ANATOMY

AND
PHYSIOLOGY
MODULE 3
(The Cell)

Prepared by:

MARICEL L. DATOY, RN, MAN, LPT

Instructor
MARICEL L. DATOY, RN, MAN, LPT
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Introduction:

All living organisms are composed of cells. A cell is a small, membrane-bound compartment that
contains all the chemicals and molecules that help support an organism's life. An understanding of the
structure of cells is one of the first steps in comprehending the complex cellular interactions that direct
and produce life.
Cells can be thought of as building blocks of organisms. Some organisms are composed of a single
cell. Others, like ourselves, are composed of millions of cells that work together to perform the more
complex functions that make us different from bacteria. It is difficult to imagine that humans are
descendants of a single cell, but this is a common belief in the scientific world. Before we can
understand how multiple cells can work together to create complex biological functions, it is necessary
to understand what biological functions single cells are capable of performing on their own to sustain
life.

Objectives:

At the end of this lesson, you should be able to:

1. Define cytology,
2. State the cell theory and discuss the cell theory as to Scientists involved and their contributions
3. Enumerate four major elements of the cell and discuss the four vital functions
4. Give the two major parts, two major fluids of the cell environment and components
5. Discuss the different parts of the cells and cytoplasmic organelles as to: (a.) Location and
structure (b.) Composition (c.) Vital functions and physiology
6. Discuss ATP (adenosine triphosphate) as to: (a.) Composition (b.) Function (c.) Significance in
cellular functions
7. State three major ways on how the cell obtain nutrients from surrounding fluid and major types
of cell movement

Definition of Terms:
Cell- the smallest structural and functional unit of an organism, typically microscopic and consisting of
cytoplasm and a nucleus enclosed in a membrane.
Cytostol- is the intra-cellular fluid that is present inside the cells.
Cytoplasm- is a thick solution that fills each cell and is enclosed by the cell membrane. It is mainly
composed of water, salts, and proteins. In eukaryotic cells, the cytoplasm includes all of the
material inside the cell and outside of the nucleus.
Organelle- a specialized entity present inside a particular type of cell that performs a specific
function,various cell organelles, out if which, some are common in most types of cells like
cell membranes, nucleus, and cytoplasm.
Biomolecule- or biological molecule refers to molecules largely composed of compounds that
contain carbon present in organisms that are essential to one or more typically biological
processes, such as cell division, morphogenesis, or development.
Adenosine triphosphate (ATP)-an energy-carrying molecule found in the cells of all living things.
ATP captures chemical energy obtained from the breakdown of food molecules and
releases it to fuel other cellular processes.

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Discussion:

Cellular Organization

Cytology is the study of Cell. It is medical and scientific examination of microscopic

appearance of individual cells and small clusters of cells that may be used for the diagnosis and
screening of diseases of cells, especially for abnormalities and malignancies, it plays in early detection
of cancer.
Cell is a basic structural and
functional unit enclosed by a membrane. It
carry various chemical reactions to create
and maintain life processes, from
synchronized internal function to repair and
reproduction.( Figure 1.1)

Figure 1.1 Cell Structures Cell organelles are interrelated, they

function in coordination with other cellular
structures. There are different structural
types of cell that carry different kind of
functions that support homeostasis and
normal functioning of an organism.

(Figure 1.1)

Four Major Elements and the Four Vital Functions of the Cell
The cells of living things are made mainly of four elements: carbon, hydrogen, oxygen and nitrogen.
They make up 96% of the atoms that are in living things, considered as major chemicals
Biomolecule, also called biological molecule, are substances that are produced by cells and
living organisms. Biomolecules have a wide range of sizes and structures and perform a vast array of
functions. The four major types of biomolecules are carbohydrates, lipids, nucleic acids, and proteins.

Carbohydrates,
 made up primarily of molecules containing atoms of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, are
essential energy sources and structural components of all life
 the most abundant biomolecules on Earth, built from four types of sugar units—
monosaccharides, disaccharides, oligosaccharides, and polysaccharides
Lipids
 another key biomolecule of living organisms
 serves as a source of stored energy and acting as chemical messengers.

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 also form membranes, which separate cells from their environments and
compartmentalize the cell interior, giving rise to organelles, such as the nucleus and
the mitochondrion, in higher (more complex) organisms.
Nucleic acids-DNA and RNA
 have the unique function of storing an organism‘s genetic code—the sequence of
nucleotides that determines the amino acid sequence of proteins, which are of critical
importance to life on Earth
 20 different amino acids that can occur within a protein; the order in which they occur
plays a fundamental role in determining protein structure and function
Proteins
 themselves are major structural elements of cells. They also serve as transporters,
moving nutrients and other molecules in and out of cells, and
as enzymes and catalysts for the vast majority of chemical reactions that take place in
living organisms.
 Proteins also form antibodies and hormones, and they influence gene activity.

THE TWO MAJOR PARTS, TWO MAJOR FLUIDS OF THE CELL ENVIRONMENT AND
COMPONENTS

FLUID COMPARTMENTS
Body fluids can be discussed in terms of their specific fluid compartment, a location that is
largely separate from another compartment by some form of a physical barrier. The intracellular fluid
(ICF) compartment is the system that includes all fluid enclosed in cells by their plasma membranes.

Figure 2.2 Fluid Compartments

Extracellular fluid (ECF) surrounds all
cells in the body. Extracellular fluid has two
primary constituents: the fluid component of the
blood (called plasma) and the interstitial fluid (IF)
that surrounds all cells not in the blood (Figure 2.2)

Intracellular fluid (found in cells) is high in

potassium and low in sodium. The fluid is often
secreted by cells to provide a
constant environment for cellular operations.

Extracellular fluid (not contained in cells) it

generally has a high concentration of sodium and
low concentration of potassium

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https://www.britannica.com/science/extracellular-fluid
Cell Theory and the History of Cell
The discovery of the cell was made possible due to a microscope, scientist Robert Hooke
improved the existing compound microscope in 1665. He observed a piece of cork under the
microscope, the cork looked as if it was made of tiny pores, which he called ―cells‖ Hooke has written
his detailed observations in his book, Micrographia.
Dutch scientist Antoine van Leeuwenhoek a master microscope maker discovered minute
organisms- bacteria and protozoa which he called ―animalcules‖ by magnifying objects by around two
hundred or three hundred times of its original size.
Cell Theory is one of the basic principles of biology credited to German scientists Theodore
Schwann and Mattias Schleiden studied cells of animals and plants respectively and by Rudolf
Virchow in 1855, who stated that all cells are generated by existing cells.
The Cell Theory states that:
 All living organisms are composed of cells. They may be unicellular or multicellular.
 The cell is the basic unit of life.
 Cells arise from pre-existing cells. (They are not derived from spontaneous generation.)
The modern version of the Cell Theory includes the ideas that:
 Energy flow occurs within cells.
 Heredity information (DNA) is passed on from cell to cell.
 All cells have the same basic chemical composition.
In addition to the cell theory, the gene theory, evolution, homeostasis, and the laws of
thermodynamics form the basic principles that are the foundation for the study of life.
At the turn of the century, attention began to shift toward the study of cytogenetics, which aimed
to link the study of cells to the study of genetics. In the 1880s, Walter Sutton and Theodor Boveri were
responsible for identifying the chromosome as the carrier of heredity—linking genetics and cytology.
James Watson and Francis Crick‘s studies on the structure of DNA which further confirmed the role of
the cell in heredity.
The discovery of the cell continued to impact science with the milestone discovery of stem cells
from mice in mice in the 1980s, and in 1998, James Thomson isolated human embryonic stem cells and
developed cell lines. His work was published in the journal "Science". Later discovery that adult
tissues, usually skin, could be reprogrammed into stem cells and then form other cell types. These cells
are known as induced pluripotent stem cells. Stem cells used to treat many conditions like Alzheimer's
disease and other heart diseases.
The study of the cell has led to advances in medical technology and treatment. Today, scientists
are working on personalized medicine, which would allow us to grow one's own stem cells and use
them to understand the disease processes. All of this and more started from a single observation of the
cell in a cork.

Parts and Function of Cell

Each cell type is responsible for a specific function, but, despite differences in structure and
function, there are four basic components contained in every cell. These features are the cell
membrane, cytoplasm, cellular organelles, and genetic material.

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Table 2.1 Parts and function of Cell
PART DESCRIPTION FUNCTIONS
Cell membrane Membrane composed of protein Maintains integrity of cell and
and lipid molecules controls passage of materials
Endoplasmic reticulum Complex of interconnected Transports materials within cell,
membrane-bounded sacs and provides attachment for
canals ribosomes, and synthesizes
lipids
Ribosomes Particles composed of protein Synthesize proteins
and RNA molecules
Golgi apparatus Group of flattened, membranous Packages protein molecules for
sacs transport and secretion
Mitochondria Membranous sacs with inner Release energy from nutrient
partitions molecules and change energy
into a usable form
Lysosomes Membranous sacs Digest worn cellular parts or
substances that enter cells
Peroxisomes Membranous sacs House enzymes that catalyze
diverse reactions, including
breakdown of hydrogen
peroxide and fatty acids, and
alcohol detoxification
Microfilaments and Thin rods and tubules Support the cytoplasm and help
microtubules move substances and
organelles within the cytoplasm
Centrosome Non membranous structure Helps distribute chromosomes
composed of two rod like
centrioles
Cilia and flagella Motile projections attached Cilia propel fluid over cellular
beneath the cell membrane surfaces, and a flagellum
enables a sperm cell to move
Vesicles Membranous sacs Contain and transport various
substances
Nuclear envelope Double membrane that separates Maintains integrity of nucleus
the nuclear contents from the and controls passage of
cytoplasm materials between nucleus and
cytoplasm
Nucleolus Dense, nonmembranous body Site of ribosome synthesis
Chromatin Fibers composed of protein and Contains information for
DNA synthesizing proteins

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 Plasma membrane
Plasma membrane is fragile
transparent barrier that separates organelles from
surrounding environment. The plasma membrane
consists of two layers of phospholipids (fatty
substances, with protein and sugar molecules
embedded in them. The lipid cholesterol is also
present in the plasma membrane. Those proteins that
extend all the way through the membrane may
provide channels that allow the passage of, for
example, electrolytes and non-lipid soluble
substances. (Figure 2.3)
Figure 2.3a Plasma Membrane

STRUCTURE OF PLASMAMEMBRANE

The phospholipid molecules have a head, which is electrically charged and hydrophilic
(meaning ‗water loving‘), and a tail which has no charge and is hydrophobic (meaning ‗water hating‘).
The phospholipid bilayer is arranged like a sandwich with the hydrophilic heads aligned on the outer
surfaces of the membrane and the hydrophobic tails forming a central water-repelling layer. These
differences influence the transfer of substances across the membrane.

The membrane proteins perform

several functions: branched carbohydrate
molecules attached to the outside of some
membrane protein molecules give the cell
its immunological identity they can act as
specific receptors (recognition sites) for
hormones and other chemical messengers some are enzymes Figure 2.3b Plasma Membrane
some are involved in transport across the membrane.
Phospholipid components allow biological membranes to reseal quickly when torn, while the
hydrophobic part makes the plasma membrane relatively impermeable to most water-soluble molecules
and cholesterol helps keep the membrane fluid. The proteins are responsible for most of specialized
functions such as receptors for hormones, chemical messengers or binding sites for fiber anchorage or
other structures inside or outside of the cell. Most of proteins are involved in transport.
Some cluster together to form protein channel (tiny pores) through which water small-water
soluble molecule or ions move, others act as carriers that bind to substance and move it through the
membrane. Most proteins also serve as an attachment for branching sugar ―sugar-proteins‖ are
called glycoproteins which make the cell surface fuzzy, sticky, and a sugar-rich area known
as glycocalyx.
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 Glycoproteins determine your blood type, act as receptors to some bacteria, viruses, or toxins,
and function in cell-to-cell recognition and interaction. An abnormal change also in glycoprotein
causes cancer.

Nucleus
The nucleus is the control center of the cell. All body cells have
a nucleus, except with erythrocytes (red blood cells). The
nucleus contains the body‘s genetic material, which directs all
the metabolic activities of the cell, which are made from
deoxyribonucleic acid DNA. Skeletal muscle and some other
cells contain several nuclei. The nucleus is the largest organelle
and includes three main regions or structures: (1) nuclear
envelope (2) nucleoli (3) chromatin material.

Figure 2.4 Nucleus

NUCLEAR ENVELOPE
The nuclear envelope is a
double membrane that bounds
protect and contain the nucleus, a
membrane similar to the plasma
membrane but with tiny pores
through which some substances
can pass between it and
the cytoplasm. Nuclear envelope
encloses a jellylike fluid called
nucleoplasm in which nuclear
structures are suspended.

NUCLEOLI
Nucleoli are dark stained
round bodies involved in the
Figure 2.5 Nucleoli & Chromosomes
synthesis and assembly of the components of ribosomes,
the actual sites for protein synthesis. Genetic material, chromatin resembles a fine network of threads.
During cell division, it turns into shorter, thickened, and coiled threads condensed into dense rod like
bodies chromosomes.

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Mitochondria Figure 2.6 Mitochondria

Mitochondria are membranous,

sausage-shaped structures in the
cytoplasm, sometimes described as the
‗power house‘ of the cell (Fig. 2.6). They
are involved in aerobic respiration, the
processes by which chemical energy is
made available in the cell. This is in the
form of ATP, which releases energy
when the cell breaks it down. Synthesis
of ATP is most efficient in the
final stages of aerobic respiration, a
process requiring oxygen .The most
active cell types have the greatest number of mitochondria, e.g. liver, muscle and spermatozoa.

Ribosomes Figure 2.7 Ribosome

These are tiny granules composed of RNA and
protein. They synthesize proteins from amino acids,
using RNA as the template (see Fig. 17.5, p. 430).
When present in free units or in small clusters inthe
cytoplasm, the ribosomes make proteins for use
within the cell. These include the enzymesrequired for
metabolism. Metabolic pathways consist of a series of
steps, each driven by a specificenzyme. Ribosomes
are also found on the outer surface of the nuclear
envelope and roughendoplasmic reticulum (see Fig.
3.3 and below) where they manufacture proteins for
export from the cell. https://www.microscopemaster.com/ribosomes.html

Endoplasmic reticulum (ER)

Endoplasmic reticulum is an extensive series
of interconnecting membranous canals in the
cytoplasm (Fig. 2.8). There are two types: smooth
and rough.
Smooth ER synthesizes lipids and steroid
hormones, and is also associated with the
detoxification of some drugs. Some of the lipids are
used to replace and repair the plasma membrane and
membranes of organelles.
Figure 2.8 Endoplasmic Reticulum
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 Rough ER is studded with ribosomes. These are the site of synthesis of proteins, some of which
are ‗exported‘ from cells, i.e. enzymes and hormones that leave the parent cell by exocytosis to be used
by cells elsewhere.
google.com/a/asu.edu/the-almighty-cell/the-source/animal-cell/endoplasmic-reticulum\

Figure 2.9 Golgi Bodies

Golgi apparatus
The Golgi apparatus consists of stacks of
closely folded flattened membranous sacs (Fig.
2.9). It is
present in all cells but is larger in those that
synthesise and export proteins. The proteins move
from the endoplasmic reticulum to the Golgi
apparatus where they are ‗packaged‘ into
membrane-bound vesicles called secretory
granules. The vesicles are stored and, when
needed, they move to the plasma membrane and
fuse with it. The contents then leave the cell by https://www.assignmentpoint.com/science/biology/golgi-apparatus.html
exocytosis

Lysosomes Figure 2.10 Lysosome

Lysosomes are one type of secretory
vesicle with membranous walls, which are
formed by the Golgi apparatus. They contain a
variety of enzymes involved in breaking down
fragments of organelles and large molecules
(e.g. RNA, DNA, carbohydrates, proteins)
inside the cell into smaller particles that are
either recycled, or extruded from the cell as
waste material. Lysosomes in white blood cells
contain enzymes that digest foreign material
such as microbes.

https://www.coolaboo.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/12/lysosome.jpg

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Cytoskeleton

This consists of an extensive network of tiny protein fibres

Figure 2.11Cytoskeleton

Microfilaments
These are the smallest fibers. They provide structural support, maintain the characteristic shape
of the cell and permit contraction example in muscle cells.
Microtubules
These are larger contractile protein fibers that are involved in movement of:
organelles within the cell chromosomes during cell
division cell extensions. Figure 2.12 Centrosome

Centrosome
This directs organisation of microtubules within
the cell. It consists of a pair of centrioles (small clusters
of microtubules) and plays an important role during cell
division.

Cell extensions
These project from the plasma membrane in some types of cell and their main components are
microtubules, which allow movement.

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They include:
microvilli – tiny projections that contain microfilaments. They cover the surface of certain types of
cell, e.g. absorptive cells that line the small intestine By greatly increasing the surface area, microvilli
make the structure of these cells ideal for their function – maximizing absorption of nutrients from the
small intestine.
cilia – microscopic hair-like projections containing microtubules that lie along the free borders of some
cells They beat in unison, moving substances along the surface, e.g. mucus upwards in the respiratory
tract.
flagella – single, long whip-like projections, containing microtubules, which form the ‗tails‘ of
spermatozoa that enable their movement along the female reproductive tract.

Figure 2.13 Cell Extensions

SAQ #1: What is a Cell ? What is the significance the study of Cytology
(2 points of class standing)
ASAQ#1________________________________________________________________________
SAQ#2 SAQ #2: What are the three principal regions of the cell and their components?(3 points of
class standing)
ASAQ#2________________________________________________________________________

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Composition and Function of ATP
Adenosine triphosphate (ATP), energy-carrying molecule found in the cells of all living
things. ATP captures chemical energy obtained from the breakdown of food molecules and releases it
to fuel other cellular processes.
Cells require chemical energy for three general types of tasks: to drive metabolic reactions that
would not occur automatically; to transport needed substances across membranes; and to do
mechanical work, such as moving muscles.
.When energy is needed by the cell, it is converted from storage molecules into ATP. ATP then serves
as a transport, delivering energy to places within the cell where energy-consuming activities are taking
place.
ATP is a nucleotide that consists of three main structures: the nitrogenous base, adenine;
the sugar, ribose; and a chain of three phosphate groups bound to ribose. The phosphate tail of ATP is
the actual power source which the cell taps. Available energy is contained in the bonds between the
phosphates and is released when they are broken, which occurs through the addition of
a water molecule (a process called hydrolysis). Usually only the outer phosphate is removed from ATP
to yield energy; when this occurs ATP is converted to adenosine diphosphate (ADP), the form of
the nucleotide having only two phosphates.
ATP is able to power cellular processes by transferring a phosphate group to another molecule
(a process called phosphorylation). This transfer is carried out by special enzymes that couple the
release of energy from ATP to cellular activities that require energy.
Although cells continuously break down ATP to obtain energy, ATP also is constantly being
synthesized from ADP and phosphate through the processes of cellular respiration. Most of the ATP in
cells is produced by the enzyme ATP synthase, which converts ADP and phosphate to ATP. ATP
synthase is located in the membrane of cellular structures called mitochondria; in plant cells, the
enzyme also is found in chloroplasts. The central role of
ATP in energy metabolism was discovered by Fritz Albert
Lipmann and Herman Kalckar in 1941. This will be
further discussed in next chapter

Figure 2.14 Chemical Composition

of Adenosine Triphosphate

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 Figure 2.15 Function of ATP-Energy Production Basic ATP-Energy production
The three processes of ATP
production include glycolysis, the
tricarboxylic acid cycle, and oxidative
phosphorylation.

In eukaryotic cells the latter two

processes occur within mitochondria.
Electrons that are passed through the
electron transport chain ultimately
generate free energy capable of driving
the phosphorylation of ADP.

How the cell obtain nutrients from surrounding fluid

Cells require nutrition and energy to maintain structure, perform complex cellular processes and
functions to maintain homeostatic condition and be able to function normally. Therefore cell should
obtain nutrients from surrounding fluid and this can be carried out through different cell transport or
movements.

Types of Transport
1. Passive Transport-requires no ATP
a) Simple Diffusion
b) Facilitated Diffusion
2. Active Transport-requires ATP, movement of molecule against concentration
gradients
a) Primary Active Transport-directly powered by ATP released in cellular
metabolism
1) Sodium-Potassium pump
2) Calcium pump
3) Hydrogen Ion pump
b) Secondary Active Transport-powered by protein, carbohydrate or ions

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 1) Counter Transport/Antiport- substrates moves across
membrane in opposite direction
-substrate (glucose, protein)
2) Co-Transport/Symport- substrates move in same direction
-substrate (anion or another anion)
c) Carrier Assisted Transport-transport of large molecules
1) Endocytosis- capturing a substance outside into the cell
a) Pinocytosis-via small vesicle
b) Phagocytosis- through large vesicle
2) Exocytosis- vesicles fuse with the plasma membrane and release
contents to the outside of the cell
This will be further discussed in next chapter (Chapter 4)

STUDENTS ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS:

SAQ #3: What are the main chemical components of ATP? (2points of class standing)
ASAQ#3_________________________________________________________________________
SAQ #4: How can energy be produced in mitochondria? (3points of class standing)
ASAQ#4_________________________________________________________________________
SAQ # 5: How do nutrients in cell are transported? Explain cell transport (3points of class standing)
ASAQ# 5_________________________________________________________________________

Summary:

 Cytology is the study of Cell. It is medical and scientific examination of microscopic

appearance of individual cells and small clusters of cells that may be used for the diagnosis and
screening of diseases of cells, especially for abnormalities and malignancies, it plays in early
detection of cancer.
 Cell is a basic structural and functional unit enclosed by a membrane. It carry various chemical
reactions to create and maintain life processes, from synchronized internal function to repair
and reproduction
 The cells of living things are made mainly of four
elements: carbon, hydrogen, oxygen and nitrogen. They make up 96% of the atoms that are
in living things, considered as major chemicals
 The discovery of the cell was made possible due to a microscope, scientist Robert Hooke
improved the existing compound microscope in 1665. He observed a piece of cork under the
microscope, the cork looked as if it was made of tiny pores, which he called ―cells‖ Hooke has
written his detailed observations in his book, Micrographia.
 Body fluids can be discussed in terms of their specific fluid compartment, a location that is
largely separate from another compartment by some form of a physical barrier. The intracellular
fluid (ICF) compartment is the system that includes all fluid enclosed in cells by their plasma
membranes
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References:

Kevin Patton, Essentials of Anatomy & Physiology 5th Edition, McGraw-Hill

Edition
Anatomy and Physiology, Open Stax, Rice University, 2013
Hole‘s Human Anatomy & Physiology 11th Edition, McGraw-Hill Higher Edition
Elaine N. Marieb, Essentials of Human Anatomy and Physiology 10 th
Edition,Pearson Education, Inc., 2012
Elaine N. Marieb, Human Anatomy& Physiology Laboratory Manual 10 th Edition,
Pearson International Edition 2014
https://www.britannica.com/science/cell-biology/Calcium-pumps

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