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    Addison-Wesley - Franklin G.F., Powell J.D., Workman M.L. - Digital Control of Dynamic Systems, 3E (2000)

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    THIRD EDITION + Digital Control - of Dynamic Systems Gene F Franklin Stanford University J. David Powell Santora University Michael L. Workman. TBM Corporation AV ADDISON-WESLEY [An imprint of Addison Wesley Longman. ne ‘Mes uk, Cf Reso Masten» Hon End ‘ley. Cala" BS Oran pny» arn «Ata ayo Mee Cy Vere ‘Work Side Stes Earl Acsitant, Rowden Tonomira—Prosteder Moly Mi Seior Production Edun Tek Hyde Computer: Eigentspe Compost Arran Design Supervisor. Kev Berry Cover Deg. Wo Rize Comer, Sese Fes re Sateman CCopyitt © 1998, Adison Wesley Longman. Allright reserved No par ofthis publicaon may be erode or sored ina ahve or rereal tem, taney orm oc by a a. lero. mesa sococrpving cording or eerste. without The por Wten germison of the ube ‘Pte the United States of Americ, rind smu Canad, Many ofthe designations vel by manicures sellers o dings i prc te ‘Simoes Where hoe designations appear nhs nk at Auer Wesey ‘wasawaz of tera cla the designations have ee peed in initial eps nal ps [Man.abisa registered ademak of The Math Wink, 24 Prime Park Wa. Natick MA O74 152), Phone: (50) 655-415, Fan (50) 652907 Cover Photo Telepraph Colour Liray/FPG Intrnaional LLC Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Dil conto of dynamic pts / Gee F. Franklin. Davi acs nde [Digi contolspstsms. 2, Dynamics. Powel J, Dai 1938+ I. Workman shal LM Title TRNMSEN MOT S089 a1 7-599 cP Instructional Material Disclaimer: “The prouans presered in his Sook have een nce fo tee intratonal vale. They fase ben teed with ar i ar ot guaranied for ay pauls pps Noe te feblneror ie ahs fray waramieor epesenauons. norco fey wea Tisbeswath sespct othe programs, $9 10-MA-01 00999497 725 Sand fil Road Menlo Pack. CA 84025 Aaaition Adison Wesley Longman Control Eaginesring titles: Feasbusk Coutvl of Dynamic Stems “Third Edition, 0-201-52747-2 Gene F. Franklin and J David Powell Modern Control Ssstems. Eighth Editon, 0-201-30864.9 Richard C, Dort and Robert H. Bishop {he ar of Contra Engineering 0-201-17545-2 Ken Dutton, Steve Thompson, and Bill Barraclough Introduction to Robovies Second Editon, 0:201-00520.9, Joba J. Craig Fuczy Contr. 0-201-1807LX, Kevin M Pxesina and Stephen Yurkowich Addaprive Contr Second Edivion,0-201-5SR66-1 Kari J. Astrom and Bjom Wittenmark Como! Sostems Engineering. Second Edition, 0-8053-532 Nonnan 8. Nise Computer Control of Machines and Processes. 0-201-10645-0 Taha G Rollinger and Neil A. Dutte Multivariable Feedback Design .201-1824-2 Jan Macigjowski * Contents + Preface xix Introduction 1 LA Probiem 1.2 Overview of Design Approach 5 14 Suggestions for Further Reading 7 1.6 Problems Review of Continuous Control 11 2.1 Dynamic Response 1 1.1 Differential Equations 12 2.12 Laplace Transforms and Transfer Functions 12 2.1.3 Output Time Ki 4 2.14 The Final Val 5 Block Diagrams 2.1.6 Response versus Po 217 Time-Do pemiss ot Feedback 22 iain Specifications 20 ix conten 22.1 Stability 22 2.2.2 Steady-State Eros 23, 23 PIDConttol 24 23 Root Locus 23.1 Problem Definition 25 22.2 Root Locus Drawing Rules 26 2.3.3 Computer-Aided Loci 28 2.4 Frequency Response Design 31 241 Specilications 32 2.4.2 Bode Plot Techniques 34 243 Steady-State Errors 244 Stability Margins 36 2A4.5 Bode’ Gain-Phase Relationship 24.6 Desgn 38 Compensation — 39 ‘State Space Design 41 261 Consol Law 42 262 Estimator Design 46 2.63 Compensation: Combined Conte and Estimation 2.64 Reference Input 48 265 Inegeal Control 9 27 Summary 50 28 Problems 39 Introductory Digital Control 37 3.1 Digitization 58 3.2 tllect of Sampling 63, 33 PIDContral 66 34 summary — 68 3.5 Problems 69 Discrete Systems Analysis 73 41 Linear Difference Equations 4.2 The Discrete Transfer Function Content 421 * 429 The TraneforFenetion 80 423 Block Diagrams and State Variable Desenptions 2 42-4 Rolaninn of Transfer Function to Pulse Response 90 42.5 Ewernal Subilty 93 Discrete Models of Sampled -Data Syst 43.1 Using the -Translorm 96 432 ‘Continuous Time Delay 99 433 State-Space Form 1 43.4 “State Space Models for Systems with Delay 110 435 ‘Numerical Considerations in Computing @ and 114 43.6 *Nonlinear Models 1 444 Signal Analysis and Dynamic Response 119 441 The Unit Puke 120 442 TheUnitSiep 120 443 Exponential 121 444 General Sinusoid 122 4.4.5 Correspondence with Continuous Signals 125 446 Step Response 128 Frequency Response 131, 45.1 *The Discrete Fourier Transform (DFT) 134 46 Propenies ofthe 2 Tansform 4.6.1 Essemtal Properties 137 46.2 ‘Convergence of Transform 142, 4.6.3 *Another Derivation of the Transfer Function 146 47 Summary 148 48 Problems HW Sampled-Data Systems 155 5.1 Analysis of the Sample and Hal 158 5.2 Spectrum ofa Sampled Signal 160 5 Data Fetrspolatian 64 5.4 Block-Diagram Analysis of Sampled-Dara Systems 170 5.5 Calculating the System Output Between Samples: The Ripple 180 a adi Coneens 5.6 Summary 182 5.7 Problems 18 58 Appendix 186 Discrete Equivalents 187 6.1 Design of Discrete Equivalents via Numerical Integration 189 6.2 Zero-Pole Matching Equivalents 200 5.3 Mold Equivalents 202, 63.1 Zeto-Order Hold Equivalent 203, 0.5.2 A Non-Causal Fist-Order-Hold Equivalent The Teangle-Hold Equivalent 204 64 Summary 208 65 Problems 299 Design Using Transform Techniques 211 71 System Specifications 212, 7.2 Design by Emulation 214 7.2.1 Discrete Equivalent Controllers 215 7.2.2 Evaluation ofthe Design 218 73 Direct Design by Root Lecusin the z-Plane 222 731 ePlane Specifieaions 222 7.3.2 The Discrete Root Locus 227 7.4 Frequency Response Methods 234 741 Nyquist Sabiliy Criterion — 238 74.2 Design Specifications inthe Frequency Domain 243 14.5 Low Frequency Gains and Error Coefficients 259 744 Compensator Design 260 7.9 Direct Design Method of Ragazzi! 264 76 Summary 269 17 Problems 270 Design Using State-Space Methods 279 B.A Control Law Design 280 contents xl BLL Pole Phcement 282 B12 Comellbituy — 285 8.1.3 Pole Placement Using CACSD 286 2.2 Enimator Design 289 82.1 Prediction Estimators 290 22.2 Obsenability 202 82.3 Pole Placement Using CACSD 294 D4 Corer Fema 205 82.5 Reduced-Order Estimators 292 8.3 Regulator Design: Combined Control Law and Estimator 302 83.1 The Separation Principle 302 8.32 Guidelines for Pole Placement 308 ‘84 Imoduction ofthe Reference Input 310 BALL Reference Inputs for FullState Feedback 310 84.2 Reference Inputs with Estimators The Staze-Command Structure 314 B43 Ouput Ervor Command 317 8.44 A Comparison ofthe Estimator Structure fad Classical Methods 319 185 Integral Conse and Disturbance Estimation 322 85.1 Integral Ce a3 85.2 Disturbance Estimation 328 6 Ble of Delays 187 86.1 Sensor Delays 338 8.62 Actuator Delays 341 87 Controllability and Observabiluy 345 88 Summary 351 89 Problems 352 Multivariable and Optimal Control 359 9.1 Decouping 300 9.2 Time-\arying Optimal Conizol 364 9.3 LQR Steady Sate Opcioat Contd 9.3.1 Reciprocal Root Properties 372 9.3.2 Sym 1 Root Locus 373 a av Contens 93,3 Eigenvector Decomposition 374 12 system Identification 479 10> Quantization Effects 425 13> Nonlinear Control 543 LL. Sample Rate Selection 49 .. SS 14 Design of a Disk Drive Servo: A Case Study 649 C3 Similarity Transformations 708 on : 7 C4 The Cavley-Hamilton Theorem Se eeata seme nt teto 78 1426 Runout 6 Appendix F Differences Between MATLAB VS and v4 727 14.4.4 Implementation Considerations 683. Index 737, AS Control of Pre surzed Flow Box 699 Appendix B Tables 701 B.1 Properties of zTransforms 701 B.2 Table of -Thansforins Appendix C A Few Results from Matrix Analysis 705 C.1 Determinants and the Matrix Inverse 705 2 Eigenvalues and Eigenvectors 70 ee + Preface + “This book is about the we of digital computersin the real-time control of dynamic systems such as servomechanisms,chemcal processes, and vehicles that move ver water, land, ait, or space. The material requires some nnderstanding of the Laplace transform and assumes thatthe reader has stulied linear feedback controls. The special topics of discrete and sampled-data system analysis are introduced. and considerable emphasis s given to the =-tansform and the close ‘connections between the =-transform and the Laplace transform, The book's emphasis ison designing digital conols to achieve good dy amie response and small erors while using signals that are sampled in tims find quantized in amplitude, Both transform (classical control) and state-space CGhodec eon} net re dese al applied to lstrative examples, The transform methods emphasized are the root-locus method of Evans and frequency response. The root-locus method can be wsed vitally unchanged for the discrete Cave: however, Bode'sfequeney response methods require modification for vse ‘with disrete systems, The state-space methods developed are the technique of pole atsignment augmented by an estimator (observer) and optimal quadratc- foss contro. The optimal control problems use the steady-state constantzain Solution: the results of te separation theorem in dhe presence of noise are stated ut noe proved, Each of these design methods—classcal and modera alike—as advantages and disadvantages, sireneths and limitations. cis our philosophy that a designer ‘mos understand all of them to develop a satisfactory design with the Teast efor. Closely related tothe mainstream of ideas for designing linear systems that result in satisfactory dynamic response are the issues of sample-rite selection mode! identifiation. and consideration of nonlinear phenomena. Sample-rate selection is discussed inthe context of evaluating the ierease in a least-squares Performance measure as the sample tei educed. Ihe topre of model making treated as measurement of frequency response as wel as least-squares parameter {timation Finally, evry designer shld he save that all models are nonlinear Dr snd be familiar with the concepts ofthe describing functions of nonlinear systems, methods of studying stability of nonlinear systems, and the basic concepts of pontneae design. Material hat may be ne ro the students the treatment of signals which are Uisrete in time and ample and which must coexist with those thet are con tinuous in both dimensions, The philosophy of presentation i that new material should be closely elated to material already familiar and yet by the end inate 8 destin towatd wider horizons. Tis approach leads us, for example to relate ‘the stransform tothe Laplace tansform and wo describe the implication of poles and zeros in the z-plane wo the known meanings attached to ples ant enn in the splane, Aso. in developing the design methods, we relate the digital contol {design methods to hose of continuous ssstems, For moe sophisticated methods, wwe present the elementary parts of qudats-lo Gaussian design wi il roots to give some idea of haw this powerful method is used and to motivate fuer study ofits theory: The use of computer-aided design (CAD) universal or practicing engineers in this fed. as in most other fields, We have recognized this fact and provided fuidance to the reader so thit earning the controle analyse material san be imtegrted with learning how to compute the answers with MATLAB, the most ‘widely used CAD software package in universities, In many cases, especially i the earlier cays, actual Mal. orp age ile in the text fo explain how ‘ocamy out acalculation. In other cases, the MATLAB routine is simply sumed for reference. ll the routines given are tabulated in Appendix E for easy reference: therefore, this book can be used asa eeference for leaning how to se MATL As in contol calculations as well as for control systems analysis, In shor. we have teed tn describe the entire process rom learning the concept npn Ue desired results. But we hasten to add thats mandatory that the stadent retain the bility t0 compute simple answers by hand so thatthe computers reasonableness ‘a be judge. The Fust Law of Computers for engineers remains “Garbage In Garbage Out.” Most of the graphical figures in this third edition were generated using MATLAB? supplied by The Mathworks Ine. The files that created the figures ate available from Addison Wesley Longman at fip.av:com or trom The Mathworks, Ine. a fip.mathvorks empuiomasifundtin. The reader enCOUagE0 WO USE these MatLas figure files as an additional guide in leaming how to pesform the ‘various calulations, 1 review the chapters briefly: Chapter 1 contains inteductory comments (Chapters 2 and 3 are new o the thied edition, Chapter 2 isa review of the pre ‘eaisite continuous cnnal: Chapter 3 introduces the ky effects of sampling in Onder to elucidate many of the topies that follow. Methods of linear analysis are Dresened in Chapters 4 through 6. Chapter 4 presets the z-transform. Chapter S ingoduves vombined discrete and eontmnuods systems, the sampling theorem, = de quantization and the sapling pend itl coal sem, ies th ig metho Son and competing the solution with a algoridwn for maximum Heino ‘second and third editions of the book. material in each chapter on previous chapters. By following the solid lines. the Seep anda espe witha eomint, Chaps Tables Figure Pa Comparison ofthe Table of Contents Jed Editon 2nd ton canter me ‘capter” “Chapter on Number Moet Eaaauene i Seieiemuene —§ ect 7 content of Chapters 8 ‘many options exist for including the material inthe last ve ch may option ti for inthe las five chapters. Fora full y + all fourteen chapters can be covered. One of the changes made in 2 second couse h is many posses. One possibly so combine snd wth Chapter 10 112, as ean be Sen rom he Mass relace ext this third edition is thatthe optimal control material no longer depends on the least-squares development in the system identification chapter, thus allowing for ore flexibility i the sequence of teaching Te has been found at Stanford that tis sory useful o supplement the lectures with Inboentory work ta enhance Iring. A very satisfactory complement of Taboratory equipment isa digital computer having an A/D and a D/A converter fan analog computer (or equivalent) with ten operational amplifiers, a digital “Sorage scope an CAD pachage capable of performing the bosic computations fad plating graphs. A description of the Ishoratory equipment and experiments at Stanford is deserbed in Franklin and Powell Control System Magazine 1989), ‘There are many important topics in contol that we have got been able 10 Include in this book. There is, for example, no discussion of mu analysis or sign, near mates inoquatiies, or conves optimization. We i our expectation however. that care study ofthis book will provide the student engineer with & sound bass for design of sampled-data contols and a foundation forthe study ‘ofthese and many other acvanced topes in tls most exciting fie “Asdosll authors of echnical works, we wish acknowledge the vast array of| confines om whase work our own presentation is based. The listo references tives some indication of those to whom we ae in debt. On a more personal level ‘ve wish fo express our appreciation 1o Profs. S. Boyd, A. Bryson, R, Cannon, 'Sucron. J. How, und S. Ruck for dict valvablc suggestions for the hook and especially to our long-time colleague, Prof. Dan DeBr, for his careful reading ‘and many spitted suggestions, We also wish i express our appreciation for many Saluable suggestions tothe eurent and former students of E207 and F208. for whom this book was written ‘r adaiuom, we want thank the following penple for she hepal reviews of the manuscript Fred Bailey, University of Minnesota; John Fleming. Texas ‘A&M University: LB. Pearson, Rice University: Willam Perkins. University ff Mlnois: James Carroll. Clarkson University, Welter Higgins, Jc, Arizona State University: Stanley Johason, Lehigh University: Thomas Kurfess, Georgia Insitute of Technology: Stephen Philips, Case Wester Reserve University Chris Rahn, Clemson University: T. Srinivasan, Wilkes University; Hal Tharp University of Arizona; Russell Trahan, Jr, University of New Orleans: and Gary “Young, Okialvia State University ‘We alo wish to express our appreciation to Laura Cheu. Emilie Bauer. and allthe staat Addison-Wesley fr ther quality production of the book, Stanford, California GFF IDP MLW. -l- Introduction [A Perspective on Digital Control “The contro of physical systems witha digital computer o microcontoler is becoming more and more common, Examples of electromechanical servomech- nisms exist in steal, avtomobils. mase‘ransit vehicles, oil refineries, and jepet-making machines. Furthermore, maay new digital control applications are Feing stimulated by micropencewertechnnlngy including control of various as pects of automobiles and household appliances. Among the advantages of digital poroachesforeontrl are the increased flexibility ofthe control programs and the eeisionsmaking or logic capability of digial systems, which can be combined ‘with he dynamic eontol function to meet oer system requirements. In ton, fone hardware design can be used with many different software variations on a road range of products, ths simplifying and reducing the desig tine. Chapter Overview {In Section 1. you will learn about what a digital control system is, what the {peal srutute is and what the basic eleven ase. The key issues are disewved find an overview of where those issues ae discussed inthe hooks given, Section 1 discusses he design approaches used fr distal contro systems and provides an overview of where the different design approaches appear inthe book. Com puter Aided Control System Design (CACSD) issues ard how the book's authors Rive chosen to handle those issues ae discussed in Section 1 3 1.1 Problem Definition “The digtal controle studied inthis book are for cleweltoop (feedback) systems in which the dynamic eesponse of the process being controlled is @ major con sideration inthe design. A typical structure of the elementary type of system 1 SE Ed aE 2 Chapter 1 irodueion Figure 1.1 Block chgrar of abasic aga convat system that wil accpy mos f ou atention sketched schematic in Fig... This figure wilhlp wo dfs ur asc notton and to iadce ster fates hat Had lh ipl cout fon tne plowed wih sma devs Te proces tobe convlled(sometiessfered oa he plan ay be nyo the Disk pocests mettonal above how isfy response eis onl tole orchestra) ep te pene of darsance inputs Be plant (ot?) an Fg. 1] and espe err nthe sensor [00 i Fig LI] is alo exental tha the tacking suseed even if the dais of Ie plat shoud change somexnat Gunn tne operation Ine proceso lng ¥t elose tor) ieloding the ese where r= 0 is ofered 20 generally a ie process of regulation. yom hal hax sorption ithe presence of Slcbance sigma sad fo have good dtarbance rejection. stm a has good repltion nthe face o hanes the plant preter ah wae tow semliy to ee prametr.A ystem ta hs bt god aitbance tection and loses eel robs “o ran Sey tt Pastor | 20. * ‘hice sar Fp) ea) 5 antalrtsamtornpa al 5 = Sich Soto fy Por any varie sy 8 the soon snow commonly ten | _ ieputtitattnes Seine) We Gatuune npr to te ae = Gatubarsornowe inte ter BJA= dial toandlog converter sample pero quanizaton 11 Problem Definition 3 “The means by which oust regulation Isto be accompli is uch dhe ccontzol inputs tothe plant [u(f) im Fig. 1.1] Itwas discovered long ago! that frecheme of feedhack wherein the plant output is measured (or sensed) and ‘Compared directly withthe reference input has many advantages n the effort to ‘design robust controls ever systems that do not use such feedback. Much of our ton in fnter parts ut tis book wil be devoted to hutratng this discovery and ‘Jemonstating how to exploit the advantages of feedback. However, the problem fof conto a discussed thus far i in no way restricted to digital contol. For that ‘we must consier the unique features of Fig. 1] ntraduced bythe use ofa digital device to generate the contrl ation, "We cpncidoe Art the action of the analog Ania (A/D) ennverter on a signal. This device sets on a physical variable, most commonly an electrical ‘oltage, and conver it into a steam of numbers. In Fig. 11, the A/D converter ets on the sensor output and supplies numbers 10 the digital vomputes. 1 is ‘omnen forthe sensor output, ¥, to be sampled and to have the error formed in computer. We need to know the times at which these numbers ative if we are tw analyze the dynamics ofthis system. Tn this book we will make the assuropion that al the numbers arsve with the sae fine prio Tale the sample period. In practic. digital contol sys tems sometimes have varying sample period andor dierent periods in different feedback paths. Usually there i a clock as part of the compte logic which sop- plesa pulse or interrupt every T seconds, and the A/D converter sends a umber forthe computer each time the interrupt arves, An alternative implementation is ‘imply to aese the A/D upon completion ofeach evel ofthe code execution. scheme often refered to as free running, A further alternative isto use some ‘ther device to determine a sample, such a an encoder on an engine crankshaft that supplies a pulse to trigger a computer cycie. This sclwune is uefeied to 38 tevent-based sampling. Inthe frst case the sample period is precisely fixed: in fhe second case the sample perio is essentially fxed by the length of the code providing no logic branches are present that could vary the amount of cove ex- cuted: inthe thd cas, the sample period varies with the engine speed. Ths in Fig. Ll we Hlemily the sequence of umbors into the computer as 207). We Conclude from the periodic sampling ation ofthe A/D converter that some of the signals inthe digital conto system. ike (47), are variable only at discrete mes, We cll these variables discrete signals o distinguish snem from variables Tike w and y, which change continpousy in ime. A system having both ciseete fand continuous signals sealed a sampled-data system, Tn addition to generating discrete signel, however. the A/D converter aso provides a quantized signal, By this we mean thatthe output of the A/D Converter must De stored in digital logic composed of a fnite number of digit. ‘Most commonly, of cours. te logic s based on binary digit (i, bits) eomposed 1 See capes he book by ode (1945) Figure 12 Pot of output versus input characters of Invision ‘f('sand 1s. butte essential features thatthe representation asa finite number ‘of digits. A common situation is thatthe conversion of 10 i done 80 that ¥ fan he thanght of 28 a number sith fixed numer of places of accuracy. Ise plot the values of versus the resulting values of # we Can obtain plo like that shown in Fig. 1.2. We would say tha has been truncated to one decimal place, fr that #5 quaniced witha g 0f U1. singe ¥ changes only in xed quanta ot. inthis case. 0.1 units, (We will se q for quantum size. in genera.) Note that «quantization isa nonlinear function, A signal thats oth discret and quantized is called a digital signal. Not surprisingly. digital compaters in this book process digital signals In aw the problems of analysis and diya of wii cmos ave ‘concerned with tking account ofthe effets of the sampling period T and the {quantization size g. I both and g are extremely small (sampling frequency 50 oF more times the system bandwidth with a 16-bit word sie), digital signals fare nearly continuous. nd continuous methods of analysis and design can be 5). The resulting design could then he concerted tothe digital format for ‘implementation in a computerby using the simple methods described in Chapter 3 Drthe emulation method described in Chaper 7. We wll be intrested inthis ext ginny at udetaniny ote effects OF al sample races, ast and low. an the effects of quantization for large and small word sizes Many systems are orginally conceived with fast sample rates, and the computer is specified and frozen early inthe design cycle: however asthe design evolve, more demands are placed on the system, and the only way to accommodate the increased computer load isto slow down the sample rae, Furthermore, for cost sensitive digital systems the best design isthe one with the lowest cost computer that will do te requzed job. ‘That wansiates ino being the computer with the slowest speed and the smallest word size. We wil, nowever, teat the problems of varying T and q separately. We frst consider g to be zero and study discrete and sampled-data (combined discrete and continuous) systems that af linear. n Chapter 10 we will analyze aaah siosing 12 12. Overview of Design Approach 5 sn more deal the source and dhe ees of quantization, and we will issue i Chapters 7 and 11 specific effects of sample-rate selection. ‘ur approach to the design of distal conuols is to assume a background Jn continuous systems and to relate the comparable digital problem to ts on fous counterpart, We will develop the essential results. rom the begining Tie Oona of iserete 2ysteme, but 2 il call pan peovions experienc in continuous.system analysis and in design to give altemative viewpoints and “ccper understanding ofthe results. In order to make meaning these eferenees to a background in continuous-sysiem design, we will review the concepts and ‘define our notation in Chapter 2. Overview of Design Approach ‘An overviw ofthe path we plan o take toward te design of dial eonols He ttl bef ne bein te specie deal” As memoned ove, we Flac stems of net ine caters according tothe ature ofthe sigoals Pee the dct pte, campled- or sgetrme snd doi stems. Tm dcrete sates al signals vary at ere tes only. We will analyze these in Chapter and develop the z-transform of ieee signals and “pls ttanier unetons fornear constant discrete systems. We aso develop dee tare funtion of cominooa stems that re sampled stems hat are called “Srl sss We develop the equations and zie examples sine both transfor methods aad sate space deseiptions. Having the dsrte taster functions we conse the sue ofthe dynamic sponse of esrete systems sy ape taste us shed nd rrr nat aed en itisimporat to be able o vompate the conus tie response For example ‘eho sumplingrat-thers canbe sgicant ripple between ampeinstns Supine Suc a Chaper Here we reconcemed wi he esto da extrapolation fo conver crt signals as they might emerge rom & tl computer ino the ominous signa neces for ids the input © Se ofthe plants deserted ove. This action peal xcs in conustion srih the DIA conersion. In addon to data extapation. we cosa the hula ot samples signals tom ie epi or enna aay For is jupose we inuodace pals maulaion a 4 model of sampig. and we wse Four analyst sve lar pitre forthe ambiguity that ear ase been Connon dere signa also Kron ss alising. The lain fst ha inten oe coving cn et neat he sae sample aes. faa sil ya regency J, hehe sae ramples as asm» dione equeney J isaidto Bean alias of A coolly of asin is the Sampling thenrem. ich species te conéitons necessary if this ambit is ‘eiibrermoved an only one continous signal allowed 1 corespond Ser of samples el otal ers faenfication Irtreduston understanding and computation of particular cases of interest. m= ° Soe eas ee te 2 Named because they ae te Laplace Fourier afm reeset tems Pi eal ye pace oy es mS a cspsnnie Chaser dane eta sre iy Cape and. ad Manas Digital control Totbox Ls 1.4) Suagestion for Further Reading 7 analysis methods treated are the describing function. equivalent tlesrizstlon, and [yapunov's second method of stability analysis. Design techniques deseibed are thes af inverse nonlinearity opel enatrol (especialy time-optimal conto ‘and adaptive control. Chapter 14 includes acase study ofadisk-drve design, and treatment ofboth implementation and manufacturing issues is dseussed. Computer-Aided Design ‘As ith any engineering design method, design of control systems requires many Sompatatione that ate greatly facilitated by 2 good library of wellalocumented ompaterprogeans. a designing practical digital control systems, and especialy in iterating through the methods many times to meet essential specifications, an inerective computer aided contol system design (C ACD) package with simple faveess to plating graphics is erucal. Many commercial contol system CACSD packages are available which satisfy that need. MATLAB” and Matix, being {wo very popular ones. Much ofthe discussion inthe book assumes that a de signer has access to one ofthe CACSD products. Specific MATLAB routines that Can Ve eu for peifiniing cavulations ae indicated throughout the text and in some cases the full MATLAB command sequence is shown, All the graph cal figures were developed using MATLAB apd ibe files tha reated them are ‘contained inthe Digital Control Toolbox which is available on the Web at no charge. Files based on MATLAR ¥4 with Conteol System Toolbox v3, as well fe file based om Marea v5 with Control System Toothox vi are aailable at ‘to,mathworks com/pubybooks/franklin/cigital. These figure files should be helpful in understanding the specifics on how to do a calculation and are an Important apmentation tothe Book s examples. The MALLA satemteats in text are valid for MaTLA® v5 and the Control System Toolbax ¥. For those with folder versions of MATLAR. Appendis Fdeseribes the adjustments that nce o be made CCACSD support for designer is universal: however its essential that the designers able vo work out very stp problems by hand i order te have some tee about the reasonableness of the computers unswers. Having the knowledge ‘of doing the calculations by hand is also ertcal for identifying trends that guide the designer, the computer can entity problems but the designer must make intelligent choices in guiding the refinement of te computer design Suggestions for Further Reading Several histories of feedback control are readily available. including a Sefemifc American Baok (1955), and the study of Mayr (1970). A. good discussion of the historical developments of controls given by Dorf (1980) and by Forman and Hitz (1977), and many other relerences are cited by these authors forthe a Chapter 1 1S 1.6 Interested reader: One ofthe earliest published stedies of coteo systems oper ing on discrete time data (sampled-data systems in our terminology) is given by Hurewicy in Chapter Sof the book hy Janes. Nichols and Phillips 1947), ‘The ideas of racking and robustness embody man) elements ofthe objectives ‘of contol system design, The concept of tracking contains the requirements of teu stably. good tansiet response, and pood steady-state auracy. ‘concepts fundamental to every control system. Robustness isa property essential {o good performance in practical desians because real parameters are subject: shange and because external, unwanted signals invade every system. Discussion of performance specifications of control systems i given in most books on ineluding Fvaubtin, Powell, aid Eunatui-Nacin (1994), We will study these matters in later chapters with prtcular reference to cigital contol design, To obzan a tem understanding of dynamics, we suggest a comprehensive tex by Cannon 1967). is concerned with writing the equations of motion of Dhysical systems in a for sstale for pool studies. Summary + Ina uigtal conor seem, he analog electronics used for compensation a contiquous system is replaced witha digital computer or microcontoler, an analog-to-digital (A/D) converter, and 2 digital 1o-anslog (DVA) converte. + Design of «digital cons! system can be sceomplished by transforming & continaous design. called emulation, or designing the digital system directly ics eta! att be canted gut sing tanstorm oF sie space system description ‘The design ofa distal contol sycem ines determining the effect of the Sample ate and selecting a rate that i ufficiently fas to meet al speciica- ‘Most designs today are cared out using computer-based methods; however the designer needs to know the hand-ased methods inorder to intelligently ide the computer dion ac well nen have sanity chock on its test Problems, pos corresponding ote pion of igh IS are pated on ie cmos secon revoation Fight 181s waveln rc toward he pt t 510 Goretions tothe pk. He wishes to dos cach 9 io tne ofthe ais an is insrucioes consist of couse headings in inp dere vale. 13 4 16 Problems 9 Wat the sampling rt, sons, of Re rngesigoal plod on she rac 1b) Wht sth rainy rte in scons. of the cones istctions? {e) esi the following signals as continous, discret. or digi 1 the irae’ rnge rom he ip. 1 te range dt platoon he adr sen 1h, the contr sro wih (@) {sth continous. spl. dg contol stem? (0) Si tha ic posh forthe lt of igh 108) to aziz course which ‘Soul show op a tai ae onthe only crea, Wit the owes) Frequency of snus gag couse which il be iden fom te consol. 1 signa varies betwen ad 10 vl led he dymamle range) an ts required tha he signal ss be epee he il compar oe crt 5 io conser mist have Deseibe five itl onl sem tht you oe fair with, State what yu think be ‘Eoges of te dig plementation re overt shales mperenm. sorely, house nesting system thermostats were a inet sp thst woud make frat the cont depending on ferperre Tos, most tertostas ae iil Desert joni tey nek a i sme of he beet {se Marea obtain cy fhe Sie Eton ore war's you) rd {Use Matta Coban a copy af the Stade Eaton or we wha vale o you) and make wo plots ase MATLAB: SUDO} af s-for x= T1010. Pata plot of y= = fomthetnpo te page std y = y Fone Ds -2- Review of Continuous Control 21 A Perspective on the Review of Continuous Control The purpose of this chaplers so provide a ready reference source ofthe material that pow have alicaly takew in prerequisite course, The presentation is not sutcien to learn the material for the frst time: rather. iti designed t0 state ‘concisely th key relationships for your reference as you move tothe ew material in the ensuing chaptes. Fora mote in-depth ceatmen of any of the top an introductory contol text such as Feedhuck Control of Danie Systems. by Franklin, Powell, and Emami-Nacini (1004), Chapter Overview ‘The chapter reviews the topics normally covered in an introductory controls course: dynamic response feedbock properties, rot locus devin, frequency re sponse design, and state-space design Dynamic Response In contol fem design, iis important w be able to predict how well awl design matches the desired performance. We de this by analyzing the equations ofthe system model, The equations canbe solved using linear analysis approx ‘mations or simulated via numerical methods. Linear analysis allows the desizner toexamine quickly many candidate solutions inthe course of design irations and i, therefore a valuable tool. Numerical simulation allows the designer to "sk the final design mone previelyinrling all nun chaesetertics and is discussed in Setion 13.2. The discussion below focuses on linear analysis u 2 CChaptes 2 Rewew of Continous Conta 2.1.1 Differential Equations statevalale form 212 Linear dynamic sysiems can be described by their differential equations. Many syste involve coupling besween one part ot @ system and anther. Any set ot differential equations of any order canbe transformed into a coupled se of Bist cider equations called the State-variable form, So a general way of expressing the dynamics ofa linea system is x= Fx + Gu en y= Hes Ju @2 wher the column vector «ie called the state of the 1 mattis ofthe Zeros. an 1 matix ofthe poles and a scalar gain. for example pe { pele) ee {Attar ac ie mei of Ma a ers wth Conse Talo “ Chap 2413 and can be combined into a system description by 95 = znkt,p.) For the equations of motion of system with second-oeder or higher eque tions the easiest way to find the transfer function isto use Eg. (2.5) and do the sua by and. Hf equations of motion are im the stte-varable Form and the transfer funetion is desired, the Laplace transform of Eqs. (2.1) and (22) yields ie) SHGI=B'G + 4. ln Mari ai, given FG. HL and J. one can fod the po nmi form by the MATLAB sept Gus ys HSE ALND forthe 2er0-pole-gain form by S95 = ROS EG.M). Likewise. one can ind a state-space realization ofa transfer function by 98 = ssftfnum.den) ‘Output Time Histories Given the transfer function and the input w(?) withthe tansfoem 1/9) the output is the product Ys) = Ginn, pe ‘The transform of » time function can be found by use of a table (See Ap. pendix B.2k: however, typical inputs considered in contol system design are steps Ma) = RM Ute w= Vn. = Parabotas Ag w= in = and sinusoids MN = Bsimwritn}, = UO) 24 215 Figure2.1 An eesmentary fedback 21 Dynamic Respome 15 Using Laplace transforms, the output ¥(s) ftom Eg, (28) is expanded into is 0h poles osted ats «0, th exponent cays and the tem sangng io ere the parameter scaled the damping rato, and 0, is said oe ale Likewise pol note igh of te oigs oe Samp tra pee pose Fe Mate : ponent gows with ine ai eteed to as unstable Figue 22 shows 3 arralts on he lane and at an gle 9 = sf. as shown in Pp 2 tin contant “ype espns andthe ime constant Therefore dumine rat elect th evel of danny faction of he Sal dinpng veloc wher te pes Doone real In eangula coors, aan the ples ae alt= <0 Joy, When £0 we hve no damping =O, and spre danped nur eet eq ote undanped ata agen. theme when he responsi times th ial vle Complex pols cn be described in tems of tee el and imaginary pars, rationally steed tos Figvre23 i Sone ptr 3 pat of | | “This means thata pole has aegaive real parti is positive. Since comple potes —_ | alvays come in complex sng pus for el plynol the denonatar Somaponding toa mpce pak wil te WW) =640~ jute joy=b+ey te an When ding the easter unto rom dierent equations, we pial write she esl inte polyoma fom HG) 4 (2.13) FF ies tet 18 Review of Comtimsous Conte For the purpose of finding the ime response corresponding to a complex transfer function from Table B.2, its easiest ro manipulate the Hs) so that the comple poles fi the form of Eg. (2.12). beeasse thom the fiese sepa found directly from the table, The Hs) from Eq, (2.13) ean be writen as can be = i fom Entry 21 in Table B.2 and the definitions im Fy (714), we sow Grea ean therefore, sino, 1, =3 ralsec and ¢ = 0.2. the impulse response time history could be ‘obtained and plowed by the MATLAB statements 2-te"wn wna} sys = tffoum,den) impulse(ys) is also interesting to examine the step response of H(s), that is. the espouse ofthe system H(3) 10a uit sep input u = 1) where Us) = |The step respoase transform given by ¥(s) = Hs)U(9). contained! in the tables in Entry eat Zanes). ets where, =o, 1=F andor = Fo, This could als be obtained by modifying the at ine inthe MATLAB sein stave forthe imple esposeto stents) Figure 2.4 isa plot of vp for several values of & plotted with time nor ‘nalized tothe undamped natural frequency, Nowe thatthe actual frequency (oy decreases slightly as the damping ratio inereases, Also note that for ery low damping the response is oscillatory, while for large damping (¢ near 1) the response shows no oscillation. few step responses ate sketched in Fig. 25 10 show the effect of pole locations in the splane on the sep responses, Its very useful for contol designers to have the mental image of Fig. 2.5 commited 10 memory so that there ian instant nderctanting of how change in pole Inctons influeace the time response. The negative real part of the pole. 2, determines the ‘of an exponential envelope that multiplies the sinusoid, Note that if Figure 24 Step esponses of secon syste Figure2s Time functors thes-plane | | wi} ae jc nogatve the poe isin the righ-hlf plane the espance will grow with time And the systems said to be unstable. If 2 = 0. the response neither erows nar ‘decays, 0 stability is a matter of definition. IT is postive, the natural response 27 Figure 26 Detintion a sete, setting time, ard breshoot Review of Continuous Concrol decays and the system is said 10 be stable, Note that, as long asthe damping is Sictly positive, the system will eventually converge tothe commanded value ‘All those notions about the cntespondetne Detects pole lotions an He time response pertained to the cas ofthe step response ofthe system af Eq. (2.13), that is, a second-order system with no zeres, [there had een a zero, the effec ‘would generally be an increased overshont the presence of am additional pole ‘would generally cause the response to he slower. I there had been a zero inthe Fight-alf plane. the overshoot would he repressed and the expanse would likely 20 initially in de opposite direction to is final value. Nevertheless the second fonder sysiem response is useful in guiding the designer during the iterations ‘owaid the final design, no mace How comply te ster Time-Domain Specifications Specifiaons fora contol system design offen involve cetin quirements associate th the te response ofthe sstem, The requirements fra stp tespnse ae expressed in ems ofthe standard quant usted in Fig. 2.6 ‘The rise time, isthe time i takes the system to reach the vicinity ofits new set pont. The settling time sis the time it takes the system transients to decay. ‘The overshoot M, is the maximum amount that the system overshoot its Final value divided by its final value (and often expressed asa percentage), Figure 27 Prot ofthe peak treshoot Mt versus daring ra ¢ fr second-rcer tem 21 Dynamic Response 21 Fora second-order system. the time responses of Fig. 24 yield information bout the specifications that is too complex to be remembered unless approxi ted, Tie contdy used approninations forthe second order eave ith no Ls 7 2.16) ae aay fa, : ' an The overshoot M, is ploted in Fig. 2.7. Two frequently used values from this ume are M, = 10% (og = 05 and M, = 5% for — 07. Equatiots(2.16)-(2.18)characteriag the wansient response ofa system hav ing no finite zeros and two complex poles with undamped naturel frequency w, damping ratio. end negative real part. To anlysis and desig, they ae ws to obtain a ough estimate of ris time, osershoot, and seting time for jst about Shy apatem. I is important to keep in mind. however, that they are qualitative ‘guides and aot precise design formulas. They are meant vo provide & stating Point forthe design iteration and the time response should always be checked [her the contol design s complete By an exact calculation. usually by numerical Simulation. to verify whether the Gime specifications are actually me.I ibey have ‘not been met, another iteration of the desisn is requied, For example ifthe rise 22 Chapter? Review af Comins 22 224 character equation fovea {ime ofthe system turns out to be Jonge than the specification, the target natura frequency would be increased and the design repeated Basic Properties of Feedback An opea-loop system described by te transfer function Gis) can be improved Dy the addition of featback including the dynamic compensation Dio) av etanrn in Fig. 2.8. The feedback can be used 10 improve the stability, speed up the tan. sient respons. improve the steady-state eror characteristics, provide disturbance "ejection al Uerease the ensrvity to parameter varations Stability "he dynamic characteristics of the apen-loop system are determined by the poles ‘oF G(s) and Des, hat the ros of te denominators of Gs) and DAs) Using Eq. (2.10). we can see that the transfer function of the closed-loop system in Fig. 28is Yo) DUNG) Ris) “T+ DOGG ~ sometimes refered 10 as the complementary sensitivity. In this ease. the dy. ‘aie characteristics and stability are determined by the poles ofthe closed-loop transfer Function, that the roots of Ts) 219) 14 DiGi) =0, 220) "this equation js called the characteristic equation and is very impostant in feedback control analysis and design, The roots of the characteristic equation "epresent the types of motion that willbe exhibited by the feebick syste It 's clear from Eq. (2.20) that they ean be altered at will by the designet via the selection of Dis) 2.2.2 isk Prupenisa uf Feedback 23 Steady-State Errors The dilfeence between the command inpat r (see Fi 2.8) and the output is calle the ssstem err. Using Eq (2,10) fr the case where the deste oust ise. we find that best t Rei FDR Someries terre to as the sensiniy. For the case whece 47) i step inpat ‘and the sysiom is tale the Final Valve Theorem tells us that 2.21) = Sis. = lim Dis)Gs) lenominatoe that ani called the positon-error constant. If D1s)G(s) has a Goes have ba fuctoK ane af ae. This Kn of stem reer toms pe. — These ests can also be seen guaitaively by examining Fig. 28. In order for» tobe at some dsed value (=) he higher te Foran oop asin of Bate he helo: eva th sa. Ant property that a zro siady input can predce a Brite ouput. this prsucing an si sore ian tegrstor in Do the teady-sate ain Infinite gain. Therefore if willbe 30 and the error wil be ze, Continuing. we define the Velocity constant as k= tims Discs) and dhe acceleration constants K, = lime D1). pe 1: likewise, when K, is finite. we aoe When K, is finite, we call the system ty call the system type 2. For the unity feedback case, its th chur ehatacterisics for somsmand inpets consisting Parabolas, Table 21 summarizes the ress Errors versus sytem type for unity feedback sep samp Fara 24 Chapter? Review of Continanis Cont 223 23 System type can also be defined with respect to the disturbance inputs w. ‘The same ideas hold, but inthis case the Iype is determized by the nurher of imtegrators in 24+) only. Thos, ia system had edstubunce as shOWD Mn p28 which was constant, the steady-state error e, ofthe system would ony be zero if Dis) contained an integrator : PID Control Proportion, integral, and derivative (PID) contro contains thre terms. They ate proportional con MD= Ke) > DU) =K. om integral eontot : n= fem + po = Es Te and derivative contol n= RTO) + DU) KT 22) 7, scaled the integral (or reset) time, T, the derivative tit feedback pain. Thus, the combined transfer function fo us) 1 De) = Te KOH 4 ToD. 025) Proportional feedback control can lead to reduced errors to disturbances but still bas a small steady-state erro. Mt can also increase the spent nf response tout typically atthe cost of a larger transient overshoot. Ifthe contolcy also includes a term proportional tothe integral ofthe enor the ertr to step can be liminated as we saw inthe previons section. However, there tends tobe unter deterioration ofthe dynamic response. Finally, adition of aterm proportional {0 the ror derivative can add damping to the dynamic response. These th {eems combined form the clasical PID controle. tis widely sed in the process indostres and commercial controller hardware can be purchased where the ce ‘only need "tune" the gains on the three terme and A the position Root Locus ‘The rot locus is technique which shows how changes in the systems open-tonp shasotcincsintuence the closed-loop dynamic characteristics This technique atfows us to plot the locus ofthe lose-oop roots inthe s-plae as an open loop Parameter varies, thus prctacing + root lacus, The Zoot lense mee commonly used to study the effet of the loop gain (Kin Eq, (2.25), howeven, ‘he method is genera and canbe use to study the effect of any parameter in Dash 23.1 29 Reales 25 or Gis) Infact. the method an be used 10 sta the ooo any polynomial Serss pacts in that polynomial ‘Key aut of te tec Uh it lows you tw stay dosed oop avers (ples ad zr) ofthe open-loop stem. roots while only knowing Problem Definition ‘he fist stp in ereating a oot locus ist put the polyiomials inthe root locus form 226) 0 fs a xt oo yim, tt open op rane fasion Dis} feck system: however, this need not be the case. The root locus is the set of values Pen shat ome ele Pee op one ho epee chraceric equate of he lsd op =e pps roo eno il fate eed crwerparntchetinp syn sea we nse Bagh ths yh peered een spe sens wits et nthe sory tani ns sony ae inset oe sie process \ eeu sa eb adt Heoe e a ether we arnge isa) in pol fr saga i pac ten he pan of Ms)as)mus e180 We hn dtc eo 180. locus definition: The toot laces of Bsa) the set of points inthe Splanewhece the phase a 159/45) 3 180 ‘Since the phases unchanged if an integral multiple of 360s added, we can express the definition as “ai i The nian ofthe definition i ta while vey difficult to solve a high-order polynomial. computation of phase is relatively as) When K 1s poste we cll hs the posite oF 180 Tous, When Kis eal and negative, By /ats) wan be seal and positive for» to ~ “Therefore, the phase of b(s}/a(s) must be . Thiscase iscalled the 0 or negative locus. 26 Chapter? Review of Continuous Control 2.3.2 Root Locus Drawing Rules The steps in drawing a 180° coot locus Fallow from the basic phase definition Bre se the basic phase def STEP 1 On the plane mark pos rots of as) by an and eos eat wish bya, There wal bea branch ofthe lots departing romexey ple oda branch arriving at every zero, anne > poleand STEP2 Draw the locus on he real axis 10 the lett of an odd numberof real poles plus zeros. STEP 3. Draw the asymptote. centered at and leaving at angles 6, where 1 =m = numberof asymptotes der of als) m= order of bs) w= EAES a +8, Form <> the will ran te ow pacing eat yp ' sin pre tii Form Oh wil ea bch oe kes ! {ns om nly lng ah atop STEP 4 Compute locus departure angles fom the poles and uival angles at the zeros where : : tg = Dv, ~ Ye, ~ 180 160 ‘ an, = 6, ~ Sv, + 180° 400 ere qs the order ofthe pole zero and aks ong inet s thal angles ie beiveen £180 the age ofthe bac gou hon oe {he pole or 2eo whose angi of departure o arly being computed. Sines , iS the angle of the line from the i, zero, econ ~ | STE I tucthee refinement i quired at the stability boundary. assumes, i ey and compute the point(s) where the locus crosses the imaginary als for positive K. STEP 6 _For the case of multiple roots. two foci come together at 180. and break ‘way at £90". Three loci sepments approach each other at angles of 130. sd depart at anges rotated by 60, STEP 7 Compete the ious. using the facts developed in he peevinws sap nc ‘making retercce to the illustrative loc for guidance. The loc Branches start at Poles and end at 2r0s or innit. © Example 2.1 3 Root Locus 27 STEP Select the desired point on the locus that meets the specifications (x, then use the magnitude condition from Eq, (2.26) 10 find thatthe value of sesso ined with tht points uae, K When K is negative. the definition of the root Jocus in tems af the phase relationship © tcus defniton: The oot locus of b(s)/as) the set of points in he s-pane whee the poe of Bt2)/aC2) 0 For this case, the Steps above are maulied as follows, STEP2 Draw the locus on the real axis 1 the eft of an even number of rea poles plus zero. STEP 4 Ine asymptotes depart at 11360. [ahdnem STEP. The locus departure and arrival angles are modified 10 ee re ee Sn - Sy, +60 [Note that he 180° term has been removed. 4, oo Lvs Shetek Skech the wo! oes vera Kdpsiive a gnendy ow) =¥. ltion. Fint doe 18D fous STEP ; ‘Theres azew ats =O and pole STEP2: Therein feus onthe entre native ree avn STEP therefore here on asymptote a depart 180° that ong the rep reals, STEP: The dere angle t the ope ol clea 35 6,=90"—90 = 180 = 180 RE =_— 2B Chapter 2 Review of Continuous Conte! 23° Root Lacs 29) its m oots by any of many available numerical methods. A disadvantage ofthis Figure 29 amie reat ious f ———— skates — ‘method is that the resulting root locations are very unevenly disteibuted inthe “plane, For example, nea a peint of multiple rks. the sensvty oF the root locations tothe parameter value is very great. andthe ros just ly through such oink. the plots appear to he iregular and sometines important features are | Imissed. As result is useful io have the rot loeus pling rules in mind when imterpeeting computer plots. The polynomial is generally solved by transforming the problem to state-varable form and using the QR slgorthm which solves for the eigenalues ofthe closed-loop system matrix. | © Example 22 CACSD Rat | 1. Plt oat bus ing MATLAS rhe oper oop tem sho ini 28 wh | ee 2. Find gin asocaed witht pa af maim damping ad plot the step response 8. Reonsethe ot oso withthe and plating res compare she compte bse Step esos withthe ales of thm Eas, (218-4218 talkin 22 Solan 1. The Maas fling il gett desig es ot which s sown in {hs he lous ea fom pe ena e210) shoei aan onthe NS andre hol cen “0 : melo mdb branch hein the Spa eee um=(1 aL denD= [1 10) an rumé=10, denGelt 20 am a 3 eet lng ioe ce eae ie eat: ne sy hour ded td) Pat he as bark vg tke nd ene : —— Shee ator dpting wnat ate Theos ee beoore al ks sifu an pe eigen, Ree tuys complex arses form ssn thy spe sore gta gree eine hms Tore cus ernie es same slong pose ian ie an of dear ‘The result i shown inthe figure by the doted lines a 2. Thesaerent vil pie cron-hairo the plot whch ca be mod wt he mouse tothe deste poat Oe tne ls oder oie sors gin K and poe locations Pine i ase 2.3.3 Computer-Aided Loci k=37 SLL = edna, Tm non po o mahi ompuaon of ee cs en elena enamine frm as KOU) 0 ee aa ses) (of values of & varying from near re ta. aca valu, suive di polyoma or races the desi step sponse shown in Fig. 2.108), 30° Chapier2 Review of Commas Cnc 24) Frequency Response Desian 31 Floure 210 r Bramble of CACSD for (2) toot lees 20) The rufa ales based on the sso order ssem wath 9 270% pee 8, nd that ar ile low Geto the presence ofthe ea pe, The preted M, is ‘Stata on tal eto the pesece of the eats = 3 oe 2.4 Frequency Response Design ——- “The response of linear system toa sinusoidal input refered to asthe system's “ | ae frequency response. A system described by. YS) — guy — ve” | sue the input u(t) is sine wave with an amplitude of U, and frequency «> | ue) Jr hae & Laplace transform 6 ue) = 1s response with the wansform, 3 Theroat ous a Fig. 2.14) ha locus enmeshed mame of poles and hase reso 0 (iep 2). as tw MP Sepang a 29 sed eee a a am sci Sep 3; and as z : A parial traction expan of Ey ¢ in terms that represent the ey 3 an as rahe pring he last he aie ese te 0 Aa ern preventing the snasodal input Paniing Boles a £90'(Step 6). The gin acted with hedesiedroat sts = TS 3 can that sl he ratural behavior i table. those tems will ie cut andthe only tems ee left in the steady state are those due to the sinusoidal excitation, that 1S ano 737 Yep (2.28) where 7s the dstanc froth otto he peat = 0: 32s these othe pole SF ia,” 39, y= 22.7 2st dae wth poe t= = 10.32 5 tesa oe were a, and a? would be found by perfonning th pari fraction expansion. spect soni i? ‘ter he natural ansiens have ded Ot, he time response 1s Te sep response shown ia Fi 210) bos 10%, The csed op rote wth K = 3.3 ea compen rot, ¢ — 078.14, = 4: adnan = 3. he tales of om ghee o Secon 17 sae tt : where Dae. 1a secs and, = SA 384/315 thn forthe wo UAsinos +0) pJsinot +9) A= (G4 = 1009) ito £6Ue) Myre mam rig 27 RelGUe,)] 32 Chapter? Review of Continue Com 241 So, a stable tinear system G(s) excited by'a sinusoid will eventually exhibit a Sinusoidal ourput withthe same frequency asthe input. The magnitude. A()) of v with respect tothe input, = | Gt jo) andthe phase, es ine Gu Ietae is, the magnitude and phase of G(s) is evaluated by letting s take on valves slong ‘the imaginary (ja) axis, In addition to the response toa sinusoid the analysis of the frequency respoase uf a sytensis very use i the delerminaion of slbiliy ‘of closed-loop system given its open-loop transfer function ‘A key reason that the frequency response is so valuable is that the designer ¢an determine the frequency response experimentally with no prior knowledge of the system's mode! or wansfer function. The system is excited by a sinusoid with \arying frequency and the magnitude A.) is obianed Uy « neasuremen OF the fat ofthe output sinusoid to nut sinusoid in the steady-state at each frequen ‘The phase (0) isthe messured difference in phase between input and DUtPLt signals. Ay an example, irequency responses ofthe second-order system a 2sTo,) 60 = are ploted for various values of ¢ in Fig. 2.11 which is don bodes), by MaTLaR with Specifications A natural specication for system performance in tems if Froncy response 's the bandwidth, detined fo be the maximum frequeney at which the output of 8 system will rack an input sinusoid ina satisfactory manner. By convention, for the system shown in Tig. 2.12 wih a sinusoidal input r the bandwith 36 frequency ofr a which the output y is attenuated 4 factor of 0.707 times the ‘npuc (or down 3 dB). Figure 2.13 depicts the idea graphically for the frequency response of the closed-loop transfer function (defined tbe 7 (5) in Eq, (219)) Yo) Ko) Ro) 7" Te RG ‘The pots typical of mos closed-loop systems in ht 1) the ouput follows the iat. = hat the lower extatonfequecis and 2) ie aayut ects follow the input, (T| < 1, atthe higher exeitation Frequencies. ‘The bandwidth oi 2 measure ofthe speed of eexponse and is therefore similar to the time-domain measure of rise time 1, or the s-plane measure of atural frequency w. Infact. it can be seen from Fig. 2.11 thatthe bandwidth ‘willbe equal othe natal frequcney when = 0.7, For oer damping ration, the bandwidth is approximately equal othe natural frequency with an eror typically less than a factor of 2 tne resonant peak M, is a measure ofthe damping, as evidenced by Fig, 2.11 ‘here the peak is approximately the value at w= e,. which is for ¢ < 03 2.4 Brequeney Response Design 33. Foue21 Ghmecrosconsanke en 34 Chaper?_ Review of Coninuous Contd Series st Ofer etn 7 Figuee 2.13 Detnons of bandh ———|» . and resonant pook i ~ Rent ak a 2.4.2 Bode Plot Techniques {is useful be able to pot the frequency response ofa system by hand in order {0 () design simple systems without the aid of a computer, (b) check computer Insed reculs, ard (2) understand the effect of compensation changes i desi iterations. H.W. Bode developed posting techniques inthe 1930s that enabled

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