University of Babylon

College of Engineering
Electrical Engineering Dep.

Working principles Need of dynamic modeling

and accurate control of motor drives Dynamic
modeling of DC machine Control of DC machine

PhD Course-1
Industrial Electronics and Drives modeling

By

Akram Jaddoa Khalaf Alaa Hammood Abed

Supervised by
Prof. Dr. Mahmoud Shaker Nasr
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 What is a dynamic model?

A dynamic model represents the behavior of an object over time.

Dynamic models are essential for understanding the system dynamics in open-
loop (manual mode) or for closed-loop (automatic) control. These models are
either derived from data (empirical) or from more fundamental relationships
(first principles) that rely on knowledge of the process. A combination of the
two approaches is often used in practice where the forms of the equations are
developed from fundamental balance equations and unknown or uncertain
parameters are adjusted to fit process data.

Modeling is scientific activity, uses different types for different aims, to

visualize the subject. The aim of which is to make a particular part or feature of
the world easier to:

 Understand.
 Define.
 Quantify.
 Visualize.
 Simulate.

In engineering, there are 4 common balance equations from conservation

principles including mass, momentum, energy, and species.

An alternative to physics-based models is to use input-output data to develop

empirical dynamic models such as first-order or second-order systems or more.

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1. DC Motor
A machine that converts d.c. power into mechanical power is known as a d.c.
motor. Its operation is based on the principle that when a current carrying
conductor is placed in a magnetic field, the conductor experiences a mechanical
force.

Basically, there is no constructional difference between a d.c. motor and a

d.c.generator. The same d.c. machine can be run as a generator or motor.

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2. Types of DC Motors

3. Modeling of Separately excited DC motor

The electrical circuit representation of a separately excited dc motor is shown in
fig.(1)

Fig.( 1)

The equations of the circuit are:

…………(1)
Where :
ea: Source Voltage
er; Resistance Voltage
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el: Inductance Voltage
eb: Back voltage

………(2)

where
……………….(3)
And the torque:
…………….(4)
Where:
Tm: Electromagnetic Torque
Tl: Load Torque
Tw: Velocity torque
Tw’ : Acceleration torque

………….(5)

In the Laplace form for equations (2, 3, 4, and 5) we have,

………….(6)

Or
……………(7)

And

The general model of separately excited DC Motor is shown in fig. (2) below.

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 Fig. (2) Block diagram representation of separately excited DC-motor.
Where:
Ra armature resistance, Ohm
La armature inductance, Henry
Kb back EMF constant, Volt / (Rad/sec)
Kt torque constant, N.m / (A . Wb)
Jm rotor moment of inertia, Kg.m2
Bm viscous friction, N.m / (Rad / sec)

4. Motor parameters (Ra, La, Jm, Kt, Kb, Bm) determination

In the following, all the parameters of the model are determined practically
for the motor under consideration in the present project.

1. Armature Resistance and Inductance determination.

During these tests we consider a specified motor and we will determine its
parameters
 Armature resistance determined by using Wheatstone bridge Ra = 3.1 ohm.
As shown in fig. (3),
 at t = 0 switch ON and the time constant of armature circuit was
approximately τ = 0.265 sec measured by the scope, La = 0.822 Henry

τ =La / Ra
Tm=J / B

Fig. (3) electrical time constant measurement

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 2. Motor Back EMF Constant (Kb).
Again, the following equations represent the motor circuit

Experimentally (at no-load, steady state) the above equation can be applied as shown
in table (1).

Table 1 experimental measurements

So, the average value of the back EMF constant (Kb) is 0.4642 volt / (rad / sec)

3. Motor Torque Constant (Kt).

In SI units, Kt and Kb are equal (both numerically and dimensionally), which
can be shown by equating the electrical power ea ia and the mechanical power
ωmTm. The electrical power is

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4. Measurement of rotor moment of inertia (Jm)

The inertia can be determined by a retardation test. The test works on the
principle that when a motor is switched off from the mains it decelerates and
comes to rest. The angular retardation at any speed is proportional to the
retarding torque and is inversely proportional to the inertia. The torque lost at
any speed is calculated by running the motor at that speed steadily on no load
and noting the power input. .From this power the losses that takes place in the
armature and field are deducted to get the power converted into mechanical
form.
All this power is spent in overcoming the mechanical losses at that speed. This
can be repeated at any defined speed to get the lost power (PL) and torque lost
(Tlost) due to mechanical losses. In a retardation test the motor speed is taken to
some high value and the power to the motor is switched off. The torque required
by the losses is supplied by the energy stored in the motor inertia. The lost
torque at any speed can be written as

Here dω/dt is the slope of the retardation curve and the (Tlost) is the torque
required to be met at the given speed. From these values the moment of inertia
can be computed as

The motor operated at no-load at a speed of 2000 RPM (209.439 rad/sec)

the armature current at that speed was 0.355 ampere at armature voltage
of 99.1 volt, the slope of the retardation curve dω/dt = 3.9 sec.

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 5. Measurement of viscous friction (Bm)
The generated torque equals to the summation of frictional torque Tf,
inertia torque J dω/dt, and load torque Tl

Here
Tf(t) = B ω( t )

At no-load and the case of steady state speed ( Tl = 0 and dω/dt = 0) then

Tg = B ω( t ) since Tg = Kt * Ia

Then

From previous results at 2000 RPM and don’t forget Kt = Kb =0.4642

B = 0.4642 x 0.35 / 209.439 = 7.868 x 10-4 N.m / (rad/sec)

Finally, the model block diagram of the separately excited dc motor in laplace
form is shown in figure (4).

Figure (4) Block diagram of a separately excited DC motor.

Motor Parameters are:
Ra= 3.1 Ohm
La = 0.822 Henry
Kb= 0.4642 Volt / (Rad/sec)
Kt = 0.4642 N.m / (A . Wb)
Jm = 0.04307 Kg.m2
Bm= 7.868 x 10-4 N.m / (Rad / sec)

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The block diagram of the separately excited dc motor is shown in figure below.

The speed response for block diagram is shown below.

Torque response with varying load torque

The torque response for block diagram is shown below.

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Current response with varying load torque

Vin Tload Speed(rad/sec)

99.1 0 209
99.1 0.3 206
99.1 0.6 202
99.1 0.9 198
99.1 1.2 194

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5. Pulse Width Modulation (PWM)
A pulse-width modulated (PWM) waveform is a rectangular wave with a
variable ON time. The ON time of the waveform relative to its period time is
known as its duty cycle. PWM signals are used when there is a need to vary the
effective power of a signal, such as in a motor
The average value of voltage (and current) fed to the load is controlled by
turning the switch between supply and load ON and OFF at a fast rate. The
longer the switch is ON compared to the OFF periods, the higher the total
power supplied to the load.
The PWM switching frequency has to be much higher than what would affect
the load, which is to say that the resultant waveform perceived by the load must
be as smooth as possible. The rate (or frequency) at which the power supply
must switch can vary greatly depending on load and application,
o When a signal is ON half of the period time and OFF the other half of the
period time, the average signal has a duty cycle of 50%
o When a digital signal spends more time in the ON state than the OFF
state, it has a duty cycle of >50%.
o When a digital signal spends more time in the OFF state than the ON
state, it has a duty cycle of <50%.

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5.1 Principle of Pulse Width Modulation (PWM)
Pulse-width modulation uses a rectangular pulse wave whose pulse width is
modulated resulting in the variation of the average value of the waveform. If we
consider a pulse waveform f(t) with time period T , the low value Ymin, a high
value Ymax, and a duty cycle (D) , the average value of the waveform ( y ) is
given by:

On Off

Ymax

Duty Cycle
(D)
Ymin

Period (T)

This latter expression can be fairly simplified in many cases where (ymin =0)

y = D . y max
Ton
Duty Cycle =  100%
Tperiod

From this, the average value of the PWM signal is directly dependent on the
Duty cycle (D)

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PWM in motor speed control

o With a PWM and DC-DC converter we regulate the level of applied

voltage thus regulate the speed of the motor.

PWM parameters:
1) - Switching period, sec
2) - switching frequency, Hz
3) - Duty cycle, %
PWM generate
The simplest way to generate a PWM signal is the intersected method, which
requires only a sawtooth or a triangle waveform (easily generated using a
simple oscillator) and a comparator. When the value of the reference signal is
more than the modulation waveform, the PWM signal is in the high state (ON),
otherwise it is in the low state (OFF)

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 ?
Q// How to obtain the Duty cycle (D)?

Sawtooth
0.5 Pulses
Level
D

0.2
D

0.8
D

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Answer to Question

“How to obtain the Duty cycle (D)”

Finally, the output of subsystem above (pulses of PWM) is applied to

the transistor switch of a DC/DC converter. In this case, we will use the
Buck DC/DC converter.

Dc Motor supplied from DC-DC convertor

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6. PI controller
A proportional–integral controller (PI controller) is a control loop feedback
mechanism widely used in industrial control systems and a variety of other
applications requiring continuously modulated control. A PI controller
continuously calculates an error value e(t) as the difference between a desired
setpoint (SP) and a measured process variable (PV) and applies a correction
based on proportional and integral terms (denoted P and I) as shown in
figure(5).

Fig(5) A block diagram of a PI controller

Effects of increasing a parameter

Parameter Rise time Overshoot Settling time Steady-state error Stability

Kp Decrease Increase Small change Decrease Degrade

Ki Decrease Increase Increase Eliminate Degrade

Ziegler–Nichols tuning method

It is performed by setting the I (integral) and D (derivative) gains to zero. The
"P" (proportional) gain, Kp is then increased (from zero) until it reaches the
ultimate gain Ku, at which the output of the control loop has stable and
consistent oscillations. Ku and the oscillation period Tu are used to set the P,
I, and D gains depending on the type of controller used:

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What are the parameters needs to be controlled?

1. Control the motor speed (w) using a reference speed (wr) (from zero to the
motor rated speed).
2. Control the armature current Ia (to avoid motor damage)

How to control the dc motor?

1. Comparing the actual speed (w) of the motor to a reference speed (wr)
(desired speed) using the PI controller. The PI controller output will be
the reference current Ir.
2. Using a limiter to avoid the current exceed a certain value.
3. Comparing the actual armature current Ia to the reference current after the
limiter using a second PI controller. The PI output will be the controller
of the PWM for the Buck circuit (DC to CD converter)

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The controlled DC motor using PI controller, PWM, and DC-DC convertor
(Buck) is shown in figure (6) below:

Fig (6) Controlled Dc Motor.

Speed and current control using PI with no-load and limit current (1, -1)

Speed
Curren
t

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Speed and current control using PI with no-load and limit current (2, -2)

Speed
Curren
t

Speed and current control using PI with no-load and limit current (10, -10)

Speed
Curren
t

Speed and current control using PI with changing load

Speed
Curren
t

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2. Characteristics of DC Motors
Three characteristic curves are considered important for DC motors which are
(i) Torque vs. armature current
(ii) Speed vs. armature current
(iii) Speed vs. torque.

These are explained below for each type of DC motor. These characteristics are
determined by keeping the following two relations in mind.

Ta ∝ ɸ.Ia and w ∝ Eb / ɸ

2.1 Characteristics of DC Series Motors

Torque vs. Armature Current (Ta-Ia)
Ta ∝ ɸ.Ia.
Field winding is connected in series with the armature, i.e. Ia = If.
Before magnetic saturation of the field, flux ɸ is directly proportional to Ia.
i.e. Ta α Ia2.
Therefore, the Ta-Ia curve is parabola for smaller values of Ia.
After magnetic saturation, flux ɸ is independent of armature current Ia.
Therefore, the torque varies proportionally to Ia only, T ∝ Ia.
Therefore, after magnetic saturation, Ta-Ia curve becomes a straight line.
Speed vs. Armature Current (W-Ia)
We know the relation, W ∝ Eb/ɸ
For small currents speed is inversely proportional to ɸ (Eb is small and it may
be neglected). As we know, flux is directly proportional to Ia,
Speed is inversely proportional to Ia.
Therefore, when armature current is very small the speed becomes dangerously
high. That is why a series motor should never be started without some
mechanical load.
But, at heavy loads, armature current Ia is large. And hence, speed is low which
results in decreased back emf Eb. Due to decreased Eb, more armature current is
allowed.

Speed vs. Torque (W-Ta)

This characteristic is also called as mechanical characteristic. From the above
two characteristics of DC series motor, it can be found that when speed is
high, torque is low and vice versa.

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2.2 Characteristics of DC Shunt Motors
Torque vs. Armature Current (Ta-Ia)
In case of DC shunt motors, we can assume the field flux ɸ to be constant.
Though at heavy loads, ɸ decreases in a small amount due to increased armature
reaction. As we are neglecting the change in the flux ɸ, we can say that torque is
proportional to armature current. Hence, the Ta-Ia characteristic for a dc shunt
motor will be a straight line through the origin.
Since heavy starting load needs heavy starting current, shunt motor should
never be started on a heavy load.
Speed Vs. Armature Current (W-Ia)
As flux ɸ is assumed to be constant, we can say W ∝ Eb. But, as back emf is
also almost constant, the speed should remain constant. But practically, ɸ as
well as Eb decreases with increase in load. Back emf Eb decreases slightly more
than ɸ, therefore, the speed decreases slightly. Generally, the speed decreases
only by 5 to 15% of full load speed. Therefore, a shunt motor can be assumed
as a constant speed motor. In speed vs. armature current characteristic in the
following figure, the straight horizontal line represents the ideal characteristic
and the actual characteristic is shown by the dotted line.

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Ta ∝ ɸ.Ia and w ∝ Eb / ɸ

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