accuses ment ment of Displace! jassified as lacement can be cl and 7.2 Measure! In general, disp! a) Translational displacement, b) Rotational displacement. __ The motion of a body in a str displacement. athe motion of a bod cement. aight line between two points 1S called translational tion axis is called rotational ee ly of angular type, about some rotal 7-1)Anstrumentation In practice different variety of translational available. The tra ynal_moti ransducers and rotations) displacement t salational displacement transducers ay wwed as secondary displacement transducers are tuselul_not_only to measure the transla! transducers in measurement systems Ww quantities like pressure, force acceleration ‘and temperatul physical quantities are translated into @ translational mo! ‘and then the quantity is sensed by the Similarly the rotational displacement transducer displacement of the body but also the Jransl converting translational motion into rotary form. jon but can be vused to measure various Physi re. In such systems, the basic tion by promary transducer 1 displacement transducer, ‘only the rotations translational rs measures not ronal displacement of 4 body by 7.3 Translational Displacement Transducers fonal displacement transducer is available. Let us In practice, wide range of translat insducers one by one discuss few translational displacement tra 7.3.1 Resistive Potentiometer Translational Displacement Transducer 'A simple resistive potentiometric translational displacement transducer consists of a resistive element along with a sliding contact which is movable in nature as shown in the Fig, 7.1 Ys a 8 Lo {L Resistance element Yo evi sling contact Fig. 7.1 Simple Resistance Potentiometer ‘The supply voltage Vs is applied across terminals AB, i.e. across the resistanc ‘element. The voltage measured across the sliding contact is output voltage Vo whic is measured between contacts A and C: The’ relationship between voltages 2né distances is given by, . Yo _ AC Vs ~ AB a" aie body whose motion is to be measured is connected to the sliding element, * when the body moves translationally and it causes equal magnitude slide movemen and corresponding change is output voltage Vo.7.33 Variable inductance Translational Displacement Transducers ‘There are three important types of the inductive transducer which are used for measurement of linear displacement. Such transducers are based on |A) Change in inductance of coil with number of a tums : : This is the simplest form of the linear - displacement transducer which is based on the Movetie principle that when the number of tums are ‘conact changed, the self inductance of coil changes and thus foutput also changes accordingly. Such transducers Fig, 7.3 Linear Inductive Transducer use air core. B) Change in Inductance Wi %. Change in Permeability Such inductive transduce consists ferromagnetic for surrounded by coil. The iron co moves inside and —_outsid cee ies changes and so the inductan ae changes. Thus the output volta also changes. Fig. 7-4 Linear Displacement Inductive Transducer C) Change in Reluctance Displacement In this type of inductive transducer, a ‘coil is wound on the ferromagnetic core 4 ‘The displacement to be measured is f to the target which is mode up of iron. This iron target which is made up of ion. This iron target is physically separted from the ferromagnetic core by air gap. Lid Feronsete The self inductance of coil is inversely Te cep vin be le Bb a a‘et L be the self inductance of the coil whic! L = _N? | Where = y, R Rac, | Note that the re gap. Hence we can Ls But the reluctance Rag Where A “But wo and Ay length of air gap. Hence the self ind 1 | air gap inversely ie. Le th is given by, RiFRae = number of tums reluctance of iron parts = reluctance of air gap, Huctance of iron parts is negligible a3 compared with that of air assume a NE, Rac OF airgap is given by, * WAY = length of air gap = area of flux path Fence opatants, 50 we can assume Rac: is directly proportional to the Netance of the coil is proportional to the length of 7.34 Variable Capacitance Displacement Transducers ‘The linear dispalcement measurement is also possible on the basis of principle of vaviable capactance similar to variable inductee 4 ~i ‘Solid dielectnic: a al as © isplacement Transducer Dire qwrewsar ere Instrumentation and (b) uses air as dielectric tive transducers shown in the Fig. 7.6 (a) whi tha pansducer chown in the Fig. 7.6 (c) uses solid dielectric. When the inner conductor is moved inside outer conductor due to the displacement applied to the inner conductor due to the dispalcement applied to the inner conductor, the capacitance changes. Such capacitive transducer with two concentric hollow cylinders is as shown in the Fig. 7.6 (b). In other two types out of two plates one is fixed while other i movable, to the movable Plate. With the displacement movable plate moves stance of separation between two plates varies capacitance value also varies. bs ies and thus in turn7.4 Velocity Transducers With the help of velocity transducers it is possible to measure linear velocity a! well as angular velocity» Many times to measure linear velocity, it is first converte into angular velocity and then it is measured.\Let us study linear velocity and angulai velocity measurement techniques in detail. 7.4.1 Linear Velocity Transducers In linear velocity transducers, the mechanical vibrations are converted int alternating voltages based on the principle of electromagnetic induction. Hence thes transducers are also called Electro-magnetic transducers. There are two types of t electro-magnetic transducers, i) Moving coil type and ii) Moving magnet typeThe ving coll type velocity ation is based on the action of the cot monk a field. The construction cf erg mdiCer is as shown bet in Fig. 712 Permanent res ea magne ees) : 8 stant air gap, wee, *S5embIy is kept inane cog meme material case, effects ted Stay magnetic fields are Feduced. ee a ar | iti) Damping is achieved by an {lectrical means, hence under varying tem ture conditions the system Provides high stability, S08 tempera M2 ‘Moving Magnet Type Velocity ‘Transducers Pea Veloaty In this transducer, 4 constant nese Polarized field is obtained With the help the| Of Permanent magnot The construction of the transducer is aS shown in the fy Fig. 7:3 Ny ‘Coil N Permanent A ‘coil surrounds Permanent N magnet ros Magnet rod whose w, FPortional to the velocity of the rad The polarity of the Output output voltage determines the direction of motionwmstrumemtauon 0-14 mrwenwrenres oe Advantages : |) There are no mechanical surfaces or contacts, hence the maintenance require is negligible ii) The output voltage is linearly proportional to the velocity ii) Robust and less expensive. Disadvantages : i) The stray magnetic fields affects the performance ofthese transducers ii) Limited frequency response. ii) As the contacts with steel wools 4! calibration, hence these transducers are not measurements. lemagnetize progressively deterioting the jery useful for the vibration 7.4.2 Angular Velocity Transducers : “The main disadvantage of the linear velocity measurement is that for lane distance travel itis very difficlt to detect the fixed reference, In such «assy angular Velocity transducers are used and linear velocity is measured by converting it into angular velocity ‘The measurement of speed can be done with the help of tachogenerator. The tachogenerators are of two types: ji) Electrical type tachogenerators. ii) Mechanical type of tachogenerators. But electrical type tachogenerators are prefered | over mechanical lectrical transducers are always advantageous as compared © Let us discuss electrical type tachogenerators. is as shown in the Fig. 714 Curent ing restor ; R, ‘Armature N hi ‘The dc. tachogenerator Mowing cot @) votmeter ‘Te machne S Fig. 7.14 D.C. Tachogenerator —Advantages The advantages of dc. tachogenetator ate as follows 1) The output voltage is smal enough to measute with convemlona de voltmeters. 7 ii) The polarity oF output voltage directly indicates the ditetion of rotation. Disadvantages . go" The disadvantages of dc. tachogenerator are as follows, |) Because of variations in contact resistances, considerable error is introduced in the output voltage. Hence petiodic maintainance of the commutator and brushes is required | it) Nom-incarity in the output of the dc. tachogenerator occurs because of ! distortions in the permanent magnetic field due to large armature currents ‘ouput resistance of the generator 122 AC. Tachogenerator S—[rnome || roe [Overs Tomechne nant ‘magnet Fig. 7.15 AC. Tachogenerator | :jumentation 7-14 —__Measuronves ator itself. In this tachogenerator, th magnetic field rotating The magnetic field can be obtained by using electromagnet oh Potiin® Inagnet, Due to rotation of magnel, an em¥. induces in the stator coil which he amplitude and frequency directly proportional to the speed of rotation Thus the sper wr Pittion can be calibrated in terms of ether amplitude of frequency of the induc voltage. In the circuit shown in the Fig, 7.15 , the amplituds to measure speed. A rectifier and filter are used to get be measured with the help of the moving coil voltmeter. The coil is wound on le of the induced voltage is use ‘constant d.c. voltage which ca ‘Advantages : ‘The advantages of a.c. tachogenerator are as follows. |) The output can be calibrated in terms of two parameters namely amphitud and frequency of induced voltage. {frequency of indy ii) Commutator and brush cntact resistance problems a ‘wotand’on stator. vantages : ‘The disadvantages of ac. tachogenerator are as follows For very low speed rotation, the frequency of the induced voltage is also ver low, thus the ripple in the output increases. To overcome this the number 0 poles of stator are increased, so that the frequney of the induced volta increases even at low speeds of rotation. ii) At high speeds, the frequency of the induced voltage is also very_high. Tha the coil impedance increases. This effects linearity of the output. To maint the good linearity, the display device used should have input impedanc greater than that of the coil,, re eliminated as the coil i 7.5 Acceleration Transducers The device used for the measurement of acceleration is called accelerometer. 1 accelerometers are widely used for the measurement of general purpose motion 5 a mesrrennt of acento, velocity and displacement. Besides this applica! accelerometers are also used for the measuremnt of mechanical shocksThe design of an accelerometer fs based on Newton's law of mass acceleration and Hooke's law’ of spring action. The basic structure is as shown in the Fig. 7.16, The accelerometer is fastened to the body undergoing acceleration. Acconting to Newton's law, if ‘mass m is undergoing acceleration a, exerts a force F, on a mass ‘given by | | ‘Reet by | Fig. 7.46 Basic structure of accelerometer | Fo= ma 0 SEay) This force is opposed by the restraining effect of a spring. Let spring constant be | K Mf mass m is displaced from its original postion by a distance A x then according to Hooke's law, the force exerted is given by, R= kan cy In a steady state, when the acceleration of mass and accelerometer case is same then we can write, . ReR ay ma = bax * has se Pre = " “A| tte coquation represents second onder system. So in such systems if fe not provided, theeoutput St the atclerstneter undergo. nomdecsying sustained oscillations. Hence to overcome this generally 4 damper is tsed im the exerts 4 force Fe proportional to the velocity of mass. The damping |torce is given by, 4. R= By (©) where vs the velosity of mass. “ ‘Thus the modified equation of motion is given by ie Re =f kaxreBy sme oi “The mass that converts acceleration 10 the spring displacement is called test mase or seismic massInstrumentation 7-20 AMPUFIER Fig. 7.21 Vibrating wire sensor arrangement A wire is kept vibrating at its resonant frequency by using variable frequency ‘oscillator. The resonant frequency is given by 03 [M i tVT = resonant frequency, = length of a wire, = mass per unit length of wire, and f= where Riri r. Thus from equation (i) stated above it is clear that when applied force change tension changes and hence the output frequency changes. Thus by measuring © output frequency of the local oscillator, the force applied to the wire can be calculate? tension due to applied force.that the design of the element ‘an be done by applying for the measurement of 7.7 Torque Transducers sary to ensure In all the rotating bodies, itis neces rotating, is adequate to sustain under shear stresses. This torque measureronts. It is also required to measure torque power delivered by rotating shafts. Dynamie measurement of torque is based on the angular displacement oF twist in the shaft in a calibrated length of a torque tube attached to the shaft Generally torque vreeurements are based on the methods measuring i) strain produced in rolating body due to applied torque and ii) reaction force in rotating body 7.7.4 Torsion Bar For the measurement of power delivered by a shaft, a torsion bar or torsion tube is inserted in between machine and load. Then by using either strain gauges or other clectrical transducer, the output of torsion bar is measured. A torsion bar is a metallic rod of either circular or rectangular cross section. A torsion bar is connected between the source and load along the axis of rotation in perfect alignment So when the torque is transmitted by the source, the torsion bar gets strained. Ther the forque is measured in terms of the angular displacement of the bar or the surface strain on the bar. A torsion bar with circular cross section is as shown in the Fig. 724 Fig. 7.24 Torsion bar ‘The angular displacement 6 radian of a hollow cylinder is given by, © GIRS where active length of torsion bar (m) = torque (N-m) = modulus of rigidity (N/m) outer radius (m) = inner radius (m) > PodInstrumentation 7.7.3 Piezoelectric Torque Transducer A measurement of torque is possible by using piezoelectric cantilever type bimorph used as a bender type bimorph. When a small force is transmitted through a lever a twisting moment is generated. A twisting moment can be obtained by connecting driving shaft directly to the bimorph. A piezoelectric : torque transducer is as shown in th Fig. 7.26 A cantilever type twister bimorph Re 726 ee al The main advantage of this transducer is a high sensetivity. Hence it is most useful for the measurement of small torques. The most commonly used elements arc Rochelle salt at room temperature and ADP upto 100° C.