PROCEEDINGS OF THE FOURTH SOUTHEAST ASIAN CONFERENCE ON SOIL ENGINEERING KUALA LUMPUR 7th to 10th April 1975 SPONSORS. The Institution of Engineers, Malaysia Asian Institute of Technology, Bangkok Southeast Asian Society of Soil Engineering AITPublished by ‘THE INSTITUTION OF ENGINEERS, MALAYSIA 1975 Neither the Southeast Asian Society of Soil Engineering nor the Organizing Committee are responsible for the statements made or the opinions expressed in this volume. Any portion of this publication may by reprinted provided that an exact reference be quoted. Printed by C.K, Kok Bros. Trading Company ‘A829, Jalan Hang Tuah Salak South Garden ‘Kuala Lumpur Peninsular MalaysiaTABLE OF CONTENTS Keynote Address: Prime by 7. 1% Lambe So TECHNICAL SESSION 1 SOIL FORMATION, SOIL FABRIC Examination and Identification of Some Permeable Natural Soil Fal Korunaratne GP. Anisotropy of Strength in Clays Containing Plates of Increasing Size Andrawes K.Z., Krishnamurthy D.N. and Barden l. Electron Microscopie Techniques and Some Sh De Bx. Induced Microstructures of Kaolinite Genesis of Formation of Fissures in Fissured Clay of Maharashtra, India ‘Kulkarni ALP, Phadke WK. and Kapre B.S. ‘The Fabric of Quick Clays Kazi A. Clay Mineralogy of the Hong Kong Soils Lumb P. and Lee CF. TECHNICAL SESSION 2 SOIL PROPERTIES 1 (STRENGTH, STRESS-STRAIN) ‘Shear Strength Characteristics of Compacted Latertic Soils Moh 2.C. and Nikorm Boonsri Determination of K Values for Kaolin and Some Field Applications Nadarajah Vv. Shear Behaviour of Sand When Subjected to Unloading and Reloading Thursraph A. Evaluation of Stress Strain Modulus of Saturated Clays Yudhbir, Varadarajan A. and Mathur S.K: A Contribution to the Problem of Internal Friction in Coulomb-Navier-Mohr’s Theory of Strength ‘Das B,, Hucka V. and Singh V. ‘A Method for a Quick Determination of the Residual Strength of Clays Tan $8. ‘The Importance of Representative Sampling on Measured Compression Behaviour McGown A, Gabr A.W, and Borden L ‘The Effect of Anisotropy on Shrinkage of Active Clays. Popescu M. TECHNICAL SESSION 3 SOIL PROPERTIES Il (CLASSIFICATION, TESTING, HYDRAULICS) ‘The Non-Linear Theory for the One-dimensional Constant Head Permeability Test Tan SB. Organic Content and Engineering Behaviour of Typical Maintenance Dredgings ‘rizek P-L, Giger ME 3d Hummel PL. Side Friction in Plane Strain Tests Kikpotrick WM. and Yanikion H.A. Modet Analysis of Hydraulic Conductivity of Confined Aquifer Fang H.Y. and arr RD. The Analysis of Surface Infiltration into Earth Structures Wsliace K. Consolidation Characteristics of Compacted Soils ‘amish B.K., Purushothamaraj P. & Saraswathi K.E. 2-42‘An Analysis on Evaluation Methods of Field Permeability... ee AT Sonpal R.C. and Kadinala A.D. ‘The Seepage Theory of Primary and Secondary Consolidation... veo cof hin EK. The Use of a Light Dyanamic Cone Penetrometer in Malaysia... 3-62 oi TA, and Ting WH. TECHNICAL SESSION 4 FOUNDATIONS Effects of Pite Driving on Bangkok Clay Sct oe oe AT ‘Muktabhent Chai and Surachai Sesisuwun Foundation Design for a Very Large Array of Radio Telescopes new odo Tort R.G. sc, Roi MehdlrattaG., Arshud Mahmood and Vaughan RG. ‘A Long Term Foundation Failure Caused by Dragdown on Piles so ne) Brand E.W. and Nopado! Luangdilok ‘An Experimental Study of the Behaviour of End-bearing Castin-situ Piles 4-28 Chan SF. Experimental and Theoretical Determination of the Bearing Capacity of a Model Strip Footing on Sand 4—33 James R.G. and Tennekoon 8.1. Uplifting Capacity of Axially Loaded Bulbous Piles in Clay ... wee OAT Gop! Ranjan and Srivastava K. Settlement Analysis of Structural Foundation Systems og nr) Poulos HG. Bearing Capacity of Eccentrically Loaded Strip Footing on Two Layer Cohesive Soils ued 6a) Purushothamaraj P., Ramiah B.K. and Bazaverseppe K. ‘An Analysis of Pile Behaviour in the Prai Area 476 Ting WH, Ooi T.A. and Chong S.C. The Use of Natural Rubber Foundation Springs for Earth-quake Protection wae ABD Darham Cal TECHNICAL SESSION 5 SLOPE STABILITY, EARTH PRESSURE Some Aspects of Landslides in Sri Lanka 54 Balezubramaniam AS, Dissnayake J.B. end Karunaratne GP, Forces Exerted on Rigid Retaining Walls by a Confined Frozen Soil Layer. swe BB Lobe J.T. Centrifugal Model Test of Sensitive Clay Slopes 5.19 ‘Mikasa M. and Mochizuki &. Slope Stability Analysis of Layered Soils 5-26 Shitbhan W, Chen WF. and Fang #.¥. ‘A Comparison of Behaviour of Rigid and Flexible Multi-anchored Walls in Sand =o 5-30 Trahin . Kurland Hanna T.#t Stability Analysis for Masonry Walls by Circular Arc Method _ e - 5-88 Kim SangKyu TECHNICAL SESSION 6 OPEN FORUM ~ FOUNDATION PRACTICE IN S.E. ASIA e1 Discussion a e as Su ee M1 Programme : ae : M8 Organising Committee and Sub-Committee oo oO oD M9 Lists of Sponsors, Co-Sponsors, Supporters, Contributors and Exhibitors Mio) Lists of Registered Participants Matt4th SOUTHEAST ASIAN CONFERENCE ON SOIL ENGINEERING KUALA LUMPUR, MALAYSIA ‘7th — 10th April 1975 PRIME PREDICT — INSTRUMENT — MEASURE — EVALUATE KEYNOTE ADDRESS BY T, WILLIAM LAMBE Massachusetts Institute of Technology I consider it an honor td deliver this address to the Fourth Soutileast Asian Conference. on Soil Engineering. I am an Honorary Member of the Southeast Asian Society of Soil Engineering; Thave done and am doing geotechnical work in Asia; I have attended soil engineering conferences in ‘Asia; and, most importantly, I have many friends ~ some close friends — in Asia. For these reasons, delivering this address gives me an especially personal pleasure. For the past two decades, I have been formulating and practicing an approach to engineering a constructed facility and to advancing geotechnical knowledge. My papers and talks during these years have continuously updated this work. The focus of my work consists of “Making and Evaluating Predictions” My first proposal of classifying predictions was made at an Asian conferenge. Today I shall extend and, I hope, sharpen this approach to engineering and research. 1 shall propose today for the first time, new aspects of this approach, for example, identifying levels of sophistication in prediction methods. Figure 1 presents the plan of my address. Figure 2 shows the main conclusions and, in fact, presents the theme of my Keynote Address. In summary, my message today is: 1) Predicting constitutes an essential component of civil engineering 2) Experience and especially evaluations indicate that predictions are frequently inaccurate. We must evaluate predictions in order to: a) Assess our decisions and modify them as necessary; b) Improve our prediction capability Figure 3 lists seven steps in engineering a constructed facility. We can see that Step 3 — Predict ‘— constitutes a crucial part of the process. Figure 4 identifies three levels of prediction method. We se¢ that the sophistication of method increases as we proceed from Level III to Level I. Figure 5 illustrates each of the levels. The level of prediction method which should be used for a particular situation depends upon several aspects of that situation, Figure 6 lists some of the considerations the engineer should give when choosing a level of prediction method. Figures 7, 8 and 9 define and describe terms used in this presentation. Figures 10 and 11 indicate that generally increasing the level of sophistication of a prediction method gives a betterbasis for evaluating the prediction and gives a greater reliability of the prediction. Increasing the level of sophistication does not necessarily result in every case in an improved accuracy of prediction. Figure 12 shows the steps in the prediction process and Figure 13 classifies predictions. Figure 14 illustrates the three types of predictions for three different events. We engineers need to remember that decisions rest on Type A predictions. The development of reliable prediction methods requires many evaluations of Type A predictions. To evaluate Type C predictions can prove helpful. T must confess, however, that I have considerable suspicion when someone uses a Type C prediction to “prove” the correctness of a prediction method. Before considering predictions in geotechnical engineering, let us look at two other fields wherein predictions play important roles. Recent years, especially recent months, have repeatedly shown the unreliability of economic predictions. An article in March 23, 1975 Boston Sunday Globe stated that economic forecasts have generally been so far off the mark that the credibility of ec- conomists has declined sharply. ‘The article suggests that the very poor forecasting by economists has resulted in their having an “identity crisis.” Weather forecasters have done about as poorly as economic forecasters. A long-range forecast for the weather of the winter of 1974—75 predicted an exceedingly cold season. ‘The winter turned out to be one of the warmest in two decades, ‘An article in the March 10, 1975 issue of Time Magazine stated that farmer John McAdams had a cow named Bramer who would predict bad weather by lying down in her stall. Using this indicator, the local newspaper compaied the cow’s prediction of weather with that from the Houston Weather Service. Ar last count, the cow had a 19 to 8 lead over the computerized prediction by the Weather Service. The oral presentation of my Keynote Address showed the results of evaluating predictions on a half dozen geotechnical projects. The main point illustrated by the comparisons of predicted performance and measured performance consisted of: Type A predictions, even those using sophisticated methods, frequently turn out to be inaccurate. ‘The main cause of inaccurate predictions comes from deficient soil data ot faulty soil data. ‘As we get better soil data, we can develop more powerful prediction methods, CONCLUSIONS Figure 2 presents my main conclusions. I close my Keynote Address to this Conference with the following personal thoughts. My recent publications and lectures, including today’s presentation, attempt to alert readers and audiences to the fact that geotechnical engineers frequently make inaccurate predictions. I hope to stimulate our profession to examine continuously prediction techniques, hoping to establish the reliability of the important ones, and wherein possible, to improve our prediction capabilities. 1 emphasize to owners of constructed facilities the benefits of evaluating predictions, and using these evaluations to assess decisions based on these predictions. People have suggested to me that I should describe the Profession’s successes, not inaccurate dictions. Many authors and speakers describe the great successes of civil engineering. My des- pres PS er gineering, My scribing inaccurate predictions'in civil engineering should help give perspective to the whole situation. G21, and my associates, participated in most of the inaccurate predictions I have described in written and oral presentation. Publicizing these inaccurate predictions has not proved disastrous to me — quite to contrary. Among the evaluations of me and my work, I cherish the following one made by Laurits Bjerrum: Lambe is the only person I know who has become famous by publicizing his errors... « One can always believe what Lambe says and writes ” Bjerrum’s statements support my belief that we, as individuals and as a profession, do not lose stature or public confidence by evaluating our predictions — inaccurate ones as well as accurate ones as well as accurate predictions. Outstanding engineering results, I believe, from identifying the important predictions, evaluating them and then taking appropriate actions. PLAN OF PRESENTATL ENGINEERING 4 CONSTRUCTED FACILITY (+ Establish Criteria ‘Aieedin, Functions, Performance, COBH BS Re ian Hine Untrecuction Prediction Methooe 27 Design Prediction Process - Clossiticotion 3 Predict Evomplee of Predictions | Geotechnical Predictions 4 > Compare Precictions with Criterss Resulte of Evaluations 5> Evoluate Predictions Summary + Conclusions @- Alter Design andor Construction (As Necessary and Desiroele Fa ZL | 7+ Execute Surveitience Fla 3 conciusions PREDICTION METHODS + Decisions, Designs Depend 7 PREDICTIONS , © 2+ Predictions Constitute Exsentiot LEVEL 2 - CRUDE Component of Civil Engineering Uses Avaliable Solutions ond Tvortebte Soil bate 3 Predictions Frequently Inaccurote LEVEL 2 ~ ENGINEERING 4° Primory Coure of Inaccurate Precictions User. Furctamentats and Results Fovily = ineutticient Dote OF Tests on Droject Soule f- Evalwote Precietions to \Sihaglo-Asrenr Decieronn-modity 1 necessary ese -or-Knon | ‘a> improve Prediction Copabitity LEVEL | ~ STATE OF - KNOWLEDGE User Best known Methods ard 6- Basis for kvolwotng Predictions Revulte of Specia) Sol Teste Field Moosuremente~ Obs ervationt Fa a Fa 2 G3PREDICTION meTHoos enna, Fo | ery pet] Pot Ee ne | eT abltn co} Sod LL | Perio 20 wai ont | By hm one i i tual] hte, er eal ea y loro [Snel P| emcee steunten, | Flak on wide sty, | Flak ton tis seer vy | FEone Fite Elen ay toe MEE | aneswe & a ee ache Fis Tete | Shox Por Tee STATE-oF-4aT Denotes the Level of Practice Performed by Quatitied Profesional Engineer Denotes Work by Leaders of Protersion Employing Best Techniques fe. Working at the Forefront of knowledge Fg # APPROPRIATE LEVEL OF METHOOS Depends ont J: Importance of Project-Prediction 2: Needed Accuracy of Prediction 3-Consequencies of noccurate Prediction 4> Quality of InPut Date > ketent of knowledge of Field Situation G- Available Funds ~ Time fer Predicting Fe ENGINEERING Solve proctical problem tring oravoble Mathoos RESEARCH Advence State -of- knowledge Improve Prediction Copobiity Fue 8ENGINEERING RESEARCH Casares Evaineeniva Gooties Reseamen Level / Methods Bolong geimear improving Phethode ACCURACY OF PREDIETION—~ RUBE —ERGTRETRINS STATE GET re 9 Taowieiee LEVEL OF SOPHISTICATION—= Ae 1) { PREDICTION process 8 8 a | al I+ Determine Field Situation | ne 2 Simplity | AN 3.- Determine Mechaniem) Rx 3h A> Select ‘ etnod nN rere | q | 2+ menipuiote ; | ‘elise paremeters-trediction 8 - Portrey Precietion g EVALUATE ~ IMPROVE a LeveL F (LEVEL ee Vor. | EeiaE — ensinetnine Fa 5 | ra 1 Fie 12CLASSIFICATION OF PREDICTION ‘onse | roumenran| _ rue, Berore | Barore Before Pite Type When Prediction Rervite of Time a ee | Serene | Moc1r Meee Procictisn Wade forte on tractea| A Betere Event | Horse — | hitiot € aver | during Pile a Wet known 2 | Roune the| console in | Lose Tet Beers known tum | process e Not known c, ter Event Cone Race — | Settlement | Arter Pile © ‘Over Stepped” | Failed GS Fie 44th SOUTHEAST ASIAN CONFERE! NCE ON SOIL ENGINEERING KUALA LUMPUR, MALAYSIA 7th ~ 10th April 1975 EXAMINATION AND IDENTIFICATION OF SOME PERMEABLE NATURAL SOIL FABRIC STwoPSIS Site tnvestigation procedure is to be planned out on the basis of the soil strata involved in the construction work. Before any decision 4a mado as regards quality, location and size of samples to be recovered a basic knowledge of the existing soil fabric should be obtained ‘through examination of continuous samples in the field, before any sample is removed for Laboratory testing. ‘The exanination of the fabric can bo made at different magnification levels but by making use of the range between xt and 100 most of the fabric that influnce the permeability of ‘the soil can be studied. This paper deals with sone specific typos of fabric that could be studied in the above range of magnification and falling into the categories, fissured, layered, organic, pedal: and classified under'permeable! and 'non— pemeable', as far as consolidation properties fare concerned. This classification helps a soil engineer to examine the fabric of the continu— ‘ous samples in the field and to determine necessity and type of tests to be carried out, fon the samples and the mothod of recovery of ‘these samples, INTRODUCTION Soils, from a point of view of geologival origin, fall under either rosidual soils or transported soils. Both those types have geological features recorded as a result of doing either a weathered material of a parent rock or @ sedimentary deposit. Therefore, they attribute heterogeneity and non-uniformity to natural soils. These geological features are described under the definition of 'fabric! of soils which expresses the size, shape and arrangement of soil particles and voids in a given sof. Fabric of sotis Anost of ell natural soils have a fabric which bears anisotropic textures in different planes m4 GP KARUNARATHE, B5e/E09, Pro. Lecture, Facly of Enno of the soils. Consequently, soil mechanics properties of natural soils are also anisotropic in behaviour. Thus, shear strength of specinens under identical test conditions but with Afferent faurdc— stress ortentatong vill 5 drainage properties of natural fabric tahloit marked Lifferences: in behaviour slong different directions in the sane soil. Generally, the horizontal permeability of a natural soil is greater than the permeability 4m the vertical direction. Although the compressibility remains constant, the cosffi- cient of consolidation will vary’ fron the horizontal plane to vertical plane as a result of the variation of cooffictent of permeability. Thus At becomes apparent that assesament of the fabric of a natural sotis gives an Andieation of the permeability and thereby the consolidation charateristics of the soil. ‘The Laboratory and field determination of the coefficient of consolidation of soils are generally carried out in order to asseas the rate and the degree of settlement of a soil stratum, the rate of dissipation of excost pore pressure developed in soil strata during construction. Much offort 1s exercised in recovering samples, mostly ‘undisturbed', for Laboratory consolidation tests during site investigation and sometines even during construction. However, only very recently has any attention been paid to the fabric of the soil that 1s required to be studied, its ts influence on the drainage propertie disturbing effects of sampling on fabric (Rowe, 1968; Rowe, 1972). and XUMDIATION OF FABRIC The minimum gnount of featurres recorded in any soil would be the fabric of @ mono— mineralic clay deposit which could be conve niently described as a ‘uniform’ clay. The extraction of a specimen of any size from this tuniform' clay, allowing for the sampling disturbance (iverslev, 1948), would be representative of the mass and the carried out with appropriate stress systene would yield field propories of the mass. Incontrast with ‘uniforn! clay, a soil having a variety of febric features will require careful consideration before sampling. Thus, a fabric of a ‘sandy! clay exhibiting alternating layers of sand and clay will only be representative if both sand and clay layers are proportionately represented in the sample, without getting too mich or too less of sand or clay in the sample, as shown in Fig.1. Specimen representing Sand ¢ Silt Layers, and Rootlets.. paces Non- representa- tive Specimen— Sand ond ee Silt Layers: ers. | ‘The location of the sample in the man and the Dine of the sample. are both important before ty dectaton te nade n0 regards extraction of Sunples.1s Rowe (1972) pointed out. quality of the samcle 4a. deterained ty the type of the tent to be undertaken, Quality oct will be Fequited for exact determination of coneoLi— Galion properties of guch a naturel Fabrice Thus 4t 4s clear that a knowledge of the fabric of the soft under investigation is a pre-requi— site to all Laboratory testing on ‘undisturbed! samples and hence examination of fabric of soil is essential. In order that complete informa — tion on fabric of soll 4s procured before sampling, examination of continuous sample: 3" to KY dlametor, is reccomended (Rove, 1968 METHODS OF EXAMINATION ‘The examination of fabric of soils can be made under three levels of magnifications: 1, vieual examination 44, upto 1100 with a low powered optical microscope, AAL, x100 and above sdth high powered microscope. 4. Visual Examination Opeorvations at natural scale fore an important basis for the examination of natural soll. A Uist of simple teste which are very usefil in sedi rough fannttftcations a" giten by Taylor 1948). ‘2 Visual examination of the grain size and shape of coarse grained soils. The unaided eye can resolve modium sand and coarser particles. The resolution of the normal eye may bo as good an 72 Jan (Borgner et 1.1966) in viich case, a Large aren in the fine sand range 49 280 covered. b. Texture and colour of fine grained soil When the texture on the fracture surface de saooth 1 is predominantly clayey$ relatively rough Ieae sooth surface 4 Tose clayey; a ‘skeletal’ surface appears gramlar. ‘The colour of the fine grained soils indicates a local veriation of ofl groupe rather than a wide spread variation. c. Determination of strength loss due to structural disturbance, obtained by crushing the soil and working 4¢ wth fingers. Normally, pedal soil crumbles into different Levels of pedality; fissured ‘oll may appoar sintlar to a pedal soil; Sofie wath joint planes may fell apart long weak planes 4. Determination of the feel of the soil, whether gritty or soapy, by rubbing between fingers, Gritty feeling is normally associated with coarse grained material. and soapy feeling sath clayey material. fe, Determination of the mobility of pore ater obtained by shaking a piece’ of soil soil horkzontally in the hand to bring water to the surface, 4¢ possible, and ring the’ specimen. ly brings water to the gurface, Af 1b haw high nobility, and the surface ‘aleo dries on squeezing. TP there dono charge in the appesrance both at shaking and squeezing ft indicates lov mobility. High mobility and low nobility correspond to gramar and clayey 20ils respect ve , Determination of grain sizer in fine grained solle or the presenco of finesin coarse grained soils, A simple test of shaking a small asount of soil in a test tube of water and allowing it to settle with tine would yield a rough idea about the amount of particles present in each grain size. When continuous samples are rucovered they should be extruded out of the tubes, allowed for partiel drying and then trimmed or split. along the axis 20 that ‘th fabric could be seen uninterrupted. livorslev, (1948) describes the general procedure in sample preparation for photography. Once the samples are split they should be carefully observed An onder to note the places of preferential @rying. Granular layers lose moisture mich faster than clayey layers and hence layers of sand and silt could be identified at this stage. Fig.2 illustrates a portion of a continuous sample at the optimum drying giving naximim contrast between fine sand and clay Layers. Fig. 2 SM1t and Sand Layers in Continuous samples. Natural Scale, 44, Low powered optical mie Tho Farge Of uagnifisation apts +100 12 covered by a low powered optical microscope. If a stereo optical microscope is available ‘examination of partially éry continuous samples can be very conveniently carried out. Thus all grain sizes above fine silt will be able to be recognized. Clay particles, in practice, cannot be resolved since they are below 5 im in dianeter and exist generally in clusters. The optical microscope can nost 104 to examine planes of weakne 1-3 sample, These planes could be slickensides in clays, Joint planes, interpedal surfaces that could’ be filled with sand, silt or clay. The presence of permeable paths such as roote, silt fillings (Rowe, 1968; Karunaratne 1971) can also be examined sdth’a hand lens or microscope. In fact portable stereo microscopes ‘are now available for examination of samples even in the field. Wagnifications above x100 can also be achieved vith optical microscopes and electron microscopes which could resolve even the smallest clay particle. However, preparation of specimens for these microscopes consumes much tine and does not warrant. the information as far as consolidation properties of the samples are concerned. DRAINAGE, PROPERTIES Cortain types of soils with their natural fabric do not pose difficulties during construc tion, since the fabric being 'permeable’ allows rapid dissipation of constructional pore pressures. A second category of soils Aissipate pore pressure with a certain tine Lag and hence the duration of construction ‘should be spread over a mumber of years Af sand drain installation is not considered. The Last category of soils is such that unless special techniques, such as sand drains, are considered no constructions can be done economically on then mainly because of their low permeability, The first tvo types have been called ‘permeable’ and the last "non — permeable ' (Rowe, 1968). Solis having different fabric were subjected to consolidation tests and direct permeability measurement, in a Rove consolidation cell. (Rove and Barden, 1965). The direction of the flow of pore water was determined after exenination of the fabric. Ferferential drainage paths were traced with an organic dye immediately after the measurenent. of permeability and then examined at all scales ‘upto about 35000, in order to obtain a correlation between the fabric and the permeability. This study has shown thet permeable fabric can be easily distinguished from the non permeable fabric by direct examination at natural scale or with a maximum magnification of about x100. Table 1 indicates characteristics of some permeable fabric which can be easily identified in the feld,Those, 2 anew 8 Mem ike eo feted canna” Ste'thalgtgtt® Seu Sraite SLE. 1 Pete rated fran igh 2s Pade wits san and gh Formalin pede Chet adam icer~ Met's ti feiss ptaticg” Talore gent? © Teall’ or step sae, * Ghosneise Sight nied elspa af etane we ter aah Oe ae howe 1a sot tose ‘erie mature ema Bo miaet 4), Paes deviated yy Metta 2, apn restting from Low K valitse tao toate sotoral om cere een Ea een heapmen Beets, gaint BES Heavies foe Bee ——— — Visual examination of a continuous sample should be the starting point of any field investigation. It is more desirable to complete ‘this examination in the field itself, exercising great care in dotecting all the silt and sand distributions, while the sample Loses the moisture slowly. At this stage entire depth of the sample 4s easily classi— fied into ‘permeable! and ‘non-permeable Groups. The non-perneable portions of the sample need further examination under an optical stereo-microscope for any missing details. Field examination is to be assisted by a hand ens. These findings could be verified experimentally: by running consolidation tests in large Glaneter cells on specinens selected at aporopriate locations adjacent to boreholes. ‘The drainage boundaries are to be set up in accordance with the findings of the prelini~ nary examination of fabric of continuous senple. A mmber of permoable soil fabric exist which are characterised by easily recognisatle features at natural seale or with a hand lens, a8 an aid. Table 1 sumarizes these fabric. [REFERENCES Borgner,J., Gelbke,E, and Meliss, W., Practical Photomterography, The Focal Press, London, 1965. Hvorslev, M.J., Subsurface exploration and sampling of soils for Civil EngineeringPurposes, Waterways Experinent: Station, Vicksburg, 1948. Karunaratne, ©.P.,Pabric Analysis of Some Natural Soile in Relation to Permeability, ‘Thesis (Ph.D.), Univeristy of Manchester, 1911. Rowe, P.W., The Influence of Geological Features of Clay Deposits on the Design and Performance of Sand Drains.Proc.I.C.5. Supplement Papaer 7058 8, 1968, 1~ 72. » Pilly The relevance of Soil Fabric to Site Investigation Practice. 1972. Geotechnique, 22, 195 ~ 300. Rowe, P.W., and Barden, L.,A New Consolidation Cell, “Geotechnique, Vel.16, 162 — 170. 1965. ‘Taylor,D.We, Fundamentals of Soil Mechanics, Wiley int. Eéition, New York, 1948,pp 700. 1684th SOUTHEAST ASIAN CONFERENCE ON SOIL ENGINEERING KUALA LUMPUR, MALAYSIA 7th — 10th April 1975 ANISOTROPY OF STRENGTH IN CLAYS CONTAINING PLATES OF INCREASING SIZE SYNOPSIS The effective stress strength of a large number of clays containing oriented clay plates is often surprising- ly close to isotropic, although the undrained strength and the stress - strain behaviour is generally anisotropic. ‘The present investigation studies the behaviour of anisotropically consolidated clays with a high degree of particle orientation. Using illite, kaolinite and mica-kaolinite mixture, samples hav- ing plate shaped particles varying in maximun size from 0.5 - 75 microns have been prepared by one dimensional consol- idation from a slurry in 254 mm Rowe cells. The resulting high degree of horizontal orientation was confirmed using polarising microscope and scanning electron microscope techniques. Cylin- drical specimens 38 mm by 50 mm high and 38 mm by 76 mm high have been taken at various angles between the vertical and horizontal fron the 254 mn Rowe cells. ‘These have been tested in the triaxial apparatus under undrained, consolidated undrained and drained conditions. In analysing the results attempts have been made to separate the influence of fabric anisotropy and stress anisotropy on the strength behaviour. The influence of particle size on the effective shear Stress strength behaviour is discussed. An attempt is also made to explain the mechanism of deformation. 1, INTRODUCTION ‘There is considerable evidence in liter- ature that one dimensional consolidation and certain compaction procedures produce a preferred orientation of clay particles (Mitchell, 1956; Meade, 1968; Slone and Kell, 1966; Smart, 1969; Morgen- stern and Tchalenko, 1967; Barden, 1972; Kirkpatrick and Rennie, 1972; Ingles and Lee, 1971) implying anisotropic fabric. ‘The degree of fabric anisotropy of a 1-6 K. 2 ANDRAWES, MSc, PhD., Lecturer in Soil Mechanic, Department of Civil Engineering, University of Strathelyde, Glasgow, Scotland, U.K. D.N, KRISHNAMURTHY, ME, esearch Student, Department of Civil Engineering, University of Strathclyde, Glasgow, Scotland, UK L. BARDEN, MSc, PRD., DSc Former Profesor of Soil Mechanic, lasgow, Scotlond, U.K. particular clay deposit is a function of the maximum past overburden pressure and the dispersive forces in the electro~ chemical environment. Most of the soil deposits are formed under anisotropic stress conditions and thus exhibit not only anisotropy in fabric but also experience anisotropy in in-situ stresses. Apart from preferred orientation there is growing recognition to the fact that both artificial and natural clay deposits are made up of clay plates aggregated into peds, Clusters or domains (Aylmore and Quirk, 1960; Olsen, 1962; Brewer, 1964). Barden (1972), has given a com prehensive review on the aggregate nature of clays. Much of the literature on strength an- isotropy relates to the undrained strengths of either laboratory prepared specimens or field specimens with vary- ing degrees of consolidation ranging from normally consolidated to over- consolidated states and the results obtained therefrom have been used for the solution of practical problens. is generally accepted that undrained strength is anisotropic due to the anis~ otropy in the pore pressure parameter A which is a deformation parameter. The preferred orientation will lead to anisotropic deformation behaviour in a majority of clays, as demonstrated by Ward et al. (1959) and Bishop et al. (1965). Anisotropic deformation behav- jour is particularly marked in oriented artificial clays such as one dimension- ally consolidated kaolinite (Barden, 1971; Kirkpatrick and Rennie, 1972; Le Lievre and Wang, 1971). However, the effective stress strength parameters ct and @" were found to be isotropic (Bishop et al. 1965; Duncan and Seed, 1966a, and 1966b; Mitchell, 1972). qeIngles and Lee (1971) produced anisotropic samples by statically compacting various materials containing plate shaped part- icles. Comparison between the results of vertical and horizontal samples showed the drained strength was isotropic whereas the deformation anisotropic for the case of small lamellar particles, such as kaolinite and laminar fluorite. Both strength and deformation for vert= ical and horizontal samples were aniso- tropic in the case of large lamellar particles, such as mica and dolerite. Tt appears that they have not carried out tests on inclined sanples. However, there appears to be lack of clarity in the literature on the effect of various factors influencing the ex- tent of strength anisotropy in soils. For example, Hansen and Gibson (1949), Bjerrum and Kenney (1967), Delory and Lai (1972), D'Appolonia (1972) have associated strength anisotropy with the anisotropy in in-situ stresses. Khera (1967), Lafeber (1969), Ingles and Lee (1971), Barden (1971) have attempted to associate anisotropy in strength with particle orientation. Bishop (1966), Lo (1966), Duncan and Seed (1966a, 1966b), Skempton and Hut- chinson (1969), Shankaran and Bhaskaran (1972) have associated anisotropy in strength with both in-situ stresses and particle orientation. In this paper an attempt has been made to throw some light on the extent of strength anisotropy due to fabric in clays, namely the effect of particle size and mineral, test conditions and sample orientation. 2, EXPERIMENTAL INVESTIGATION Scope Undrained, consolidated undrained with pore water pressure measurement. and drained triaxial tests have been carried out on samples taken at various angles © (0 is the angle between the direction of the sample axis and the major prin- cipal stress direction during one din- ensional consolidation) from masses of illite, kaolinite and mica-kaolinite mixture, prepared by one-dimensional consolidation fron a slurry in 254 mn Rowe cells to a fina} consolidation pressure of 300 kN/n¢. ‘The resulting high degrees of fabric orientation have been confirmed using polarising and scanning electron microscope techniques. Description of materials Commercially available illite, kaolinite and mica with the following properties have been used for the tests. Illite (Highnod Blue) 438, L.L.= 80.5%, Particles finer than 1 PL, micton = 808. Kaolinite (S PS Powder) L.L.= 60.08, Pole 03, Particles finer than 2 microns ="80.08. Mica (Muscovite mica) Mica particles were powdered and only the fraction passing BSS No 200 (75 microns) has been used in preparing the mica-kaolinite mixture. Preparation Illite: A slurry of illite with 1208 water content and dispersing agent (20 ml of 8 sodiun hexametaphosphate) was prepared and mixed thoroughly for 45 minutes. The slurry was transferred into an extended (254 mm diameter by 254 mm high) Rowe cell under vacuum. Filter circles were used between the slurry and the perforated top and bottom discs to facilitate drainage. The slurry was consolidated in stages to a final consolidation pressure of 300 kn/m2, ‘The sample was extruded at the end of consolidation stage, waxed and stored in polythylene bag for a minimum period of 4 weeks for equalisation of moisture content. Samplingsin different directions were carried out by thin walled samplers, oiled on the inside and outside, by pushing them gently but firmly into the soil mass at various angles with the help of a guide. Kaolinite: A slurry of kaolinite with 100% water content and dispersing agent (Qo ml of 12.58 sodium hydroxide) was prepared. The rest of the procedure was similar to that of illite. Mica-kaolinite mixture: A paste of 4 parts of mica and 1 part of kaolinite, by weight, with 38-408 water content and dispersing agent was prepared. The amount of water needed was found after one or two trials as too much water resulted in segregation, The pastewas immediately transferred to Rowe cell in three layers and subjected to vacuun for l hour. The rest of the procedure was similar to those of other two materials. ‘The details of the set up, increments of pressures applied during one-dimensional consolidation, etc., are described in Krishnamurthy (1974). Testing procedure Undrained tests: These tests were carried out on 38 mm dianeter by 50 mm high samples of illite, kaolinite and mica-kaolinite mixture taken at 0 0, 30, 45, 60 and 90°, A cell pressure of 350 kN/m? was used in all tests to overcome the effect of the initial negative value of the pore water press- ure. It is believed that the cell Pressure applied would not appreciably alter the initial fabric of the material obtained at the end of one-dimensional consolidation. Each sample had a lub- ricated end platen (Rowe and Barden, 1964) at the top and the pore water pressures developed during the tests were measured at the base using pressure ‘transducers. Consolidated undrained tests: These tests were carried out on 38 mm diameter by 76 mm high samples of illite and 38 mn diameter by 50 mm high samples of kaolinite and mica-kaolinite mixture taker at 6 = 0, 30, 45, 60 and 90°, All the samples were consolidated in triaxial apparatus under a cell pressure range of 350 - 550 kN/m?. Drainage during consolidation stage was effected by using top and radial drainage in the case of illite and radial drainage only in the case of kaolinite and mica-kaol~ inite mixture. Fixed ends were used at the top for illite and lubricated ends for kaolinite and mica-kaolinite mixture. Pore water pressures were measured at the base. Drained tests: These tests were carried out on 38 mm diameter by 76 mm high samples of illite and 38 nm diameter by 50 mm high samples of kaolinite and mica~ kaolinite mixture taken at 9= 0, 30, 45, 60 and 90°, The samples were consolid~ ated under a cell pressure ranging be- tween 350 - 550 kN/m?, Drainage during consolidation and shearing was effected by using top, bottom and radial drainage in the case of illite and radial drainage only in the case of kaolinite and mica- kaolinite mixture. ‘The use of short samples with lubricated ends for consolidated undrained and Grained tests on kaolinite and mica- kaolinite mixture facilitated in obtain~ ing large number of samples from the same cake whereas the low permeability and associated drainage during testing made it necessary to use conventional size (38 mm diameter by 76 mm high) samples in the case of illite with por- ous stones at the ends. Fabric analysis Analysis of the initial fabric of the materials at the end of consolidation stage was carried out using polarising microscope and scanning electron micro- scope techniques. ‘Thin sections of carbowax impregnated specimens were prepared, following the standard procedure described by Mitchell (1956), Morgenstern and Tohalenko (1967), and viewed under crossed nicols in a polarising microscope fitted with a photometer and photocell. The results showed a strong fabric orientation in the direction of the major principal plane birefringence ratio (8) less than 0.5. Specimens for viewing in a scanning electron microscope were prepared by air drying, fracturing and peeling technique described in detail by Barden and Sides (1971). Figs. 1a and 1b show the micrographs of vertical sections of kaolinite and mica-kaolinite mixture confirming the high degree of orientat~Fig. 1 S.E.M, photographs at the end of one-dimen- sional consolidation a) Kaolin 3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION ‘The results of the tests are presented in Figs. 2 to 4 and Table 1. Undrained tests: From Table 1 and Figs. 2a and 2b, it may be seen that the strength of the sample in the vertical direction (0 = 09) is the highest for all the three materials. The a ao in sample strength with inclination Undrained rests a) Absolute values of maximum deviator stress b) Relative strengths strength of the horizontal sample (@ = 90°) is the lowest for the illite with a gradual decrease in strength as the value of changes from 0 to 900. Similar results have been reported by Khera and Krizeck (1963) for Grundite (illite clay). In the case of kaol- inite and mica-kaolinite mixture samples in the inclined direction (9 = 60°) showed least strengths, with a maximum reduction in strength from the vertical of about 60% for the mica-kaolinite mixture. The results for kaolinite agree with the results of other invest- igators who have reported that the in- clined samples (9 = 45°) show lower strength than either vertical or hori- zontal samples. The reduction in strength increased with increase in particle size. As can be seen from the figure the increase in particle size resulted in, (i) larger variation in strengths between samples taken in different directions, and (44) decrease in the ratio between the strength of an inclined sample to the strength of vertical sample. Consolidated undrained tests: From Table 1 and Figs. 3a and 3b, it may be seen that unlike the results of the i : i i + Cr. Variation in sample strength with inclination Consolidated undrained tests a) Absolute values of maximum deviator stress b) Relative strengthsandrained tests, the horizontal samples showed greater strengths than the vertical ones. Inclined samples showed variation in strength, Samples taken at less than about 60° are generally weaker than the vertical ones whereas samples taken between 60° - 90° are generally stronger. ‘The results indicate that for the small size particles (illite) there was virt- ually no decrease in strength from the vertical, whereas for the large size particles (mica-kaolinite mixture) a reduction in strength from the vertical of about 208 was measured. Drained tests: From Table 1 and Figs. 4a and 4b, it may be seen that the resul of drained tests are similar to the 600 z Ts t capstone 2 wo at || eres po PPiy 4 § 400 = j= eee ° | BE a i » i a 10 ml 3 = a os { ” v Eo oo” 30° Fig. 4 Vaation in sample strength wth inclination a Drained. tet a) Absolute ales of maximum devator siress 6) Relative rene results of undrained tests in trend in that the vertical samples are the strongest. However, the difference in strength between the vertical and hor~ ixontal samples is very small compared with undrained strengths. Again samples taken at directions other than the vertical showed lover strengths than the vertical. The increase in the particle size does not seem to have a pronounced effect on the anisotropic strength response. Variation in g': From the pore press ure measurements the values of g" (de- fined by the tangent to the origin from the stress circle at the value of 0," (effective minor principal stress) Under consideration) for the different mater- ials and drainage conditions were com pared. ts In undrained tests, the values of g' for the horizontal samples were lower than those for vertical samples except in the case of kaolinite which gave a slightly higher value for the horizontal sample. Inclined samples (9 < 60°) gave values lower than either the vertical or hor- izontal samples for all the materials. In the consolidated undrained tests, the values of @' for the horizontal samples were slightly higher than those for the vertical samples except in the case of mica-kaolinite mixture which gave a lower value for the horizontal sample. Inclined samples (9 < 60°) gave values lower than those of either the vertical or horizontal samples except for the mica-kaolinite mixture which gave values intermediate to those of vertical and horizontal ones. ‘The pore pressures measured during test- ing, under different cell pressures in consolidated undrained tests, and their influence on the effective stress para- meters are described in detail elsewhere, Krishnamurthy and Andrawes (1974) . Deformation mechanism: Quantitative Measurenent of the changes in fabric during deformation and up to failure in oriented clays was carried out, using polarising microscope techniques. The results obtained indicate dislocation of aggregates with reorientation of clay plates, the propagation of micro- 1-10fissures and finally macrofissures eventually leading to failure (Andrawes et al 1974). It is hoped that this study will enable to explain the de- crease in strength of inclined samples. Samples in directions other than vert- ical do not maintain circular cross~ section during triaxial testing. In the tests reported in this paper the strengths have been calculated on the assumption of circular cross-section. In the consolidated undrained and drained tests the horizontal samples of Allite showed more lateral bulging than inclined samples. 4. conciusrons ‘The results showed that for unérained triaxial tests, the vertical samples had larger strengths than samples taken in any other direction. Tt was also found that as the particle size increas- ed the variation in strength increased. A reduction in strength, from that of a vertical sample, of about 608 was noticed for the material with the largest particle size used. Under drained conditions, the results in- dicated that the difference in strength between the vertical and horizontal samples was small. The material with the largest size particles showed the greatest difference. Inclined samples are generally slightly weaker than both the horizontal and vertical samples. In the consolidated undrained tests, the results showed that for all the mat- erials tested, the strength decreased as @ increased up to about 60°, after which the strength increased gradually until at 0= 900 the strength was larger than that of the corresponding vertical samples. From the measurements of the pore water pressure in undrained and consolidated undrained tests, it was found that 9° decreased as 0 increased up to about @ = 60°, tn general, the value of g* for the horizontal samples are higher than those for inclined samples except for mica-kaolinite mixture under con= solidated undrained condition. yynbols R = strength of horizontal sample Seepedtn ot vertical ample = effective strength parameter (tangent to the origin from the stress circle at the value of 0,' under consideration). minor effective principal stress. Birefringence ratio. Ratio of intensity of light at the extinction stage to the intensity of light at illumination stage. @ = Angle between the direction of the sample axis and the major principal stress direction during one-dimen- sional consolidation. REFERENCES ANDRAWES, K.2., KRISHNAMURTHY, D.N BARDEN, L. (1974). Fabric changes during’ deformation of oriented clays. (Zo be published). AYLMORE, L. & QUIRK, J.P, (1960). Domain or turbstratic structure in clays. Nature, London, 187; 1046, BARDEN, L. (1971) Examples of clay structure and its influence on engin- eering behaviour. Roscoe Memorial symp., Cambridge. BARDEN, L. (1972) The influence of structure on deformation and failure in clay soil. Geotechnigque 22, 159 - 163, BARDEN, L. & SIDES, G.R. (1971) Sample disturbance in the investigation of clay structure. Geotechnique 21, 221 - 222. BISHOP, A.W. (1966) ‘The strength of soils as engineering material. Geotech- nique 16, 91 ~ 128. BISHOP, A.W., WEBB, D.L. & LEWIN, P.I, (1965). "Undisturbed samples of London clay from the Ashford Common Shaft. Geotechnique 15, 1 - 30. BJERRUM, L. & KENNEY, 7.C. (1967). Effect of structure on the behaviour of normally consolidated quick clays. Proc. Geotech. Conf., Oslo, 2, 19 - 27. BREWER, R. (1964) analysis of soils. Fabric and mineral New York; Wiley. D'APPOLONTA, D.J. (1972) Discussion on "Bearing cabacity of anisotropic cohesive soils", by Davis, E.H. & Christian, J.T. Ol, of SMFE Dn. ASCE, Vol 98, No. SM1, 126 = 132.DE LORY, F.A. @ LAT, H.W, (1971). 10, K.¥. (1966) Closure to discussion Variation in undrained shearing strength on’ "Stability of slopes in anisotropic by semiconfined tests. Can. Geotechnical soils". Jl. of SMFE Dn. ASCE, Vol 93, Ti. 8(4) 538 545. sm 1, i- 15) DUNCAN, J.M. & SEED, H.B. (1966a) Ani- MEADE, R.. (1968) Compaction of sed- sotropy and stress reorientation in clay. JL. of SMFE Dn. ASCE, Vol 92, SM 5, 21 ~ 50. DUNCAN, J.M. & SEED, H.B. (1966b) Strength variation along failure surfaces in clay. J1. of SMFE Dn. ASCE, Vol 92, sM6, 81'- 104. HANSEN, J.B. & GIBSON, R.E. (1949). Undrained shear strengths of anisotrop- ically consolidated clays. Geotechnique 1, 189 = 204, INGLES, 0.6. & LEE, T.K. (1971) The influence of initial grain shape and pore anisotropy on strength of brittle soils. Geotechnique 21, 143 ~ 153. KHERA, R.P. (1967) Strength response of anisotropically consolidated clays. Ph. thesis, North Western Univ., Tll, U.S.A. KHERA, R.P. & KRIZEK (1969) Strength anisotropy in cohesive soils. Jl. of SMFE. Ind. Nat. Soc. of SMFE, Vol. 8, No. 1, 41'= 55: KIRKPATRICK, W.M. & RENNIE. T.A. (1972). Directional’ properties of consolidated kaolin. Geotechnique 22, 166 - 169, KRISHNAMURTHY, D.N. (1974) Strength anisotropy and mechanism of defornation and failure of oriented clays. Ph.D. thesis. Univ. of Strathclyde, Glasgow. KRISHNAMURTHY, D.N. & ANDRAWES, K.Z. (1974). Influence of pore pressure on strength anisotropy in oriented clays. (To be published). LAFEBER, D, (1969). Soil anisotropy and soil sampling. Proc. 7th Int. Conf. SMFE. Speciality Session No. 1, 32 ~ 39. LE LIEVRE, B. & WANG, B. (1971) _ Drained shear behaviour of clay subjected to stress reversal. Proc. 4th Asian Regional Conf. Soil Mech., Bangkok 1, 57 62. iments underlying areas of land sub- sidence in Central California. Geol. Survey. Professional Paper 497 ~ D. U.S. Govt. Printing Office, washington, ULS.A. MITCHELL, J.K. (1956) The fabric of natural Clays and its relation to engineering properties. Highway Re search Board Proc., Vol. 35, 693 - 713. MITCHELL, R.J. (1972) Some deviations from isotropy in a lightly overconsol- idated clay. Geotechnique 22, 459 - 467. MORGENSTERN, N.R. & TEHALENKO, J.S. (1967) The optical’ determination of preferred orientation in clays. Proc. Roy. Soc. A300, 218 - 250. p, OLSEN, H.W. (1962) Hydraulic flow through saturated clay. Proc. 9th Nat. Conf. Clays and Clay Minerals, 19, a31 > 161. ROWE, P.W. & BARDEN, L. (1964) The importance of free ends in the triaxial test. Proc. Am. Soc. of Civil Engrs. 90, No. SM1, "1-27. SHANKARAN, K.S. & BHASKARAN, R. (1972). Strength anisotropy in cohesive soils. Proc. of the Sym. on Modern Trends in Civii Engineering, Roorkee 1, 27 ~ 31. SKEMPTON, A.W. & HUTCHINSON, J. (1969) . Stability of Aatural slopes’ and embank- ment foundations. Proc. 7th Int. Conf. Soil Mech. Foundn. Eng., State of Art Vol., 291'- 340. SLONE, R.L. & KELL (1966. The fabric Of mechanically compacted kaolin. Proc. 14th National Conf. on clay and clay minerals. SMART, P. (1969). Soil structure in the electron microscope. Proc. Int. Conf. Structure, Solid Mechanics Engng. Design Civ. Engng. Nater., Univ, of Southampton. WARD, W.H., SAMUELS, $.G. & BUTLER, M.E. (1959). “Further studies of the prop- erties of London clay. Geotechnique 9, 33 38. 1424th SOUTHEAST ASIAN CONFERENCE ON SOIL ENGINEERING KUALA LUMPUR, MALAYSIA 7th ~ 10th April 1975 ELECTRON MICROSCOPIC TECHNIQUES AND SOME SHEAR INDUCED MICROSTRUCTURES OF KAOLINITE SYNOPSIS A transmission electron microscopic investigation of ambient and shear induced microstructures of kaolinite, natural clays and chalk is presented with the help of techniques Either developed or modified from the established techniques. The micro- structures illustrated are the ambient materials, the shear discontinuities the stress concentration at the edge: of the shear box specimen, the edge Structures and the microstructures in three dimensions, and the techniques involved impregnation, ultra-thin sectioning and replication. An attempt is made to relate the microstructur features to the applied stress/strain behaviour of the samples. Ub It is well known that the micro- Structure of any soil consists of tvo basic elements: interparticle forces comprising attraction and repulsion of the particles and the cementation between themselves, and the geometrical arrangement of the particles, called fabric (HORGENSTERN et al, 1967). The interparticle forces may be weakened or strengthened in the course of time by leaching (BJERRUM et al., 1969) or enhanced by deposition of cementing nts which produce quasi-irreversible Fila’ and senl-rigtd Bonding at potnes of contact (KENNEY et ai, 1967). The fabric may be observed by microscope at tvo levels of magnification: optical microscopy permits overall observation of shear induced structures, whereas electron microscopy permits observation of the individual particles and article assemblies vithin shear in- juced structures and ambient material. INTRODUCTION In the present paper primarily the fabric bf shear imduced microstructures of kaolinite is investigated using flectron aleroscope, Tt wes pointed out. by MORGENSTERN ct al-(1987) that a single shear discontinuity appearing ata particular level of optical sagnification might itself be reducible to a system of shear di continuities at a higher level of magnification, For the investigation of the shear induced microstructures of kaolinite it was felt that a suitable technique should be developed. This paper is concerned also in establishing electron microscopic techniques of various kinds, Different types of resin impregnating media are used in order to establish the merits and the disadvantages of each impregnating medium and because comparison seems to be desirable. For transmission clectron microscopic observation it is necessary to have ultra-thin sectioning of resin impreg- nated aot] (SMART, 1967; PUSCH, 19669. The art of ultra-thin sectioning (KAY 1965) of soil 1s studied in details with the help of an L.K.B. Ultratome III using 1.4 mm diamond Ge-Fe-Ri knives having a knife angle of 45°. 2, SAMPLE PREPARATION AND SHEAR TESTING The fabric of soil is dependent on a large number of intrinsic and environ- mental factors. One important factor 18 the mineralogy "of the constituent particles (ROSCOR, 1967), The concentra- tion of clay particles at the time of deposition affects the extent of floceulation and is therefore anotherfactor affecting soil fabric A ROSENQVIST, . The third factor 1s the nature of electrolyte (LAMBE, 1958), All the factors which affect the soll fabrics have been control in the sample Preparation, Kaolinite, fractionated by gravity sedimentation to produce a material having a restricted particle size range was used for this investigation. After successive sedimentation, the bulk material (80% by weight) had a particle ize range of 1-3 (Fig. 1), Thus mineralogy, shape and grading were predetermined within the restricted limit, cos equine sumer Particle size distribution of fractionated kaolintt The fractionated kaolinite was used For the preparation of shear box samples.’ A 500% dilute suspension of fractionated kaolinite was prepared, Sterred ina high speed stifrer for spproxtnately an hour after tncreasing the pl to 8 by adding 0.1 N NaOH, The suspension vas poured into,an cedoneter cylinder of 75 cm, high and 15 cm. dia- adter, and compressed°of « maximum Load of 45 h/em2. The material vas subjected to unloading and reloading circles before being removed from the oedometer to obtain e*better orientation of iclinite particles’ unter repeated cea 1, 1969), although no observation was made £0 confine this, The cylindrical cake of consolidated kaolinite was dissected and trimmed to Produce modified direct shear box (Pig. 2) samples of 6 cm x 6 cm x 2.5 cm, ‘The orientation of the shear box Samples vas varied at the time of extracting from the consolidated kaolinite, The terms ‘horizontal’, ‘vertical’ and ‘inclined of 45° referred to the directions of the pre- Fig. 1 ferred orientation of the particles of the shear box samples relative to the direction of the shearing action. fom tore specinen Rass veose_ Fig. 2 Modification to ends of 6 mx 6 em direct shear box. 3, IMPREGNATION The primary object of impregnation is fo"sbiidify tha clay ainaree with Bind ing materials occuping mostly the pore spaces. The replacement of pore Fluid by the’ binding material vas carried out by diffusion, An ideal impregnation material should have at least the following properties, particularly for electron microscopic observation ~ 1, It should not react chemically with the constituent clay particles. It should solidify and be cured at Foon temperature and if curing a Toom temperature does not take place, tem e cure should preferably be at or below 105°, 3, It should have a low init: sity so that it can the pores easily, a particles toge! 4, Axial strain in any direction should be minimal. visco- petrate into hold the clay 5, It should be either transparent or translucent after solidification. The impregnating materials considered for the present investigation vere Carbowax 6000, and four resins, namely Araldites aY {8 and AZ 15, Vestopal W and Bakelite and the clays were very Lightly consolidated kaolinite to heavily consolidated kaolinite, natural London and Oxford clays, Norwegian marine clays, remoulded London clays and natural chalk,3.1 Carbowax 6000 Impregnation Carbowax 6000 supplied by Union Carbide, consisted of solid white flakes, melted fat 600 to 65°, was non-hygroscopic and iseible vith water upto 50% by weight and had already been used by many (MTCHELL, 1956; QUIGLEY & THONSON, 1966; SMART, 1987; TCHALENKO, 1967; DE, 1970). After solidification its hardness was about 2 in geoligical Scale and appeared feathery aggregates under optical microscopes. The impregnation technique was basically the same as that of MITCHELL (1956) but with a number of modifications (DE 1970), Wet clay samples of a size upto 60 mm'x 30 mm x 3 mm thick vere immersed into a bath of molten Carbowax at 65°C for seven days, so that Carbowax could enter into the clay pores. Several larger samples were also Studied in the simlar vay and it vas found that larger samples needed more time and several changes of fresh molten Carbowax to impregnate fully After impregnation, the samples ver allowed to cool at room temperature. No apparent damage to the micro- gtruttures vas observed apart from the formation of a net work of Carbowax veins due to internal shrinkage of the sample The shrinkage behaviour of a sample during Carbowax impregnation was studied in detail, using 25 mm x 12 mm x 3m thick kaolinite slice. The measurements were made with the help of a travelling microscope with targets made up of fine wire, cut to a length of 5-6 mm and pushed vertically into the clay slices. Three mutual perpendi- gular gauge lengths vith respect fo the direction of consolidation, desig- nated as Ixx, Iyy and Izz vere me- asured with respect to tine during impregnation and cooling. The shrinkage characteristic curves are Shrinkage characteristics of Carbowax 6000 impregnation, The shrinkage distribution across the Width of a kaolinite slice of 35 mx 24 um x 3 mm was investigated (Fig. 4). Five gauge lengths were selected across the width and numbered. The impreg- nation was carried out ‘ously described and the shrinkage distribu- tion curves can be seen in Fig. 4. Fig, 4 shrinkage distribution across the specimen, inpregnated with Garbovax 6003, 3.2 Resin Impregnation The apparatus and the experimental pro- cedure for four resings, Aretel te AY 18 and Az 15, Vestopal ¥ afd Bakelite vere Simlar to those described by SMART (1967) with modifications (DE, 1970) - (Fig. 5), Clay slices of 60 mm x 25 mn % 293 am thick were successively immersed into baths of water-methanol, methanol, methanol-acetone, acetone and reein-bardener in sequential order. Four different inital concentration of methanol and acetone were used at different rates. A given elsevhere (FOSTER & DE, 1971 ya NAtumioum fait SS Sample ‘Impregnation apparatus.After the acetone stage, appropri resin, mixed with harderer, catalyst and accelerator if any, was prepared. Acetone was drained off and the resin: wardener was poured in until 1 toppe the clay slices. The whole systen was alloved to cure’at room temperature in a rystallising dish covered with a watch glass, After the initial curing, samples were placed inside an oven for hot curing, gradually increasing the temperature upto 105%, Araldite aY 18 with Hardener HZ 18 was found to be an excellent clay impreg- nating resin, The initial viscosity of the mix, which was - Araldite: Hardener ::100:75 by weight, was 0,2 poise. Tt hed'a long pot-lite and impregnated clay slices easily. A Plasticier (Di-n-butile pathalete) could te used (5% by weight) for the mix but that vas not essential. It polymerised slowly, taking four days €o solidify at room temperature. Araldite AZ 15 with Hardener HZ 15 and acetone as a diluent, mixed in the Proportion of 100:30/10 vas found to be @ good clay impregnating system, TI Febin-hardener had a viscosity of 4,5 poise and a long pot-life at toon temperature. When cured at 105°C, it had'a higher shearing and bending strength than Araldite AY 18. The solidified resin-hardener mixture vas of light golden colour with occasional hair cracks due to internal shrinkage at curing stage, but these vere not Present when it'solidified at 35°C. These cracks vere not, hovever usually through the samples, At 105°C often the resinhardeher minture started bubbling, damaging the fully inpreg- nated kaolinite slices. Bubbling was primarily due to the pi entrapped acetone. Vestopal W vith styrene as diluent, 0.5% Cobalt Octoate as an accelerator, Methyl Ethyl Ketone Peroxide - SD (MEKP-SD) or Cumene Hydroperoxide as a catalyst, and acetone as a diluent was used in the proportion of 95:5:212:100, The mixture was of lov reactivity, and the pot-life was estimated to be 20-30 hours at room temperature, The tempera- ture was an important factor as the pot-life of the mixture might be Feduced by as much as 507 of that at Toom temperature due to a tise of only about 5°'to 8°C temperature. The mixture solidified in 3 to 6 days, depending upon the catalyst used; MEKP-SD vas’ selected when medium’ to long pot-life was required, Thorough mixing was essential 1f non-uniform shrinkage was to be avoided. when cured, Vestopal W vas unfortunately brittle compared to Araldites and Bakelite, Bakelite R 18774/1 with Hardener DQ 19262, was mixed in the proportion of 100:30 with 20% acetone or {0% styrene as diluent, Tt offered a lov viscosity, iediwm pot“1ife, toughness and flexi- bility when cured. ‘The chotee of acetone or styrene depended upon the required pot-life of the resinchardener system at room temperature. At 22°C the pot-life of the resin-hardener mixture with acetone vas at least double that of the resin-harderer system with styrene, and almost equal to that of the resin-hardener systen with styrene at 15°C. The disadvantage with styrene vas that it makes the impregnated Sanples more brittle, and it was advis- able not to use more than 102 styrene. Fig. 6 Apparatus for dynamic impregnation,3.3. Dynamic Impregnation Dyrasic impregnation (STEINRECHT et al, 1967) was based on the principle that even a viscous liquid shows some stre: ing movenent if the container of the liquid is rotated in an oblique plane at an optimum slov angular velocity when gravitational force can act Against the adhesion forces (Fig. 6). This process was applied to the samp which had already gone through the acetone stage. It was found that kaolinite and natural clays damaged due to the angle of obliquity of rotation. Experiments performed on chalk with low angle of obliquity (2° to 3°) showed rapid and improved impregnation (Fig. 7). Fig. 7 Araldite AY 18 impregnated chalk. Dynamic impregnation only, 900 & thick, speed = 1 mm/sec,, clearance angle =5° 3,4 Other Techniques A few alternations of static resin impregnation vere. nade and the result war found to be encouraging. The application of vacuum end/or pressure (Pig. 8) on slices of clay, chalk ete imersed into resin-hardener mixture was found to be useful (Figs. 9 & 10). Hovever, « better technique was found tobe the conbination of vacuum and dynamic impregnation. The procedure was as follows: clay slices were successively passed through methanol and acetone stages as described before; the samples vere then placed on @ per- forated crucible with sufficient amount of resin-hardener on top, vhile vacuum Was applied at the bottom (Fig. 8). £ Level of resin pressure onty for impregnation of rosin Tevet Wire net \Portora ted ruciple only To vacuum pump TTTTT This part for vacuum impegnation f-this part Fig. 8 Apparatus for vacuum and/or pressure impregnation. After the vacuum impregnation, the Samples were finally placed on a rotat~ ing arm for dynamic impregnation, and rotated for approximately an hour. In this process, natural dense clays and chalks were impregnated efficiently. Normal curing procedure was used. 7Rosin in void omanee Fig. 9 Araldite AY 18 impregnated chalk, Static impregnation followed by vacuum impregna- tion. Cured at 65° ¢, 1100 & thick, speed = 2 mm/sec, clearance angle'= 5°, Pig.10 Araldite AY impregnated Oxford clay. Static impregnation followed by pressure impregna- tion, 1000 R thick, speed = 0,5 mn/sec., clearance angle 50. 4. ULTRATOMY After curing, ultra-thin sectioning folloved the conventional procedure (KAY 1965) using an LKB Ultratome IIT with a diamond Ge-Fe-Ri knife having knife angle of 45° and set toa clearance angle of 5° to 6° (Fig. 11); the cutting speed was usually 5 mm/sec. The optimus thickness of the ultra-thin Sections were found to be 700 % - 900 8; they were being floated on distilled vater and usually collected on 200 mesh Copper grids, Thinner sections down to 500 R gave better resolution under electron microscope but were difficult to obtain without damage and always needed a supporting carbon film. Thicker sections (1100 8 or more) had poor resolution under 60 KV to 80 KV, although they were self supporting on any type of grid. Direction of Direction o Specimen knite angle Direction of angie Fig.11 Definition of angles and direc- tions involved in ultra-thin sectioning. However, conventional ultra-thin sec- thoning’could not be used in the inves- tigation of shear induced fabric, as the dimension of such fabrics was of the order of 1M to 300 and it would have been a matter of some considerable chance without @ suitable technique for selection, Conversly, unless ‘the observer vas aware of the expected pattern of the fabric, most Likely he Would overlook the geometrical arrange- ment of the particles revealed to hin in his field of view. A technique, called Selected Area Ultra-thin sectioyAng which facilitates these require- ents offered a useful means of investi- gating fabric and fabric chai This fas been described by DE (1970) and FOSTER & 1 (1971). Both Carbowax 6000 and resin impregna- ted clay sticks were used for ultratony. The experience was that the Carbowax was too soft to hold the clay particles together in ultra-thin sectioning. Thin sections of 700 & usually crimped and thicker sections (900 & to 1300 X: crimped and disintegrated. It vas also a problem to find a suitable flutd for flotation of ultra-thin sections - Water could not be used as Carbowax dissolved in water, Li raffin ¥as used but wetting of edge of the diamond knife was observed frequently. Resin impregnated slices vere observed tor be very. gromiting. fron the teginniag However, difficulties were expertenced in getting a satisfactory meniscus for Tectiving’the ultra-thin sections, in the case of a diamond knife. It was probably due’ to the hydrophobic roperty of the diamond knives (PORTER, 988), Wetting a soft Balan stick soaked in acetone and running Lt over the edge of the diamond knife with its fibrous direction parallel to the knife sage for the first’ tvo or three uses sak [S'nytophilic Tike’ glass. and no Trouble was experienced aftervares. Cutting speed was also one of the major factors affecting good ultra-thin sea~ tioning. Speeds higher than 5 mm/ would result in damage to the knife edge and ultra-thin sections, while speeds lover than 1 ma/sec. usually resulted in wetting the pyramid block, Thus within the optimum speed Limit of 1 mm/sec to 5 mn/sec., the slover speed was found to be more suitable for very dense, hard or larger blocks. However, the above conclusion was true for ultra-thin sectioning of kaolinite Sample, size not exceeding 0.5 am square. When the size of the sample was mote than 0,5 mm square and/or hard and dense, a much slover . was found to be useful; extra precaution was necessary to avold the wetting of the pyramid block. The knife clearance angle (Fig. 9) was found to be another important factor. When the clearance angle was 10° or more to the knife was observed, Rubbing of the pyramid was noticed at a low clearance angle of 2° or so, In case of diamond knife a clearance angle of 5° to 6° was found to be satisfactory compared to 6° to 8° for glass knives, In case of diamond knives, the knife angle was fixed and no study was made on the subject. However, for glass knives the necessity of maintaining an angle, less than 45° for samples imprej nated 'with Yestopal Was recommended by Glamert (KAY, 1965) was found to be umnecessary, Glass knives having knife angles of 35°, 45° and 55° were used for some Araldite impregnated sections and found to be satisfactory. Wetting of block samples was @ common misfortune in ultra-thin sectioning (KAY, 1965), In automatic ultratony the best way to avoid this was to wipe the block gently just before it fell over the knife. After each wip thicker section was initially sequent sections were normal, The native method of drying the block was however tedious. The same technique could be applied when sedtions jam over the knife edge. A quick change in section-selection knob was also found to be useful in some cases without stopping operation but this method produced a larger number of useless thick sections and-hence was not favoured. 5. REPLICATION Replication 1s essentially a method for the study of surface fabric in which an impression is taken from a surface on toa thin film which may then be examined by electron microscope. The technique consisted of preparation of material surface, shadow-casting, if necessary before or after the film cast- ing and collection of replicas on grids, The sample used for this investigation was air-dried and subsequently oven- dried at 65°C, Single stage replicas vere made by the conventional procedure (Fig, 12) using carbon film with plati- mum as a shadoving metal. Platinum was Shoosen for better scattering (BACHMAN, 962).