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Transboundary Water Management of the Amazon Basin

Article  in  International Journal of Water Resources Development · September 2011

DOI: 10.1080/07900627.2011.595382

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Transboundary Water Management of

the Amazon Basin
a a a
B. Braga , P. Varella & H. Gonçalves
a
Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering , University
of São Paulo , Brazil
b
National Water Agency of Brazil (ANA)
Published online: 07 Sep 2011.

To cite this article: B. Braga , P. Varella & H. Gonçalves (2011) Transboundary Water Management
of the Amazon Basin, International Journal of Water Resources Development, 27:3, 477-496, DOI:
10.1080/07900627.2011.595382

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 Water Resources Development,
Vol. 27, No. 3, 477–496, September 2011

Transboundary Water Management of the

Amazon Basin
B. BRAGA*, P. VARELLA** & H. GONÇALVES**
*
Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of São Paulo, Brazil; **National Water Agency
of Brazil (ANA)
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ABSTRACT In this paper the Amazon Basin is presented and its hydrology and natural environment
are described. Monitoring this large river basin is necessary and becomes more and more important
when different scientific institutions show alarming forecasts of increase in temperature and
decrease in precipitation in the basin as a result of climate change. The monitoring scheme
developed by Brazil and its neighbours shows the importance of this activity and its role as a
mechanism to improve co-operation among countries in the basin. The institutional mechanism for
transboundary river basin management is the Amazon Basin Co-operation Treaty, signed by the nine
countries of the basin. This treaty is described and can serve as a good example of how this type of
problem can be tackled in other regions of the world.

Introduction
Transboundary water management poses important challenges around the world. There
are more than 260 river basins shared by two or more countries. Managing these water
bodies and respecting sovereignty of countries involved is certainly the major challenge
faced today. The Amazon Basin is shared by eight countries in South America and its
extension poses additional challenges in management, including a variety of political
systems, both centralized and decentralized, the need to develop its water resources while
at the same time conserving its biodiversity, and the need to build institutional capacity in
the area of water management in the countries.
In this paper the Amazon Basin is presented and its hydrology and natural environment
is described. Monitoring this large river basin is necessary and becomes more and more
important when different scientific institutions show alarming forecasts of increase in
temperature and decrease in precipitation in the basin as a result of climate change. The
monitoring scheme developed by Brazil and its neighbours shows the importance of this
activity and its role as a mechanism to improve co-operation among countries in the basin.
The challenges of development in the largest river basin in the world are enormous and
include the consideration of multiple water uses in infrastructure development. It also calls
for the due consideration of social and environmental variables. This leads to the question

Correspondence Address: B.Braga, Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of São
Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil. Email: benbraga@usp.br
0790-0627 Print/1360-0648 Online/11/030477-20 q 2011 Taylor & Francis
DOI: 10.1080/07900627.2011.595382
 478 B. Braga et al.

of governance in this river basin. The variety of cultures and political systems involved
within the eight countries calls for innovative models of governance that go beyond the
classical method of river basin committees in use in Europe and some parts of Latin
America. The Amazon Co-operation Treaty Organization, established in the 1970s,
presents a good opportunity to bring the countries together towards a new water
management model in the basin.

The Amazon Basin

The Amazon River basin is the largest river basin in the world. It occupies the entire
central and eastern area of South America, lying to the east of the Andes mountain range
and extending from the Guyana Plateau in the north to the Brazilian Plateau in the south.
Its average altitude ranges from 4,000 m in the western mountain range to sea level in the
eastern shores. The basin covers more than 6,100,000 km2, or 44% of the total land area of
the South American continent, extending through Bolivia, Brazil, Colombia, Ecuador,
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Guyana, Peru, Suriname, and Venezuela.

The Amazon River, which runs for approximately 7,100 km from its source in Peru to
the Atlantic Coast of Brazil, is the world’s longest, widest, and deepest river. Its average
annual discharge, of approximately 210,000 m3/s, exceeds the combined discharge of the
world’s nine next largest rivers. Its hydrological characteristics are unique. The Amazon
River system is divided into 10 sub-basins, the largest of which (in area) are the Negro,
Xingú, Madeira, Tapajós, and Juruá sub-basins. The Negro River sub-basin (comprised of
the Negro and Branco River systems) is the largest in area, accounting for nearly one
quarter of the basin’s total land surface.
In terms of discharge, from a hydrological standpoint, an estimated 65% of the basin’s
total flow into the Atlantic Ocean comes from the Solimoes and Madeira River sub-basins,
originating in the Andes and comprising about 60% of the basin’s land area. Roughly 15%
of the flow comes from the Negro River sub-basin. The greatest demand for water is found
in the Madeira, Tapajós, and Xingú sub-basins, where irrigation accounts for 90% of the
demand.
The basin has widely varying climatic and topographic characteristics, with elevations
ranging from sea level at the river’s mouth to an altitude of 6,500 m in the Andes.
Precipitation levels range from 200 mm per year in the Andes to more than 3,000 mm per
year in the foothills and plains. Seasonal variations in rainfall are the result of movements
of the inter-tropical convergence zone (ITCZ), with periods of maximum precipitation
occurring during the months of March to June in the northern hemisphere, and December
to March in the southern hemisphere.
The enormous volume of precipitation (over 15 trillion m3 per year) in this hot and
humid tropical climate generates a movement of huge volumes of warm surface water,
circulating throughout an extensive drainage network covered by dense vegetation, and
recharges a widespread and complex aquifer system, the so-called Amazonas Aquifer.
While there is little scientific knowledge of its full extent, geological data suggest that the
Amazonas Aquifer could be the largest cross-border groundwater system in South
America, covering an area of nearly 4 million km2 in Brazil, Bolivia, Colombia, Ecuador,
Peru and Venezuela.
Extreme climatic events in the basin are influenced by climatic factors taking place in
the Pacific Ocean. For example, the “El Niño” event of 1997 caused a very intense drought
 Transboundary Water Management of the Amazon Basin 479

in the region, while the recent drought during 2005 affected large sections of the central
and western Amazon Basin. This latter event was the most severe and intense of the past
100 years, and has shown the vulnerability of the population in the basin to extreme
climate events.
The drought dried up entire lagoons, triggered large-scale forest fires, resulted in fish
mortality, crop failures and losses of endangered species, isolated villages, dried up rivers,
exacerbated disease, and contributed to severe economic losses. However, the scientific
knowledge on the occurrence and effects of these extreme events is still limited and
urgently requires a better understanding of the complex interactions between the different
factors which control the ITCZ and affect global precipitation patterns.
The Brazilian Amazon is made up of a mosaic of habitats with different evolutionary
histories (Prance & Lovejoy, 1985), which favours the existence of highly varied
environments. The soils in the region are home to 30% of the remaining tropical forests in
the world, whose high rainfall levels, hot and humid climate, and river regimes create a
wide variety of ecosystems and are a sanctuary for the largest biodiversity in the planet. It
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is estimated that the Amazon region boasts more than 40,000 species of vascular plants,
30% of which are endemic, which means that they are present solely in that region,
accounting for 10% of all plant species in the planet. As for mammals, there are 311
recorded species, 124 of which are different types of bats and 57 species of primates
(MMA, 2002), the majority of which are endemic.
The variety and quantity of humid environments provides the Amazon biome with the
greatest diversity of ichthyo-fauna in the world. More than 3,000 fish species were
catalogued, which accounts for 30% of the world’s total. The variety of amphibian species
is still little known in the Amazon region, but recent data point out to the existence of 163
species in that biome, accounting for 8% of the 4,000 species living in the world and 27%
of the 600 species recorded in Brazil (Sioli, 1985).
The Amazon biome is home to the largest number of lizards and amphisbaena reptiles
(109 species) and snakes (138 species) in Brazil. These figures represent 38.9% and 41.8%
of the lizard and snake species, respectively, found in the entire country (Rodrigues, 2005).
The Amazon region, together with the Atlantic Rainforest, is the biome boasting the
largest number of birds (1,300 of the 1690 bird species found in Brazil), 20% of which are
endemic, and 8.4% are endangered species. The invertebrates account for more than 95%
of the existing species in the region and are distributed into 20 –30 phyla. Despite all this
biological wealth, there is still little knowledge on the region, since new species are
constantly being discovered.
The Amazon River basin is also an important source of natural resources for human
economic development. It comprises some of the world’s largest known reserves of
bauxite (roughly 15% of the world total), and industries within the basin are some of the
largest suppliers of iron and aluminum ore and steel to world markets. Timber and wood
by-products, gold, and tin are other products from the basin that are increasingly in
demand for export. The region also continues to support large-scale extraction of timber,
agro-industrial production of soybeans, and extensive cattle-raising. Few of these
activities support secondary industries within the basin, contributing to a significant gap in
the basin’s economic development potential.
The population of the Amazon River basin is estimated at approximately 27 million,
mostly concentrated in urban areas (Iquitos, Leticia, Manaus, Rio Branco, Porto Velho,
Boa Vista, and Macapá, among others) along the river and its main tributaries. In the
 480 B. Braga et al.

upper, Andean, part of the basin, a high percentage of the total population consists of
indigenous communities. In recent decades, there has been an accelerated process of
immigration into, and settlement within, the Amazon River basin. Population growth rates
range from 5.2– 7.2%, well above the national averages for the Amazon countries. These
factors, combined with the high levels of poverty, place constant pressure on the region’s
natural resources, and in particular on residual native forests.

Environmental Issues
The mountainous portions of the Amazon River basin, consisting of the eastern slope of
the Andes in Bolivia, Peru, Ecuador, and Colombia, account for a little over 12% of the
total land area of the basin. Given the abundant rainfall and steep topography, the Andes
are subject to severe erosion, with more than 1,000 tons/km2/year of sediment flowing
towards the Atlantic Ocean. Measurements in the upper Madeira River sub-basin indicate
that, of the 3,200 tons/km2/year of sediment produced, up to 60% reaches no farther than
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the Andean foothills, at which point the sharply reduced longitudinal gradients decrease
the stream’s carrying capacity, resulting in internal sediment deposition within the basin.
Overall, the Amazon River transports an average of 600 –800 million tons of sediment
annually, with the majority of the sediment coming from the Solimoes (62%) and Madeira
(35%) River sub-basins and originating in the Andes.
Given its large drainage system, the Amazon Basin is significantly affected by ENSO-
type climatic variations (those causing a substantial decline in precipitation), considerably
increasing the areas at risk of fire and defoliation. The last “El Niño” event of 1997 caused
the worst drought in 25 years in the Amazon Basin. The drop in water levels in the
Amazon River and its tributaries was substantial (Rio Negro alone registered a level 8.6 m
lower than normal), drying up areas that are usually flooded and altering ecological
conditions, increasing fire hazards throughout the basin. Millions of acres of burned forest
reduced visibility, caused respiratory problems, and closed airports at times. Lagoons and
ecosystems became isolated because of drought, stranding recently hatched turtles, for
example, and concentrating predators into smaller areas. Reduced river flows also caused
power rationing and a reduction in river transport capabilities.
Current anthropogenic pressures on the basin (deforestation, agriculture, mining,
urbanization, etc.) are altering the condition of the land cover and soils, which, in turn,
modify and increase the vulnerability of the area to climate cycles. Studies indicate that
changes in soil moisture and evaporation, caused by deforestation, can lead to persistent
drought. Although recent surveys show a decrease in deforestation in the basin in the past,
this is a significant problem in the region. In 1960, the deforested area in the Brazilian
portion of the basin totalled 97,600 km2. With the massive influx of people into the region
beginning in the 1980s, this deforested area has increased nearly six-fold, encompassing a
total of 569,269 km2 by 1999. Data published by INPE (National Aerospacial Institute of
Brazil) for 1999 and 2000 indicate a rate of deforestation of about 17,259 km2 and
19,836 km2, respectively. The deforestation processes differ from one portion of the basin
to the next. In the upper basin, where anthropogenic pressures on resources are greater, the
rate of deforestation is high, while, in the middle and lower basins, forest extraction
activities are limited—if highly selective—given the area’s relative isolation, lack of
infrastructure, and the heterogeneity of tree species per unit of land area. Around
populated areas, major new settlements are accompanied by deforestation. Deforestation
 Transboundary Water Management of the Amazon Basin 481

in the upper basin and at the edges of the middle and lower basins, and the clearing of
plant cover for pasture, have led to significant soil loss, increasing sedimentation, altering
drainage conditions, and increasing the likelihood of flooding in normally unaffected
areas.
The main environmental problems affecting the Basin can be summarized as follows:
. anthropogenic pressures, exacerbated by climatic variability—especially
droughts—contributing to the destruction of fragile ecosystems, especially in
the Andean foothills, owing to the uncontrolled expansion of agriculture and
fishing;
. deforestation and clearing of plant cover, mainly in the upper basin, causing soil
loss and erosion, reduced biodiversity, and sedimentation in rivers. In the middle
and lower basins, the problems of deforestation are associated with the over-
exploitation of high-value forest species;
. water pollution, resulting mainly from the indiscriminate use of agricultural
pesticides; the dumping of solid wastes and wastewater from populated areas; the
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use of persistent chemicals in connection with the cultivation of illicit crops; the
use of mercury in gold mining (garimpos), and as a result of natural and
anthropogenic alteration of soils; and, in Ecuador, crude oil spills.

The Challenge of Monitoring Water Quantity and Quality

Integrated management of water resources requires that water be systematically
monitored, both in terms of quantity and quality. Planning and management depend on
reliable data, covering both water demand and supply. Water supply will only be
adequately estimated with the establishment of monitoring networks that generate data on
variables, indicating the available quantity and the respective quality of water. An
awareness of the spatial and temporal variability of atmospheric, surface, and groundwater
is also important. Information is fundamental to ensure the quality of decisions, even as a
means to lessen the uncertainty and warrant systems sustainability.
The majority of hydrometric stations of the basin are located in Brazil. Hydrological
surveys in that country were initiated more than 100 years ago, when the first rain gauges
were set up, conveying regular readings. Water level and flow measurement stations were
subsequently installed, aiming to address at that early time the need to make use of
hydropower. Major progress was attained in that period. In the 1920s, the advances were
boosted by the Hydropower Study Commission. In the 1970s, advances were made
following the expansion of the hydrometeorologic network in areas of difficult access and
low demographic density, and owed to the assimilation of fresh knowledge, through
programmes on hydrometry and hydrology created in the country.
In order to assess the quantity and quality of the water resources in the country, of more
than 2,700 raingages and 1,900 streamgages, the hydro and meteorological monitoring is
carried out by the National Hydro-meteorological Network, whose activities are co-
ordinated by ANA (National Water Agency of Brazil), in articulation with private and
public agencies and institutions. The Brazilian hydrometeorologic network was set up in
order to facilitate the collection of information, necessary for the research and studies that
require knowledge on the water availability and hydropower potential. However, due to its
geographical dimensions, the Amazon region poses a great challenge for the collection of
 482 B. Braga et al.

the necessary information, both on water demand and supply, as well as for the initiatives
designed to manage and preserve water, an essential component for studies and projects
that require knowledge of water availability and hydraulic potentials for multiple use.
Figure 1 shows the hydro-meteorological network in the Amazon Basin.
It is widely known that the Amazon Basin is affected by global climatic variations.
Forecasting of extreme hydrological events is of great importance for regional
development. The great floods, for example, are a limiting factor for cattle raising and for
the occupancy of lowland areas. In order to contribute to planning the initiatives designed to
prevent or mitigate the impacts of droughts and floods in the Amazon Region, ANA, CPRM
(Geological Survey of Brazil) and SIPAM (Superintendency for the Protection of the
Amazon) jointly defined a number of hydrometric stations in the region. They are
considered strategic for monitoring critical hydrologic events. The stations make up a
network and facilitate monitoring, in real time, of the evolution of water levels in the
region’s major rivers.
The knowledge of the flow of sediments in suspension, and their variation, as well as the
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associated phenomena (erosion, transport, and sedimentation), allows for the assessment
of the impact of human activity on the environment (deforestation, navigation, etc.).
As for the quality of the waters in the Amazon region, there is an important
characteristic related to their colour, which is a result of chemical reactions between water
and aquatic flora. There are the “white water” rivers—the ones with a muddy appearance,
such as the Solimões/Amazonas, Purus, Madeira, and Juruá—whose headwaters are
located in the Andean regions. Those rivers carry the sediments from the mountain range
toward the central plains and discharge them onto the vast flooded areas during the flooded
periods, thus making up the soils in the lowlands, which are the most fertile in the Amazon

Figure 1. Hydro-meteorological network in the Amazon Basin.

 Transboundary Water Management of the Amazon Basin 483

region. Those areas are relatively rich in nutrients, both organic and inorganic matter.
They boast a high level of mineral ions of calcium, magnesium, sodium, and potassium.
There are also the “black water” rivers, which are transparent—although they display a
darker colouration, such as the Negro, Urubu, and Uatumã Rivers—rich in humic
substances. They originate in the Pre-Cambrian Shields (plain continental rock formations)
of the Guyanas and Central Brazil, or in the tertiary sediments of the Amazon Basin.
The rivers classified as “clear water” rivers carry small amounts of suspended matter
and display a crystalline appearance, such as the Tapajós and Xingu Rivers, and originate
in the tertiary sediments of the Amazon Basin or in the Central Brazil Shield. They present
small amounts of mineral salts and low concentrations of calcium and magnesium.
Table 1 shows the typology of the Amazonian waters and their main different
characteristics as they appear in their natural state.
In regional terms, rivers in the Amazon Basin are relatively free of contamination from
domestic, industrial, or agricultural sources. That is due to the considerable magnitude of the
water volumes of the Amazon River and its main tributaries, with great dilution power,
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although there are some important contaminations incurred by urbanization in small urban
creeks.
In the cities of the Amazon Basin, wastewater is discharged directly into the rivers,
without adequate treatment. There is also some contamination of groundwater, as a result
of the proliferation of cesspools, and due to the inexistence of adequate landfills. Thus, the
pollution originated from domestic activities is localized, close to the urban centres.
A survey carried out by ANA revealed that the low rates of collection (10.4% of the urban
population) and treatment of domestic sewage (2.3% of the urban population) render the
discharge of pollutants relatively significant.
The domestic organic discharge is approximately 270 tons of DBO5,20 per day (4% of
the country’s total) and is mostly concentrated at the Negro River sub-basin, which bathes
the city of Manaus, as well as along the major tributaries of the right banks of the Amazon
River: Purus, Madeira, where Porto Velho is located, Tapajós, which bathes Santarém and
Xingu, cutting through Altamira, on the borders of Trans-Amazon Highway.
The mercury found in the soils is also a source of contamination. Land clearing by burning,
coupled with other forms of forest devastation, renders the soils unprotected. The intense
rainfall that scourges the Amazon region for at least six months a year carry the mercury into the
rivers and start the vicious cycle of contaminating the micro-organisms that feed the fish, which
is the staple food in the diet of people living on the banks of the Amazon Rivers.

Table 1. Typology of the Amazon Waters and their main different characteristics as they appear in
their natural state.

Electric cond. MES charge

Water type Typical river Water origin (mS.cm 2 1) pH (mg.l 2 1)
White Solimões, Madeira, Andean and sub- . 60 6.5 to 7 .100
Juruá and Purus Andean
Clear Trombetas, Tapajós Shiels 6 to 5 5 to 6 ,100
and Xingu
Black Negro, Uatumã Shields, in Sandy 8 4 to 5.5 , 10
and Urubu soils
Source: Sioli (1967); Sioli (1975); Filizola (1999); Meade et al. (1979); Filizola (2005)
 484 B. Braga et al.
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Figure 2. Main critical areas and their respective sources of pollution in the Brazilian Amazon
Basin. Source: ANA, 2005.

Figure 2 shows the main critical areas and the respective sources of pollution
identified in the Brazilian part of the Amazon Basin. The Amazon Basin faces the same
domestic pollution as any other developed and industrialized river basin in Brazil.
Clandestine gold mining is one of the important sources of toxic pollution with mercury
in the basin.

Regional Political Context

The existing political, institutional and technical framework of the Amazon region enables
one to recognize that the necessary groundwork for implementation of initiatives designed
 Transboundary Water Management of the Amazon Basin 485

to achieve sustainable management of water resources is already in place. The motivation

behind the signature of agreements, the successful experiences with ongoing cross-border
water projects, the institutional and financial efforts made by the numerous countries
involved towards the modernization of their management portfolio, and the imple-
mentation of infrastructure are all important elements to be considered in the design of a
management model for water resources in the basin.
However, setting up common and sustainable procedures for the management of water
resources, both national and cross-border, requires a long and systematic process of
negotiations and consensus building. The diversity of the countries in the Amazon region
makes no room for simplifications or generalizations. The relationships being built
among communities and governments to attain sustainable management of water
resources are being forged through time, based on the national histories of each country
involved.
Some ongoing initiatives may be pointed out as examples of the common efforts made
by the parties involved. They also illustrate the mutual support extended by each country
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towards establishing the best policy for water management in the Amazon region. In this
context, special emphasis is placed on the Amazon Co-operation Treaty (ACT), signed by
Bolivia, Brazil, Colombia, Ecuador, Guyana, Peru, Suriname, and Venezuela. ACT is a
legal instrument, signed in 1978, with the purpose of fostering integrated and sustainable
development of the Amazon River basin, through bilateral or joint activities among the
countries involved. Among the objectives of the treaty is the implementation of joint
activities and exchanges of information to promote harmonious development in the
Amazon territories, so as to ensure better environmental protection and the rational use of
water resources.
The Organization of the Amazon Co-operation Treaty (ACTO) was created in 1998,
through an amendment to the ACT, as a mechanism to institutionally improve and
strengthen the co-operation process among the countries within the framework of the
ACT, establishing a sound dialogue among the countries, due to the high expectations
generated. Accordingly, the strategic partnerships that were forged allow for the effective
development of projects deemed of utmost relevance to the region. Within the internal
structure of ACT, at sub-regional level, the ACTO has contributed towards strengthening
the dialogue among countries, since the multi-theme structure of ACTO naturally leads to
approximation, debate and, many times, to the consensus and solution of common pro-
blems shared by all the Amazonian countries.
Keen on becoming an organization recognized internationally as a regional political
forum established to contribute to the integration and achieve sustainable development of
the respective Amazonian territories of the member countries, ACTO is devising national
efforts to attain sound management, conservation, and sustainable use of natural resources,
strengthening or creating mechanisms, as well as technical and financial tools, besides
common or compatible politics, to make effective the processes of integration and
sustainable regional development.
The establishment of ACTO’s permanent general office in Brasilia allowed some
agreements to be signed and projects implemented seeking to stimulate sustainable
development of the Amazon region. Currently, a good number of programmes and
research projects are being carried out in the Brazilian portion of the Amazon Basin, both
of a scientific or environmental nature, conducted by several national and international
institutions, basically covering aspects of climate and human activities and their
 486 B. Braga et al.

relationships with the Amazon environment. The following programmes and projects
deserve to be pointed out:
. Pilot Programme for Protection of Tropical Rainforests in Brazil, PPG7, proposed
during the conference of the Group of Seven Industrialized Countries (G-7), in
Houston, Texas (USA), in 1990. It was approved by G-7 and by the European
Commission in December 1991. The Programme was officially launched in Brazil
during the United Nations Conference on the Environment and Development,
Rio-92. The first projects were approved in 1994 and were initiated in 1995.
Along the Pilot Programme’s first phase, however, some sub-programmes and
projects achieved more effective outcomes than others.
. Sustainable Amazon Plan, PAS, an initiative by the Federal Government of
Brazil, through the Ministry of the Environment –MMA in a partnership with the
states of the Amazon region. The Plan proposes strategies and lines of action,
coupling the search for economic development and respect to the environment.
PAS is organized around five thematic axes: sustainable production with
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innovation and competitiveness; environmental management and territorial

planning; social inclusion and citizenship; infrastructure for development; and a
new financing standard. Sustainable Regional Development Plan, PDRS, for the
Area of Influence of BR-163 Highway (Cuiabá-Santarem), a responsibility of the
Inter ministerial Work Group created by Decree on 15 March 2004, co-ordinated
by the Presidency Chief of Staff and comprised of 20 federal agencies, ministries
and agencies of the Presidency. That Plan was the first experience in the
preparation of an operational tool for an area of the Brazilian Legal Amazon,
based on PAS general guidelines. The Programme Protected Areas in the
Amazon, ARPA, a sectoral policy aimed at the creation and development of
conservation units in the region. The Programme was instituted by Decree 4.326
on 8 August 2002, and is under the responsibility of the Ministry of the
Environment and IBAMA (Brazilian Institute for the Environment), with the
support of several other institutions. Its goal was to protect at least 50 million
hectares in the Amazon biome in a time frame of 10 years, through the
establishment of about 28.5 million hectares of new fully protected units and 9
million sustainable use units, as well as the effective establishment of the 12.5
million hectares of conservation units already in existence. ARPA has already
created 12 million hectares of full protection conservation units and 8.7 million
hectares of sustainable use conservation units.
Some issues that should be addressed in a co-ordinated manner are: institutional
development and strengthening; the co-ordination of policies and activities in the basin;
the generation and dissemination of technical and scientific knowledge and information;
the development of common and harmonious legal regimes; the effective co-ordination of
projects and initiatives in the entire region; and the identification of the main problems,
current or potential, and the design of common initiatives to address them.

The GEF Project Proposal

Considering the local, national, regional, and global importance of the Amazonian water
resources, and its role in the context of global climate change and variability, ACTO has
 Transboundary Water Management of the Amazon Basin 487

sought the support of the Global Environment Facility (GEF) in developing a project for
integrated and sustainable management of transboundary water resources in the Amazon
River basin, considering climate variability and change as an essential tool in addressing
the needs of the basin. The project is the result of priorities and needs indicated by the
Amazonian countries in various seminars, and technical meetings held within the
framework of the Amazon Co-operation Treaty. Countries have stressed the need to
establish a common framework for action in the Amazon River basin, so as to jointly
address the main environmental problems affecting them, and to provide guidance and co-
ordination for sustainable development of the basin.
The Permanent Secretariat of ACTO, as the agency responsible for implementing the
objectives of the Treaty, has expressed an interest in obtaining financial support from
the Global Environment Facility (GEF), for the preparation of this project to strengthen the
institutional framework for planning and carrying out activities for the protection and
sustainable management of water resources in the Amazon Basin. A key element of the
project is to create and implement a shared view for sustainable development in the region,
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based on the protection and integrated management of its transboundary water resources
and adaptation to climate changes.
The preparation of the project involved institutions in each country, responsible for
defining the policies required for the sustainable and integrated management of water
resources, including substantive participation by the appropriate national environmental
institutions, non-governmental organizations (NGOs) and stakeholders, should water
resource responsibilities be spread across several agencies. This project constitutes a
fundamental element of a process to enable ACTO to fulfill its mission within this critical
global region, and facilitate achievement of the national goals and international
undertakings of the eight basin countries.
The project’s development goal is that water and land resources of the Amazon Basin
will be effectively protected and used in a sustainable manner, and the effects of climate
change managed by Amazonian countries in a co-ordinated and coherent way. This will be
accomplished by the eight signatory countries of the Amazon Co-operation Treaty, within
the framework of ACTO, through a programme of strategic interventions.
The project aims to prepare a Strategic Action Programme (SAP) for the Amazon Basin
and create the necessary enabling environment for the future implementation of the SAP.
The SAP is a key element in achieving the sustainable use and integrated management of
water resources, and promoting adaptations to climate change, by conducting a programme
of enabling activities. The Programme will be based on: a common and shared vision
regarding Sustainable Development of the Basin, taking into account the various legal and
institutional frameworks in effect within the Region; a scientifically-sound and technically-
appropriate Transboundary Diagnostic Analysis (TDA); the experience gained through
implemented adaptation and pilot projects; the implementation of an integrated
information system; and the implementation of communication, stakeholder participation,
education, and financial strategies. This Programme will lead to the implementation of an
integrated water resources management (IWRM) process in the Amazon Basin
The main outputs of the project include a menu of structural and non structural
initiatives, financial and communication strategies, and a multi-stakeholder participatory
plan and public/private partnership programme, an agreed Basin Vision, an agreed TDA,
and basin-wide networks to enhance inter country co-operation, information sharing and
integrated basin management.
 488 B. Braga et al.

The development of appropriate and relevant planning tools, strengthening of national

relevant institutions and the ACTO, harmonization of legal frameworks, and the national
agreement and publication of a basin-wide strategy, are additional and relevant outputs of
the project, in support of its objective.
SAP represents a comprehensive structured programme of strategic actions focused on:
understanding Amazon stakeholders with respect to a broad approach to an integrated
transboundary basin management; understanding the natural resources base; and balancing
societal demands with the ability of the natural resources base to support and sustain
human development, while addressing local climate change adaptation needs and gene-
rating global environmental benefits, within the context of the Amazon River system.
The outcomes of the proposed project are: implemented and effectively integrated water
resources management and climate change adaptation responses, supported and based on an
agreed vision for the Amazon Basin; integrated strategies adopted into the institutional
framework within the multi-country basin; groundwater considerations integrated into land
and water management; competing water uses optimized on the basis of an agreed strategic
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action program—including policy, legal, and institutional reforms and investments—that

are necessary to address transboundary concerns, including the adaptation measures; and
climate variability and change considerations introduced into basin management policies
and practices, thus reducing the vulnerability of peoples and ecosystems to extreme events.
Due to its enormous extent and natural and environmental complexity, the Amazon
Basin is an essential element of the global environment, with an important role in both the
regional and global climate and ecosystem balance. The prevention of water pollution and
mitigation of ecosystem degradation, incurred by unregulated anthropogenic activities,
will result in the protection and maintenance of a globally significant ecosystem. Amongst
others, this project will contribute to biodiversity and habitat protection, ecosystem
conservation, erosion prevention, water quality protection, and maintenance of a global
carbon dioxide (CO2) sink, while providing a sustainable basis for human economic
development within the basin.

Hydropower Development in the Basin: The Madeira River Basin Complex

The hydropower potential of the Brazilian part of the Amazon Basin is estimated at
107,143 MW. Nonetheless, despite this great hydropower potential, the major urban
centres in the basin are supplied by thermo power plants. The existence of few scattered
urban centres in the basin, far away from each other and distant from the major existing or
potential consumer centres of the other regions in the country, besides the environmental
issues related to the flooded areas, led the Amazon region energy grid to adopt a
predominantly thermal power generation. Currently, there are 24 hydropower plants
operating in the basin, with an installed capacity of 772 MW. Table 2 shows the main
hydropower plants operating in the region.
Among the potential sites already examined in the Amazon Basin is the Santo Antonio,
with installed capacity of 3,580 MW, and Jirau, with installed capacity of 3,900 MW, both
in the Madeira River. The implementation of these plants is considered strategic by the
Brazilian government, which is seeking to increase the electrical power supply capacity in
the coming years. The Madeira River hydropower inventory, in the reach comprised
between Porto Velho and Abunã, is a component of regional planning that seeks a greater
integration of the Amazon Basin with the electric power consumer market, as well as the
 Transboundary Water Management of the Amazon Basin 489

Table 2. Plants operating in the Brazilian Hydrographic Region.

Plant River State Power (MW) Comments

Guaporé Guaporé MT 120 National Inter-linked System
Samuel Jamari RO 216 Porto Velho Isolated System
Balbina Uatumã AM 250 Manaus Isolated System
Curuá-Una Curuá-Una PA 30 National Inter-linked System
Coaracy Nunes Araguari AP 68 Macapá Isolated System
Total (MW) 684
Source: MME (2002).

development of navigation routes between Brazil, Bolivia, and Peru, seeking to

consolidate this export corridor toward North America, Europe, and Africa, as well as
other countries in South America (Furnas Centrais Elétricas, Construtora Norberto
Odebrecht & Projetos e Consultorias de Engenharia, 2002).
The construction of power plants in the Madeira River, the main tributary of the
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Amazon River in Brazilian territory, will add roughly 7,480 MW to the national power,
and will generate a system of locks coupled to the reservoirs that will allow for an
expansion of navigation upstream of Porto Velho, for a distance of 4,200 km through the
Orthon, Madre de Diós, Beni, Mamoré, and Guaporé Rivers (Furnas Centrais Elétricas
et al., 2002).
It is envisioned that the economic, social, environmental, and institutional impacts
derived from the construction of the Madeira River Complex will extend through the
territories of the state of Rondônia, the eastern portion of Acre, northwestern Mato Grosso,
and the southern portion of Amazonas state. As for the neighbouring countries, positive
impacts are expected in Bolivia, in the departments of Pando, Beni and Santa Cruz and, in
Peru, in the Madre de Dios Province.
The construction of the two hydropower power plants, integrated to a system of locks,
will help overcome two historical impediments to navigation in the area—the Santo
Antonio and Jirau waterfalls—and some 20 additional obstacles found in the 340 km that
separates Porto Velho in Brazil and Abunã in the border of Brazil and Bolivia. Additional
civil works will be carried out on the Ribeirão waterfalls, on the Mamoré River (border of
Brasil – Bolivia), and Esperanza waterfalls, on Beni River (Bolivia). Some preliminary
studies in the area identified a bi-national hydropower potential estimated at 3,000 MW.
The second obstacle, to address the Esperanza waterfalls on the Beni River, located
10 km from the Madeira river confluence, will facilitate the “rush toward hinterland” and
the integration with Bolivia, since historically the trend is to strengthen the Bolivian road
integration toward Peru and the states of Mato Grosso and Mato Grosso do Sul. For that
area, some preliminary studies also identified a hydropower potential estimated at
600 MW. In the coming years, the Madeira River Complex will be set up to coexist with
other structuring ventures of regional development dynamics in the Brazilian states of
Rondônia and adjacent areas in the states of Amazonas, Acre, and Mato Grosso, beside the
bordering departments of Peru and Bolivia.
In the sub-continental agenda, attention should be called to the Integración de la
Infraestructura Regional Suramericana (IIRSA) (South American Regional Infrastructure
Integration), a joint effort by the main multilateral agencies that operate in region, keen on
the implementation of major projects of transportation, energy, and communications, and
 490 B. Braga et al.

Table 3. Hydropower power plants considered strategic by the Brazilian government for the
Amazon Basin.

Power plant River State Capacity (MW) Status

Jirau Madeira RO 3,900 Under construction
Santo Antônio Madeira RO 3,580 Under construction
Belo Monte Xingu PA 11,182 Bidding finalized for construction
Total (MW) 18,662

their compatibility with the sectoral processes considered more relevant for South
American physical integration. It may be affirmed that in the next three decades, part of
those ventures, both Brazilian and international, will become a reality due to their
political, economic, social, environmental and budgetary feasibilities, the financing
capacities of multilateral agencies, the reciprocal credit mechanisms among nations, and
the private agencies keen on obtaining the respective concessions.
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Another power plant that deserves notice is Belo Monte on the Xingu River, with a
capacity of 11,182 MW. This is also considered a strategic work for the Brazilian electrical
sector, because, like the Madeira River, it will propitiate the integration among river basins
with different hydrologic regimes, resulting in an energy gain guaranteed in the Brazilian
National Interlinked System. Table 3 lists the plants considered strategic by the Brazilian
government.

Conflicts Over the Use of Water in the Amazon Basin

In quantitative terms, the Amazon Basin does not reflect serious conflicts regarding different
sectoral users in dispute over the same resource. Rather, the dispute occurs over the common
access to that resource, especially at the local scale, and even more severely in public water
supply. The numerous themes identified here reflect the most common concerns in the basin,
even if they somewhat extrapolate the issues of water use, as commonly understood. For
some themes, however, the conflicts, and/or the environmental consequences incurred by
them, have direct and/or indirect impacts on water resources. The most easily identified
types of use, which fall in the category of competing uses and thus potentially prone to
generate conflict, are the ones related to the issues of water collection, wastewater discharge,
and alterations in the fluvial regime. The deficiencies in the water supply networks and
treatment of domestic sewage, especially in urban areas with a population of more than
500,000, fall in the category of intra-sectoral conflicts (Gonçalves, 2006).
On the other hand, there is still the prevailing notion of abundant water resources in the
region, an idea that may justify the incipient stage of implementation of the instruments of the
water resources policy. However, the water quality, compromised by the discharge of
municipal and industrial effluents, even if it occurs in a piecemeal fashion, is already
displaying a wide difference between small creeks and large rivers. Final sewerage discharge,
generally untreated, is progressively giving rise to the qualitative degradation of the waters
that might otherwise be used for public supply. Undoubtedly, the water and sanitation sectors
are the major culprits of the alterations in the quality of waters in the Amazon Basin
(Gonçalves, 2006).
As for the inter-sectoral concurrent uses, it should be noted that, in a piecemeal way,
irrigated agriculture and power generation by small hydropower plants are considered
 Transboundary Water Management of the Amazon Basin 491

potentially conflict-prone. The first dispute observed refers to the high water consumption
by the irrigation sector, which interferes in the water availability for other sectors (public
supply, industry, electric power generation, tourism, and recreation), as well as for the
irrigation sector itself. The second antagonism identified is the interference of electrical
power generation with the areas of navigation, fishery, tourism, and recreation. These
cases are generic evidence that there is a need for a restructuring and/or institutional
enhancement of the water resources and environmental management systems, so that
preventive and corrective tools may be devised to address and render compatible the
demands of different water users.
Mining is another area of conflict. The mining of minerals such as bauxite, cassiterite, and
gold is intensely carried out in some areas of the Amazon Basin, with dire impacts on water
quality and the lifestyle of traditional populations. Another problem observed in the region
is the intensity by which land occupancy for agricultural purposes is taking place, as well as
practices of deforestation carried out with no regard for the degree of erosive vulnerability of
the soils, coupled with numerous situations of incompatibility of land uses and the classes of
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agricultural aptitude. This process is especially worrisome in view of the ongoing process of
expansion of the agricultural frontiers in the northernmost portion of the country.
The expansion of large-scale monoculture and cattle raising, coupled with deforestation
and land clearing by burning, account for the siltation and increased agricultural pesticide
pollution, which has direct impacts on the river waters, especially on their fountainheads,
affecting the lifestyles of the people living on the riverbanks. On the other hand, local
fishermen working in many of the Amazonian Rivers are facing the competition of
commercial fishermen from urban centres, who make use of more sophisticated fishing gear
and practice predatory fishing, directly competing with the traditional local practices, thus
creating serious conflicts. In some cases, the river-dwelling population try to bar the
admission of commercial boats, so as to protect their lakes against unfair competition. They
have devised some management systems by means of zoning, through which some of the
lakes are closed to commercial fishing. In recent years, IBAMA has encouraged “fishing
agreements”, by which the agency ensures access of small-scale fishermen to their traditional
places of work (especially some lakes), where fishing is controlled by the community.
Table 4 identifies the main conflicts in the Amazon Basin. It focuses on the issues
related to water resources conservation, biodiversity, and the sustainable use of resources,
besides social, political and economic aspects.

Challenges for Sustainable Development of the Basin: A Strategic View for the
Downstream Country of Brazil
Water management is strategic for Brazil, both because it deals with resources for
development, and because almost all the country’s borders are defined by rivers, which
renders water a component of sovereignty. Considering that water resources management is
pre-eminently a response to conflicts incurred by concurrent water uses, one of its goals is to
devise a negotiated agreement among users. In the case of Brazil, those agreements are
under the responsibility of the National Policy for Water Resources and are carried out by
the National System of Water Resources Management (SINGREH). However, the
negotiation over those conflicts of use and the preparation of agreements involve a number
of different issues when they involve several sovereign states, as is the case of the Amazon
Basin.
 492 B. Braga et al.

Table 4. The most relevant conflicts in the Amazon Basin.

Themes Conflicts Description

Natural Resource Use Uses/exploitation of The exploitation of minerals, like bauxite and
minerals cassiterite, coupled with gold mining, is intensely
carried out in some areas of the Amazon
hydrographic region, with dire consequences on the
rivers’ water quality and lifestyles of the traditional
populations.
Uses/ exploitation of Riverbank fishermen face unfair competition with
fisheries commercial fishermen, who come from the urban
areas, bringing more sophisticated fishing gear,
practicing predatory fishing, directly competing
with the local fishing system, thus generating
serious conflicts.
Uses/ exploitation of There is illegal extraction of timber with the
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forest resources consequent destruction of riparian forests, with

direct negative impacts on the rivers’ water quality.
Impacts incurred by Water supply and There are deficiencies in the water supply networks
human action sanitation and in the treatment of domestic sewage, especially
in urban areas. The inadequate disposal of solid
waste in landfills is incurring problems of pollution
of the surface and underground waters.
Industrial effluents The effluents generated by industry, even though
discharged in a piecemeal manner, are already
displaying a greater diversity in their composition.
Agriculture and The expansion of large-scale monoculture and
cattle-raising activi- cattle raising, coupled with deforestation and the
ties clearing of land by burning, contribute to
sedimentation and increased pesticide pollution,
with direct impacts on the river waters, especially at
their fountainheads, and on the lifestyles of the
riverbank populations. The areas of grain
production and cattle raising are responsible for the
drastic decrease in the natural vegetation, generat-
ing soil erosion and consequent sedimentation of
rivers.
Infrastructure works: The opening of roads and their paving may incur
highways and dams structural changes in the landscape’s composition,
for hydro-electric on population growth, and on the layout of land uses
plants of the benefited area. The construction of reservoirs
for electric power generation or public supply
typically floods areas where the vegetation has not
been completely removed. Electric power gener-
ation in small hydro-electric plants interfere with
navigation, fishery, tourism, and recreation.
Values and lifestyles Uses of nature Plant (castanha/andiroba/dendê) and animal (fish-
(values/ideology) ing and hunting) extraction. The traditional peoples
face drastic alterations in their lifestyles, following
the construction of large highways and the advance
of cattle raising and mining in the Amazon.
 Transboundary Water Management of the Amazon Basin 493

It is widely recognized that water availability in the Amazon Basin determines the
existing diversity and wealth of natural resources, besides serving as the foundation for the
region’s social, cultural, and economic realities. It is also a determining factor for the way
by which society relates with the environment in carrying out their social and productive
activities. In this sense, an assessment of the water demands and average surface flows
reveals that the basin may be considered a privileged spot, since the balance indicates that
there is an excess output in terms of surface water demand.
Demand for water resources in the basin is predominantly for urban use, which makes it
essential to take population growth and increased urbanization rates into account when
planning water resources, particularly on the issue of sewage discharge. The problem of
poor water quality is already present, which indicates that water supply is compromised
due to water pollution from domestic sewage in the vicinity of urban centers, despite the
great dilution capacity of the region’s water bodies.
Besides the impacts incurred by anthropogenic action, some natural phenomena also
occur, altering the quality of surface waters and reducing the amount of dissolved oxygen,
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due to the decomposition of the plant biomass that remains underwater during flooded
periods.
Among the main challenges to be overcome in the short and middle term for water
resources management in the Amazon Basin, the following are pointed out.
Challenges for use:
. promotion of multiple uses, considering the activities of the waterways, irrigation
and energy generation;
. domestic supply;
. treatment of domestic effluents;
. deforestation and its impacts on the hydric availability; and
. protection of aquatic biodiversity.
Challenges for management:
. strengthening the adequacy of the region’s existing legal and institutional tools
for management of water resources;
. make progress, in practice, toward a new water culture bringing back the region’s
historical and cultural values;
. consolidation of mechanisms of regional and sub-regional co-operation in the
region, for management of cross-border water resources, to facilitate interchange
of experiences and capacity development on the base of existing institutions and
networks; and
. to strengthen the foundations for water resources management, with the effective
participation of users, traditional communities, and civil society, a key element
for water governance.
Faced with such complex challenges, it is essential that a strategic view be built in the
Basin, envisioning the utilization of the region’s water resources potential, considering
their multiple uses, so as to promote sustainable development in harmony with the basin
countries. Such strategic view must take three principles into consideration:
. the sustainable development of the Amazon hydrographic region implies the
principles of multiple uses for water, placing all the users categories in equal
 494 B. Braga et al.

conditions in terms of access to that natural resource, ensuring, at the same time,
the conservation of biodiversity in the region;
. the sustainable development of the Amazon hydrographic region must be
guaranteed through the consolidation of integrated management of water
resources in the region, and through the implementation of the management tools
envisaged in the National Policy for Water Resources. Those tools will have to
undergo a revision in order to adapt to the regional reality and peculiarities; and
. integrated and sustainable management of water resources in the Amazon
hydrographic region will have to consider the integration policies with the other
Amazon countries.
Additionally, those principles take into account the essential strengthening and
institutional and technical adequacy of state agencies dealing with water resources, both
by supporting and encouraging the preparation and regulation of state water resources
legislation, or supporting capacity building for human resources, together with the
introduction of management tools for water resources in an integrated manner, coupled
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with the basin’s environmental management.

Equally, it is considered that the integrated and sustainable management of water
resources should have a participatory character, enabling users, the organized civil society,
the traditional communities, and other stakeholders the opportunity to interfere and
influence, with responsibility, the decision making process on the forms of intervention in
the basin.
Other important regional challenges include setting up regional programmes of
participatory environmental education, integrating the environment and water
resources, and departing from the local/urban realities toward the broader regional
questions. Equally important is the implementation of integrated management systems
in urban and rural areas, especially regarding waste collection and the search for
alternatives to effectively implement water supply and basic sanitation infrastructure in
the region.

Implementing Initiatives for Cross-border Water Management

For Brazil, water is an important issue of sovereignty, as well as a strategic element for
development policies. Access to potable water, water conservation for multiple uses, and
the arbitration of conflicts over water use place water at centre stage as a priority of the
Brazilian political agenda. In the international conferences and forums, Brazil supports the
concept that water resources management must be guided by the provisions of Agenda 21
and referenced by the principles listed in the Rio Declaration on Environment and
Development, particularly Principle 2, which establishes the sovereign right of states to
utilize their water resources in accordance with their national policies.
The issue of transboundary water resources management, which has fundamental
importance for the country, is the object of special consideration of the National Policy for
Water Resources. For that reason, the CNRH (National Water Resources Council) created,
in 2000, the Technical Chamber for Cross-border Water Resources Management (CT-
GRHT), presided over by a member of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs.
In the Amazon Basin, the abundance of water resources calls for some paradigms, still
undefined, for water management, as opposed to other regions in the country. The fact
that Brazil is located downstream in the basin, with a scarce regional population, calls
 Transboundary Water Management of the Amazon Basin 495

for the need to define political and legal tools for articulation with the other countries in
the region, under the ACT, to address water resources management, taking the regional
characteristics into account. Integration policies are important for the Brazilian
Amazon.
The geographical position of the Brazilian Amazon, as compared to the other
countries in the region, makes the country vulnerable with regard to fundamental
issues, such as quantity and quality of water resources, and brings up the reflection on
the harmonization of public policies for management of water resources at a regional
scale, particularly on the cross-border zone. A great challenge to be overcome with
respect to water in the region might be to consider water as an integral part of the
entire Amazon biome, and no longer an issue to be guided by defined independent
policies.
The creation of a committee for the transboundary region, suggested at a recent
workshop, is another challenge. It implies the establishment of specific agreements with
the other countries on the committee’s structure, composition, attributions, and operation,
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in view of the different views held by each country on water resources management.
Moreover, it is important to call attention to the other conditions that characterize the
region, such as scale, geographical distances, and different levels of implementation of the
management systems. Besides an articulation of different units of the Brazilian federation,
those collegiate bodies must be supported by international agreements, reconcile different
institutional arrangements, and harmonize the legal aspects among different countries.

Conclusion
Faced with such complex challenges for managing water resources in the Amazon Basin,
it is essential to consider the consolidation of strategies to promote sustainable
development. Such strategies must lend priority to the use of the existing potential of water
resources in the region, considering their multiple uses, so as to foster sustainable
development in harmony with the countries of the basin. For this purpose, it must be
recognized that sustainable development for the basin implies the principle of multiple
uses of water, placing all categories of users in equal conditions, in terms of access to that
natural resource, as well as ensuring the conservation of the region’s ecosystem
biodiversity.
It is equally important to recognize that the sustainable development of the Amazon
Basin will be ensured with the consolidation of integrated management of water resources
in the region, through an adjustment and subsequent implementation of the management
tools comprised in existing national water resources policies.
Considering that water resources management is, pre-eminently, a response to conflicts
generated by concurrent uses of water, one of its goals is to set up a negotiated agreement
among the users. In the case of Brazil, such agreements are ruled by the National Policy
for Water Resources and are carried out by the National System for Water Resources
Management. However, the negotiation over these conflicts of use and the preparation of
agreements involves a number of different issues when they involve several sovereign
states, as is the case in the Amazon Basin.
All things considered, the integrated and sustainable management of water resources in
the Amazon hydrographic region must take into account the integration policies with the
other Amazon countries.
 496 B. Braga et al.

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