NAME : ALI RAZA

ID: 170-2021

Q1) Review the ways that learning theories (Classical, Operant and Observational) can be
applied to understanding and modifying everyday behavior. *
Answer no : 1
There are three main types of learning: classical conditioning, operant conditioning, and
observational learning. Both classical and operant conditioning are forms of associative learning,
in which associations are made between events that occur together. Observational learning is just
as it sounds: learning by observing others.
Classical Conditioning
Classical conditioning is a process by which we learn to associate events, or stimuli, that
frequently happen together; as a result of this, we learn to anticipate events. Ivan Pavlov
conducted a famous study involving dogs in which he trained (or conditioned) the dogs to
associate the sound of a bell with the presence of a piece of meat. The conditioning is achieved
when the sound of the bell on its own makes the dog salivate in anticipation for the meat.
Operant Conditioning
Operant conditioning is the learning process by which behaviors are reinforced or punished, thus
strengthening or extinguishing a response. Edward Thorndike coined the term “law of effect,” in
which behaviors that are followed by consequences that are satisfying to the organism are more
likely to be repeated, and behaviors that are followed by unpleasant consequences are less likely
to be repeated. B. F. Skinner researched operant conditioning by conducting experiments with
rats in what he called a “Skinner box.” Over time, the rats learned that stepping on the lever
directly caused the release of food, demonstrating that behavior can be influenced by rewards or
punishments. He differentiated between positive and negative reinforcement, and also explored
the concept of extinction.
Observational Learning
Observational learning occurs through observing the behaviors of others and imitating those
behaviors—even if there is no reinforcement at the time. Albert Bandura noticed that children
often learn through imitating adults, and he tested his theory using his famous Bobo-doll
experiment. Through this experiment, Bandura learned that children would attack the Bobo doll
after viewing adults hitting the doll.

IT can be applied to understanding and modifying everyday behavior.

Classical conditioning has long been, and continues to be, an effective tool in marketing and
advertising (Hawkins, Best, & Coney, 1998). The general idea is to create an advertisement that
has positive features such that the ad creates enjoyment in the person exposed to it. The
enjoyable ad serves as the unconditioned stimulus (US), and the enjoyment is the unconditioned
response (UR). Because the product being advertised is mentioned in the ad, it becomes
associated with the US, and then becomes the conditioned stimulus (CS). In the end, if
everything has gone well, seeing the product online or in the store will then create a positive
response in the buyer, leading him or her to be more likely to purchase the product.
Skinner promoted the use of programmed instruction, an educational tool that consists of self-
teaching with the aid of a specialized textbook or teaching machine that presents material in a
logical sequence (Skinner, 1965). Programmed instruction allows students to progress through a
unit of study at their own rate, checking their own answers and advancing only after answering
correctly. Programmed instruction is used today in many classes, for instance to teach computer
programming (Emurian, 2009).

Q2) Describe the situations under which reinforcement and Punishment may take place and
explain what kind of reinforcement and Punishment be dealing with that? *

Answer No : 2
Reinforcement is the process by which a
stimulus increases the probability that a
preceding behavior will be repeated.

Punishment is a stimulus that decreases the

probability that a previous behavior will
occur again.

Many people confuse negative reinforcement with punishment in operant conditioning, but they
are two very different mechanisms. Remember that reinforcement, even when it is negative,
always increases a behavior. In contrast, punishment always decreases a behavior. In positive
punishment, you add an undesirable stimulus to decrease a behavior. An example of positive
punishment is scolding a student to get the student to stop texting in class. In this case, a stimulus
(the reprimand) is added in order to decrease the behavior (texting in class). In negative
punishment, you remove a pleasant stimulus to decrease a behavior. For example, when a child
misbehaves, a parent can take away a favorite toy. In this case, a stimulus (the toy) is removed in
order to decrease the behavior.

Q3)Explain in detail Long term Memory?

Long-term memory (LTM) the final stage of the multi-store memory model proposed by the
Atkinson-Shiffrin, providing the lasting retention of information and skills.

Theoretically, the capacity of long-term memory could be unlimited, the main constraint on
recall being accessibility rather than availability.

Duration might be a few minutes or a lifetime. Suggested encoding modes are semantic
(meaning) and visual (pictorial) in the main but can be acoustic also.

Using the computer analogy, the information in your LTM would be like the information you
have saved on the hard drive. It isn’t there on your desktop (your short-term memory), but you
can pull up this information when you want it, at least most of the time.

Types of Long Term Memory

Long-term memory is not a single store and is divided into two types: explicit (knowing that) and
implicit (knowing how).

There are two components of long-term memory: explicit and implicit. Explicit memory includes
episodic
and semantic memory. Implicit memory includes procedural memory and things learned through
conditioning.
One of the earliest and most influential distinctions of long-term memory was proposed by
Tulving (1972). He proposed a distinction between episodic, semantic and procedural memory.

Procedural Memory
Procedural memory is a part of the implicit long-term memory responsible for knowing how to
do things, i.e. memory of motor skills.

It does not involve conscious (i.e. it’s unconscious - automatic) thought and is not declarative.
For example, procedural memory would involve knowledge of how to ride a bicycle.

Semantic Memory
Semantic memory is a part of the explicit long-term memory responsible for storing information
about the world. This includes knowledge about the meaning of words, as well as general
knowledge.

For example, London is the capital of England. It involves conscious thought and is declarative.

The knowledge that we hold in semantic memory focuses on “knowing that” something is the
case (i.e. declarative). For example, we might have a semantic memory for knowing that Paris is
the capital of France.

Episodic Memory
Episodic memory is a part of the explicit long-term memory responsible for storing information
about events (i.e. episodes) that we have experienced in our lives.

It involves conscious thought and is declarative. An example would be a memory of our 1st day
at school.

The knowledge that we hold in episodic memory focuses on “knowing that” something is the
case (i.e. declarative). For example, we might have an episodic memory for knowing that we
caught the bus to college today.
Cohen and Squire (1980) drew a distinction between declarative knowledge and procedural
knowledge.

Q4) Explain in detail Short Term Memory? *

Answer : 3
Short-term memory (STM) is the second stage of the multi-store memory model proposed by the
Atkinson-Shiffrin. The duration of STM seems to be between 15 and 30 seconds, and the
capacity about 7 items.
Short term memory has three key aspects:
1. limited capacity (only about 7 items can be stored at a time)
2. limited duration (storage is very fragile and information can be lost with distraction or passage
of time)
3. encoding (primarily acoustic, even translating visual information into sounds).

There are two ways in which capacity is tested, one being span, the other being recency effect.
The Magic number 7 (plus or minus two) provides evidence for the capacity of short term
memory. Most adults can store between 5 and 9 items in their short-term memory. This idea was
put forward by Miller (1956) and he called it the magic number 7. He though that short term
memory could hold 7 (plus or minus 2 items) because it only had a certain number of “slots” in
which items could be stored.
However, Miller didn’t specify the amount of information that can be held in each slot. Indeed, if
we can “chunk” information together we can store a lot more information in our short term
memory.

Miller’s theory is supported by evidence from various studies, such as Jacobs (1887). He used
the digit span test with every letter in the alphabet and numbers apart from “w” and “7” because
they had two syllables. He found out that people find it easier to recall numbers rather than
letters. The average span for letters was 7.3 and for numbers it was 9.3.
The duration of short term memory seems to be between 15 and 30 seconds, according to
Atkinson and Shiffrin (1971). Items can be kept in short term memory by repeating them
verbally (acoustic encoding), a process known as rehearsal.
Using a technique called the Brown-Peterson technique which prevents the possibility of
retrieval by having participants count backwards in 3s.
Peterson and Peterson (1959) showed that the longer the delay, the less information is recalled.
The rapid loss of information from memory when rehearsal is prevented is taken as an indication
of short term memory having a limited duration.
Baddeley and Hitch (1974) have developed an alternative model of short-term memory which
they call working memory.

Q5) Review the principles of encoding, storage and retrieval and mention the strategies of
Memorizing?
Answer : 5
Memory” is a single term that reflects a number of different abilities: holding information briefly
while working with it (working memory), remembering episodes of one’s life (episodic
memory), and our general knowledge of facts of the world (semantic memory), among other
types. Remembering episodes involves three processes: encoding information (learning it, by
perceiving it and relating it to past knowledge), storing it (maintaining it over time), and then
retrieving it (accessing the information when needed). Failures can occur at any stage, leading to
forgetting or to having false memories. The key to improving one’s memory is to improve
processes of encoding and to use techniques that guarantee effective retrieval. Good encoding
techniques include relating new information to what one already knows, forming mental images,
and creating associations among information that needs to be remembered. The key to good
retrieval is developing effective cues that will lead the rememberer back to the encoded
information. Classic mnemonic systems, known since the time of the ancient Greeks and still
used by some today, can greatly improve one’s memory abilities.

Encoding refers to the initial experience of perceiving and learning information. Psychologists
often study recall by having participants study a list of pictures or words. Encoding in these
situations is fairly straightforward. However, “real life” encoding is much more challenging.
When you walk across campus, for example, you encounter countless sights and sounds—friends
passing by, people playing Frisbee, music in the air. The physical and mental environments are
much too rich for you to encode all the happenings around you or the internal thoughts you have
in response to them. So, an important first principle of encoding is that it is selective: we attend
to some events in our environment and we ignore others. A second point about encoding is that it
is prolific; we are always encoding the events of our lives—attending to the world, trying to
understand it. Normally this presents no problem, as our days are filled with routine occurrences,
so we don’t need to pay attention to everything. But if something does happen that seems
strange—during your daily walk across campus, you see a giraffe—then we pay close attention
and try to understand why we are seeing what we are seeing.

Q6) Summarize the types of amnesia? *

Answer: 06

There are two main types of amnesia; anterograde amnesia (inability to form new memories) and
retrograde amnesia (old memories are lost). However, various other types of amnesia have also
been studies.

Anterograde Amnesia
Following are the types of amnesia that are known to the neuroscientists today.

It is a type of amnesia in which the person is unable to create new memories. He remembers
everything from the past. However, he cannot keep the record of the event that occurred after the
injury to the brain.

When you have anterograde amnesia, you can’t form new memories. This effect can be
temporary. For example, you can experience it during a blackout caused by too much alcohol. It
can also be permanent. You can experience it if the area of your brain known as your
hippocampus is damaged. Your hippocampus plays an important role in forming memories.

Retrograde Amnesia
In this type of amnesia, the patient is unable to recall memories from the past. He can form
memories of the recent events that will remain intact. However, the memories stored in the brain
prior to brain damage are lost. Complete or partial memory loss can be seen depending on the
extent of the damage.

When you have retrograde amnesia, you lose existing, previously made memories. This type of
amnesia tends to affect recently formed memories first. Older memories, such as memories from
childhood, are usually affected more slowly. Diseases such as dementia cause gradual retrograde
amnesia.