Lecture note on Hydrostatics of Fluid 2019/20

Chapter Three
Hydrostatics of Fluid
3.0.Introduction
Hydrostatics deals with the study of fluid that are at rest or moving with uniform velocity as a solid
body so that there is no relative motion between fluid elements. When there is no relative motion
between fluid layers, there is no shear stress in fluids at rest whatever the viscosity of the fluid.
Hence, only normal pressure forces are present in hydrostatics. Engineering applications of
hydrostatic principle includes the study of force acting on submerged bodies such as gates,
submarines, dams, etc. and analysis of stability of floating bodies such as ships, pontoons, etc.
3.1.Pressure at a point
In a fluid at a rest, no tangential stresses can exist. The only force between adjacent surfaces are
pressure forces that are normal to the surfaces. Therefore, pressure at any point in a fluid at rest is
the same in every direction. This is known as Pascal’s Law. Pascal’s principle can be proved by
considering a small wedge shaped fluid elements at rest. The thickness of the wedge perpendicular
to the plane of the paper is dy.
Pressure at point:

Figure 3.1 Free-body of a fluid wedge

Let P1, P2 and P3 be the average pressure acting on the faces ab, ac and bc of the prism respectively.
1
The weight of the fluid prism is 𝛾𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑧 where, 𝛾 is the specific weight of the fluid. Since the
2

fluid prism is in equilibrium, the equations of the equilibrium will be;

 In the X direction: ∑ 𝐹𝑥 = 0;

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 𝑃1 𝑑𝑧 𝑑𝑦 − 𝑃3 𝑑𝑙 𝑑𝑦 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼 = 0, but 𝒅𝒛 = 𝒅𝒍 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝜶

 So that, 𝑃1 𝑑𝑙 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼𝑑𝑦 − 𝑃3 𝑑𝑙 𝑑𝑦 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼 = 0
∴ 𝑃1 = 𝑃3
 In the Z direction: ∑ 𝐹𝑧 = 0;
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑧
 𝑃1 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦 − 𝑃3 𝑑𝑙 𝑑𝑦 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼 − 𝛾. =0
2

 But 𝒅𝒙 = 𝒅𝒍 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜶 and 𝒅𝒙 , 𝒅𝒚 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒅𝒛 all shrink to zero, the third term in the
above equation becomes zero.
Thus 𝑃2 − 𝑃3 = 0
∴ 𝑃2 = 𝑃3
Then 𝑃1 = 𝑃2 = 𝑃3
 This shows that the pressure at a point in a static fluid is the same in all directions.
3.2.Basic Equations of Hydrostatics
The basic equation of hydrostatics may be derived by considering the infinitesimal fluid
parallelepiped in a static fluid as shown in figure 3.2 below. Assuming the density of the fluid 
in the infinitesimal cube to be constant, the mass of the fluid is  . 𝑑𝑥 . 𝑑𝑦 . 𝑑𝑧 . Let the pressure
𝜕𝑃 𝜕𝑃 𝜕𝑃
varation in the x, y and z directions be , 𝑎𝑛𝑑 respectively.
𝜕𝑋 𝜕𝑌 𝜕𝑍

Z
dz

P
X dxdydz dy

Y dx

Figure 3.2 A rectangular fluid parallelepiped

For fluid element at rest FX=0, Fy=0, Fz=0, the pressure force in the opposite vertical faces
must be equal.

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 p.dx 
Fx  0  p dy dz   p   dy dz  0
 x 
p
 0
x

 p.dy 
Fy  0  p dx dz   p   dx dz  0
 y 

p
 0
y

The preceding two equations show, respectively, that the pressure does not change in the x and y
directions.
With reference to Figure 3.2 the vertical direction will now be examined. Similar to the foregoing
procedure, if the pressure on the bottom face is taken as P, the pressure on the top face becomes
P+ (P/z) dz.

 p 
 Fz  pdx dy   p  z dz  dx dy   dx dy dz  0
p
  
z
It has been shown that P is not a function of x or y. If it is further assumed that the pressure does
not change with time, the relationship may be replaced by the total differential equation.

 dp    (3.1)
dz
 dp =   dz (3.2)
3.2.1. Variation of Pressure with Elevation in a Static Incompressible Fluid
For a fluid at rest and subjected only to gravitational force, the pressure variation is not a function
of x and y. Equation 3.1 thus represents the actual pressure variation in the vertical direction.
Equation 3.2 holds true for both compressible and incompressible fluids. However, for
homogeneous and incompressible fluid, ρ is constant and equation 3.2 may be integrated to give,
P =  z + c = -gz + c. Where c is constant of integration and is equal to pressure at z = zero.
The negative sign indicates that as z gets higher up ward, the pressure gets smaller. In hydrostatic,
the law of variation of pressure with depth is usually written as; P = -gz + P0 (3.3)

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In equation 3.3 h is measured vertically down ward (i.e. h = -z) from free surface, p is pressure at
depth h below the free surface and P0 is pressure at free surface. Equation 3.3 shows that for a fluid
at rest the pressure at the same depth from free surface are equal. Hence, in a homogeneous
continuous fluid, a surface of equal pressure is horizontal plane.

Figure 3.3 Pressure relative to the surface of a liquid

Consider two points (1) and (2) at a depth of h1 and h2 in a tank containing a liquid, with density,
 at rest as shown in figure 3.3. Pressures at point (1) and (2) are: P1 = Po + gh1 and P2 = Po +
gh2 respectively. If h1 = h2, then P1 = P2. For h1 > h2, the pressure difference between (1) and (2)
is P1 –P2 = ∆P = gh1 - gh2 = g (h1 - h2) = g∆h.
∆P
∆h = is the pressure difference between (1) and (2) expressed as the height of the liquid. This
g

difference is also refered to as the pressure head difference. Thus, by dividing a pressure by the
specific weight  = g of fluid, the pressure can be expressed as height of fluid column.

N.B: Read variation of pressure with elevation in static compressible fluid so that you will find
isothermal condition, diabetic condition, etc.
3.2.2. Absolute and Gage Pressure
A pressure may expressed with any reference arbitrary datum. It is usually expressed with respect
to absolute zero (perfect vacuum) and local atmospheric pressure. When a pressure is expressed
with respect to absolute zero, the pressure is called absolute pressure Pabs. If a pressure is expressed
with respect to local atmospheric pressure, it is called gage pressure Pgage.

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Figure 3.4 Pressure and pressure datum

It is evident from the figure above that absolute pressure is always positive since there cannot be
any pressure below absolute pressure. Gage pressure is positive if the pressure is greater that
atmospheric pressure and negative if the pressure is lower than the atmospheric pressure. The
following equation expresses the relationship between Pabs, Pgage and Patm.
Pabs = Pgage + Patm (3.4)
In equation 3.4 Pgage may be positive or negative as the case may be. In hydrostatic, pressure are
usually expressed as gage pressure unless specified. Atmospheric pressure is also called barometric
because the barometer is an instrument that used to measure the atmospheric pressure. The simple
barometer consists of an inverted tube closed at one end and immersed in a liquid with the open
end down. If air is exhausted from the closed end of the tube, the atmospheric pressure on the
surface of the liquid in the container forces the liquid to rise in the tube. If air is completely
exhausted from the top portions of the tube, the liquid will rise to a height y and the only pressure
on the liquid surface in the tube is vapour-pressure of the liquid Pv.

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Figure 3.5 The simple Barometer

If ρ is density of the liquid, then the following equation is obtained from variations of pressure in
a static liquid.
Pa = Pv + gy = Patm i.e. Patm = gy + Pv (3.5)
The vapour pressure is very small compared to atmospheric pressure. Hence the above equation is
approximated to Patm = gy. Thus, the atmospheric pressure when expressed as the depth of the
liquid becomes; y = Patm/g and y is called pressure head. It follows from this that if a liquid with
low density is used, y will be excessively large. Therefore, mercury is usually used in barometers
mainly because its specific weight is very high thus enabling the use of short tube and also because
its vapour pressure is negligibly small. At sea level y is 760mm of mercury or 10.33m of water.
Atmospheric pressure at sea level is equal to 101.325KN/m2 and is also called standard
atmospheric pressure.
3.3.Measurement of pressure
3.3.1. Device pressure measurement
All the devices designed for measurement of the intensity of hydraulic pressure are based on either
of the two fundamental principles of measurement of pressure: firstly by balancing the column of
liquid (whose pressure is to be found) by the same or another column of liquid and secondly by
balancing the column of liquid by spring or dead weight.
1. Mercury Barometer
The measurement of atmospheric pressure is usually accomplished with a mercury barometer, which
in its simplest form, consists of a glass tube closed at one end with the open end immersed in a
container of mercury as shown in figure3.6. The tube is initially filled with mercury (inverted with

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its open end up) and then turned upside down (open end down) with the open end in the container
of mercury. The column of mercury will come to an equilibrium position where its weight plus the
force due to the vapor pressure (which develops in the space above the column) balances the force
due to the atmospheric pressure. Thus,
Patm = h + Pvapor
Where:  is the specific weight of mercury. For most practical purposes the contribution of the
vapor pressure can be neglected since it is extremely small at room temperatures (e.g. 0.173 Pa at
20ºc).

Pvapor

h
Patm

Figure 3.6 Mercury barometer

2. Manometer
A standard technique for measuring pressure involves the use of liquid columns in vertical or
inclined tubes containing one or more liquid of different specific gravities. Pressure measuring
devices based on this technique are called manometers. In using a manometer, generally a known
pressure (which may be atmospheric) is applied to one end of the manometer tube and the unknown
pressure to be determined is applied to the other end. In some cases, however, the difference
between pressures at ends of the manometer tube is desired rather than the actual pressure at the
either end. A manometer to determine this differential pressure is known as differential pressure
manometer.
The mercury barometer is an example of one type of manometer, but there are many other
configurations possible, depending on the particular application. The common types of

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manometers include piezometer tube, the U-tube manometer, U-tube differential manometer and
the inclined U-tube manometer.
i. Piezometer Tube
The simplest type of manometer consists of a vertical tube, open at the top, and attached to the
container in which the pressure is desired, as illustrated in figure 3.7. Since manometers involve
columns of fluids at rest, the fundamental equation describing their use is:
P = h + P0
Which gives the pressure at any elevation within a homogeneous fluid in terms of a reference
pressure p0 and the vertical distance h between p and p0. Remember that in fluid at rest pressure
will increase as we move downward, and will decrease as we move upward. Application of this
equation to the piezometer tube figure 3.7 indicates that the pressure PA can be determined by a
measurement of h1 through the relationship.
PA = 1h1
Where, 1 is the specific weight of the liquid in the container. Note that since the tube is open at
the top, the pressure Po can be set equal to zero (we are now using gage pressure), with the height
h1 measured from the meniscus at the upper surface to point (1). Since point (1) and point A within
the container are at the same elevation, PA =P1.
Although the piezometer tube is a very simple and accurate pressure-measuring device, it has
several disadvantages. It is only suitable if the pressure in the container is greater than atmospheric
pressure (otherwise air would be sucked into the system), and the pressure to be measured must be
relatively small so that required height of the column is reasonable. Also, the fluid in the container
in which the pressure is to be measured must be a liquid rather than a gas.

Figure 3.7 Piezometer tube

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ii. U- Tube Manometer

To overcome the difficulties noted previously, another type of manometer, which is widely used,
consists of a tube formed into the shape of U as is shown in figure 3.8. The fluid in the manometer
is called the gage fluid. To measure larger pressure differences we can choose a manometer with
higher density, and to measure smaller pressure differences with accuracy we can choose a
manometer fluid which is having a density closer to the fluid density.
To find the pressure pa in terms of the various column heights, we can use one of the two ways of
manometer reading techniques:
I) Surface of equal pressure(SEP)
II) Step by step procedure(SS)
a) Start at one end and write the pressure there
b) Add the change in pressure there
+ If next meniscus is lower.
- If next meniscus is higher
c) Continue until the other end of the gage and equate the pressure
at that point
Thus, for the U- tube manometer shown in Figure 3.8, using SS method we will start at point A
and work around to the open end. The pressure at points A and (1) are the same, and as we move
from point (1) to (2), the pressure will increase by 1h1. The pressure at point (2) is equal to the
pressure at point (3), since the pressures at equal elevation in a continuous mass of fluid at rest
must be the same. Note that we could not simply “jump across” from point (1) to a point at the
same elevation in the right – hand tube since these would not be points within the same continuous
mass of fluid. With the pressure at point (3) specified we now move to the open end where the
pressure is zero. As we move vertically upward the pressure decreases by an amount 2h2. In
equation form, these various steps can be expressed as:
PA + 1h1 - 2h2 = 0
Therefore, the pressure PA can be written in terms of the column heights as:
PA = 2h2 - 1h1
A major advantage of the U-tube manometer lies in the fact that the gage fluid can be different
from the fluid in the container in which the pressure is to be determined. For example, the fluid in

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A in figure 3.8 can be either a liquid or a gas. If A does contain a gas, the contribution of the gas
column, 1h1, is almost always negligible so that PA  P2 and in this instance the above equation
becomes.
PA = 2h2
Thus, for a given pressure the height, h2 is governed by the specific weight, 2, of the gage fluid
used in the manometer. If the pressure PA is large, then a heavy gage fluid, such as mercury, can
be used and a reasonable column height (not too long) can still be maintained. Alternatively, if the
pressure PA is small, a lighter gage fluid, such as water, can be used so that a relatively large
column height (which is easily read) can be achieved.

Figure 3.8 Simple U-tube manometer

iii. U-tube and Inverted U-tube differential manometer
The U- tube manometer is also widely used to measure the difference in pressure between two
containers or two points in a given system. Consider a manometer connected between container A
and B as is shown in figure 3.9a). The difference in pressure between A and B can find by starting
at one end of the system and working around to the other end. For example at A, the pressure is
PA, which is equal to P1, and as we move to point (2), pressure increases by 1h1. The pressure P2
is equal to P3, and as we move upward from point (3) to (4) and from point (4) to (5) the pressure
decreases by2h2 and 3h3 respectively. Finally, P5 = PB, since they are at equal elevation. Thus,
PA + 1h1 -2h2 - 3h3 = PB
Hence, the pressure difference is:
PA - PB = 2h2 + 3h3 - 1h1
NB: When substituting in numbers, be sure to use a consistent system of units!
Inverted U-tube differential manometer (figure 3.9b) consists of an inverted U-tube, containing a
light liquid. The two ends of the tube are connected to the points whose difference of pressure is

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to be measured. It is used for measuring difference of low pressures. Capillarity due to surface
tension at the various fluid interfaces in the manometer is usually not considered. Two common
gage fluids are water and mercury. Taking X-X as a datum line;
The pressure in the left limb below X-X = PA - 1*g*h1
Pressure in the right limb below X-X = PB - 2*g*h2 - F*g*h
Combining the two pressure; PA - PB = 1*g*h1- 2*g*h2 - F*g*h

Figure 3.9 a) U-tube differential manometer b) Inverted U-tube differential manometer

iv. Inclined U–tube Manometer
To measure small pressure changes, a manometer of the type shown in figure 3.10 is frequently
used. One leg of the manometer is inclined at an angle , and the differential reading  2 is measured
along the inclined tube. The difference in pressure PA – PB can be expressed as

PA   1h1   2  2 sin    3 h3  PB

Or pA  pB   2 2 sin    3h3   1h1

Where it is to be noted that the pressure difference between points (1) and (2) is due to the vertical
distance between the points, which can be expressed as  2 sin. Thus, for relatively small angles
the differential reading along the inclined tube can be made large even for small pressure
differences. The inclined U-tube manometer is often used to measure small differences in gas
pressures. So that if pipes A and B contain a gas then;
pA  pB   2 2 sin

p A  pB
Or  2 
 2 sin 

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Where the contributions of the gas columns h1 and h3 have been neglected. The above Equation
shows that the differential reading  2 (for a given pressure difference) of the inclined U–tube
manometer can be increased over that obtained with a conventional U-tube manometer by the
factor 1/sin. Recall that sin  0 as   0.

Figure 3.10 Inclined U-Tube manometer

3.3.2. Mechanical and Electronic pressure measuring devices

Although manometers are widely used, they are not well suited for measuring very high pressures,
or pressures that are changing rapidly with time. In addition, they require the measurement of one
or more column heights, which although not particularly difficult, can be time consuming. To
overcome some of these problems numerous other types of pressure –measuring instruments have
been developed. Most of these make use of the idea that when a pressure acts on an elastic
structure the structure will deform, and this deformation can be related to the magnitude of the
pressure. Probably the most familiar device of this kind is the Bourdon pressure gage, which is
shown in figure 3.11.
The essential mechanical element in this gage is the hollow, elastic curved tube (Bourdon tube)
which is connected to the pressure source as shown in Fig. As the pressure within the tube increases
the tube tends to straighten, and although the deformation is small, it can be translated into the
motion of a pointer on a dial as illustrated. Since it is the difference in pressure between the outside
of the tube (atmospheric pressure) and the inside of the tube that causes the movement of the tube,
the indicated pressure is gage pressure. The Bourdon gage must be calibrated so that the dial
reading can directly indicate the pressure in suitable units. A zero reading on the gage indicates

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that the measured pressure is equal to the local atmospheric pressure. This type of gage can be
used to measure a negative gage pressure (vacuum) as well positive pressure.

Figure 3.11 Bourdon Gauge

3.4.Hydrostatic pressure on Surfaces

Plane and curved surfaces immersed fully or partly in liquids are subjected to hydrostatic pressure
forces. It is therefore, essential to determine the magnitude, direction, and location of these forces.
For the analysis of stability of body fully or partly immersed in liquid and for the appropriate
design of hydraulic structures such as dams, gates, etc.
3.4.1. Hydrostatic forces on plane surfaces
a) Horizontal plane surfaces
The pressure intensity in static fluid is the same at any two points in a horizontal plane surface.
Therefore, a plane surface in horizontal position at a depth h below a free surface in a liquid at rest
will be subjected to constant pressure intensity 𝜸. 𝒉.The total pressure force on a small differential
area is given by 𝑑𝐹𝑃 = 𝛾. ℎ𝑑𝐴. The total pressure force on the entire horizontal plane surface with
𝐴
area A will be; 𝐹𝑃 = ∫0 𝛾. ℎ𝑑𝐴.
The force acts normal to the surface and towards the surface. Since the pressure, intensity is
uniformly distributed over the plane surface, total resultant force Fp acts through the centroid of
the area and ℎ = ℎ̅ where, ℎ̅ is the depth from the free surface to the centroid. Thus for the
horizontal plane surface, the center of pressure C coincides with the center of gravity G.

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Center of pressure: - is the point on the immersed surface at which the resultant pressure force on
the entire area is assumed to act.
b) Vertical Plane Surface
Consider a plane vertical surface of area A immersed vertically in a liquid (Figure 3.12). Since
the depth from the free surface to the various points on the surface varies, the pressure intensity
on the surface is not constant and varies directly with depth.

Figure 3.12
Consider also a narrow strip of horizontal area dA, shown shaded in figure 3.12, at a depth h below
the free surface. The pressure intensity on this area dA is 𝜸. 𝒉 and is uniform. The total pressure
force on one side of the strip is thus 𝑑𝐹𝑃 = 𝛾. ℎ𝑑𝐴. The total pressure force on one side of the
entire area A is:
𝐴 𝐴
𝐹𝑃 = ∫ 𝛾. ℎ𝑑𝐴 = 𝛾 ∫ ℎ𝑑𝐴 = 𝛾ℎ̅𝐴
0 0

Where ℎ̅ is the depth from the free surface to the centroid G of the area. Thus, as for a horizontal
plane area, the magnitude of the resultant hydrostatic pressure force on a vertical plane area is
obtained by multiplying the pressure intensity at the centroid G, i.e. 𝛾ℎ̅, by the total area A.
If the vertical area is not of a regular shape, the area may be divided into a finite number of small
regular areas and the total hydrostatic pressure force determined as the sum of the pressure forces
acting on these small areas. The total pressure force F, acts normal to the vertical plane area and
towards the area through the center of pressure C. Since the pressure distribution on the area is not
uniform, the center of pressure and the centroid will not coincide. The depth h, to the center of
pressure may be obtained from the principle of moments. The moment of the elementary force dF,
acting on the area dA (Figure 3.12) about axis 0-0 on the free surface is 𝑑𝑀 = 𝑑𝐹𝑃 . ℎ = (𝛾. ℎ𝑑𝐴)ℎ.

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The total moment of all elementary forces on the whole area is: 𝑀 = ∫ 𝛾. ℎ2 . 𝑑𝐴. From the
principle of moments, the sum of the moments of a number of forces about an axis is equal to the
moment of their resultant about the same axis. Thus: 𝐹𝑃 ℎ𝑐 = 𝑀 = 𝛾 ∫ ℎ2 𝑑𝐴.
The term ∫ ℎ2 𝑑𝐴 may be recognized as the second moment of area about the free surface i.e. I00.
𝛾. 𝐼00
ℎ𝑐 =
𝐹𝑃
Using the parallel axis theorem of second moment of area,
𝐼00 = 𝐼𝐺 + 𝐴(ℎ̅)2
Where 𝐼𝐺 is the second moment of area about the axis parallel to 0-0 and passing through the
𝛾(𝐼𝐺 +𝐴(ℎ̅)2 ) 𝐼𝐺
centroid G. Therefore, ℎ𝐶 = ̅.𝐴
Or ℎ𝐶 = ̅.𝐴
+ ℎ̅ Thus, the center of pressure C for
𝛾.ℎ ℎ

vertical plane area is below the centroid by an amount equal to:

𝐼𝐺 /𝐴ℎ̅
𝐼 𝐼
The moment of Fp about the centroid is: 𝐹𝑝 ∗ ℎ̅𝐺𝐴 = 𝜌𝑔ℎ̅𝐴 ∗ ℎ̅𝐺𝐴 = 𝜌𝑔𝐼𝐺 , which is independent of

depth of submergence.

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Table 3.1 Surface area, centroid and second moment of area of some simple geometric shapes

c) Inclined Plane Surface

The analysis of the hydrostatic force on an inclined plane surface will be made by considering a
plane surface of arbitrary shape and total area A inclined at an arbitrary angle 𝜃 to the free surface
as shown in Fig. 3.13. AB is the trace of the inclined surface the extension of which intersects with
the free surface at O. ℎ𝐶 and ℎ𝑃 are the depths from the free surface to the centroid C and center
of pressure CP of the area respectively. 𝑌𝐶 and 𝑌𝑃 are the corresponding distances from O to C
and CP respectively, measured along the inclined surface. It is required to determine the
magnitude, direction and line of action of the resultant hydrostatic force Fp acting on one side of
the area.

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Figure 3.13 Hydrostatic force on an inclined plane surface

The magnitude of the force 𝑑𝐹𝑃 acting on an elementary area 𝑑𝐴 at a depth h below the free surface
is given by 𝑑𝐹𝑃 = 𝑃. 𝑑𝐴 = 𝜌𝑔ℎ. 𝑑𝐴 = 𝜌𝑔. 𝑌𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑑𝐴.
The force 𝑑𝐹𝑃 , acts normal to the plane surface. The resultant hydrostatic force Fp is the sum of
all elementary forces 𝑑𝐹𝑃 , which are parallel to each other. Thus ∫ 𝑑𝐹𝑃 = 𝜌𝑔𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 ∫ 𝑌𝑑𝐴.
But ∫ 𝑌𝑑𝐴 is the first moment of area A about axis through O and is equal to 𝑌𝐶 . A and since
𝑌𝐶 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = ℎ𝐶 , the above equation for 𝐹𝑃 , becomes: 𝐹𝑃 = 𝛾𝑌𝐶 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝐴 = 𝛾ℎ𝐶 𝐴. 𝛾ℎ𝐶 is the pressure
intensity at the centroid of the inclined plane area. This shows that the magnitude of the resultant
hydrostatic force on an inclined plane area is equal to the product of the area and the pressure
intensity at the centroid of the area. The force 𝐹𝑃 , acts normal to the plane surface and
towards the surface. The resultant force 𝐹𝑃 , acts through the centre of pressure CP of the submerged
plane area. The location of CP is determined using the principle of moments for a parallel force
system. In figure 3.13 let the axis through O coinciding with the free surface be the axis of
moments. The moment of force 𝑑𝐹𝑃 , about this axis is equal to 𝑑𝑀0 , which is given by:
𝑑𝑀0 = 𝑌. 𝑑𝐹𝑃 = 𝑌. 𝜌𝑔. 𝑌𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑑𝐴 = 𝜌𝑔𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑌 2 𝑑𝐴
The moment of the resultant force 𝐹𝑃 , about the axis of moments will be equal to the sum of all
elemental moment 𝑑𝑀0 . i.e. 𝐹𝑃 ∗ 𝑌𝐶𝑃 = ∫ 𝑑𝑀0 = 𝜌𝑔𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 ∫ 𝑌 2 𝑑𝐴 = 𝛾𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝐼00 .
Where 𝐼00 ,is the second moment of the plane area about axis 0-0.

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𝛾𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝐼00 𝛾𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝐼 𝐼
Thus 𝑌𝐶𝑃 = = 𝛾𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑌 00𝐴 = 𝑌 00𝐴 using the parallel axis theorem, 𝐼00 = 𝐼𝐺 + 𝑌𝐶 2 𝐴
𝐹𝑃 𝐶 𝐶

Where 𝐼𝐺 , is the second moment of area about an axis parallel to 0-0 and passing through the
𝐼𝐺 +𝑌𝐶 2 𝐴 𝐼
centroid C. Thus 𝑌𝐶𝑃 = = 𝑌𝐶 + 𝑌 𝐺𝐴 - This shows that the center of pressure is always
𝑌𝐶 𝐴 𝐶

below the centroid of the area. The same has been shown for vertical plane surfaces. The depth of
the center of pressure below the free surface is ℎ𝐶𝑃 = 𝑌𝐶𝑃 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃. Substituting this and the value of
𝑌𝐶 = ℎ𝐶 / 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃in the above equation, the following equation is obtained for the depth to the center
of pressure.
𝐼𝐶 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃
𝑌𝐶𝑃 = ℎ𝐶 + ℎ𝐶 𝐴

d) Hydrostatic Force on Curved Surfaces

The total hydrostatic force on a curved surface immersed in a liquid can not be directly determined
by the methods developed for plane surfaces. For plane surfaces, the pressure forces on elementary
areas act perpendicular to the surface and hence are parallel to each other. Consequently, it is easier
to obtain the resultant force by a simple summation of the elementary forces. In the case of a curved
surface each elementary force acts perpendicular to the tangent of the elementary area and because
of the curvature of the surface the direction of each elementary force is different. As a result, the
usual procedure is to determine the horizontal and vertical components of the resultant force and
then add them vectorially to obtain the magnitude, direction and location of the line of action of
the resultant hydrostatic force. Consider the curved surface BC of unit width shown in Figure 3.14.

Figure 3.14 Hydrostatic force components on curved surfaces

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The elementary force dF acting on the elementary area dA has a horizontal component 𝑑𝐹𝑥 and a
vertical component 𝑑𝐹𝑦 . The pressure intensity on dA is 𝜌gh.
The total hydrostatic force on dA = dF = 𝜌ghdA
The horizontal component of dF = 𝑑𝐹𝑥 = 𝜌ghdACos𝜃
The vertical component of dF = 𝑑𝐹𝑦 = 𝜌ghdASin𝜃
But dACos𝜃 = dA𝑣 = The projection of dA on the vertical plane and dASin𝜃 = dAℎ = The
projection of dA on the horizontal plane. The components of the total hydrostatic force in the x
and y directions are 𝐹𝑥 and 𝐹𝑦 respectively and are given by:

𝐹𝑃 = ∫ 𝑑𝐹𝑥 = ∫ 𝜌ghdACos𝜃 = 𝜌gℎ𝐶 A𝑣

𝐴 𝐴

𝐹𝑃 = ∫ 𝑑𝐹𝑦 = ∫ 𝜌ghdASin𝜃 = 𝜌g ∫ dV
𝐴 𝐴 𝐴

Where: A𝑣 & is the projection of the whole curved surface BC on the vertical plane, i.e. BD and
dV is the volume of the water prism (real or virtual) extending over the area dA to the free surface.
i.e 𝐹𝑦 = 𝜌gV
Thus: the horizontal component, 𝐹𝑥 , of the resultant hydrostatic force on a curved surface BC is
equal to the product of the vertically projected area of BD and the pressure intensity at the centroid
of the vertical area BD. The Force 𝐹𝑥 , passes through the center of pressure of the vertically
projected area BD.
The vertical component, 𝐹𝑦 , of the resultant hydrostatic force on a curved surface BC is equal to
the weight of the water (real or virtual) enclosed between the curved surface BC, the vertical BD
and the free surface CD. The force component 𝐹𝑦 , acts through the center of gravity of the volume.

The resultant force F is given by: = √(𝐹𝑥 2 + 𝐹𝑦 2 ) , F acts normal to the tangent at the contact

point on the surface at an angle 𝛼 to the horizontal, where: 𝛼 = tan−1(𝐹𝑦 /𝐹𝑥 ).

3.4.2. Pressure Diagrams
The resultant hydrostatic force and center of pressure for regular plane areas could be determined
from pressure distribution diagrams such as those shown in Figure 3.15.

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(a) (b)

Figure 3.15 Pressure diagrams

In figure 3,15(a) the surface AB is horizontal and the pressure intensity is uniform over the area of
the horizontal surface AB. The total hydrostatic thrust on AB is equal to the volume of the pressure
prism, which is the product of the uniform pressure intensity 𝜌gh and the area A, and acts through
the centroid of the area.
In figure 3.15(b), AB may be assumed to be rectangular with width b perpendicular to the plane
of the paper. The pressure distribution is trapezoidal with intensity 𝜌gℎ1 at A and 𝜌gℎ2 at B. The
total hydrostatic force on AB is equal to the volume of the pressure prism and is given by:
(𝜌gℎ1 + 𝜌gℎ2 )
𝐹= (ℎ2 − ℎ1 ). 𝑏
2
The center of pressure is the centroid of the pressure prism. It may be located by dividing the prism
into a rectangular and triangular prism. For the rectangular prism, the centroid is at (ℎ2 − ℎ1 )/2
above B and for the triangular prism it is at (ℎ2 − ℎ1 )/3 above b. The centroid of the trapezoidal
prism can then be found from the principle of moments.
3.5.Buoyancy forces and stability of floating and submerged bodies
3.5.1. Buoyancy force
A buoyancy force is defined to be the net force from fluid pressure acting on the surface of an
object that is either completely or partially submerged in a fluid at rest. If the object is completely
submerged at the same depth, that has the same geometry and orientation as the surface of the
submerged body. The fluid body has only two external forces acting upon it: its weight, which acts
downward through its mass centroid, and the pressure or buoyancy force acting on its surface.
Since the vector sum of these external forces must vanish the buoyancy force must have zero
horizontal components and a vertical component equal to the weight of fluid displaced by the
physical object.

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Figure 3.16 Buoyancy forces on (a) a submerged physical object and (b) a volume of fluid
with the same pressure distribution around its surface
An equilibrium configuration or position for the submerged object is determined by considering
all of the external forces acting on the object. These forces include the buoyancy force, the weight
of the object plus all other external forces acting on the object. If the system is statically
indeterminate, then elastic considerations must be used to close the system of equations. An
example is shown in figure 3.17 where an object is tethered by a single rope. Since the rope is
capable of carrying only a single tensile force in the direction of its longitudinal axis, the tensile
force in the rope must equal the difference between the upward buoyancy force and the downward
object weight. All three of these forces are vertical and setting the summation of moments equal
to zero will give the relative positions of c, cg and the point at which rope is attached to the body.

Figure 3.17 Forces on an object tethered by a single rope

The problem for an object floating on a free surface differs from the problem for a completely
submerged object in two ways. First, the object weight and the buoyancy force are usually the only
two external forces acting on the floating body. This means that these two forces must be equal in

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magnitude opposite in direction and have the same line of action in order to ensure that the resultant
force and moment both vanish. Second, the volume of fluid that is used to calculate the buoyancy
force and its line of action has the same geometry as the wetted surface of the floating object when
closed with a plane of zero fluid pressure that coincides with the free surface.

Figure 3.18 Forces on (a) a floating object and (b) the volume of fluid used to calculate the
corresponding buoyancy force on the floating object

3.6.Relative Equilibrium of liquids

3.6.1. Stability of submerged bodies
The stability of a submerged body depends upon the relative position of its centre of gravity and
its centre of buoyancy both of which have fixed positions. Considering the three possible relative
positions of centre of buoyancy B and centre of gravity G of submerged bodies, there are three
conditions of equilibrium:
a. Stable equilibrium-where the centre of buoyancy is always above the centre of gravity.
b. Unstable equilibrium-where the centre of buoyancy is always below the centre of gravity.
c. Neutral equilibrium- where the centre of gravity and the centre of buoyancy coincide.
3.6.2. Stability of floating bodies
Not all equilibrium configurations are stable. As in all stability theory, the stability of a floating
body is tested by subjecting the body to a small disturbance. This disturbance, which takes the
form of a small rotation, creates a change in the system of forces acting on the body. If this new
system of forces acts to force the body back into its original configuration, then the initial
configuration is said to be stable. However, if the new system of forces acts to further increase the
disturbance, then the initial configuration is unstable.

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Metacentre and metacentric height

The point at which the line of action of the buoyant force for the displaced position intersects the
original vertical through the center of gravity of the body c.g is called metacenter, designated as
M. Metacentric height is the distance between c.g and M. Considering the relative location of
metacentre to the centre of gravity, there are three conditions of equilibrium:
1. If M lies above c.g, a righting moment is produced and equilibrium is stable.
2. If M lies below c.g, an overturning moment is produced and equilibrium is unstable.
3. If M and c.g coincide, the body is in neutral equilibrium.

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