A DICTIONARY OF INTERMEDIATE JAPANESE GRAMMAR ___ Bem ‘The apanTimesSEER Copyright © 1995 by Seichi Makino and Michio Tsotsi ‘Apher, Nopar of hi pboe my be eroded sere ia rele, o tami nay for oy fey mem, etn, acne, piconet. or cari wit te or rie emo oe ble int eon: June 1995 19% ping: October 2001 ‘Bieri isistance: OPTIMA Cop Cover a: CADEC Ie. Poblsed by The Japan Times, Ld 54, Shiau &-chome, Minato, Tokyo 108-0023, Japan Phone 03-3453.2013, -nnptockla opatmes cov ISBNE-7890.0775.8 Prine in open Preface ‘This isa ditonay of imemadiate Japanese grammar, a companion volume tw Dictionary of Basic Japanese Grammar published in 1986 by te same autor. While DBIG was designed primary for students and teaches of ‘ogling level Japenese, thie volume i designed for stents and teachers of intermediate level Jepanese. Aer examining relevant textbook, sme ‘eferences on seaence pater, and authentic sources used in inteediate tnd vance apanese cures, we have chosen approximately 200 emis Which we Believe wo bet most inporan grammatical tems for intermediate Sepanes eae. "The format of thi itor i th te a that of A Dictionary of Basie Japanese Grammar. or te coaveieace of readers who have nt wet DBIG te he repented fom tht text the sections To the Reader snd rams ‘Terms nti volume, however, we have mdfied Tote Render sigh and ave add some enres to Cramnatical Terms. Along withthe Japanese inde, there ran English index tat ist the English equivalents fo each ery. (ne difrence between the two volumes i that no romanization bas beso [wovided for examgle sewznces in A Dictionary of Iemediate Japanese (Grammar Ista, frigona(hagan ovr kan) wed "Needless to ye owe «pea el Yo cor profecor, whose works ae liste in he references. Withou tel Linguist nights we could never ave vite thi ition. We would ike to hank or coleagse, fens, and Spouses, who have Kindly answered our persistent questions and shared tbe Tanguage intuition. However fr fear of omission, we woud rather nt atempt s comprebensive ling of mes. Even so, we want meatlon deri ‘as who made this publication possible Ss, Ms. Chiaki Seido from the Japan Ties who etd oor manisrpt mos conssendoutly and efeivels, ‘and bsped we invalualy wih er comment snd suggestions. Aso, ose hanks ‘fot Ms Carmel Dowd and Ms, Sharon Tau, ho eited or English minke it more eadble ‘We sincerely hope tht this diconary willbe usefl in faring oar seater! undestanding of apes Spring of 1995 sich Matino Michi Tatu‘TABLE OF CONTENTS Pretice ‘To the Reser... List of Abbrevitons ist of Symbole Gramma Tem nn Special Topics in TnemediteJpanese Gramar 1. Discourse Grammar (Mechanism of Cotesion:Intersententil Reference (2) Phenomens of Tense snd Foray Swings 2. Newspaper Grammar 3. Convesaonl Statics 4, ‘Toward Beer Resting Comprebesion: Analyzing Sentences Accurately. Main Bes Aprendines 1. Rotahana Word Transcription Rules 2. Compound Verbs (61 (sy ia) tno} ey 03) 0) 0) 60) 9 a) wa, 3) 1612 a3 is 025 4 s 6 2 8 Compound Paces Conjunction Anes: Profs and Sofies ‘More Counters Cooseunence Functional Expressions and Grsnmatic! Pater Engl Index Jopanese Index References a 6 os on 06 1s us 188‘To the Reader ‘Tis icionury cosa ofthe following pac: ‘AL GranmaticalTems conains bit explanaons o informal defnions of he grammatical terms aed in thi book. If reader ind ht they 20 not far wid tese tems itis eggeted that they read hs scion cael ._ Special Tpes in ermelaeJapancre Grammar dicate selected op. ‘es Jpanese discourse prammar, newspaper grammar, converatinal te ies and sentence sroctre analy fr reading comprehension. The se in inrodoces readers toa numberof important concepts with which they sould be familiar in order to improve thei reading and conversations! il, CMain Bre consis the core ofthe volume, Each ety is organized 1s follows —__ [Omens Ommanat) Sian] | [Sima] © ho © (peated expen’) © Key Sentences) © Formation © Examples) ® Nate) © (Related Expressions) coarer—v—w—/ © {eoty name} ach entry is ven ia romanian spelng flowed by is hragona version. Eaties are alpbabedclly ordered tased on tice romanized spetings. @ {part spec: Esch entry is followed by its prof speech, @ (usage esricton: <> or ew> is provided when teeny item is wed i) only in spoken Japanese or ely in writen Japanese and fomal speeches, especialy © Geaning function): The general meaning o fonction of the entry item Ss given the bor telow te entry nae, © (Eaplsh coumerpun(): English expressions equvalen wo the enty ‘tm are given othe right ofthe bo. © (elated expression): Mere which are semantically related to the aur item ae ised as [REL. ab, bbb oc). Expression ia pala 976 ‘ike aot ace expsined in the entry under [Related xpression()} (, Expressions in bold pe like Ob contain comparisons 0 He fot item under [Related Expresion(] fr B66. ‘Wey Sentence, Key seneacespreseat pls seeence pate in frames according to semtence sroctre, The rcureat clement ae pritd in re @ Formation: The word formation rls coast forms foreach te are provided with examples, The recurent element ee printed in rd @ Examples: Example sentences ae provided for each ety. @ Notes: Notes cota important piss conceriag the ws ofthe te. D [Related Expresson(s)]: Expressions which are senantealy close to the ear ite ae compared snd thei diflerences ae xpi’. (200 (DBIC: 000-000) is Fomation, Notes, and [Related Expres sion] indicates tht the item which was refemed wo (.e, aga) is explained ‘on 9p. 000-000 ofthe companion volume: A Dictionary of Basic Japanete Grammar. D. Appenicer cotsns information sich ae fatatana word tsasxipon rules, compound verbs, compound partes, conjunctions, prefies and sites, cours, cooccurence, and functional expressions and grammar ters 1. Inderes provides both Japanese index and an English index. The Japanese index includes the main ens, te items explnined in [Related "Expesion()], and the lems covered in A Dictionary of Baie Japenese CGrommar, The English index includes English countess of te mala ty ites 8 wwList of Abbreviations Ai) «type adjective (eg ta yas) ‘Aajin) = ype abjective (eg. goki, shistac) AP ajecve phase ‘Aun = any (Comp. pt. = compound particle (oni = conjuncsion Cop = cops (8 dos) DBIO=A Dictionary of Basle Japanese Grammar Dem. aj = demonsaive adjective (eg. hoo, soma) DO. = irc objet Fal =fomal Gz Group Inf =lafora In. = ineection I= euler KS Key Sentence ILSV = Location + Soject + Varo Nenoun Neg =repaive Nom. namin (6 no ot) NPs noun pie Par = pase PL plan Pot = pote Pret pec (8.6 909 Pro. = pronoan| r= panicle tuo} Scone =concessiv clase (ea clase wHich ends with temo or seme) ‘Sood = codon clause (Le. a clause wich ends with 62 and ta) Sin sentence ta nds with an normal diate SLV = Subject + Location + Verb So.= someone Sx=soneting SOV =Subject+ Object + Verb SV'= Subject» Verb sue smenze Suf = sti eg. 58,98) ‘eond = cooional tm of Gr. 1 eth (og hanas of harass) Vint = informal for of Ve (2. hanst,hanshia) ‘Vasu = masu-stem of Verb (eg, Para fharashiasu, ab of aboasi) {YN = Chinese ogi compound noun whi: fos a ver by afixing su (. ant yatta) ‘Vneg= informal epative form of Gr. 1 Ve (eg anse of harass!) P= ver pase ‘pots verb potential form (eg. yomery, beaver) sem =sem of Ge 2 Vb (8. tbe of bau) ‘Vio t-form of Verb (hana, at) ‘Vwol= volionl fom of Ve (eg. Rant 10/0) - = wed in wrtng and formal speech ely ‘Whverd =n ntopgative word (ena, oka) unList of Symbols eattew, 72m dees of uci inde by eer of pion ms sy ee epoxy twa, ve er wo accept the asterisked sentence.) ™ (ATBI ca AC or BC IV? AD)at= Vo AgON9 ‘ano Goer wre ig sdb wel tebe 9s Than, Ai ata) tra! tet Ala eee Aion ctaanotn) 0 (Grammatical Terms “The following ae be explanton of some grammatical terms din hit ictonay “Active Sentence A sentence which deeribes an sein fom the agent's ‘point of iw (ef Pasive Semoce) Inactive setenes, the sje isthe gent Sentences (a) and () below are an ative anda passive sentence, respectively, @ Biuzsve Leon, (oe teacher soled Soh) © YavaKEcLhoAt, (on was sealed by the teacber) ‘Agent One who lates and/or completes an action or an event. The ‘gente not always in the subject poston. Compare the positions ofthe agent, Bilin) a8 (@ Emie—vexor, (ill hic Mara) & ePeEMicKR At (tart was it by Bl) Appositive Clause (Construction) A clase which modifies a noun (or noun rts) and explains wha the modifled noun. In (Mea ge Tamm aa 'Mary met Tem isan apposive clause, and is what i ‘tbe fc ees @ Berry-wrackorbRebotws, (Gino he Fc that Mary met Tom) Auullary Adjective A.depeadet ajective that is preceded by and U3)stare toa verb or acter asectve. The boise parts ofthe faliow- ng sentences ae typical asl aecives @ Ravsretoceun, (at Joa ogo there) ©) cotiaiorry, (his dcdooary I etsy to we) © RurLadictu, (wa eat us) @ Appeadix 3 (BIG: 585-88) ‘Mype Adjective An adjective whose nnpes recominal form ends with |. Beample of tye ajetvs ae tla “igh, expensive” and 0 ston. ss en (0, (Ch nesype Adjective) @ HE (an expensive book) Bok (4 stong person) ype adjectives are fre subdivided ito two types: ype adjectives which dwt and thone with on-ahi endings. Moet adjsives with send ngs express human emedon (such as usa “happy Aaah “sa sais “inex” lars “penfl); the non adjectives are sed for objective Aescrpons (atcha “iack eh “wht, ho! spacious” aa "high expensive Main Clause When sectnce consists of two clases, ove mated by & subordinate conjunction (sich as fre, deed, rode, and on) and the thet ot marked by a subordinate conjunction, te late sealed «main ele, "The bold-faced parts of) and) re main lass, @ itedieitvo Bic on. enClonadewersh siagh en hese) ©) RECEKE Lone Sie. et py be stad i) Wen stn «la dt ea Spe a ‘referred to as a main clause as in (c). = © Wesos, Bionérareeitehe, Cer athe ow ore omy Het) Noctype Adjective An adjective whose nnpestpetomieal form ends With na. For example, shade ‘quiet and gon “heathy” are neype stv, an (ch ne Adctve) @ Beet (4 quiet hose) Seed (a belty person) ‘Nesype sjecsives ae very similar to nouns. Some naype sjetivs can be ‘ed as real nouns a8 shown in). All nape ajeives behave ab one hen they ae used befor the copla as shown in), ©) dors, (Peat is impos, you know.) ce memes (a eat person) cittisEnres, (never forget your kindest) MA (kind person) ©) conaRm BE (8/24 / Hons OLE / betes tee D8RA/ Cetmon/Cemmetac lth (his person Us was/is wasnt ely sade) eal Nominalier A nominalizs is a parle tht nes sentence nto & oan rte orcas, There are two nominliers no and koto: he fomer repre sent the spekersenpatete elng evar a event sae expose int ‘nominalized oun pase lus; the le represents the speakers eave) ‘t-empatee feting towards an eve sate (© no (BIG: 518-22); hot! (DBIG: 193-86) ‘Noun Phrase / Cause Panicle | Preicate ‘Senence ‘Nominalier hteke ovee | we | (Reading Japanese is ial) “The nominaie sentence canbe used ia ny positon where an erry noun fora nor pase / clase canbe used Partcplal Construction The conscton whish expresses an action scompanying stuston expose nthe main cau. The patil constr. on fen involves fon sin (2) a @ Bas-peheenz score. (Taking of my cout, 1 hang on a banger) & yore thie A (Siting 00 he sf ead newapsper) Passive Sentence A sentence which describes an ation by someone fom the viewpoint of sameone ela who alot by that ston, (ef, Active Sen tence) (ad () are passive setences. @ Bavvcarnr (Qs besten by Bll) @ BieREcdons, (i Taro was annoyed by the fact that Akko cried, (= Taro was noyed by Akko’ ering) 3Potential Form A ver form tht expresses competence inthe sake of ‘ean dost” The formation i a olows G1 Verte Veood+ 8 og, Be (cana) Or 2 Verbs Vaem+ 6S eg, R (a deci loking cake cake whic looked dsisout) « ‘Punctual Verb A verb that represents a momentary acon which ether occurs once, a ina, or ean be repeated continously, a a () (0) fis (gaoinom; sss (oy 2% cep 2 (mane ‘ene (oop th 8 (weenie) () HEF Crop; 68% (pluck off; 178 cick); HA Gump; > Cio ‘Wit he auntie ver the panel ves in (a) express a state aera ston was taken, and thos asin) express ether arepested action ora tte sera ston was taken. (> Appendix 2 (DBIG: 582-84) Stative Verb A vet which represent state of something o someone a Soe pat a ine sn). (© Appendix 2 (DBIG: 582-84) (4 (exist of inanimate thing); 4 (exis (animate tings) 2 (eed); dk (can do) Subject The sbjet isan element of seotence which nests an ageut ‘ofan ata native seatences (a a) oF an experience fan aeton (5 in () someone o someshing that sin sate o station (a in), and (0). The subjects normally marke bythe parle gen Japenese unless itis the sentence toi. (@ Yaramaceben, (ohn ae an apple) &) x7 um ohB ics ts (ary was paz by her teacher) es)“Pio! eradton, fev (Be door oped) © Wrtons, (Gt One bi esas (2 Ther i a be}) (BaF, (Thesis be) Subordinate Canse A cise which embedded ino a mae cla with & subordinate conjnction, Typeset cnjncton ar i ar “eects ee eau kar dough and non ‘ldough Tos ln) eto tetldicd clase withthe sbrdinte conjunction nade eo ed into the main clase Notayara-san wa galAéoyasund, “Mt. Nakayama as abst fom school (File nutter noc (Nakayama was absent from schol becase be hal beadace) ‘Te informal form of verb / adjective ally use in a subordinate case Summ: (<> Prefix / Sut) Suraverd A verb which i composed of x noun and suru (x(a) or single word and sry (Ex (2). Nowe preceding su are mostly Chinese ‘gin words. Sur-verbs conjogt athe same way 8 su GW rs Cosma: BETS Co clean HEMLES (o say up 1s) © 77948 (olmedes #4248 Co sien) (©) BTS Corea: HFS (o gues) ‘Transitive Verb A verb tat request object 1 wll expresses ‘anacton that ct upon so, or india bythe direct object. Actos in fate by taastve vers include real causative (ach a8 dass “nk (26) ‘20,20 Aerosy ll) miso ‘shot’ naka ‘make 50 cmos "pa lice’), exchange (sah agar piv mora rcev, faro ive) crea on (ich 8 tsutry “nak, Jak “wri, hangosn tik’), conmuniaion (evch se hanay ‘spe, oan "each, feutaons ‘convey & mesage’) and ‘ters Note that some English wns: verbs are invasive in Japanese. @ “Keiteas, (Gc With me ear iss, (2Tave 2 ear)) ) Hantens, (it To me money is necessary. (1 need money) © ax8KdP ithedos, (Ui. To Me Stith Coinee is ndertandable, (Mr, Smith ander stands Chines.) @ wit77y aBed Libs. (it Tome Freach is abit possible, (= can speak French ite) © Renubientarcdor. (Me. Kinoshita met his father in Tokyo.) ©) Sena RemoR, (i Tome the bel wasnt abe, (© Iwas’ able to esr he Bell) @ cceenbilivkasrs. (From here Mt Fuji is visible _(2 We can te Mt. Fj fom hee)) BBeHcRv ELK, (We ode tlle in) ( sutcdrcossin, (tseoms tat Tesemble my mor) Verbal A sence eames wich ads he aon ote of sb Jest Aves isa an ate, or nun flowed yo opel nono Bek ehlben cele, (Cotaied many kaj this tem) en2b! Loniteeceiiin, 2 Gs erm every aay bole) ca 9 URE, (Miss ray aan) Won Sentence A senecin wich enon xp he wil. The in ve Inch secs atelier) ) Metco sass les, sites) Woaweton A qusion dt ak inomalon shout wo, wr, here, whic, when, hy and how, ak exemplified by (a) (below. (6h YerNo Question) @ i ® (What wi you eat) © Ecutaste, (Where are you going?) © URED ei. (When ar you going back to Osaka?) © ErUtipancere (ow come you don't buy it?) © RERuesRaete, (ow can I gett Tokyo Staton?) ‘Whword An joterognive word which comesponds to English words Sch as who, what wher, which when why and how. Te following a some examples 0) FE cowhor, H whan; 2 (where); 2 whee BLP tae Gow come / why: 29 Gow) sy Note hat Jpanese Wh-wont re ot lays fund in sentence poston: they se feguely found afer tape noun phrase, as shown in () and (©) below ©) Bao r—tsemarks Lam (Git To yesterday's pay, who came there? (@ Who came to yester- fay’ party) cf MUMBO OF ICE Lt (bo came to yesterdays party) @ B¥eumeva ten (it fn Japan whi you do? (= What ld you doin Japan) of MEAKCLE LAI, (tat i you doin Japon?) Yeo Question A question tat can be answered by ha / 6's" or “na (cl. Whqueton) Examples fellow @ & Fisacktuee. (Did Me Ueda comer) Be itu, ELS (es, be & Bheanliers, (is Me. Suzuki a sent?) B wd, S9beD EAS (No, se) paHite ne Pie Special Topics in Intermediate Japanese Grammar 1. Discourse Grammar (@) Mechanism of Cohesion: Inter-sentental Reference ‘When two or more sentences are recognized at coesive sequence (Ley score) rater thn a collection of una sentoes, in many lnsances the discourse involves cern linguistic mechani o malta cobevenese betwen sentences * Among sich mechusisms oter-enteai reference ie one of he most commen ones Inter satential eference (ISR) is kind af ference in whic an element in 8 senznce refers to vomching or somone mentioned in anthe semance, Specifically, when reference is made to an entity metioed a previous sentence, i is called “nnaphavic reference” or “anaphora” Anaphor i the ‘mos common ISR. Examples of ansphor te given in (1). In ths dcoae the boli-aced pas (i, anipborc elements of enphors) refer to prone ‘things mentioned in previous sentece, 0) chialiidek ReMi oliess, cobktiSaame “knives abo iol yeoman ah ani. SL ‘ee of ate i cop ascetic “nto ei tes enon ey cay. Fer xan seas esi cts ut ft ss be aca te 4 ese pt gether pct emen os esa Itsy we nog ste “Aaa chan man ctv eee sexes ihe oni. ‘As ttf i, tn conocin ous) sch ie oe cone aese entece ae ycnea ences ete © £L€ Gnd ead, £2 (ets LiL however: (eer oak Hate (reaps 300226 iemayy #0 to he (co Apenic Coston) 0) Rae ulkaiinc ori, hoe cnamcummcty aba des, tached ile, MUR CMMER BL EL 9 CHEN BeLtHa, bia teem (his is story bout a child named Sebel ad gourds After thi ic en, he We between Seibel and gourds was severed, However, be toon found something to subtit for gourde—painting. He sat devoted 1 it ashe once was to gourds. (Shiga Naoys! See and he ours) [As sea in (1), vaso kind of elements can apear a naphos, icing pronouns, oped nouns an elated nos. In aon, anapors a lied A. Pronoons| Pronouns canbe elsif into two gowps:peronl pronouns (wash aj ih hare “bey and densasrative pronouns (aes serova those, soko “bathe place’ ‘Anapers peronlprocoass are isto peron pronouns sing sre" anno she and thee pal foms. (1) preseate an example of ae "Among demonsvaive pronouns, ay the 2° and ko- series can be maporc. (1) ives examples of sor ant (2) an example of kore. * @ Atlemiio—yeonn—ey Mit Ragon. cat, WE EFL ewshillos-7overobsdLeitonio(ena). (Company A bas decided to rede the price of Mere word proses Ser by fie percent. Tela st regain (Tis st im tein ing) ter ecently declining share ofthe word: processor marke) ‘ea cn be wed a conveon oe ooalng wich awa ba ‘Se eaterndihe hae, In oe oni, Sas (@o you now whee be gis paner sony i whieh was hee Bad, anuildisasioca, (Gn wate; Yama ing 0%.) on| 'B, Repeated Nouns ‘An anaphoric noun in many instanoes, «repetition ofits antecedent Proper nous an aniecedet is « proper nou, the most eet way to refer tothe sane ent in a Ine sentence isto repeat the same proper noun. For example in (D, Sates repeated nthe second sentence. Common nouns ‘Whe an antecedent i » common nou, the same nou may appear as an snapor in certain situations. For example, i an antecedent refers to gente ates, the same noun canbe repeated with no modifier. retan “gourds! jn the second and third sentences in (1). If antecedent refers toa specific iy, on the other and the same noun may apes in Iter sentence eer With or witout «demonstrative adjective (e, soo theo kno “hs ‘A demonstrative adlecv is neesary if the referent woul be terse inter preted as non anaphvic because of nck fsficien content interpre its Anapors. For example, in (3) the ato “parent inte second sentence oes not refer to the same apartment mesioned inte frst eeatece, while in (4) sono opto "hat apartment does refer tothe sme apartment mentioned it theft sentence. @ Hawa rvortonebe, var bbilrne nem. (saw an apartment in Boston yesterday. Job ls an parent today) © WANK ROP REMI Yar aR EOP KERR, (saw an spareent in Boston yesterday, ohn leo sw that parteet today) 1), onthe other hand, there is suicieat cone to net the kazaa ‘unite’ inthe second setence sb anaphoric; therfoe, no demonstave ‘tecive ie neces, © 2x, Rhzmemecky Lremmesangecessenrs cB 2 I, BotBilonBicnoc Ton, MBRENE Bocilor, Creonkecdttonidlt fired wal coma Team) (Cate, the wacher gave the gourd he had taken from Seibel to a old Jnl asf i was thy object. The janitor ook it home and git on pilin bis small ingy room. (Shiga Naoys Sie andthe Gourds) ‘When reference is made in later paragraph, the anaphoric noun often appers with a relive clave which rere Mentying inforation about the efereat metiona ear. For example, in the sary of Cinderella, oe of Cinderela shoes comes off when she ru down the sts ofthe place 10 hry ome. Whea tis she prefered to in alter paragraph the reference could Lok ke) © vegLovhiiteme UH one teen, Berl oelfees in, (Using the shoe Cinderela lost on the stars sa ele, the pine bad is men look for ber.) . Related Nos Anaporis reference often costs with nouns or noun phrases) which a nt the same as bat are elated to heir antecedents, There ae te suo Wich “elated owns” appear a angpors (@)_Sirations where an anapor and its antecedent refer tothe se ety (ee anapor) (©) Siruations where an anapor refers to par ofits antecedent refeeat (Gemi-dizetsnaphor} (6) Satins where an anapbor refers to an eaiy infeed rom previous cote (inde anaphora). Direct anaphora In det anaphora, reference canbe made by nouns which ef to larger cae vies than tes aecedents refer. For example, in (7) the hava ‘ower in the second semeoce refers to the salura ‘chery (lessons) inthe fst sea tence. In his ae, «demonseave adjective is mandatory. © HubBov rans, (20/0 Haane ances 3[seo tomes nr arERSSDLATE APANESE ORO | ‘stata (Chemy blosioms ae the symbol of Jean. They it, These flowers) ‘ne loved by everyone) Adina examples of det anabora can be sen in (8) nd). © Raumelcke, coBanodittiios 224— nae (Yama came to see me yesteréy. This guy was ove of my cles mates in my bigh school dys) ©) Bows —eihon, coRF ea 2 sieitiolkica—o, xotooblii77—.cWLe. (@ heard Kezuhito Yamashita play guitar (i. Kazbito Yamashi's ‘ta. This gaius guitarist won tre interstons competion ia Europe when he was stosn) Semidret anaphora In smi-iectanaphors, an anapbore noun sfc opr (or an element of sueceden's referent. Fr example, in (10) te yuk or i the second sen tence refer othe flor ofthe aparment menened inthe fe sentence, In this case the anupbor dos not require a demonstrative adjective 10) EMA ROR KERR. Rico LM ste T eH Rote (Yesterday Yan aparment in Boson, Athough tee wee some Scratches on the lot, was good aparmest) Indirect anaphora In indirect anaphora, there Is no explicit antecedent. The referent of an snapor is infeed fom a previous Sentences) For example, in (1), the ‘genta ‘ems’ in the soond sentence doce nt refer to anything which is ircly mentioned in the Fist seatence. Rate, refers to someting whichis Infered from tht sentence, In this cate, the anapor doesnot require 4 demonseatve adjective, OD ERROR ER okie on, Heshiibeli Cale inept oe valley of Kara some ngs Sg ale ‘ote ound of waves, he supe that ests fe fen but umes eto ee snd the moan (hr ke te Gita: ond wind Seti hd ep power ie a he ah rumbling. (91 Heels nif erin ihe soe thug wait fs ingiag ed be so i he [1] The sand ppd ‘er he soul sop Shingo wes onran by fa rte fst Soe {2 cil an heh hs ie th be fi th ha teen procaine (3) Shing add ofc obey ft ‘asthe sound of te win rth soon of wave ring inhi a td be shoupt i wasposble ta re was ny som (1) Ba the wasn ob athe a ard th sound of te moun) Logically speaking, the anti could ave writen every sentence inthe past tense. Nevers, the author smetines use the pat tense and smetines the noopast ese. Tn ths paste, S sentences (i.e, Sentences 1,2, 4, 5,6) ent, ‘of 14 sentences ain the nonpas tense sown bythe double underline, the ‘rasan the origi! noapast predicate i eased axing the nonps ee ‘dicted. Tn oter words, a switch rom the pas tens othe noopst hat occured in those 5 seaencs, ‘An examination ofthe 5 seaeaces inthe wonptt tense revels ha these sentences deseibe a citeumstance that surouns Shingo, tein characte af 8) ‘he sory. Theses ofthe sentences (Le, seaences 3, 7-14) describe inthe pas, tense whatever Shingo di orf in he pve cecumsaaces. To pit inset cal tems, ese svtching is a strategy avallable to the weet differentia & "tage and» set of chronologies event tat oecur wih that sage. The age is cerainlyinpoatin ht defines a space in whic drama develops, bt itis ear important than te erama isl. So, import, mat information is deserted inthe past tense, whereas selavely unimgortant circumstantial lnfomaton i desebe in the nonpast ese. The ws of sich nonpet tess ‘ta effec of eetng a vivid ene of inmedltenes for he eae ‘A pial that appear to gover Tese Switching goes as fllows: Principle of Tense Switching ‘A par of past evet (often state rater than an ation) canbe descibed ‘sng the romps eis, ifthe ster pereives ito be relatively unimportant ‘runt lnfortin that has no iret bearing upoa the major story Hs B. Formality Switching By fomallty ltching Is mean switching from Frmal syle informal le ose freien switching fom informal style to formal syle. The later, ‘itching fom informa yet forma ye, ocursin spoken Japanese, "The Informal ye stable syle to be used when th speaker / writer wants to expres his felng, his knowledge oe is covicon in a sightforvard ma ‘80, in fomalseting which eqs the speaker wer © we the fr tml sj the syle cnn ewich fom foal ffomal shown inthe fl Inwig examples 2a 8,0 © 2 ASeusHeRiKodcuecomeenamensdee Bacoaasth, ascmmers yy, o8n, Hoke bn, SEWROR AL TLE >, exon Lnxanth au, We ofa bo6Riie, RUOH ide sites. Ei, ms, 622, Honeiiicesennaense kb. ‘Gapan is siving foreigners an impression of «coer ery much close, Foeigners re called gai,” that sto su, ousdes and e7{hey ar always weed ike guests, And they camot make good fends easy. Associaton wit callapues i tough. Theres lao ‘imi to thei promotion, Anyway pan ha 0 become & oie ‘xy more ope foreigners) > skutthieSewerrn, ARemmelies e Leib, Wiie Lx, eneikestiteadt. 288. KH, Polh thine, anoctokces, uno, Bec eamaov, oh {Thee oot many crimes commited in apn, ou kaw. When ‘ipa sshattcmmie sine eee te con that il der him fom commiting ide fo pone Te fee fh io cle ome min to isconpeny. Ts wy be cn oi ing, yu tn) ce vsvsoihikedsactabiiietiodse, senuro IOuRETHORE TD esac homMeon, HOA ‘Hro, KBa, veceeenes coe Aihonkcrocn, wet Lacherbonanity BNE, Conlon) Be Lebo ERs s ceRaic Anon, Kareocan, bareso™thegs cet he, ofstneo, £Lt, BeaurentnavRedie GOUT. LIL, KhStvor, cone, codes aunties adie, orns, “ailoxR, ue AoanaceRHLercHHD team, RPRBTE tazcouen (tow ayo ving your ithe dys when ect Sor of ye Te ya ving hs ht od So From ancient ines, man Me hve teen eof eae: ate orthose who dent wi soya.) Oat ves elise ch ny tng and ch on sly msebl, din td onetime ews uy Dat 8) evens, we have no che place tan ores in which we ean live. So shall we vale tis Smeplaceable sei in his ie that we ave bu nee?) aka Yashara “On Sel”) "The speaker of ath 2) and (2) aking to person ia the ete formal ‘suaon ofa roundabledncsson, Tis sa stuacon whee a formal ye ie eguired, at instead of wing formal sy al the way, he ha sted his ssl rom formal 0 nforal se a indicated bythe dole undies. "The writer of 2) employe formals al the way with etme infor- sal se. In (2) there are two doableudedined predicates in which fermal> iy switching hss taken pce. In both eases the writer expeses something ppendixed to what follows either in «coordinated or subordinned way. 18 fick in both eae, thesemenes tht arian informal ste cant into a coordinate clause or a subordinate clase like a) and, respecivey ‘Whatever ie exposed in an appendix othe majo las is usally distanced fom the hesereader, ad hreforetnc Yo be expresed usualy in ioral file, leo to be noted here she sas tendeocy fr fomuliy switching to ocr when th sentence is «negative sentence. Os ERScEMTMAON, MEscHE RELCHAVOTHS % P85, Ai, DOCE Genes LOLRIMORALE SUH, HORHLARRECHONoRIMOaN Sah, b LAL, Kassner, CDA, COBENMEDE LEE ER AWMOVORSS, MIO, DILODBE EAMELEI TERN ELL [An exteme cate of formality swishng is insanced by the folowing example Miucnppores-sryzoaiiieutt, tf, 97 eas 27 FOMGCH A, (A ee tings the speaker's head) 2, wy emeer (osay 1 am going to ave a tk on computer chip. Fast of all, regain the stuctre ofthe chip, oach!) ‘The speaker of (8) i giving pai uk in which he is equieto we fr ral speech. However athe pont whenke is stg by a bee he automatically "sitches hie sl rom formal offal, becuse hs expression i next ‘ation wiih a moe stiphforwardecresson of his piysologcl fling 9Altboogh moc les fequent chan fomal‘o-nformal switching thee te es of informalofomal switching ae shown in). OA Meroe eenr (Don't you want come fora dive with me?) B: 2382, ESL25HL5. (i, wonder wat Tebow do.) As ROATERESE, the (Fou mus come with me) B: ae, Heise, (fou ae a ekless diver eet your) A tapcewan gen. Bese ream, BLCmELE ‘Nor ata. When Igo fre dive with you, I wil dive consider- sly) lets example a coupe is talking very informally. The speake A wants to persuade Bto come fr dive ith, bt the pesusion as not ea ss ‘xf s0 by switching the sye be wants o tainly ndcate atte ionship does not deserve intimate, ifort sy. Treo, he into ‘ites his ye from informal foal, ‘he Principle of Format Switching Foal syle may be switched to informal style whe the speaker writer wants {© expres his/her fecing.Roowiedge or conviction in a sraghtforwad 2. Newspaper Grammar Japanese newspapers use cain setenee forms, pits, and wore which ae ne common to ober wring (0) Heodtnes A ep of ates and verbals In pwspge aie he topic marker wand cae mut we on Appt (uny ip embet tec to e det e Imai isconnen) Fredcae vetlel doped. Bamps @) a ARRGRR Undies) (Eat eso elite poo into rtp 8 BER onl Wekbircrs) Crab high solo te) err BkaniiGicies) Fade F477 (W)MOBELER (8) BOTS) (Eng on East Ai comes cle Pe Tapani fie fps pie) 4 ihe LAaoMATMA He cecum (Government sald make an fo ole land ce prem) teste (For examples of waomission, se (4) and (4) Note: As sen (1), parila ot droppin imperative setece 'B. Eps of no ‘The noun conector is fas dropped ia ong noun compounds (pareully, {thse which contain more thn one no), Bramples 2 ERO SiB unnsesareéth 0c) Es) HE ayHEAL TOMES me BEERNEDLATE1AASESE GRAN (Companies” soci expenses rath (reach) ¥5,6274 blon last yea) 1b soloB Hon e—ai8 a) Fyre aOR RFS) (in anon the wr er consumption n'90) ©. suave The nv of svete eoppe ange © & Kan, ro eres BHers) (US w way solsh CCé ore Barceaton)in'8) REE a0 RKO MEW Fors) (Gatlte industry begins foreign market developmen) D. De ater N and Adinaystem ‘a ater nos and ne-adjectiv ems ie usally dropped, amples © 2 BRE cen Biositoeo HRE (01,105 Kile i wali cst ast yest) 70> Nialuanitiéry 7A anit Were (Phan export to SE Asia louis) E Teme ts hesies past events are represented using the nonpast tnt (eg (8 (1e), Because the nonpast tease als represents fe events, wheter an vents uur one ora past ne is known fom ether rane elements (6. (2a), Ga or tom the tet (28 (1b), 0). , Abbreviations Country names (Coan names ae often abbreviate, (a Bamps: (9) B Gapany, % Americar; % (Great Britany; #2 France), (Germany); & tay; (Canada); # cAnseaihs * (Ching; 3 craiwan; 8 ckoren: 7 (South Aten) 1 Groups, companies, instintons . ‘Te complete names of poup, companies, and insittons ae often sieved, Bxanple: © Rie = SHWE ne Security Council) {& = REATANE oe Fae Trade Commision) BH -SHHF (ey emis) G8 = REHEH crotgo Power Company) WK HBRE Kyou Universi Noe: Some abbrevintions i this category ae commonly ws in ‘spoken aswell a wien language, © Sposa abbrevistons Some English acronyms end lets are commonly usd is Helin 10 save space amples: () EC Eaopean Communi) IC tegrated creat); KO (knock- cou: NYHE lew York stocks) WE (World Cup; FIV (st very) @) Bodies A. Sunuverbe “The conjugated prt sure connective form Ga fen roped -sur ort of a suv in sentence ial postion is also dropped in some eauaples HE, Be eee tetas a EnnbAGerabacweota ween no Atotilkessocdiny, wna eb BUR RRM Rel iiircog =. *, stontilcseenecheon, (PN )maG= eK Rh bh, iugecll—s—satwokon BAM, khom mehhacR BU). +AtKE~tAno 0-8 eMRE TRG naexeeadeellcompi, 2 ORC Bifr2. 29, 9167 8) (Asay of peas ia 1950 compl bye Minty of Heh nd Weta on Decor 28, hove tt th nme pales ho od medeal camino med into ne eon to 2% cer palin pets octet was but 36,00 oa inevery 18 apnea) ya eres tee at osey in 1987. Te sey ao shor though fgwes he sing meal tol medicare exec wich ave ceed ¥ len Sey sea Size 1987, reacting WE lion. Thi suey coo soe trey ths yer nis elo 1208p ne tad dena ines were rendomiy elated ed pata wee need none fh dag das em Coote 16-18) Nowe: Because the stems of most suneverbs ae also wed as nouns, the sof speech must be caeily denied when somite, (Te Minty of Financ nde Minny of tion ged on Abe morning othe ttt he ton of exon nies il erased by #9500 yee. The ne ton wil come na eet fom Api 1993. The reno forte rane he vous fp betven te ution of private iver and hat of nana Atv ud thugs ed to mode ie fer acne td exgacing reseath) comofiitega citi We eo (eMAM Hi ANE) oa207 pen eres ro ‘a teoem2 26.9088) CCA Sane of Problem eta by Ko? Soden” res ty the Mins of Eduction on Dect 25 ba reeled hat the numberof at of eho! ene wc ok plc ih ‘sol ac he our 1590 eed 1418, ting 490 Sol, Bot gue eth wert on cord One ofthe arc ‘eri tha hee hry iin lence towards aches) 3. De ater nouns ‘eaters i en dope, he el ing 2 non dig Senecs. Buanpl: ©) RAPE eiat oF, MEMORY Ye Rileg x fal iraca ste, onawndh eenedie inet otiokl athoa ee KoRNEDR Ee ceanccocmbtyatties CORED 21 919% as) siConversational Strategies Imarderto become proficient in advanced Japanese conversion itis necessary 10 be able to use conversational stapes, Tey include (A) Alzueht ack shane!” respons), (B)Ptles (©) Reprasng (©) Tope Shit and Topic Recovery and (E) Avoidance of Decisive Expressions, among other A. Aleuchi (backchannel respenses) Atcha! repose im ntsjton ind hat te heer rived wth wt hse ha i po at i of be coven, The mos connon ash expen noe 2 yen! Rene ‘yah’ 29 "ch yar, 23.4% otha oP, we wow! Ser “Barssihy AED (6) ely’ 48E tors EAE and en? Ena pls re Een ow (Acheson given noe partes Japanese the er es rch fh om td ten tral te teen pons. Ps ending ten sgmled ye pare ne” © (Anule spas ting oie borin) 202, 8, Hick es berosoaee, dun) coubve, (te) btoce TER Ucar cman, Ce) Cit Tevet yt HongKong tomorow Ges, 5 camps "ep es) by he day aroma, ou ©) (Ate patting toi mle end) nn ROLE uy fe gearovrosr=cthoca, (22) Robo Fe, flocatan tea (Ui ro head fhe yal asary 7,1 wet Syn a A ta wo" Tavam ste be dsm tine. Jes ©) heating oer omen) Ee Roce oh, OAD FEF EAM ROD, Lane) ane, Bens bh, GAD OAMEL CEES eotoe ELL UAE an CYeserday wien was wating on he Gina set (yea Is Maso ely?) S01 cad ber (Yeh) Sie precede fo _esoguze me a lood the erway (Oh Jah) (A tale speror to his subordinate) OS H2-< HEL UAS D. 8) (acre rns, DackBe Lennie, BaMeR StARAtHeh, L241 HtistemeDtcheemorad, (25 cro) tne, BWRERwTLE Rb. (EI EA cre (You know Tye been tly busy these day. (ght) So 1 waned to rake ap for xchange. And T went toa tel age yes, bet I ‘coule'getecke easly. sa gh) So in the end I aave up he ea As that iD) Te shouldbe noted tha in English awh! (ypialy ‘ub’ or “yeah Seldom used. In fc, request use of alae creates an impression that the are is ot paying seriou atenton owls being sid. Not only verbal, ‘out also nonverbal, the Japanese hearer nods very frequently to indicate s/he involvement with wht te speke ast 8. 2B. Files ‘While iach i a srteny avalble for th bea, filer staepy avi she for te spake Fist, the parle o in (S) and (6) isa ypc filer that indicates the speaker's auempt wo involve he hear. () san example of inforal speech ‘(6 ian example of foralspech in which ne rested by oa This ‘5 of sy no is most commonly used in business apes © nan, Mair syanceockch, Hoke Mhe on Athy Alt Yesterday, y'know, Tom suienly came bere from the Stes, kno, and stayed overigh a ny boute) © chor, EaBui cane e®Lny 7 bees, 6b, shibwantinoere, BRB, elle ees cana acta (This isthe new software T mentioned the oter day, and if you have ‘me a appesitei if yu could ae 0 an experinenal Basis) However, too many nes ina sngleSensnce makes the sestence very auk- wad sow in mien, 408, HRB Ben, Hace, ¥en, 6 wnotatthe (Today, yo, yo, went Nas Aigo, know, by cr, ko ck op my Bend, yo) Secondly, the filer an is sed wo sgn the speaker’ hesitation sboat saying someting embarrassing, a in Bo) In (8b) and is wed 0 sgn the Speake’ each forthe right word or phrase. Too many ans ina single sentence sound very award a shown la (8). @ © A ESLRACIM (What spent) B 203, HeeSacitsract. (Unb... [forgot my walle, you know) b Ecol, £03, Hallo chet, (Whereis it Eh. Teas the bok I booght yestey:) 6 1303, 10, 409, Be, 09, ierseocee, 203, BLT, 893, oat (at, ch yer, now, my nt nowy cme fom yor yisow ed wth me aera tbow, and wet bone, yt) ‘iy he pe nm X ahha was X ea 6) Become an eX ce inna speech "The pre ce be a seers th seats a oot neat ane © HEHE bos are, Hevsemei es ROBE. 2220, sxol Foxes Ls, (Tree isa famous bookstore in Shinjuku—what was the name? ‘Oh yesh, Kinokuniya. 1 bought four books oa the Japenese e2on- omy thee) Fourthly te intyjcton sto se in (10) i used when the spear ying ‘oremember something. Just ike the ese of an, to many 60's in a single seatee rake it very awkward (0) eo 7 HREM LOG, 224, IIeOFRALE, & Lay eae, 8 (he fal of Rossan communism was, t's ee, December of 1991, if Tremeamter corey) ye pe or te a a ina ee sertraline energie Sreioe cn RlogWBatiiile, mekoeewwoctian #7 Svsonacaert. Cie rc in wad gi Bow Tp? Boe ee ttn) Sit, ieton ma is wed pinay eel mang ete seo tow OFFER LO Comet, Chast de pan hee) B26, HEB eomeL sae Gonerks nd1000 spi) b A: miualtkern, (Gave you been in god health fey?) B £6, £907 ges 0) «GR Ka, g8, meoece re, RE 6 lisschoers. Glan ext pracy al Specs fod, bt nao (ferme cyte) fa to tong. el fre nd okt) . Rephrasing Jus as nave speakers of Japanese know how to eplase words wing other explanatory expressions when they cannot recall the most suable words, Intermediate lanes of Japanese 100, oud stat to lara how 10 rephrae ‘wor they dn’ know or cannot remember, By doing so embarassing poss ‘in be avoideé. A common way to reprsse a nun i by meas of « een ‘modification, as shown a (13a 8). co eBut 1| soscasoncs. mTERMEDIATE JAPANESE GRALOUAR ‘V 089) The speaker A cannot emer / doesn't now the word get ‘raion fotweain pan) A 86, peAshlbeh sith tomnat McBee. (fos know the ul Japanese people pat os when hey wear mono what do thy al) Bae, Hikes ene, (Ob, you mesn gets?) he speaker canst remember! doen ow the word genan, Japanese version of foyer} neoRTH, 8, meBonet, Ib, sicbaalicle thcess, secu, Bdvas-actia, {Ina Japanese howe, ah, what do you cl it? The plice where people ake off the shoes before entering the boot, thas an Interesting space, you know) ‘When a word that neds eprasng ea verb oan adjective, the speaker can rephmse it by ung more asi words ox praes, a shown in (148) (14) a The speaker cannot remember doesnt kaw th vetb hob ‘to broaden) comme 922 EEURER OMHiCH, H s05, the Bart, (this FM classe misc pogram bron, broad ah, can We ear every day athe same time”) 1. Ihe speaker canst remember doesn't know the nective inonttina) “apa solves, BEA, ors Luliidutn ete, (That Indy has a Topanese, Japanese, Japenese emospbere, ocs't she?) ‘When the speaker wants o get the word which he cnaot ember oes [1 know, be can He ~ oto / ilo /ye5u, et nan wo mes A, a sown i, (54,0, an, 150) (15) a. (The pecker canot remember does kzow the ve menue “ove aM, FaxndCecdsceememvete, (ita yay when yo elas lane ta yw planed {nthe moming?) B: fice) emer, (We say nengoen) 1. (the speater cannot remenber/ doesn't know the adjective ‘athe ‘socil} a Kemtoutthee, coco WBihoncn< Roz eemeBoats, (What do you eal peon who loves tlk with people and goes out wingly ne mater wher its?) BWR) eRwet. (We call it gakaet,) D. Tople Shit and Tople Recovery 1 any langage the apeker cannot sift te topic of convertion sbrapys there ae ways to signal a topcsh Sone ofthe mast common Jepsnese ‘way to gala topes ar given blow do a beat Gy the way) & Balfu ra, (ie The tory is rent, bt, 8 baotmeenere, (it Te sory dovines i it, bot.) 4 Bilston ern, (i. The tpi is going to charge, bt.) 8 XEMAE/Xoc(HR) (Speaking of) sy)SPSCAL TOPICS TERMEBIATE JAPANESE GRAMMAR, "When the speaker wants to get sk tothe former topic, he cn sig! is eset recover the old ope. Some ofthe standard way sina ae as follows 7) a B28X cmH LE thigh intomal) (a wile ago I you seid X, bat) h EodowCtH/ 2o30XxoMeTe (Lee me get bck the topieX thet we were talking about 2 while 0) e Binet fires tea (vey formal pote} giteoer3© (oma, pole) (Gegaring wht old you awe 99) , Avoldance of Decisive Expressions ‘Toa far grester degree Japanese lnguage wes indecisive expressions espe cially when the speakevwiter expresses hie own opinions. ‘The stegy tat Tapanese mative speakers use to make their statements ese frcful and nore humble isthe us fan nest expression athe end ofthe sentence. Suppose that the speakecriter want sae “Japanese people wold using decisive expression” be ould sty or write very saighforwaraty a in (1 oii recy asin (19) and 20), 0s) exAniedystn. (Capanese avoid wing decisive expressions.) (9) a BKAUNBEMIS0 (et/ Lol BN Etem (site ase hat Japanese voi sing decisive expressions) b DRAUIREERIEO (et/ Ce) 2HeLE th (C wonder if Japanese would't avoid wing decisive expres sions) 6 BRAWIBERHTSO (es Col Guam (wonder if Japanese wouldn't avd using decisive expres: sons) 4 BkAUMEMIT ZO (Te/ te) BE 5m, wonder if Japanese wosld't avo uilag decisive expres (2) sions) OH 2 TKAUNRERNZEBOET, (eink that Japanese avoid sing decisive eipresions) b aAUMBEMSLROET Kase, (Chink that panes void sing decisive expressions, but.) © BRAUMSERHSO (eH/ Ce) QnoEBEET, (wonder if Ipanese woslth’t aval oxing dessive expres: sloas) 4 BRARMSERH SO [cK / Ce) eomE BOE bss behe (wonder if lpanese would avid using decisive expressions, wut.) 8 BRALIBERYZOTROURERDRET OTHE. (ae seems to me that Japanese wil avoid sing decisive exes sls, bat...) £ SCLORARMBERTZOTREUREMDRZOTTH, Vee OTL Ete (seems tome that Japanese wil avoid using decisive expres sions, ot what would yon 5577) In (19) and (20), in whic the same core saemeat is made, he Jonge he seateoe i theless decisive the expression i ead tobe. When apanese speaker opposes wat bis superior has sid his expression defintely bas 0 eld Seaighforsardexpresions. There are some at rate that can Be re ‘xed he speake's statement ofan opposog ew, shown in (21). Qa BFia lafrmal (Wal, aoubt (BLE wonder if hat £09) b zneemn(enee. (at's fie, 0, bat} ERMED (OT /EL HES (oars ve, bt...) 1a be aAt eA Tera) HER (Or course iis tue, bat.) fe Mocuscrioss (t/t) tebe (understand what you ar saving, bat.) £ Biucus (oct /Acel auacra, moot isagresing wih you, bat.) femirscenaeusera, don't have any paral intention to disagree with yoo, but.) he aibibeStr2 9 cirectat ign formal and pote} (i, Sony to etm won to you, but) L meas LesMoeeemu ets, LL (toma, palit] (What you have sai indeed comes, bo...) sa) 4, ‘Toward Better Reading Comprehension: Analyzing Sentences Accurately Reading compreension involves a vise of mental process, om under sanding the meusngs of words and grasping the arate of enerces 10 MeauVing the refers of pronouns and understanding inferece. If be ‘eer al in tese processes, earl intpettion cant be si One ‘ofthe mot problemi reas here sentence srt. This eton provide Aids wo iprove sk fo accor Sentence sucess ) Basies A. Structure of Simple Sentences Before acing complex sentence structues, is essential to understand the ‘sc sroctre of Japanese sentences, Fist let us consider the following () BERABEBo7 ver veed curs (Las sight Iwas wstching TV in ny en's spriment) (0) iv a simple sesence sentence with sage verbal). The strcare ofthis semznce canbe diagramed as flows. (2) Prevebal dament Verbal ‘As Q) las, Japanese imple senesces usualy consist of verbal and some pe-vebal elements. Complete sentece in lpn mus contain 8 Yer= ‘bn and in some instances simple sentences have ely verbs (imperative ‘eotenoe). Thus, eral are considered 1 be the “hab” of setenes AB ‘mater of fst, seatences ae constricted in soch a way thatthe vertals ae ‘modified by preverbl element. The general sractre of Japanese sip seatenoes is provide in) 59)