SOIL MECHANICS» AND FOUNDATIONS ; 16TH EDITIONPublished by LAXMI PUBLICATIONS (P) LTD. 22, Golden House, Daryaganj, New Delhi — 110002. Phones, {011-2326 23 68 jones : 011-2326 23 70 i (011-2325 25 72 ‘axes 011-2326 22 79 Branches : 129/1, [ird Main Road, IX Cross, Chamrajpet, Bangalore (Phone ; 080-661 15 61) 26, Damodaran Street, T.Nagar, Chennai (Phone : 044-2434 47 26) St. Benedict's Road, Cochin (Phone : 0484-239 70 04) Pan Bazar, Rani Bari, Guwahati (Phones : 0361-254 36 69, 251 38 81) 42-453, First Floor, Ramkote Post Office, Hyderabad ( Phone : 040-2475 02 47) ‘Adda Tanda, Jalandhar City. ( Phone : 0181-222 12 12) 37-G, Bondel Road, Kolkata (Phones : 033-22 80 29 31, 22 80 90 19) 18, Madan Mohan Malviya Marg, Lucknow (Phone : 0522-220 95 78) 128A, Block 3, First Floor, Noorani Building, LJ. Road, Mumbai (Phone ; 022-24 46 39 98) Radha Govind Street, Tharpagna, Ranchi (Phone : 0651-230 77 64) EMAIL : colaxmi@hotmail.com Website : www. laxmipublications.com ISBN : 81-7008-081-9 First Edition July 1970 Ninth Edition : Jan, 1985 Second Edition Sep. 1973 Tenth Edition 2 Feb, 1987 ‘Third Edition Sept. 1975 Eleventh Edition April 1988 Fourth Edition Aug. 1977 Twelfth Edition : Jan, 1991 Fin Edition : Feb. 1979 Thirteenth Editon: Nov. 1994 Sixth Edition : Ost. 1980 Fourteenth Edition : May 1998 Seventh Edition: Jan. 1982 Fifteenth Edition May 2001 Eighth Edition —: April 1983 Sixteenth Edition March — 2005, ESM-0395-330-SOIL MECH & FOUNDATIONS © 1973, 1994, 2005 B.C. PUNMIA © 1994, 2005 ASHOK KUMAR JAIN, ARUN KUMAR JAIN All rights reserved by the Authors, This book, or parts thereof, may not be reproduced in any form or translated without the written permission of the Authors Price : Rs. 330.00 Only. C—9929/08/03 DIP COMPOSING BY : ARIHANT CONSULTANTS, JODHPUR Printed at : Ajit Printers, Dethi-110053.2.2.__WATER CONTENT, DENSITY AND UNIT WEIGHTS 0 23. SPECIFIC GRavrr 2 4. Vt él IN 3B 2.L__GENERAL 2 WATER CONTENT 31 A3_SPECIFIC Graviry gy 34__PARTICLESIZE DISTRIBUTION at 2 EVE ANALYSIS 4 22.__PIPETTE METHOD 0 38 HYDROMETER METHOD is 3ulL.__DETERMINATION OF LIQUID AND PLASTIC LIMITS 2 412__SHRINKAGE wip aud —actirry op cays ag AlS_SENSINIVITY OF Clays 4.16 THIXOTROPY OF CLAYS” 8 [18 AVERAGE DIAMETER OF A GROUP OF PARTICLES a 419._SPECIFIC SURFACE 3 Copyrighted material® 43. TEXTURAL CLASSIFICATION 1 44 HIGHWAY RESEARCH BOARD (IRB) CLASSIFICATION ua 45. UNIFIED SOIL CLASSIFICATION SYSTEM (USCS) ar 46, INDIAN STANDARD CLASSIFICATION SYSTEM, ISCS dS : 1498-1970) 120 4.72, EXAMPLES FROM COMPETETIVE EXAMINATIONS a2 SL SOIL STRUCTURE : : roo 2. SOLID PARTICLES IN SOILS 134 4. ATOMIC _AND MOLECULAR BONDS 134 $4 INTERPARTICLE FORCES IN A SOIL MASS 130 2.4 SINGLE GRAINED STRUCTURE - 140 $6 HONEYCOMB STRUCTURE 141 SL 58 32. CHAPTER ADSORBED WATER 149 CAPILLARY WATER 150 CAPILLARY TENSION, CAPILLARY POTENTIAL AND SOIL SUCTION. 3 CAPILLARY PHENOMENON IN SOILS: CAPILLARY ZONES 56 SHRINKAGE AND SWELLING OF song 000. BULKING OF SAND go FROST ACTION. - 159, ‘STRESS CONDITIONS IN SOIL : EFFECTIVE AND NEUTRAL PRESSURES a CAPILLARY SIPHONING 168 INTRODUCTION DARCY'S LAW_ 1m DISCHARGE VELOCITY AND SEEPAGE VELOCITY. =D VALIDITY OF DaRcY's LAW ‘POISEUILLE'S LAW OF FLOW THROUGH CAPILLARY TUBE* 80 FACTORS AFFECTING PERMEABILITY a COEFFICENT OF ABSOLUTE PERMEABILITY 185 DETERMINATION OF COEFFICIENT OF PERMEABILITY 186 (CONSTANT HEAD PERMEABILITY TEST FALLING HEAD PERMEABILITY TEST 189, ‘THE JODHPUR_PERMEAMETER 189 ‘THE CAPILLARITY-PERMEABILITY TEST 194 PERMEABILITY OF STRATIFIED SOIL DEPOSITS 195, ee eee Copyrighted material&.L__INTRODUCTION 8.2. __SOME __ DEFINITIONS &3.__STEADY RADIAL FLOW TO A WELL: _DUPUTT'S THEORY 84 FIELD DETERMINATION OF & AND 7: PUMPING OUT TESTS 8.5. PUMPING IN TESTS 86. INTERFERENCE AMONG WELLS 8.7, FULLY PENETRATING ARTESIAN GRAVITY WELL* 88. PARTIALLY PENETRATING ARTESIAN WELL* 93. UPWARD FLOW : QUICK CONDITION 94. TWO DIMENSIONAL FLOW: LAPLACE EQUATION INTRODUCTION PIPING : EXIT GRADIENT KHOSLA’S THEORY COMPOSITE PROFILES : SCHWARZ-CHRISTOFFEL TRANSFORMATION PAVLOVSKY'S METHOD : FINITE DEPTH PROBLEMS 11 DRAINAGE AND DEWATERING INTRODUCTION DITCHES AND SUMPS WELL POINT SYSTEM SHALLOW WELL SYSTEM DEEP WELL DRAINAGE VACUUM METHOD : FORCED FLOW ELECTRO-OSMOSIS METHOD SEEPAGE ANALYSIS PROTECTIVE FILTERS ERBB EE 1 r 1 EEBBERERBEBBE BRE SRBRk| )UILIBRIUM EQUATIONS. 280 EQUILIBRIUM EQUATIONS FOR SATURATED SOIL BODY 282 COMPATIBILITY EQUATIONS ag (COMPATIBILITY EQUATION IN TWO DIMENSIONAL CASE 289 EQUILIBRIUM EQUATIONS _IN__POLAR CO-ORDINATES 202 COMPATIBILITY EQUATIONS AND STRESS FUNCTION IN POLAR : (enna ae 2 a See __-hg CYLINDRICAL CooRpinaTES 13___STRESS DISTRIBUTION : 1 INTRODUCTION ; STRESSES DUE TO SELF WEIGHT 205 CONCENTRATED FORCE : BOUSSINESQ EQUATIONS. 296 EQUIVALENT POINT LOAD METHOD 3 CHAPTER ma 2 ma 4. Bs. 126. 22 28. 2e ao. a 2 1a. aa. CHAPTER mL 2 Ba ae Bs 6 a2 na no Luo, ma ne CHAPTER we 2 ua Be 4s, 4s. wz 30 Copyrighted materialBEE cere 8 EERE g 1. 182. 183. 184, 185. 18.6. 18.7, iti) ‘THE CONSOLIDATION PROCESS : SPRING ANALOGY CONSOLIDATION OF LATERALLY CONFINED SOIL CONSOLIDATION OF UNDISTURBED SPECIMEN ‘TERZAGHI'S THEORY OF ONE-DIMENSIONAL CONSOLIDATION SOLUTION OF THE CONSOLIDATION EQUATION* LABORATORY CONSOLIDATION TEST CALCULATION OF VOIDS RATIO AND COEFFICIENT OF VOLUME “CHANGE. DETERMINATION OF COEFFICIENT OF CONSOLIDATION SECONDARY CONSOLIDATION EXAMPLES FROM COMPETETIVE EXAMINATIONS LABORATORY EXPERIMENTS, 16___THREE DIMENSIONAL CONSOLIDATION* INTRODUCTION THREE DIMENSIONAL CONSOLIDATION EQUATION CONSOLIDATION EQUATION IN POLAR COORDINATES FOR AXIS SYMMETRIC CASE SOLUTION OF THREE DIMENSIONAL CONSOLIDATION EQUATION CONSTRUCTION OF VERTICAL SAND DRAINS EEFECT OF PERIPHERAL SMEAR 17 COMPACTION INTRODUCTION STANDARD PROCTOR TEST PLACEMENT WATER CONTENT FIELD COMPACTION CONTROL FACTORS AFFECTING COMPACTION . EFFECT OF COMPACTION ON SOIL PROPERTIES . EXAMPLES FROM COMPETETIVE EXAMINATIONS |. LABORATORY EXPERIMENTS PART V STRENGTH AND STABILITY 18 SHEAR STRENGTH INTRODUCTION THEORETICAL CONSIDERATIONS : MOHR'S STRESS CIRCLE MOHR-COULOMB FAILURE THEORY THE EFFECTIVE STRESS PRINCIPLE MEASUREMENT OF SHEAR STRENGTH DIRECT SHEAR TEST ‘TRIAXIAL COMPRESSION TEST BXSEBEREREEE BEES EE BEEEEBS&S an an 430 432 433 434yneviewe | 20.10. 20.11. 88 ext oT CHAPTER E 22 Griv) HVORSLEV SHEAR STRENGTH PARAMETERS STRESS PATH METHOD EXAMPLES FROM COMPETETIVE EXAMINATIONS LABORATORY EXPERIMENTS. * 19 FAILURE ENVELOPES” INTRODUCTION, THE MOHR-COULOMR FAILURE ENVELOPE THE TRESCA FAILURE ENVELOPE VON MISES FAILURE ENVELOPE COHESIONLESS SOI: _KIRKPATRICK FAILURE SURFACE COHESIVE SOILS : FAILURE SURFACE STUDY BY WU, LOH AND MALVERN CONCLUSIONS 20___EARTH PRESSURE INTRODUCTION PLASTIC EQUILIBRIUM IN SOILS: ACTIVE AND PASSIVE STATES EARTH PRESSURE AT REST* ACTIVE EARTH PRESSURE : RANKINE’S THEORY ACTIVE EARTH PRESSURE OF COHESIVE SOILS PASSIVE EARTH PRESSURE : RANKINE’S THEORY RANKINE'S ACTIVE THRUST BY TRIAL WEDGES* COULOMB'S WEDGE THEORY REBHANN'S GRAPHICAL METHOD FOR ACTIVE PRESSURE CULMANN’S GRAPHICAL METHOD FOR ACTIVE PRESSURE EARTH PRESSURE COMPUTATION FOR PRACTICAL CASES . DESIGN OF GRAVITY RETAINING WALL CANTILEVER SHEET PILE WALL IN COHESIVE Sou, DESIGN OF ANCHORED BULKHEAD : FREE EARTH SUPPORT METHOD DESIGN OF ANCHORED BULKHEAD : FIXED EARTH METHOD DESIGN OF ANCHORS FOR BULKHEAD COFFER DAMS SOIL PRESSURE ON BRACED COFFER DAMS OR STRUTTED EXCAVATION EXAMPLES BASED ON COMPETETIVE EXAMINATIONS 22 SHAFTS, TUNNELS AND CONDUITS* STRESS DISTRIBUTION IN THE VICINITY OF SHAFTS STRESS DISTRIBUTION AROUND TUNNELS 442 452 455 461 470 481 & EFEBERBREREES BEBBRBEREE gsARCHING IN SOILS CLASSES OF UNDERGROUND CONDUITS LOAD ON A DITCH CONDUIT LOAD ON POSITIVE PROJECTING CONDUITS LOAD ON NEGATIVE PROJECTING CONDUIT IMPERFECT DITCH CONDUIT THE SWEDISH SLIP CIRCLE METHOD STABILITY OF SLOPES OF EARTH DAM FRICTION CIRCLE METHOD TAYLOR'S STABILITY NUMBER AND STABILITY CURVES BISHOP'S METHOD OF STABILITY ANALYSIS EXAMPLES FROM COMPETETIVE EXAMINATIONS PART VI FOUNDATION ENGINEERING. 24 BEARING CAPACITY DEFINITIONS MINIMUM DEPTH OF FOUNDATION : RANKINE'S ANALYSIS TYPES OF BEARING CAPACITY FAILURES TERZAGHT'S ANALYSIS SKEMPTON'S VALUES FOR Ne GENERAL BEARING CAPACITY EQUATION : BRINCH HANSEN'S ANALYSIS MEYERHOF'S ANALYSIS VESIC’S BEARING CAPACITY EQUATION COMPARISON OF BEARING CAPACITY FACTORS EFFECT OF WATER TABLE ON BEARING CAPACITY EFFECT OF ECCENTRICITY OF LOADING LS. CODE METHOD FOR COMPUTING BEARING CAPACITY PLATE LOAD TEST qS 1888 : 1982) PENETRATION TESTS SAFE BEARING PRESSURE BASED ON TOLERABLE SETTLEMENT. VALUES AND gc VALUES PERMISSIBLE TOTAL AND DIFFERENTIAL SETTLEMENTS BEARING CAPACITY FROM BUILDING CODES EXAMPLES FROM COMPETETIVE EXAMINATIONS 25 SHALLOW FOUNDATIONS TYPES OF FOUNDATIONS SPREAD FOOTING SAFE BEARING PRESSURE 639 oa 643 “9 633 6st 655 655 658 on BRE 707 707262 PILE DRIVING 269. NEGATIVE SKIN FRICTION. 740 26.10, LATERALLY LOADED PILES* 144 26 INDER-BEAMED PILE FOUNDATIONS si 26.12. BORED COMPACTION PILES 1 26.13. CASED CAST- IN-SITU CONCRETE PILES 758 26.14. UNCASED CAST-IN.SITU CONCRETE PILES 8 2615. BORED PES 26.16. EXAMPLES FROM COMPETETIVE EXAMINATIONS 161 CHAPTER 27 WELL FOUNDATIONS 22.1._INTRODUCTION ; calssons 2.2._SHAPES OF WELLS AND COMPONENT PARTS 77 27.3. DEPTH OF WELL FOUNDATION AND BEARING CAPACITY ™ 224. FORCES ACTING ON A WELL FOUNDATION 27.8. ANALYSIS OF WELL FOUNDATION 781 27.6. HEAVY WELLS 785 27.7. WELL CURB, CUTTING EDGE, STEINING AND BOTTOM PLUG 788 27.8. WELL SINKING 791 219 PNEUMATIC CAISSON’ 204 CHAPTER 28 MACHINE FOUNDATIONS . 8.1 Som DYNAMICS Eri 282__THE MASS SPRING svsTeEM 28.3. VIBRATING SPRING-MASS SYSTEM WITH DAMPING 79 24 FORCED vinpaTions 28.8. TRANSMITTED FORCE 204 28.6. NATURAL FREQUENCY OF FOUNDATION SOIL SYSTEM 804 282__BARKEN’S METHOD ns 24.8_BULR OF PRESSURE CONCEPT Og 28.9. PAUW'S ANALOGY OF FOUNDATION SOIL SYSTEM : VERTICAL VIBRATIONS 807 28.10. DYNAMIC ANALYSIS OF BLOCK FOUNDATIONS 8 28.11. INDIAN STANDARD CODE OF PRACTICE FOR DESIGN OF FOUNDATIONS FOR RECIPROCATING TYPE MACHINES 817297. D8. melanie CHAPTER 32 SITE INVESTIGATION AND SUB-SOTL EXPLORATION 32 32. 32. 32.4. 32.5. 22.6. 32.7. EXAMPLES FROM COMPETETIVE EXAMINATIONS EQUIVALENT WHEEL AND AXLE LOADS DESIGN METHODS. GROUP INDEX METHOD CALIFORNIA BEARING RATIO (CBR) METHOD NORTH DAKOTA METHOD CHEMICAL STABILISATION STABILISATION BY HEATING ELECTRICAL STABILISATION PART Vi MISCELLANEOUS TOPICS INTRODUCTION SITE RECONNAISSANCE SITE EXPLORATION METHODS OF SITE EXPLORATION SOIL SAMPLES AND SAMPLERS DISTURBED SAMPLING UNDISTURBED SAMPLING BREESSSEREEE B SGEBBEB BEBBEE RRRESEE32.8. 32.9. 3S. 337. 33.8. xvitiy PENETRATION AND SOUNDING TESTS GEOPHYSICAL METHODS CHAPTER 33 __ADVANCED MEASURING INSTRUMENTS 34.L__ELECTRONIC CONSOLIDATION APPARATUS 32.2 FIECTRONIC DIRECT SHEAR APPARATUS ELECTRONIC TRIAXIAL SHEAR TEST EQUIPMENT VIBRATING-WIRE EARTH PRESSURE CELLS 33.6 VIBRATING-WIRE EXTENSOMETER VIBRATING-WIRE PORE PRESSURE MEASUREMENT SYSTEM THE GDS CONSOLIDATION LOGGING SYTEM 3.10 THE GDS 1000 ¢ 20 9.81 = 17.65 KN/1 Va 7 [3p * 281 = 17.65 N/m Pressure, which is defined to be a force per unit area, will be expressed in terms of kN/m’ or in term of Kilopascals, kPa and unit weight =Preliminary Definintions and Relationships 2.1. SOIL AS A THREE PHASE SYSTEM, A soil mass is a three phase system consisting of solid particles (called soil grains), water and air, The void space between the soil grains is filled partly with water and partly with air. However, if we take a dry soil mass, the voids are filled with air only. In case of a perfectly saturated soil, the voids are filled completely with water. In general, the soil mass has three constituents which do not occupy separate spaces but are blended together forming a complex material (Fig. 2.1 (a)] the properties of which depend upon the relative percentages of these constituents, their arrangement and a variety of other factors. For calculation purposes, it is always more convenient to show these constituents occupying separate spaces, as shown in (Fig. 2.1(b)(i) and (b)(ii)). As shown in Fig. 2.1 (b) @, the total volume V of the soil mass consists of (@) volume of air Y, , (i) volume of water Yo and (iii) the volume of solids V, . The volume of voids V,, is, therefore, equal to volume of air plus the volume of water. Simi- larly, Fig. 2.1 () (i) shows the weights, The weight of air is considered 10 be negligible. Hence the Cywatoy | Volumes weimhe Of tol vows 3s (a) Element of (0) Element Separated equal to the weight of water Natural Soi ‘nto Three Phases W,. The weight of solids is represented by Wy (or FIG. 2.1. SOIL AS A THREE PHASE SYSTEM 0» SOIL MECHANICS AND FOUNDATIONS W,) which is evidently equal to the dry weight of soil sample. The total weight W of the moist sample is, therefore, equal to (Wy + W,). 2.2, WATER CONTENT, DENSITY AND UNIT WEIGHTS (a) Water content. The water content w, also called the moisture content, is defined as the ratio of weight of water Wy to the weight of solids (W; or Wz) in a given mass of soil : _ We = tex ‘The water content is generally expressed as a percentage. However, when used in the formulae giving ralationship between certain quantities, it may also be expressed as a fraction. Rewriting Eq. 2.1, we have te 100 = (Fe - 1 }100 A210) ‘The usual procedure to find the natural water content is to take a mass of about 20 © 30 g of soil sample in a container and determine its mass M very accurately, The soil sample is then kept in an oven (105° 110°C) for about 24 hours so that it becomes perfectly dry. Its dry mass My is then determined and the water content is calculated from the relation, w 100 =A21) w My M-Ma y= x 100 = eg eT, In the field of geology and agriculture, water content (w') is defined as the ratio of the weight of water to the total weight of soil mass. Thus, 100 = (#1 | 100 (2.10) w He 100 = Me x 100 arsed. OF In order to find relation between w and w', we have from eq. 2.1 (c) My + Ma 1 Mm ty From which we get Expressed as percentage, () Density of soil. The density of soil is defined as the mass of the soil per unit volume. (Bulk density (p). The bulk density or moist density is the total mass M of the soil per unit of its total volume. M Thus, p=¥ (2.2) It is expressed in terms of g/cm? or kg/m’.PRELIMINARY DEFINITIONS AND RELATIONSHIPS n (i) Dry density (p,. The dry density is the mass of solids per unit of tora! volume (prior to drying) of the soil mass. _Ma my 5 (iti) Density of solids (p,) The density of soil solids is the mass of soil sotids (MQ) per unit of volume of solids (V,) : (22a) Ora -(2.2 b) (iv) Saturated density (pax). When the soil mass is saturated, its bulk density is called saturated density. Thus, saturated density is the ratio of the total soil mass of saturated sample to its total volume. (0) Submerged density (p'). The submerged density is the submerged mass of soil solids (Mao pet unit of total volume V of the soil mass : p- a e220) The submerged density or buoyant density is also expressed as P= Psat ~ Pw ABZ where, p,, is the density of water which may be taken as 1 g/cm? for calculation purposes. (c) Unit weight of soil mass. The unit weight of a soil mass is defined as its weight per unit volume. (Bulk unit weight (1). The bulk weight or moist unit weight is the worl weight W of a soil mass per unit of its total volume V. Ww ait (2, Thus ez (2.3) (i). Dry unit weight (y,) . The dry unit weight is the weight of solids per unit of its total volume (prior to drying) of the soil mass : Wa a= Vv (i) Unit weight of solids (y,). The unit weight of soil solids is the weight of soil solids W, per unit volume of solids (V,) : 1 =" w.(2.5) Thus, when the dry weight is reckoned with reference to the total orginal volume V, it is called the dry unit weight and when it is reckoned with reference to the volume of solids, we get unit weight of soil solids. Since the volume ¥, of the solids does not alter, y% is a constant for a given soil, whereas y, is not a constant, being dependent upon the initial volume V of the soil mass. (2.4)2 SOIL MECHANICS AND FOUNDATIONS (i) Saturated unit weight (%q). When the soil mass is saturated, its bulk unit weight is called the saturated unit weight. Thus, saturated unit weight is the ratio of the total weight of a saturated soil sample to its total volume. (0) Submerged unit weight (7). The submerged unit weight y' is the submerged weight of soil solids (W,).» per unit of total volume V of the soil mass : ae (2.6) When the soil mass is submerged, the weight of soil solids is reduced due to buoyancy ‘The submerged weight (Wx iS, therefore, equal to the weight of soil solids in air minus the weight of water displaced by solids, Hence the submerged unit weight or the buoyant unit weight is also expressed as sat ~ Yo (26 a) where, y, is the unit weight of water. For calculation’ purposes in SI units, y,, may be taken as 9.81 KN/m'. (@ Inter-conversion between density and unit weight. In order to convert the density (expressed in terms of g/cm’) into unit weight (kN/m‘) multiply the former by 9.81. This is so because 1 g/em* Hence 7 =9.81 xp N/m) (g/em') 2.3, SPECIFIC GRAVITY Specific gravity G is defined as the ratio of the weight of a given volume of soil solids at a given temperature to the weight of an equal volume of distilled water at that temperature, both weights being taken in air. In other words, it is the ratio of the unit weight of soil solids to that of water : galt 12.7) The Indian Standard specifies 27°C as the standard temperature for reporting the specific gravity. Some qualifying words like : rue, absolute, apparent, bulk or mass, etc., are somtimes added to the term ‘specific gravity’. These qualifying words modify the sense of specific gravity as to whether it refers to soil particles or to soil mass. The soil solids have permeable and impermeable voids inside them, the permeable voids being capable of getting filled with water. If all the internal voids of soil particles (permeable and impermeable) are excluded for determining the true volume of solids, the specific gravity obtained is called absolue or ire specific gravity. The apparent or mass or bulk specific gravity Gy, denotes the specific gravity of soil mass and is given by