vice before they have demonstrated
. an operational proficiency. both the
school 's service equipment and the
item to be serviced may be dam-
aged. Physical injury could also
result from imprcper usage.
3. An occupational laboratory is not a
shobby shop or a substitute for a
102
home workshop. The lab slnuld
maintain a task-oriented environ-
mcnt. organized like an industrial
laboratory or shop, in which each
student assumes specific responsi-
bilities in a weekly Or biweekly
rotation.
4. If the laboratory operates as a ser-
vice facility for school personnel
or the general public, service work
must be scheduled by the student
assigned the role of rte service
manager.
5. As part Of this simulation. the ser-
vice organization must procure 'he
necessary parts and supplies for
service jobs.
Undoubtedly. student lab activities may
beomc too Organized. Such activities be-
come unrealistic when they display little
resemblance to the industrial, comnMcial,
or health organizations they simulate. On
the Other hand. students sometimes are not
adequately utilized in operating and
aging the laboratory. Occasionally. instruc-
tors equate planning student participation
in lab activities with organizing a student
rotation System for cleanup chores. Pre-
cious educational opportunities are wasted
if student invol vernent in laboratory opera-
tion and management is so limited.
Consider the fundamental purposes for
involving students in lab management ac-
tivities. Occupational laboratories closely
resemble small business establ ishments. As
in commercial operations, record keeping
is essential: materials and supplies must be
cared for; equipment needs maintenance;
customers, clients, or patients must be
greeted: inventory records must be kept
accurately: and the security Of the facility
must be assured. In addition, each occupa-
tional area requires specialized services
applicable only in certain occupations. For
example, radiologic technology, dental
hygiene, graphic arts, and photography
laboratories ha ye darkrooms which require
service. Food service technology programs
must pay special attention to cold-storage
for food preservation.
An effective plan to involve students in
laboratory management can be instrumen-
tal in relieving the instructor of many rou-
tine but important tasks; it provides for a
smoother running lab; and it helps develop
self confidence in students. Most impor-
tantly, when the plan is truly functional, it
simulates actual work situations and con-
ditions.
Work Rotation Systems
Apprenticeship agreements document
the oldest forms of vocational education:
they require that employers teach their ap-
prentices every facet of their trade. This
concept is basic to occupational programs:
the instructor's responsibility is to teach
students the skills and knowledge neces-
sary for employment at a designated skill
level. Therefore, it is imperative that lab
activities and experiences be scheduled and
organized so that all students can become
proficient in the required skill areas desig-
nated by performance objectives. In Some
programs appropriate weekly and biweekly
rocation Systems can be used. In Others,
chiefly in service occupations, student work
rotation must be based on an accurate
record-keeping system.
Figures 17 and 18 illustrate a record-
keeping system used in cosmetology pro-
grams. Figure 17 is a form on which stu-
dents keep track of the operation% (tasks)
they perform; it is turned in to the instruc-
tor at the end of each week. Figure 18 is the
instructor's record sheet. The entries are
based partly on the student's record of
operations and partly on the instructor's
class book. State Boards of Cosmetology
require that students complete a designated
minimum number of specific operations
(tasks) working with customers before tak-
ing the state examination. Therefore, in
advanced classes students must be assi gned
to customers On the basis of the number of
required operations they have completed.
Fulfilling Requirements. Whenpro-
grams are dependent on work for custom-
ers, patients, and clients, instructors must
make special efforts to procure the work
103
to fulfill program objectives. It
would be very unusual for a school auto
shop to receive, by chance, an adequate
number of valve jobs, brake overhaulS,
automatic transmission adjustments, or
wheel alignments for all of the students
who need these experiences. School beauty
salons have more customers needing hair
styling than permanent waving. Appliance
service, computer service, dental hygiene
clinic labs, and many others face similar
problems. Some instructors successfully
resolve this difficulty by enlisting their
students' help to get the necessary service
work. Others inform the school staff that
their students need certain specific kinds of
work. Still others use advertising quite ef-
fectively.
There are many commercially produced
mechanical and eiectror.ic devices which
can simulate typical operational and ser-
vice problems of many occupations. When
the rotation system includes using simula-
tions, students gain valuable preparation
for practice on real equipment. In most
occupational programs the value of these
supplemental training aids is recognized.
but they are rarely considered as substi-
tutes for the actual equipment of the occu-
pation. Few occupational advisory com-
mittees would accept or support such sub-
stitutions (Swerdlow, 1976).
Uablllty Disclaimer. Responsibility
for work performance when student Ser-
vices are performed on customers (cosme-
tology), patients (dental hygiene), or on
customer property (automobiles , electronic
equipment, appliances) needs to be clari-
fied. Service work performed in school
labs is performed by students, not fully
trained service personnel. Consequently,
persons availing themselves of such ser-
vices must be advised, in some fashion,
that the institution or school district cannot
guarantee the quality of the students' work.
Potential users of services need to be as-
sured that the instructor will make every
effort to have the work performed in the lab
of highest quality, but the school can not
assume financial responsibility for POS-
Sible damages due to student inexperience.
Damages that can be repaired Or rectified
in the school lab will be the school's re-
sponsibility. Liability disclaimer (see ap-
pendix B) can be communicated through a
formal letter. written on work orders, or on
notices posted in locations visible to
Customers
Task progress chart Task proogress
charts (such as in fig. 19) are comrnonly
used in occupational education classes and
may facilitate work rotati• •n Systems. Many
instructors use the charts mainly to keep
students informed about their progress in
meeting performance objectives.
base weekly , posted lab assignnænts on the
lab experience needs of individual students
as revealed by the progress chart.
Using task progress charts to schedule
lab assignments is valuable in laboratories
where the instructional experiences are not
dependent on the availability of service
work. This system provides a rmre flexible
ind ividualizcd approach than the weekly or
biweekly numerical rotation system. It is
also better suited to advanced-level courses
where the performance Objectives are
106
geared to employment-level skill standards.
Numerical rotation systems. Ina
numerical rotation system all students are
assigned numbers, and lab assignments are
made through these numbers for desig-
nated periods Of time. Numerical rotation
systems include two different types Of as-
signments: function oriented and skill ri-
enred.
For function-oriented assignments, Stu-
dents are assigned to management/service
jobs in the lab. They assume personnel
roles typical of the occupation. For the
example in figure 20, the center disc is
moved one assignment clockwise each
week. Students assume such roles as shop
• oreman. safety supervisor. equipment
maintenance person, etc. Job descriptions
are posted on the lab bulletin board adja-
cent to the rotation wheel. Usually, all
students in the class are assigned to each
job at least once during the term.
Satisfactory student performance in as-
Signments based on such function-oriented
personnel roles may be as important as
performance in skill-oriented assignments.
Involving students in the management and
Sample Job Descriptions for Function-oriented Bench Cleanup
Assignments Inspects tablas, workbenches, and
Shop Foreman Countertops. Requests student user to
Instructor's assistant. Supervises function- clean work areå if necessary.
oriented lab activities. Overseas Floor Cleanup
the operation Ot the lab's personnel SWeeps assigned lab floor area five minutes
organization under instrwtor•s direction. before end Of period.
Safet Supervisor parts Manager
oordinates lab safety programs. Chairs weekly Orders parts as needed. Issues pans as
safety committee meetings. requested by students. Implements
Conducts pgriOdic lab safety inspections. parts/supplies inventory control procedures.
Assists instructorin tho enforcement Col!ects cashier's payment re•
of safety rules. ceipt before issuing requested parts as
Equipment Maintenance applicable.
Carries out manufacturer-recommended Manual Distributor
routine service schedule for station- Maintains equipment service-manual library.
ary lab equipment. Informs instructor of Issues manuals as requested.
additional repair,'sarvice needs. per- Collects same at tho end of lab period.
forms calibrations or minor repairs on Informs instructor Of missing or
stationary equipment under instructor•s damaged manuals.
direction. Equipment Cleanup
Portabla Eat'ioment Maintenance Inspects all stationary lab equipment at the
Inspects orlablo power equipment for wear end Of the tab period. Wipes
and damage as recommended in equipment clean as necessary.
manufacture, •s owner's manual. Carries out
routine equipment service. ln-
forms instructe Of additlonal sorvice/ropair
needs. Perfor.ns minor repairs to 108
portable equipmont v,lder instructor's
direction.
Tool/lnstrument Distributor
Issues instrumentsnools to students at the
beginning of lab period according
to lab's control procedures. Accepts and
stores returned implements at the end
Of the period. Informs instructor Of
unreturned or damaged instrumentsnools.
Supply Distributor
Issues requisitioned supplies/matorials to
students at the beginning of lab
period. Maintains perpetual inventory records
Of supplies and materials.
Informs instructor Of supply/matørial needs
When quantity drops below prede
termined level.
Portable Equipment Distributor
Issues portable equipment to students at the
beginning of lab period. Collects
and stores returned equipment at the end Of
the period. Informs instructor Of
unretumed or damaged equipment.
operation Of the lab benefits the institu- cause Of their more elaborate lab projects
tion, student. and the instructor. For with widely varying completion times. Any
instance, vandalism and pilferage Of sup- final course grades should. proportionally,
plies appears to be easier to control. Stu- reflect students' performance in all phases
dents develop greater understanding of the of their laboratory assignments. The rela-
occupation they are entering and greater tive value of each phase, of course, must bc
respect for the work setting. Last but not determined by the instructor.
least, instructors have more time to teach in cooperative Education
labs that have efficient student personnel Some educators view co-op programs as
organization. training i;eparate from the classroom and
In skill-oriented assignments, regularly laboratoi.y phase of the students' occupa-
scheduled work-station rotations are de- tional preparation. The intent of cooperative
signed to allow all students approximately education, however, is a program designed
the same length of time at each lab station. so that students can receive on-the-job tra in-
For the system depicted in figure 21. the ing through part-time employment while
rotating center disc is moved two numbers also receiving related classroom instruc-
clockwise. An assignment may be for one tion. This cooperati arrangement requires
or two weeks A! the end of the designated a close relationship between employers and
period all students are reassigned to other
lab stations. This type of rotation is better occupational education programs at sec-
suited to begin- ondary and postsecondary institutions.
ningor intermedi- The purpose of this brief overview of
ate level courses cooperative education is to emphasize that
in which perfor- the student's part-time employment and
mance objectives instructional program must be closely re-
are not yet geared lated and to indicate the instructor's re-
to employment- sponsibilities in connection with a co-op
level skills, but to program. The trend is for instructors to
proficiency in ba-
sic occupational
tasks. A ssignments
are not based On
work completion
rec-ords, but with
the objective that
every student must 109
gain hands-on
perience with avai-
lable lab equipment
A rotation
wheel similar to the one in figure 21 would
also be posted on the bulletin board. In
place of the job descriptions posted for
function-oriented assignments, instructor
demonstrations, media presentations, and
instructional modules/instruction sheets are
provided for skill-oriented lab assignments.
Advahced lab courses may not lend them-
selves to such rigid rotation schedules be-
Aasume the responsibilities for coordinat-
ing program of the co-op students in
their classes. Frequently 40 to 50 percent Of
workload is assigned to co-
op On-the-job activities are
organized in advance by both instructor and
employer and become a part Of the written
arnong student, instructor-coor•
dinator. and employer. If the student is a
minor. parents must also sign the agree-
ment. TO qualify for these programs, stu-
dents must be old enough to federal
and Aate employment requiremenls (Wil-
son, 1987). The success of co-op programs
depeMs largely On the instructor-
coordinator • s ability to tailor the student's
program io training needs, interests, apti-
tildes. and abilities.
Both the community and the schools
betæfit from co-op programs. These pro-
grams provide practice in functional set-
tings. which leads to improved work atti-
tudes. TIE results are well prepared candi-
dates for the area's work force. Helpful and
friendly relationships between employers
and local schools are frequently additional
beræfi ts.
The student's work is supervised and
evaluated by both the instructor-coordina-
tor and the employer. The usual arrange-
ment calls for one half Of the student's time
to spent in school attendance and the
other half-day on the job. However, other
arrangements requiring alternate days,
weeks. Or academic terms are not uncom-
mon- Students are paid at various rates, but
employers must pay at least the minimum
legal wage (Leske & Persico. 1984).
Co-op Record Forms. Appendix F
includes record forms frequently used in
cooperative education programs: applica-
tion. student occupational geadiness. Stu.
dent work evaluation. and cooperative train.
ing agreement. This applicalion form is
similar to those used in industry and busi-
ness. It is designed to provide the coordina
tor and prospective employer with essen-
tial information about the student's suit-
ability for placement. The occupational
readiness form summarizes the results Of
the guidance counselor-student conference
concerning the co-op placement request.
Since several parties are involved in a co-
Operaüve arrangement (student. employer,
instructor, parent). the train-
ing agreement must be approved by each.
The training agreement form in the appen-
dix was designed for multiple service. It
can be used for three different tyPS of
occupational training arrangements:
l. Work experience, any type Of em-
ployment arranged for student
by the institution
2. Work exploration. an assignment,
wi thout remuneration, to any place
Of employment
3. Cooperative assignment, an em-
ployment assignment in the
student' S occupational major.
The evaluation form indicates the em-
ployer's final assessment of the student's
on-the-job performance.
Health Occupations. In health oc-
cupations students must have faculty-su-
pervised learning opportunities in several
kinds of community agencies organized
primarily for patient care. The addition of
instructional requirements to patient-care
requirements imposes responsibilities upon
both schools and community agencies.
Written agreements between the agencies
and schools define the areas of responsibil -
ity Of each. Such agreements usually specify
that the school will: (I) direct the student's
experience. (2) appoint the faculty instruc-
tor. and (3) select the patients for the Stu-
dent experience. The health agency will:
(1) provide facilities such as conference
rooms and reference materials, (2) allow
time for the instructor and the agency per-
sonnel to plan the student's experience,
and (3) maintain a quality Of health care so
tilat students can occupationally
proficient.
Simulation Techniques
Simulations can include many kinds of
classroom and laboratory activities. A simu-
lation is a working model Of another situa-
tion. As an instructional tool. it is used to
111
teach a skill or subject. Since the responsi-
bility of the instructor is to prepare stu-
dents to qualify for employment, simula-
lion techniques in occupational education
can be quite effective.
Business Services Technology
Cluster. The Business Services Technol-
ogy Cluster in the business education cur-
riculum can be used to illustrate an effec-
tivc simulation. Every student in the lab
occupies a workstation with specific job
rey,ponsibilities. The lab may have an of.
ficb manager, receptionist. clerks, secre-
taries, accountants, and a cashier. Table I I
is a recommended equipment list for this
type of laboratory.
Such programs are used primarily as
capstone experiences after completion of
basic skill development. Hanson and Parker
( t 972) summarize the characteristics of the
four commonly used plans for Office simu-
lations:
Plan I simulates a large multi-depart.
mental office. including stenographic pool.
typing pool, duplicating department. and
payroll department. Work for the students
112
is provided through an extensively struc-
tured simulation package which contains
employee manuals and organizational charts
describing operating procedures for most
situations. The instructor, who becomes the
company president. may be responsible for
more than One section of lab classes. He/
she implements procedures to improve the
simulation. Communications with the stu-
dents are conducted through meetings and
memoranda. Students work for promotions
as in a real office situation. The students
teach job skills to their replacements as
they move on to other specific jobs.
Plan 2 simulations are conducted for
two separate groups of students, clerical
and secretarial. which meet at the same
instructional time. ne secretarial group
meets in the secretarial Office lab; the cleri-
cal group remains in the office education
lab. The secretarial group is designated as
the parent company, and the clerical group
represents onc of the parent company's
agencies. The teacher correlates the work
of the students so that the ptoper learning
units are completed. Instructional units are
set up for individual instruction, to bc used
with either self-tutorial aids or programmed
rnaterials. Commercial simulation packages
are available for this plan.
Plan 3 simulation is used only during
the last two or three months of the school
year. The time prior to that is spent in skill
development. The instructional lab is con-
verted into a simulated office. TO accom-
plish the conversion takes only a few min-
utes, since heavy equipment remains in
place.
Plan 4 involves a mobile unil equipped
as a simulated office. The unit is rotated
several schools. eight weeks at ench.
One teacher is assigned to direct the office
mobile unit and travel with it. Under this
arranger1Ent the lab instructor concentrates
On skill development, and the mobile unit
teacher handles the simulated office opera-
tion. During the unit's stay at the school,
the local, and visiting teachers work as a
team. The program is economical because
one unit may serve as many as four schools.
The simulated office is not in competi-
ti0n with basic business education courses
or co-op programs. All of these programs
are indispensable to quality education. The
Office simulation is a beneficial addition to
the business education curriculum at ad-
vanced levels. While it cannot completely
duplicate the atmosphere Of a real business
office, it helps students appreciate the team
relationships essential in an office envi-
ronment. It also promotes a better under-
standing of the interaction between Office
procedures and other business functions.
Intensive Business Office labo-
ratory. The Intensive Business Office
laboratory, which Originated in Indiana, is
a simulation which involves business edu-
cation students in actual office work (Shinn,
1972). The students may enter this lab upon
completion of basic-skill preparation
courses. The laboratory is Organized like
the simulated office. Stations are organized
around specific office jobs. and several
students, each with individual responsi-
bililies, work together as a team.
Students are also assigned to specific
office positions within the school system.
While this part of the program does not
differ greatly from the Co-op approach, the
rotation of the students from office to Of-
fice at stated intervals insures a broad range
of experiences. The students spend a part
of each day in the laboratory receiving
related instruction. It is also possible to
have the office work Of various school
departments sent to the laboratory to be
cornpleted by the students.
This lab is culmination Of
tional preparation in secretarial, clerical.
and accounting programs. At one metro-
politan area vocational center. the Inten-
*ive Business Office lab handlei the book-
and accounting for the school's
autoc„stive service technology program.
The account Ing is connected w ith
the computer programmir,g curriculum.
Students process invoices and billings,
maintain parts and equipment inventory,
handle the department's correspondence.
and maintain customer files.
To add further realism, studen!s receive
wages in simulated checks. This feature Of
the program provides experience in payroll
preparation. Deductions are taken for health
insurance. retirement, and income taxes.
Varying wage rates are calculated accord.
ing to the weekly job classifications of the
employees: deductions are taken for ab-
sences and tardiness. All these activities
provide a truly job-oriented atmosphere.
Facilities for the new information
technology follow the demands Of the busi-
ness world in the nineties. Manual tasks are
increasingly being automated and word-
processing support groups or individual
work stations are replacing typing pools.
Business education programs are making
the transition from the traditional class.
room with its fixed rows of desks to a
learning environment more closely matched
to conditions prevailing in the electronic
office.
Dental Cllnle. Dental hygiene stu-
dents spend three four-hour sessions in the
dental clinic each week. During these ses-
sions the student teaches dental health to
113
patients, performs oral prohylaxis. and ex-
poses and processes radiographs. Three stu-
dents are assigned to duties Other than see-
ing scheduled patients: these are clinic as-
sistant (or sterilizing assistant), desk assis-
tant. and darkroom assistant. The clinic
assistant prepares equipment and instru-
ments for use in the clinic, may sterilize
instrurnents. maintains supplies, and is re-
sponsible for some Of the housekeeping
duties. The desk assistant answers the tele-
phone, makes appointments, greets patients,
and files patient cards and x-rays. The dark-
room assistant processes films. handles x-
ray records, and does housekeeping
duties for the darkroom.
This very brief discussion of dental clinic
organization describes what is usually found
in postsecondary departments where the
dental hygiene program is not affiliated
with a college Of dentistry. Where the den-
tal hygiene program is part Of a university
dental school or college, paid aides attend
to most Of the auxiliary laboratory chores.
Instrument sterilization, supply dispens-
ing, and darkroom services are centralized
and serve all or most of the departments Of
the school.
Adult Day care Center. Adult day
care is a support program for Older adults
and their families. It is for Older adults who
are no longer able to live alone, but do not
require the full-time services of a nursing
home. Such a center helps impaired Older
adults to do as much for themselves as they
can and to be as independent as possible.
The program helps families by provid-
ing a place where they can leave an older
relative during the day while they work, do
errands, or just get a break from the de-
mands of care. It also assists families by
providing information. assistance, and sup-
port in coping with and caring for older
family members.
The elderly need physical, mental, and
social stimulation. "At home they tend to
gravitate to sitting in chairs, sleeping and
concentrating on their aches, pains and
bowel movements" (Cook, 1988). At a cen-
ter, activities for senior citizens include
114
exercise, memory aids, group discussions.
crafts, nursing assistance. recreational
therapy. Socialization, cooking activities,
entertainment, and a hot, nutritious noon-
time meal.
The Golden Years Day Care Center at
the Pankow Vocational-Technical Center in
Mt.CIemens, Michigan, is an interesting
public service for area citizens. The pro-
gram is staffed by students enrolled in the
Diversified Health Occupations curriculum
and supervised by a Registered Nurse. It is
an addition to the school's successful pre-
school child care program, which is con-
ducted in an adjacent room. Periodically,
combined activities take place among the
adult day care citizens and the preschool
children. Senior diversified health
ti0ns students are assigned to an adult day
care member on a one-to-one basis. Under
this arrangement, the students receive on-
the-job training without leaving the school.
They enhance the lives of the elderly while
gaining valuable occupational skillls. Both
the adult and the preschool day care centers
are self supporting through nominal daily
fees charged to users (Cook, 1988).
Home Economlcs Laboratory. For
many years home economics laboratories
were automatically associated with rooms
equipped with kitchen appliances and home
fumishings. In these labs students learned
home-related skills, conducted nutrition
experiments, and studied home-appliance
operation and maintenance.
The growth ofbuilding construction pro-
grams in high schools and area vocational-
education centers has brought many
changes. Today, many home economics
students join those in trade and industrial
education programs to work on residential
building projects. Specifically, architec-
tural drafting students prepare the working
drawings for the building: building con-
struction students construct and erect the
building: home economics students choose
appliances, curtains, light fixtures, floor
coverings, color schemes, and kitchen and
bathroom fixtures; horticulture students
design and prepare the landscape. The
homes are then sold to the highest bidder.
Committees of home economics students
are assigned to choose the materials and
appliances for the student-built homes.
These committees do appropriate r5earch,
invite resource people from business and
industry to discuss the commodities, and
then make purchase recommendations
based on their findings. These recommen-
dations become quite important since the
completed home must appeal to potential
buyers.
Being involved in a project connected
with building construction introduces a new
management element in the home econom-
ics program. The materials. appliances, and
fixtures must be installed in accordance
with the construction schedule. The stu-
dents' research, reports, and recommenda-
lions must also adhere to the construction
schedule. The instructor's role in this situ-
ation is similar to that of the building sub-
contractor whose work crew must com-
plete certain portions of the contract ac-
cording to the schedule. In a residential
construction project both instructors and
students are exposed to the pressures and
anxieties of the working world.
Cosmetology Laboratory. To simu-
late actual beauty shop experiences, the
student in the Beauty Salon may work al-
ternately as manager, receptionist, and dis-
pensary attendant. As managers and recep-
tionists the students must book appoint-
ments, learn telephone techniques, and hire
students based on their observation and
analysis of the students ' work habits. They
must determine and assign appropriate wage
schedules, for example, straight commis-
sion, straight salary, or salary plus com-
mission. They must calculate federal and
state deductions to record gross and net
wages, In the dispensary the students learn
about the control, inventory, and distribu-
lion Of supplies. These assignments serve
two purposes: they provide learning expe-
riences in beauty shop management and in
dispensary operation, and they give Stu-
dents an opportunity to assist in the opera-
tion of the laboratory.
115
Agriculture Laboratory. The chang-
ing scene in agriculture brings with it a
corresponding change in agricultural
education. More and more schools are
supplementing individual student projects
with group undertakings. Where a typical
project once involved individual students
raising livestock and/or crops. today an
increasing number of group projects simu-
late commercial conditions and operations.
In some schools students form corpora.
!ions to make a profit from raising live-
Stock for market. Fer example. the T-Bone
Corporation was formed by a high-school
basic agriculture class (Burns, 1970).
Feeder steers were bought, raised to market
wcight, then sold. Shares in thccorporation
wcrc offered to the students. but only some
shareholders had voting rights on corpo-
rate decisions. The corporation approach
10 teaching animal husbandry is a viable
alternative to more traditional methods. rt
is especially applicable for urban studenis
interested in entering agribusiness and who
nccd an understanding Of production agri-
culture.
Second semester horticulture students
in the Landscape class at the Montgomery
County Joint Vocational School also set up
their own business. "They research the nec-
essary requircmcnls such as incorporation
possibilities, taxes, liccnscs, real estate
availability. employee formalities, and le-
gal considerations" (Parrish, 1984). The
laboratory segment of the class provides
supcrviscd occupational experience foreach
student. Community residents are encour-
aged to contact the class about landscaping
their property. The class then designs a
plan based on the property owners' desires.
estimates the cost of the project, and pre-
sents the plan to the potential customer. If
the plan is accepted, the class members
perform the work just like a real commer-
cial enterprise.
The Hill City Vocational Agriculture
Department in Hill City. Kansas, inherited
a 160-acre farm in 1947. The local FFA
chapter, as a part of the high-school voca-
tional agriculture program. began farming
the land in 1953. Starting with zero funds,
the chapter began investing the farm' s prof-
its in farm machinery. as well as securing
loans, to eventually build an inventory
worth over $100,000. Hill City students
gain further practical experience through
their Own FFA cooperative' s membership
ina local agricultural cooperative. Chapter
rnembers earn wages. contribute IS to 20
percent of their wages into the labor coop-
erative fund. and receive dividends from
the money in the cooperative. The FFA
chapter's executive committee serves as
the board of directors for the chapter farm
(Farrell. 1983).
Other changes are occurring in agricul-
tural education management as well. Large
school farms having up to 180 acres. with
full-time managers and profitmaking capa-
bility. are being challenged for placing in-
creased emphasis on profits and less on
educating students. On these large farms
the instructor's management responsibili-
ties are relegated to full-time farm man-
ager. In contrast , the more common, srnaller
school farms with 10 to 20 acres are man-
aged by the. instructor and the students.
However, if these instructors fail to de-
velop effective student personnel plans, a
disproportionate amount of instructional
and personal time may bc spent on routine
farm chores.
Some educators consider even smaller
farms with two to five acres more manage-
able and valuable from an instructional
point of view. Knowles (1970) describes
an outdoor educational laboratory which
consists of six units, each with three quar-
ters of an acre. The units are Orchard, vine-
yard, livestock. field crops, truck crops,
and nursery and Ornamental plants. The
size of this operation reduces the amount Of
farm management time for teachers to a
minimum and increases learning opportu-
nitics for students.
Comerclal Food Service Labora-
A commercial food service program
at a typical vocational education center not
only prepares the cafeteria and restaurant
meals for the school, but also serves the
116
food. The plan to organize student person-
to operate such an enterprise is beyond
simulation. The services these students pro-
vide to the school staff and other students
areas real as those provided at other schools
by commercial catering services (Finley.
1979).
Students enrolled in commercial food
service serve as waiters. busboys. cashiers,
hostesses. cooks. Every job assign-
ment corresponds to one in the area's res.
taurant industry. Complete rotation of the
students through all of the job assignments
is not necessary since some Of the job as-
signments represent areas of specializa-
tion which do not require training in
Other restaurant skills. Students preparing
to be waiters. for example. do not need
instruction and experience in food prepara-
lion.
Student Behavior
Visitors to technical/occupational and
vocational education centers are frequently
impressed by the productive and business-
like atmosphere they encounter. Their
knowledge Of the specific subject fields
may be quite limited, and they may know
even less about lab operations and activi-
ties. However. they can still judge, usually
correctly, the interest level and attitude Of
the students.
Conversely, visitors can also detect a
lack of student interest. They may also
make other Observations. They notice
whether the rooms are orderly. and the
appearance of students and instructors.
Many visitors become concerned and criti-
cal when they see unsanitary and disorga-
nized conditions in laboratories. These
Observations build impressions Of the oc-
cupational education programs themselves
in the minds of visitors. Hopefully. the
images are Of well disciplined, purposeful
students.
Types Of Dlsclpllne. To many people,
student behavior patterns are related to the
instructor's attitudes toward discipline in
the lab or classroom. If the instructors are
authoritarian. they are considered good dis-
ciplinarians. If they allow considerable free-
dom in their classes, they may be labeled
permissive. This type of instructor labeling
is misleading. In fact, both types of instruc-
tors may succeed or fail in developing an
acceptable level of self discipline in their
students. The difference between success
and failure is rarely a matter of the
instructor's strictness. Rather, the differ-
erre is between those who spend adequate
time to prepare for instruction and those
who do not, between those who plan and
Organize every facet Of lab management
aM those who are satisfied with minimal
organization.
The concept Of self discipline is often
thought to be related to the maturity Of an
individual. The implication is that mature
students are self disciplined, and immature
students are not. An examination Of this
theory might serve useful. Maturity im-
plies a State Of development resulting from
education and experience. Obviously, many
students have limited amounts of these.
However, through judicious instructional
practices, an instructor can direct a student
toward self discipline.
The manner in which laboratory activi-
ties are organized and conducted has great
bearing on student discipline. Lack Of con-
structive work opportunities breeds trouble
among young people. whether at home. in
the community. ct. in the school laboratory.
In spite of the equipment and instrument
limitations inherent in most laboratories,
student inactivity can be minimized with
careful planning. The efficient organiza-
tion of laboratory activities is the ultimate
challenge for instructors.
Effective planning and organization en-
able students to progress at their own rates
of speed, unhampered by delays caused by
inefficient scheduling. One successful
scheduiing method includes posting rota-
tion systems for using equipment and in-
struments. Another is using self-tutorial
programmed resource materials to supple-
ment laboratory practice and to prevent
temporary student inactivity because Of
equipment or instrument shortages.
117
Student Instructor Relationship
and disruptive Behavior. An essen-
tial ingred ient of effective student-instruc-
tor relationships is an Of mu-
tual trust and cooperation. To attain this,
the instructor must treat all students with
equal respect and consideration. Prob
relating to student conduct should be re-
solved between the instructor md the
dent whenever possible. Student trust is
difficult to maintain when conduct prob-
lems are, repeatedly, referred to depart-
ment heads, principals, directors, or deans.
An exception is the handicapped
whose problems may interfere with
instructional process. Most instructors
not possess adequate professional prepara-
tion to deal with such problems and should
contact special education services for as-
sistance when they suspect that ttæse may
be the cause of unacceptable student
havior.
Student-instructor rapport is increased
when students receive instant recogni
for their accomplishments. Perceptive
structors also recognize that sonæ occupa-
(ional skills are more difficult to ma
than others. Therefore, they are careful to
provide rewards for success in areas o
than skill development. Students may re-
ceive recognition for their involvement in
laboratory maintenance and management
activities, for example. Actually, thesepe-
ripheral activities may assist students in
meeting many performance objectives not
skill related. An instructor's ræognition of
all of the productive accomplishments
the students in the laboratory instills a feel-
ing of responsibility in students. Treating
students as responsible adults may be diffi-
cult for instructors who are accustomed to
more authoritarian instructor-student rela-
lionships, bet most students respond posi-
tiyely to such an approach.
Generally. occupational education
classes seem to have fewer discipline prob-
lems than regular academic classrooms. To
students who have difficulty in adjusting
satisfactorily to classroom routines. the
laboratory's work-oriented atmosphere
seems more acceptable. Nevertheless, dis-
ruptive student behavior may occur in any
instructional setting. Some miscon-
duct is caused by family, halth. other
personal problems. Instructor recoøition
and understanding of such behavior is the
key to resolving these behavioral difficul-
Lack ofinterest and lack ofsuccess seem
to Sum up the reasons frequently given by
students for unacceptable behavior. Stu-
dents may lack interest in a course for
several reasons:
TEy are not convinced course
is beneficial.
• They arc uncertain about their 'bil-
ity to succeed in the course.
• Their efforts are not rewarded with
encouragement.
• They are not treated with sensitiv-
ity.
• They do not receive adequate indi-
vidual assistance.
The unharnessed energies of young
people can inflict painful damage to soci-
ety. Their misdirected energies can become
serious threats. especially if they are
coupled with the hatred and resentment
often bred in poverty. Occupational in-
structors are in a far more advantageous
position than their academic counterparts
to help disinterested students. In academic
programs class size often makes iMividu-
alized instruction impractical for instruc-
tors. while occupational classes usually
limited to more manageable sizes. Further-
more, the career-oriented nature Of the oc-
cupational course appeals to students con-
cerned about their future livelihood. Fi-
nally, the hands-on experiexe and other
applied activities which characterize occu-
pational education provide healthy outlets
for youthful energy.
Environmental Factors and BO•
havlor. The physical setting of the lab,
including heat. humidity, ventilation, light.
arxi the general condition Of 14b facilities,
has great influence on student conduct.
Excessive heat can produce adverse physi-
ological and psychological effects. Dro wsi-
118
ness a stuffy feeling, lassitude. inatten-
don. loss Of muscle tone, poor posture, loss
of vigor. a reluctance to work. and head-
guy result from high room tempera-
tures. If ttw temperature rises to an unusu-
ally high level, irritability and even acute
distress may occur (Weaver. 1959). Opti-
mum temperatures vary and depend on the
activity. Vigorous physical activity calls
for temperatures in the lower 60-degree
range: more sedentary work requires tem-
peratures in the 68- to 70-degrec range.
Humidity also affects physical comfort
and behavior. Excessively high levels pre-
vent the body from radiating into the atmo-
sphere. Low humidity dries out the body •s
mucous tissues, and lowers its defenses
against respiratory infections and irrita-
tion. A relative humidity level of about 50
percent at twrmal room temperatures is
desirable.
The purpose Of ventilation is to supply
the with an adequate amount of oxy-
gen and to remove body moisture. Whether
proper ventilation is achieved through open
doors and windows or a mechanical venti-
lation system. air with a high degree Of
purity is the objective. Air conditioning is
an elaboration of mechanical ventilation
which also removes air pollutants and uses
cooling coils.
High color contrasts in laboratory Sur-
roundings should be kept at a minimum.
Large dark surfaces should be avoided.
Extreme differences in color in the field of
vision beyond the task at hand cause fa-
tigue. However, there should be sufficient
contrast within the task.
The instructor Should also be correrned
about glare. Sun glare is relatively easy to
control with shades or blinds. but reflec-
tions from highly polished surfaces are
more difficult to reduce. If they can not be
dulled, then they should be covered with
matte finish. Bookcases with glass doors
and display Cases produce strong glare.
When audio-visual materials are used,
the lights should bc adjusted. Approxi-
mately two foot-candles of light are neces-
sary to view colored projections, and four
foot-candles to view blxk and white pro-
jections. At least ten foot-candles are nec-
essary to take notes during projectiohs.
The physical of the labora-
tory as a whole influences student attitude
and conduct to a considerable extent. Ig-
noring adverse conditions in any Of the
previously mentioned categori& can lead
to increasing student discontent.' Good
housekeeping is important not only for the
sake of cleanliness, but also because Of its
effect on student behavior. A clean and
orderly lab provides a good environment
for learning and leads to improved student
conduct. The general condition of win-
dows, lighting fixtures, furniture, floors,
chalkboards. and bulletin boards is just as
important as the condition of instruments,
equipment, and tools. While necessary
maintenance may be handled by the custo-
dians, it is theinstructor's responsibility to
make certain that the students have a clean,
safe, and comfortable laboratory environ-
Sharing Laboratories
At most large in-
stitutions. two Or rnore may teach
classes in the same laboratory. Each may
be a part Of a team teaching situation. One
may teach a course in only one part Of the
lab, while another uses a different area in
the same room; or each may teach in the
same lab aloæ, but at different times of the
day.
Whenever two Or more instructors share
facilities, they must clearly understand their
individual responsibilities in managing the
laboratory. When two or more groups oc-
cupy the lab at the same time, the develop-
ment of a mutually satisfactory arrange-
ment for instructional space is especially
important. Friction is bound to develop if
the student groups and instructor do not
respect and consider each other's activities
and needs.
TO resolve possible problems generated
by multi-instructor use of industrial educa-
tion laboratories, Thomas P. Terry and
James B. Hein (1974) offer these sugges-
119
tions. which stress the need for unity and
cooperation among instructors:
• Adequate opportunity for all in-
structorS to participate in develop-
ing or modifying laboratory opera-
lion policies
Academic freedom. which gives
the opportunity for each instructor
to work in his own way toward the
objectives of the program
• Good communications throughout
the department and the administra-
tion
Security provisions for student projects and
property under mutt igroup conditions must
be tightly controlled. The preferred way to
accomplish this is for each class or group to
have its own lockable storage area.
The areas of greatest concem in such
multiuse arrangements are housekeeping,
equipment and supply control, and equip-
ment maintenance. If the laboratory man-
agement system is to succeed, it is impera-
live that all instructors using the lab de-
velop a coordinated operation. The instru-
ment. tool. and supply control system
should be the same for all users of the lab.
Few things are more frustrating to lab in-
slructors than finding their well planned
and organized laboratories left in disarray
by others. Misplaced or missing instru-
ments and supplies at the beginning of an
instructional period raise havoc with a
planned program of lab activities. Such
conditions not only interfere with planned
activities. but also have a demoralizing
effect On students. Regular full-time in-
stmctors who use the same laboratory at
different times should not find it difficult
to establish and coordinate uniform labora-
lory månagement procedures. Usually , good
channels of communication. such as regu-
larly scheduled staff meetings, can help
accomplish this.
Coordination bet weenfull-time andpart-
time instructors who use the sarne facility
at different times is more complicated. Fre-
qucntly, part-time instructors are employed
elsewhere on a full-time basis and. conse-
quently, 'ire unable to attend faculty meet-
ings or communicate satisfactorily with
other faculty members. Their primary com-
mitrrrnt must be to their full-time jobs.
Because of this, special efforts, no matter
how difficult, should be made to involve
the part-time instructor in discussions af-
fecting laboratory procedures.
It is advisable that full-time instructors
who share labs contact newly appointed
part-time instructors and brief them about
existing laboratory policies and procedures.
Such assistance is very helpful to the new
instructor who may be inexperienced in
managing an instructional laboratory.
Newly appointed experienced teachers. of
course. also appreciate such up-to-date in-
formation. The rewards of such briefings
are far reaching: they help insure smooth-
running lab operations.
Differentiated Staffing
Differentiated staffing is an organiza-
(ional plan which utilizes a variety ofedu-
cational personnel: professionals. parapro-
fessionals. and aides. The original concept
for such staffing included seven categories
within the instructional tcam: auxiliary
support staff. interns. teacher aides,
associate teachers. staff teachers, senior
teachers. and master professional teachers
(Storm, 1970). Differentiated staffing rec-
ognizeg differences among instructors by
assigning roles to team members on the
basis ofexperience, training. ability, inter-
est. and the difficulty Of tasks. This frame-
work had positive implications for voca-
tional education. but it failed to gain a
foothold in its initial form, possibly be.
cause of estimated high operating costs.
An interesting variation of differenti-
ated staffing evolved from an experimental
teacher education project at Temple Uni-
versity in 1973-74 (Adamsky. 1973). The
thrust of this program was field-based vo-
cational teacher education. The differenti-
ated staff was composed of the intern, resi-
dent resource person (master teacher). field
resource person (assists 12 to 15 interns),
senior teacher educator (coordinates work
of resource persons), and council of
120
educators (evaluates intern and makes cer-
tification recommendations). The lines
of responsibilities as they affect laboratory
management are easy to establish in this
setting.
The Temple University plan concentrates
on the intern's development of instruc-
tional management competencies. The in-
terns complete a set of instructional mod-
ules during their internship at an area voca-
tional-technical education center. Manag-
ing laboratory equipment for maximum
utilization is an example of one required
module; establishing a system for obtain-
ing service for laboratory equipment is
another. Success in this type of laboratory
management is keyed to effective supervi-
sion of the intern.
A more common form of differentiated
staffing includes an instructor, an intern or
student teacher, and a teacher aide. Under
this arrangement the basic management
responsibilities belong to the instructor,
who then assigns specific tasks to the aide
and the students.
Either team teaching or differentiated
staffing mandates a more rigid adherence
to structured management practices than
would be necessary for a single instructor
handling the laboratory. Before granting a
student's request for waiver of a particular
lab rule, the instructor should consider the
position of a fellow it.structor who earlier
might have refused the request. To avoid
such embarrassing situations, the team must
functionas a unit. In team teaching, a clearly
written statement should specify the re-
sponsibilities of each instructor in connec-
tion with budget preparation, supply pur-
chase requests, equipment purchase re-
quests, and equipment maintenance. With-
out an explicit definition of each team
member's role in managing the lab,
workload distributions become uneven, and
poor staff relationships can result.
summary
The managerial ability of instructors
comes into sharp focus when the methods
they use to plan student activities are ex-
amined. Those with limited management.
abilities may attempt to keep student paf-
ticipation at a minimal level and try to
perform all of the necessary lab functions
themselves. They may involve only a few
students in operational chores, or they may
insist that paid employees are necessary to
perform all laboratory services.
Occupational education laboratories
which are operated without student parti-
cipation represent wasted educational op-
portunity. Well planned student personnel
procedures, which resemble those of com-
mercial, industrial, or public service labo-
ratories, have considerable educational
value. Frequently, they provide Outleß for
hidden student talents, interests, and abili-
ties. Efficient personnel plans enable the
student to attain numerous program ob-
jectives through such functional assignr
ments as recep tionist. service manager , stor-
age room attendant, and maintenance as,
sistant.
Personnel planning also deals with in-
stmctional assignments. Using an efficient
scheduling system for work-station assign-
ments is almost a necessity so that all stu-
dents in the program have equal opportu-
nity to familiarize themselves with an of
the work stations and equipment required
by the program objectives.
Student conduct is influenced by the
quality and effectiveness of the instructor' s
plan to utilize personnel. When students
understand their work assignments and re-
sponsibilities. their attitude and behavior
are usually cooperative. Student morale
can be raised when plans for students are
well defined and presented.
121
Bab 8
Even the best planned occupational
education programs may fail without ad-
equate financial support. Instructors must
accept two fundamentals in connection
with school finances. Since public schools
are agencies of state or community gov-
emments, (1) all Of their funds are desig-
nated for specific expenditures; and (2)
they may not incur expenditures that have
not been previously approved by their gov-
eming boards. School budget prepara-
tion begins approximately eight months
prior to the Fall semester, the traditional
beginning of the school year. Department
heads are usually asked to submit their
budget documents for the following school
year by the end of the previous fall semester
When instructional, administrative. and
supporting service departments have com-
pleted and submitted their budget propos-
als, the institution's budget officer com.
bines all estimates in each budget category
to obtain the institution's total proposed
expenditures. This document frequently
includes the following categories: Admin-
istration, Instruction, Attendance and
Health Services. Student Transportation
Services, Operation Of Plant, Maintenance
of Plant, Fixed Charges, Food Services and
Student Body Activities. Community
Services, Capital Outlay. Debt Service.
Payments to Other School Districts, and
Emergency.
Some school administrators combine
annual budget requests with purchase re-
quests. The staff is asked to submit all
purchase requests for the next year before
the end Of Fall semester. The requests are
not processed until the school budget is
approved. but they are used to calculate the
budget. The purchase requests in each bud-
get category are combined, and the to(al
becomes the estimate for the school budget
document.
When all Of the budget information has
been collected and combined. the total
planned expenditures are compared with
the expected revenues from local, state.
and federal Sources. Even with special ad •
ditional funding for occupational educa-
tional programs, the proposed expenditures
may be greater than-the anticipated rev-
enue. The institution or school district must
then decide whether it is more feasible to
attempt to increase the revenue or reduce
the budget. Frequently, both measures are
necessary.
125
Revenue sources
An analysis Of the primary sources of
basic school revenues (fig. 22) shows that
public schools receive a large portion of
their funds from local taxes. which must be
approved by voters through local elections.
Sometimes Obtaining additional revenue
through local election is difficult.
Occupational education programs. due
to their inherently high operating and facil-
ity costs. receive additional financial Sup-
port from State and federal sources. State
funds are allocated chiefly on the basis of
student enrollment figures. The funding
forrnulas Cannot be altered to suit indi-
vidual school-district needs. Pedcral finan-
cial assistance to local schools is usually
designated for specific purposes and can-
not be used for Other school expenditures.
Federal support to vocational education
dates back to 1917 when Congress passed
the Smith-Hughes Act. nis act recognized
that vocational education had a special
need for additional financial support be-
yond that of academic instruction. It is also
important because it set the Stage for the
passage of other vocational education leg-
islation.
General Budget
considerations
It is vital that all occupational instruc-
tors develop their budget requests care-
fully, with complete justification docu-
mentation. Then, if budget cutting becomes
necessary, their requests can withstand
expert scrutiny. Of course, when the in-
structional budget deficiency is great, few
instructors can completely avoid reduc-
tions in their budget proposals. However,
the largest cuts are usually made in those
requests which have poor documentation.
New Or replacement equipment requests
are cut rnost Often when reductions are
necessary. Requests for instructional Sup-
plies arc reduced less frequently, for their
curtailment can seriously affect the in-
structional program. The lab must have
minimal but adequate equipment to be eli-
gible for vocational funding. Additional Or
better equipment may improve instruction.
but lack of supplies can kill the program.
While it is true that new equipment, if
well serviced and maintained. can serve the
curriculum for a number of years. labora-
tory instructors need to develop a long-
range schedule for new and replacement
equipment purchases. Such planning
equipment purchase expenses can be spread
fairly evenly over a period of tinw; thus,
each year's equipment purchase requests
can be reduced to a reasonable quantity.
(See Equipment chapter 2.)
This approach also aids school adaünistra-
tors in reducing excessive budget fluctua-
lions from year to year.
Budget Planning sequence
The following sequence is a highly con-
densed schedule Of the events which pre-
cede final adoption Of ttæ school budget.
The dates are Only approximat ions and may
vary greatly. Other steps may be necessary
if requests for additional revenue are turæd
down by voters. If such requests must be
submitted to the voters several times (step
7), final budget approval may be delayed
for quite some time:
l. Request for budget information to
departrnent heads from institutional
budget officer (December)
2. Request for budget information to
instructors from department heads
(December)
3. Budget information to department
heads by instructors (mid-January)
4. Departmental budget proposal pre-
pared by department head submit-
ted to budget officer (end Of Janu-
ary)
5. Institutional budget proposal pre-
pared by budget officer (February)
6. Proposed institutional budget pre-
sented at open public hearing
(March)
7. Election held to increase revenue
funds. if necessary (March)
8. Budget approved by governing
board of institution or school dis-
trict (May)
126
Instructors Role In Budget
Planning
Occupational education instructors have
definite responsibilities, basically mana-
gerial in nature, in connection with prepa-
ration of the school budget. Instructors are
accountable to their superiors for prepar-
ing a budget estimate indicating antici-
pated supply, equipment, maintenance. and
bu ilding expenses for their areas or respon-
sibilities (Mays & Casberg, 1950).
Since budgeting practices and account-
ing procedures vary, the in the
following instructor' s budget are intended
to be representative Of those frequentlv
found in occupational education. Those
categories which may deserve special at-
tcntion and definition are discussed fol-
lowing the budget outline:
l. Capital outlay
1.1. Equipment (new)
1.2, Facilities
1.21. Laboratory alterations
.22. Major building additions
2. Instruction
2.1. Supplies
2. I l. Expendable supplies
2.12. Nonexpendable supplies
2.13. Instructional aids (A-V)
2.14. Periodicals
2.2. Other Expenses Of Instruction
2.21. Equipment rental
2.22. Container rental (demurragc)
2.23. Audio-visual material rental
2.24. Transportation for field trips
2.25. Transportation Of students to
off-campus instructional fa-
cilities
2.26. Co-op supervision expenses
3. Maintenance Of plant
3.1. Materials and supplies
3.2. Replacement of equipment
3.3. Contracted services
3.4. Emcrgcncy scryiccs
New Equipment. Requests for new
equipmcnl should bc made on the basis Of
instructional needs. after considering per-
formance objectives and the identifiable
function of the equipment. Gaining the
approval and support Of the program advi-
sory committee is advised whenever the
purchase Of new equipment is contemplated.
The governing board Of the institution may
be more inclined to approve the request if it
has gained this support. Requests for new
equipment for existing laboratories should
be accompanied by written justifications.
(See chapter 2.)
Expendable and Nonexpendable
Supplies. Supply lists. generally. are not
required for budget presentations. How-
ever. instructors should present them to
their department heads since they form the
basis for the supply budget request. Having
the supply list prepared with adequate speci-
freations facilitates the ordering of sup-
plies when the budget is approved.
Usuaally. naper, notebooks, and general
office supplies are purchased for the insti—
tution or the school district as a whole.
Therefore. they are generally not included
in departmental budgets. Similarly, video-
tapes. films, and standard audio-visual
equipment and supplieS are included in
library or instructional resource-center bud-
gets, not in occupational education depart-
mental budgets. While these arrangements
arc customary , except ions do occur. Highly
specialized . self-tutorial or simulation
equipment and supplies for specific labora-
lories. auto service and model office for
example. are usually budgeted through the
occupational education department.
As discussed in chapter 2. many institu-
tions simplify their bookkeeping proce-
durcsby using established cost cutoffpoints
to determine whether an item is designated
as supplies or equipment. The budget pro-
posal must adhere to these designations.
Demurrage. Suppliers of products de-
livered in large. expensive metal contain-
ers charge customers for the use Of these
containers when the containers are not re-
turned after a reasonable length of time.
Lkmurrage is the compensation which the
user pays: it is similar to a rental charge.
The container rental charge for the com-
pressed gas cylinders used in allied health
and industrial education programs is de-
murrage charge.
128
Wtn the instructional laboratory uses
large quantities of compressed gas. demur-
rage costs are usually negligible. Contain-
ers are used quickly and haye a rapid turn-
over. Ownership Of the gas cywers in
such cÆes would not be worthwhile. How-
ever, when compressed gas is used infre-
quently, it becomes less expensive to pur-
cruse the gas cylinders than to use those
provided by the supply firms. Demurrage
costs would probably exceed the purchase
price of the containers in this situation.
Transfer Of ownership of gas cylin-
ders from the supplier to the school also
transfers the responsibility for inspection
and testing of the containers. Instructors
must be cognizant of the Intersta'• Com-
merce Commission regulations whi sh re-
quire that cåmpressed gas cylinders be in-
spected and tested periodically.
Transportation. Travel expenses
should be estimated for field trips and pro-
fessional activities. Since most institutions
limit field-trip expenses, instructors need
to determine school policies on these be-
fore preparing budget requests. The in-
structional value of the proposed trip should
be great enough to compensate for having
students miss classes on the day of the trip.
Since fees for using school buses are estab-
lished on a mileage basis, field-trip ex-
penses are simple to estimate.
Field trips for occupational education
students which require Overnight accom-
modations are not common. Such arrange-
ments would represent a large financial
outlay for a relatively small percentage of
the student body. In some instances, how-
ever, civic. private organizations or indus-
trial or commercial firms may underwrite
the expenses of an overnight trip. This
would help alleviate concem that the edu-
cational experience may be limited to those
who can afford it.
Policies concerning faculty participa-
tion in professional activities which re-
quire travel vary. While few deny the im-
portance and value of such faculty experi-
ences. budget priorities determine the ac-
tuat money available for such activities.
Participation in professional activities
should not interfere with the instructional
program. Instructors should make appro-
priate arrangements and provide written
instructions for substitutes while they are
away So that the normal course schedule
will not be interrupted.
Budget requests to participate in profes-
sianl activities include: (l) Description of
tiE activity (for example, to attend annual
meeting Of the state Vocational Associa-
tion)•, (2) estirnated travel cxlwnses based
on public transportation rates, reimburse-
ment for private-car mileage. or school
vehicle usage rates; (3) meal expenses based
on school district allowance per meal; (4)
lodging expenses based on school district
allowance per day; and (5) conference reg-
istration fæs. Other mi scellaneous expenses
such as toll-road fees and parking may be
included when appropriate.
Maintenance of Plant. Designated
maintenance expenses include the cost Of
periodic services on lab equipment. Ttæse
costs are based on either estimates supplied
by service firms or the estimated cost 'of
supplies needed when the maintenance ser -
vice is performed by personnel or
students. Nondesignated maintenance funds
are requested for possible future equipment
breakdowns. It is advisable to budget funds
for such an eventuality: the money is used
for emergency repairs only.
Painting, floor resurfacing, and sound-
proofing are typical building maintenance
items. Internal changes in walls, built-in
fixtures, and partitions are also in this bud-
get category. Estimates for such renova-
tions should be obtained from the
institution • s plant maintenarre department.
Budget items for building renovations are
either charged against the maintenance
department or included in a department's
budget. In either case, the responsibility
for initiating such work rests with the in-
structor.
Whettær all Of the budget items just
discussed are requested through the
instructor's department Or through Other.
departments does not matter. Budget iterns
129
that need to be included in Other depart-
mental budgets will be rerouted accord-
ingly by the deputment head. It is essen-
tial , however, that each instructor prepare a
budget estimate which indicates anticipated
equipment. supply. building and mainte-
nance expenses in his/her designated lab
Department Head's ROIe In
Budget preparation
The preparation and submission Of the
departmental budget to the school budget
Officer is the responsibility Of the depart-
ment head or d ivisionchainnan. Frequently ,
the department head is a member Of the
instructional staff who has additional part-
time edministrative responsibilities. ms
type of administration is peculiar to certain
professional areas. In business Or industry,
when a technician. nurse, or secretary is
designated as an administrator or supervi-
sor, the new role implies full-time manage-
rial or supervisory work and authority. In
contrast, many administrative appointments
among lawyers. physicians, architects, and
leachers are held in addition to their basic
professional jobs. In education, for ex-
ample. the head Of the business education
department is normally an instructor who
is compensated for the additional adminis-
trative responsibi lilies with a reduced teach-
ing load.
While department heads are expected to
be knowledgeable in all of the subject spe-
cialtics in their departments. their techni-
cal expertise is usually limited to their Own
occupational fields. When departments
encompass diverse occupational areas, the
department head must rely heavily on the
instructors' specialized knowledge and
abilities to judge the needs of their labora-
tones. A department head who is an elec-
tronics specialist, for example. cannot be
expected to be familiar with the supply
and equipment needs Of the food-service
technology laboratory. In a health
lions department Or division, a department
head vith a nursing background will lack
the expertise necessary to evaluate the
Needs of optical technology curriculum.
Thus, there are no absolute, clear-cut
delineations of budget preparatory roles in
occupational education. Officially, the de-
partrnent heads are responsible for prepar-
ing their departments ' budgets. but in real-
ity the instructors Or groups of instructors
sharing a laboratory are the key people in
this endeavor. The major function of the
department head in budget preparation is
soliciting and collecting staff recomnæn-
tions in the major budget categories, and
rganizing this information into a single
departmental budget document. A second
but equally important budgetary function
deals with budget justification. The depart-
ment head must be certain that detailed
written justifications accompany all capi-
tal outlay requests.
Another necessary role of the depart-
ment head is in budget cutting. If the bud-
get requests exceed available funds. priori-
ties must be established, and expenditures
for low priority items must be reduced.
Priority designations should be provided
by the requesting staff members. Many
department heads ask staff members to as-
sign priority numbers to each capital outlay
request, which are extreaæly valuable if
budget Cuts are necessary. Some may con-
sider such a system of priorities unwork-
able since an instructor could designate all
requests with high priority numbers. How-
ever, the equipmentjustification statement
which accompanies all capital outlay re-
quests would be meaningless if it did not
correlate with the priority designations.
Also, uniform high-priority designations
for all requests without adequate support-
ing justification would reveal an unprofes-
Sional attitude.
Program Budgeting and
Planning
Program budgeting in cxcupationaledu-
cation bases laboratory equipment and Sup-
ply requests completely On projected num-
ber of students trained for a particular oc-
cupation. These laboratory-based programs.
which have relatively low student-teacher
134
ratios, are far more expensive to establish
and operate than academic programs. For
this reason. budgeting, which
Stresses functions rather than specific bud-
get items, is well suited to occupational
education budget planning (Fazzini, 1974).
Equipment costs for occupational edu-
cation laboratories are frequently so high
that initial lab furnishings. adequate for
teaching basic concepts, may lack many
other units necessary for advanced instruc-
tion. Initial planning to completely equtp a
lab to serve all levels of instruction tin.
cluding the upgrading of trained workers in
a field) usually requires a long-range equip-
ment purchase plan for several years. Long-
range planning is advisable even when an
institution obtains adequate funds to com-
pletely equip the laboratory immediately.
The long-range plan should then consider
anticipated equipment modernization. Units
considered impractical when the labora-
tory initially planned may es-
sential in succeeding years.
The Program Planning, Budgeting , and
Evaluating System (PPBES) is an integrated
budgeting system in education, which
brings together personnel. facilities. equip-
ment. and supplies to achieve a set of ob-
jectiyes. The system operates on the as-
sumption that the attainment of educational
objectives can be measured and, conse-
quently. educational output of instruc-
tional programs is also measurable. PPB ES
is an approach which attempts to join bud-
get and educational planning into a single
package.
Instructional programs are grouped into
regular. special, and adult/continuing. then
divided into goals and objectives. These
goals and performance objectives are ana-
lyzed and organized into procedures, ac-
tivities. programs. and courses. Objectives
are then divided still further into the per-
foanance Objectives for each occupational
education program and for each course
within the program. When the educational
results of these objectives are identified.
program evaluation and relating cost to
effectiveness becomes possible. For a more
detailed description, see the work by
Charles T. Roberts and Allen Lichtenberger
(1973).
Multiyar planning, an essential part of
PPBES. enables the projection Of total ex-
penditures for an educational program.
Since occupational education expenses in-
clude costs for special facilities, supplies.
and maintenance i addition to
salaries aM Other standard school expenses,
the involvement of the instructor in such
educational planning is imperative.
The ultimate aim of PPBES is to provide
cost-per-student estimates for each cur-
riculum, with the educational objectives
met as planned. five years in advance
(Semple & West. 1982). This, Of course, is
extremely difficult. The planner hai no
control over such important variables as
enrollment, abilities of students, or unpre•
dictable changes in the students' lives. In
spite of these difficulties, educators have
no choice but to base their planning efforts
on expected educational accompl i shments.
The Costs of education are becoming so
formidable that the public demands budget
planning that is as productive as possible.
summary
Instructors should realize the importance
Of their assistance in school budget prepa-
ration. Accordingly. they must develop their
own budget requests carefully and include
completejustification documentation when
They must indicate anticipated
supply (expendable and nonexpendable),
equipment, maintenance, and building ex-
penses for their areas of responsibility.
Some other expenses of instructional pro-
grams include multimedia aids, container
rental (demurrage), transportation for field
trips, and transportation to attend profes-
Sional activities.
The preparation and submission of de.
partrnental budgets is the responsibility of
department heads. However, since 'their
expertise is usually limited to their own
occupational fields, they must rely heavily
On instructors' specialized knowledge and
judgment about nutters pertaining to their
135
particular laboratories. Department heads
also deal with budget cutting if it becomes
necésary. Establishing a System of priori-
ties is one way to approach the problem Of
eliminating Or reducing budget items.
Instructors must keep in mind that since
public schools are funded from local, state,
or federal sources. all funds appropriated
must be designated for specific expendi-
turcs, and each expenditure must be ap-
proved in advance by the governing boards
of the schools.
The costs Of occuphional education—
instrurnents, equipment, materials, com-
mercial supplies—are inherently hi gh. Oc-
cupational laboratory courses require more
funds than are usually necessary for class-
room-oriented academic programs. All
those involved must see that public funds
are used prudently. Instructors of occupa-
tional education programs have a vital role
to play in this effort.