Heat & Thermodynamics, Waves & Sound Electrostatics, Current Electricity Magnetic Effects of Electric Current, Light, Nuclear Physics Measurement Simple Machinesee een es ee ee ne ena Physics UNIT-4 HEAT & THERMODYNAMICS, WAVES & SOUND 4. HEAT& THERMODYNAMICS = Thermometry & thermal expansion : © Heat : Heat isthe form of energy which flows between a system and its surroundings asa result of temperature difference between them. | > Heat naturally flows from high temperature to low temperature. © Temperature : When you hold a glass of cold drink with ice, you feel a sharp sensation in your hand that we describe as “cold.” Likewise, you experience a “hot” feeling when you touch a cup of hot coffee. We often associate temperature with how hot or cold an object feels when we touch it. Our sense of touch serves as a qualitative indicator of temperature. Thus, in simple words, “ the measure of degree of hotness or coldness of a body” fs called its temperature. But, this sensation of hot or cold also depends on the temperature ofthe skin and therefore can be misleading. ‘The same object may feel warm or cool, depending on the properties of the object and on the conditions of xyour body. Determining an object's temperature with precision requires a standard definition of temperature and a procedure for making measurements that establish how “hot” or “cold” objects are. © Energy must be either added to or removed from a substance to change its temperature. ‘© Thermal equilibrium : It isthe state in which two bodies in physical contact with each other have identical temperatures. © Zeroth law of thermodynamics : It two bodies A and B are in thermal equilibrium with a third body C, then A and B must be in thermal equilibrium with each other. © Thermometry : The branch of physics that deals with measurement of temperature, temperature scales and temperature measuring devices is called thermometry. © Thermometer : It isan instrument used for measuring the temperature of a substance. © Temiperature scales : To measure temperature two fixed points are taken on thermometers or temperature ‘measuring device. In old thermometry, one fixed point is the melting point of ice (or freezing point of water) called ice point lower fixed point). The other fixed point isthe boiling point of water called steam point (upper fixed point). In modem thermometry, instead of two fixed points only one point is taken which is ‘triple temperature point of water’. © Triple point : itis that condition of temperature and pressure at which all the three states of matter ‘namely, solid, liquid and gas co-exist in equilibrium with each other. This point is unique for every substance ice, it occurs at a fixed temperature and fixed pressure for a given substance. For example, triple point of water is 0.01 °C at a pressure of 4.6 mm of mercury. Centigrade scale (°C) or Celsius scale : The upper and lower fixed points of Centigrade scale are 100 ‘Cand 0°C. Fahrenheit scale (°F) : The upper and lower fixed points of Fahrenheit scale are 212 F and 32 °F. Reaumur Scale (°R) : The upper and lower fixed points of Reaumur scale are 80 ‘R and OR. Kelvin Scale (K)': The upper and lower fixed points of Kelvin scale are 373 K and 273 K. Rankine Scale (Ra) : The upper and lower fixed points on Rankine scale are 672 “Ra and 492 “Ra. Relation between different temperature scales: c-0 F-32 R-0 _ K~-273 Ra-492 T-LFP. 212-32 80-0 373-273 672-492 UFP.-LFP -0_F-32_R-0_K-273_Ra-492 T-LFP. «jor “130 “80 “100 180 UFP.-LFP Where, T is temperature of any scale, L.F-P is lower fixed point, U.F.P is upper fixed point. © Ato, [© _F=32_R _T-273 _Ra-492 59 4" 5 9 ene 4S Php UNTO gs T ol 1 ee ErEnnnaannnnEEnnnNnESO in ‘© The change in temperature on diferent scales are : SC. AF AR AT Ra 5.9 4 5 9 © Example : The temperature of human body is 37 °C, what is its equivalent temperature in Fahrenheit scale ? Solution : We know tha, € = or F-32=2%37 66.6 or F=66.6+32-98.6F @ Example : At which temperature the Celsius and the Fahrenheit scales are equal ? ‘Solution : Let Celsius and Fahrenheit readings are same at x °C (or x “Fi.e., C=F =x x 5 9 or 9x=5x-160 or 4x=-160 or x=-160/4=-40 This means, ~40 °C is equal to - 40 F. © Example : If change in Fahrenheit temperature is 36 °F then what is corresponding change in Celsius scale temperature ? or 9x = 5fx- 32) Solition : We know that, 3 =4E op SE=38 op aca 36x5=20°C © Absolute zero : There's. limit to how cold matter can get. As the temperature is reduced, molecules move more and more slowly. When the temperature gets down to absolute zero, molecules have the lowest eneray they can have and the temperature cannot get any lower. You can think of absolute zero as the temperature where molecules ae completely frozen, with no motion, Absohte ero occurs at ~ 273.15°C or 459 °F co 0 K. You cannot have a temperature lower than absolute zero. > Atabsolute zero there is no heat, no kinetic energy, but there is attractive potential energy between the molecules. > While absolute zeros the lower imi for temperature, there is no practical upper limit. Temperature can 90 up almost indefinitely. At very high temperatures, the matter becomes a plasma. In a plasma, atoms are broken apart into separate positive ions and negative electrons. © The Kelvin scale : A temperature in Celsius measures only relative thermal energy, relative to ero Celsius. The Kelvin temperature scale is useful in science because it starts at absolute zero. A temperature in Kelvins measures the actual energy of atoms relative to zero energy. > Kelvin scale is also called ‘thermodynamic scale’ or ‘absolute temperature scale’. ‘Types of thermometers : © Liquid thermometers : These thermometers work on the principle of change in the volume of a liquid with the change in temperature. The liquids usually utlised in these thermometers are mercury and alcohol. The temperature range for a mercury thermometer - 50 °C to 357 °C but the range can be increased to 550. by lng togen nthe pace over mec ohn ner high res. Tempera age for alcohol is-80 °C to 78 °C. © Gas thermometer : These thermometers work on the principle of change in pressure or volume of a Z| with temperature. These thermometers are of two types (a) constant volume gas thermometer (b) constant, pressure gas thermometer. Gases used are usually air, hydrogen , helium. A constant volume hydrogen. based gas thermometer has a temperature range ~200 °C to 500 °C. © Resistance thermometer : These thermometers work on the principle of change in resistance with the | change in temperature. Using a platinum resistance thermometer range of temperature for a resistance thermometer is - 200 °C to 1200 °C. i ‘© Some other thermometers are (a) Bimetallic thermometers (2) Thermocouple thermometers (c) pyrometers j > Pyrometer are used to measure very high temperatures, usually > 1000 °C till 4000 °C. ] ‘Thermometric property (T-P.) : The property of materials used for the measurement of temperature in a. thermometer is called ‘thermometric property’. For example, in aliquid thermometer, volume or the length’ ofthe liquid column. In a resistance thermometer, electric resistance R is used as thermometric property. In a gas thermometer, volume or pressure is used as thermometric property.A Physics ————— it Where, X, = TP. att °C; X, = TP. at 0 °C; Xigp = TP, at 100 °C, t = unknown temperature in °C © Inmodem thermometry, Te Xxt, =r z7.16 Where, X = T.P. at unknown temperature T kelvin ; X, = T.P at triple point of water ; T, = temperature of triple point of water = 273.16 K © Example : When a constant volume gas thermometer is placed in melting ice, boiling water and in an unknown hot bath, the pressure of the gas at constant volume are found to be 1 m, 1.3m and 1.8 mof ‘mercury respectively. Find the unknown temperature. ‘Solution : Melting ice means the temperature is 0 °C thus, P, = 1 mof Hg ; boiling water means the temperature is 100 °C thus, Pyop = 1.3 m of Hg ; pressure at unknown temperature, P, = 1.8 m. here, we apply formula of old thermometry, e P-Py 18-1 i t= FLTb 100 = 757x100 = 266.6 °C © Thermal expansion : Increasing the temperature of a substance causes the volume of the substance to increase. This increase occurs not only for gases but also for liquids and solids. This phenomenon is known as thermal expansion. 7 © Linear expansion : The change in any linear dimension of a solid such as length, width or thickness is called ¥ ‘linear expansion’. | - Let a wire of length L is heated to increase its temperature by AT. Let the increase in its length is AL. Now, aLeL fA AT or AL LAT n LAT Where, a = coefficient of linear expansion. s © The coefficient of linear expansion s defined asthe fractional change in length per unit change in temperature © Units of a are °C? or K*, © Area expansion : The change in area of a solid due to change inits temperatures called ‘area expansion’ | Let a solid of surface aea A is heated to increase its temperature by AT. Let the increase in ts area is AA. Now, AAA aT or AA=BAAT Where, = coefficient of area expansion/superfcial expansion. Also, B= & © The coefficient of area expansion is defined as the fractional change in area per unit change in temperature © Units off are °C? or K". © Volumetric expansion : The change in volume ofa substance due to change in its temperature i called ‘volumetric expansion’. The substance here may be solid, liquid or gas Let a substance of volume V is heated to increase its temperature by AT. Let the increase in its volume is av. Now, AV VAT or AV=yVAT Where, f = coefficient of area expansion/superficial expansion. av h e 2 r ? 3 i ‘pode0\SOABONCRSE\Eecellet modul\¢ Also, 1 = Vat © The coefficient of volumetric expansion is defined as the fractional change in volume per unit change in temperature. It is also called coefficient of cubical expansion, © Units of y are °C or 4, © Relationship between «, fry: [¢=8 seh BCE mee Pr ANAS USN ys 3 i